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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Wadarkal microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 708 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 90 per cent is covered by soils, 7 per cent by rock outcrops and 3 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 17 per cent area.  An area of about 30 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 60 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 23 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 68 per cent is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron content.  An area of about 48 per cent is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) and 42 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 54(8) 231(33) Sapota 38(5) 353(50) Maize 54(8) 231(33) Pomegranate 38(5) 353(50) Bajra 101(14) 425(60) Guava 38(5) 354(50) Groundnut 81(11) 456(64) Jackfruit 38(5) 353(50) Sunflower 38(5) 114(16) Jamun - 340(48) Cotton - 249(35) Musambi 38(5) 353(50) Red gram 38(5) 78(11) Lime 38(5) 353(50) Bengalgram 16(2) 170(24) Cashew 4(1) 364(51) Chilli 42(6) 231(33) Custard apple 100(14) 500(70) Tomato 57(8) 215(30) Amla 89(13) 511(72) Brinjal 79(11) 256(36) Tamarind 61(9) 405(51) Onion 64(9) 259(36) Marigold 38(5) 247(35) Bhendi 64(9) 221(31) Chrysanthemum 38(5) 247(35) Drumstick 43(6) 135(19) Jasmine 38(5) 247(35) Mulberry 62(9) 405(57) Crossandra 38(5) 199(28) Mango - 61(9)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Hire Wadarkal is located at North latitude 760 17' 36.021" and 760 16' 17.724" and East longitude 150 36' 59.965" and 150 36' 5.239" covering an area of about 118.69 ha coming under Hirebommanala village of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hire Wadarkal micro watersheds of Katagihalli subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 40 farmers were sampled in Hire Wadarkal micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (12.50%) were marginal, 13 (32.50%) were small, 10 (25.00 %) were semi medium and 7 (17.50 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 116 (54.98%) men and 95 (45.02 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 4.2, small farmers were 4.8, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 6.4.  Majority of the respondents (36.02%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 16.11 per cent illiterates, 84.83 per cent pre university education and 2.84 per cent attained graduation.  About, 77.50 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.50 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 43.13 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 47.50 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.50 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 87.50 per cent possess TV, 80.00 per cent possess mixer grinder, 87.50 per cent possess mobile phones and 15.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 27.50 per cent of the households possess plough, 17.50 per cent possess bullock cart and 10.00 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 17.50 per cent possess local cow and 2.50 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.75, women available in the micro watershed was 1.98, hired labour (men) available was 7.58 and hired labour (women) available was 11.68.  Further, 55.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 0.47 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 400.00 kms for about 2.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.25 per cent (63.50 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.75 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 20.00 live bore wells and 20.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 50.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Sunflower, Red gram and Groundut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 90.00 percent possessed bank account and 50.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 90.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 31.58 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 47.37 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 78.95 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Sunflower, Red gram and Groundut was Rs.33772.11, 24265.59, 35980.72, 59003.81 and 58133.96 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.98, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.00, 1: 0.90 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.50 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 67232.50 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 42770.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 6 horticulture trees and 35 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 60.00 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5775.00 for land development and Rs. 3525.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 40.00 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 80.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 12.50 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 40.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (62.50%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 72.50 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 82.50 per cent of the households and 17.50 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 35.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (62.50%), pulses (57.50%) and oilseeds (47.50%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (67.50%) wild animal menace on farm field (60.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.00%), high rate of interest on credit (70.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (72.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.50%), inadequate extension services (15.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.00%), Less rainfall (5.00%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (5.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kodlur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 200 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 199 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 1 ha cover by railway line. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 100 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 37 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 2 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 61 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area is clayey soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent soils are medium (101-150 mm/m) and 61 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire cultivated area is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area has moderately (e2) eroded lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 29 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and about 70 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) and 78 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 94 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 5 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 73 percent is high (>337kg/ha) and about 14 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur content is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 89 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 11 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 199(100) Guava - - Maize - 199(100) Sapota - - Bajra - 199(100) Pomegranate - 3(2) Groundnut - 121(61) Musambi - 3(2) Sunflower - 3(2) Lime - 3(2) Redgram - 78(39) Amla - 124(62) Bengal gram 3(2) 68(34) Cashew - - Cotton - 5(2) Jackfruit - 124(62) Chilli - 124(62) Jamun - 124(62) Tomato - 121(61) Custard apple - 124(62) Brinjal - 121(61) Tamarind - - Onion - 121(61) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 124(62) Marigold - 124(62) Drumstick - 3(2) Chrysanthemum - 124(62) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kodlur is located at North latitude 160 29' 30.929" and 160 28' 29.229" and East longitude 770 18' 0.612'' and 770 16' 18.842" covering an area of about 209.18 ha coming unde Badiyala Village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kodlur micro watersheds of Kodlur sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Kodlur micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (14.71%) were marginal, 9 (26.47%) were small, 11 (32.35 %) were semi medium and 4 (11.76 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 71 (45.81%) men and 84 (54.19 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.6, small farmers were 4.9, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (38.71%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 23.87 per cent illiterates, 78.06 per cent pre university education and 5.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 14.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 70.59 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 9.03 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 73.53 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.82 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.35 per cent possess TV, 58.82 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.06 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.76 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households possess plough, 20.59 per cent possess bullock cart.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.34, women available in the micro watershed was 1.17, hired labour (men) available was 10.69 and hired labour (women) available was 22.07.  In the study area, about 0.65 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 700.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (63.79 ha) of the area is under dry condition. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 73.53 percent possessed bank account and 73.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 91.18 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 5.26 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 6.14 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 21.43 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Jowar was Rs.25663.10, 25267.86 and 32839.59, with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.98, 1: 1.03 and 1: 0.79 respectively.  Further, 17.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 68147.06 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 43970.59 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 21 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 20.59 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8852.94 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 58.82 per cent depends on own funds and 17.65 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 79.41 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.76 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 8.82 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.12 per cent of the households and 8.82 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 47.06 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (38.24%), pulses (44.12%) and oilseeds (32.35%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (44.12%) wild animal menace on farm field (35.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (44.12%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.35%), inadequate extension services (14.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (67.65%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosahalli-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 632 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 539 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 4 ha area is covered by railway line, 50 ha area is under rock outcrops and 39 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 539 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 150 cm).  About 20 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 66 per cent 11clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 0.75%), 14 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 50 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 23 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in an area of 19 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1 ppm) in an area of 2 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of 16 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 69 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of 57 per cent and sufficient in an area of 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 11 (2) 501 (79) Guava - 11 (2) Maize 11 (2) 501 (79) Sapota - 11 (2) Bajra 11 (2) 501 (79) Pomegranate - 11 (2) Groundnut 11 (2) - Musambi - 11 (2) Sunflower - 11 (2) Lime - 11 (2) Redgram - 512 (81) Amla 11 (2) - Bengal gram - 386 (61) Cashew - - Cotton - 11 (2) Jackfruit - 11 (2) Chilli 11 (2) - Jamun - - Tomato 11 (2) - Custard apple - 11 (2) Brinjal 11 (2) - Tamarind - - Onion 11 (2) - Mulberry - 11 (2) Bhendi 11 (2) - Marigold 11 (2) - Drumstick - 11 (2) Chrysanthemum 11 (2) - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Hosahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 44' 48.193" and 160 42' 48.205" and East longitude 770 10' 30.469'' and 770 7' 58.761" covering an area of about 628.64 ha coming under Kuyyalura, Majara hosalli and Yadhagiri. B Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 respondents, - 19 (52.78%) were marginal, 9(25.00%) were small and 3 (8.33%) were semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 96 (57.83%) men and 69 (41.57%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (39.76%) were in the age group of 35-60 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 62.05 per cent illiterates, 0.60 per cent were functional literates and only 0.60 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.67 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.56 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 56.02 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 22.22 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.89 per cent possess TV, 22.22 per cent possess mixer grinder and 88.89 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 16.67 per cent of the households possess plough and only 2.78 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 30.56 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.36, hired labour (men) available was 7.25 and hired labour (women) available was 6.56.  Further, 5.56 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (30.71 ha), 97.36 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 2.64 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 4.00 bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 11.11 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Green gram, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  The sample households possessed 77.78 per cent bank account and 55.56 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 55.56 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 20.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Green gram, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.144754.84 , 54527.26, 32898.82, 24745.49, and 144669.80 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.70, 1: 2.00, 1: 1.60, 1: 1.10, and 1:0.60 , respectively.  Further, 27.78 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 13.89 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 92732.78 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 45288.33 comes from agriculture.  The total number of horticultural trees grown (both field and backyard) by the sampled households were coconut (6), Mango (4) trees in the fields and forest species have planted 48 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 17527.78 for land development and Rs. 4500.00 for creation of irrigation facility.  Source of funds raised from bank as a loan for land development was 11.11 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 58.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 30.56 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders. Further, 83.33 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (47.22 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.33 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 69.44 per cent of the households and 30.56 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 88.89 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 50.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.22 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Cereals (75.00%), pulses (75.00%), oilseeds (66.67%) were adequate for consumption. 3  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.78%) wild animal menace on farm field (61.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (72.22%), inadequacy of irrigation water (63.89%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.78%), high rate of interest on credit (77.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.11%), inadequate extension services (41.67%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (75.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Rogalapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 618 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 556 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 62 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 13 per cent area very low (57 kg/ha), 78 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 387(63) 91(15) Guava - - Maize - 477(77) Sapota - - Bajra - 478(77) Pomegranate - 387(63) Groundnut - 91(15) Musambi 292(47) 94(15) Sunflower 292(47) 94(15) Lime 292(47) 94(15) Redgram - 387(63) Amla - 478(77) Bengal gram 387(63) 91(15) Cashew - - Cotton 292(47) 185(30) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 478(77) Jamun - 387(63) Tomato - 364(59) Custard apple 387(63) 91(15) Brinjal 156(25) 321(52) Tamarind - 387(63) Onion 368(59) 91(15) Mulberry - - Bhendi 156(25) 321(52) Marigold - 478(77) Drumstick - 387(63) Chrysanthemum - 478(77) Mango - 62(10)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Rogalapur is located at North latitude 160 44' 14.656" and 160 42' 25.406" and East longitude 770 12' 38.501 and 770 10' 14.78" covering an area of about 617.94 ha coming under Pogalapura, Kuyyalura and Mushthuru villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Rogalapur micro watersheds of Haligeri subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small and 10 (28.57 %) were Semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 106 (58.56%) men and 75 (41.44 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (37.57%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 51.93 per cent illiterates, 0.55 percent was functional literates, 9.39 per cent pre university education and 3.87 per cent attained graduation.  About, 68.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 22.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural laborers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 30.39 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 60.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 31.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 48.57 per cent possess TV, 22.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 51.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 2.86 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.00 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 34.29 per cent possess local cow and 8.57 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.17, women available in the micro watershed was 1.5, hired labour (men) available was 9.58 and hired labour (women) available was 7.25.  In the study area, about 0.55 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 700.00 kms for about 48.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 53.35 per cent (35.43 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 44.02 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 4.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 11.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Cotton, Paddy, Groundnut and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 28.57 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 11.43 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 50.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 50 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 46.67 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 20.00 per cent higher rate of interest and 33.33 per cent Forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Cotton, Paddy, Groundnut and Green gram was Rs.18334.91 , 33748.35, 37527.77, 45424.48, and 25758.41 with benefit cost ratio of 1: 1.2, 1: 2.1, 1: 3.4, 1:0.8 and 1:1.9, respectively.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The farmer has annual gross expenditure of Rs. 162406.36 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 30228.57 is from agriculture itself.  Sampled households have grown 4 horticulture trees and 84 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1742.86 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, the sources of finance raised from bank as a loan and from own sources for land development were 11.43 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 60.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 31.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (62.86%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  About, 2.86 per cent of farmers practicing Farm Pond and 5.71 per cent of farmers practicing Bore Well Recharge Pit as soil and water conservation structures.  Fire wood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 60.00 per cent of the households and 28.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (22.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.43%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (91.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (65.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (97.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequate extension services (34.29%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (65.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rs-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 484 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 444 ha (92%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 40 ha (8%) by others (Water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 2 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 92 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area of about 92 per cent in the microwatershed has deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), soils.  About 6 percent soils are loamy and 86 per cent is clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 86 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire cultivated area is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 86 per cent soil are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 5 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) and about 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Entire cultivated area is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 92 per cent and about 1.0 ppm) in about 47 per cent soils.  Available iron content is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 444(92) Guava - - Maize - 444(92) Sapota - - Bajra - 444(92) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 444(92) Amla - - Bengal gram - 416(86) Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rs-2 is located at North latitude 160 45' 52.281" and 160 44' 32.112" and East longitude 770 6' 51.306'' and 770 5' 11.616" covering an area of about 483.79 ha coming unde Yadhagiri. B Village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rs-2 micro watersheds of Yadgiri subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rs-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 11 (31.43%) were marginal, 12 (34.29%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium, 2 (5.71 %) were medium and 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 79 (57.66%) men and 58 (42.34%) were women. The average population of landless was 2.4 marginal farmers were 4.5, small farmers were 3.9, semi medium farmers were 4.0 and medium farmers were 4.0.  Majority of the respondents (30.66%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 59.12 per cent illiterates, 43.07 per cent pre university education and 2.92 per cent attained graduation.  About, 97.14 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 24.82 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 17.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 74.29 per cent possess TV, 8.57 per cent possess mixer grinder, 65.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.6, women available in the micro watershed was 1.34, hired labour (men) available was 6.51 and hired labour (women) available was 7.2.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 71.31 per cent (36.58 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 28.69 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Sorghum, Green gram, Groundnut and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 85.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 85.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 16.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 3.33 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Sorghum, Green gram, Groundnut and Cotton was Rs.23235.06, 31324.97, 17064.98, 54836.77 and 75392.69 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.02, 1: 1.08, 1: 3.50, 1: 2.20 and 1:2.10 respectively.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 85828.57 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 64257.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 7 horticulture trees and 19 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 42.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 42.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 77.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 74.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 97.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (80.00%) and oilseeds (14.29%) are adequate for consumption. 3  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (17.14%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (17.14%), high rate of interest on credit (14.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (11.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (14.29%), inadequate extension services (25.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (54.29%) and Less rainfall (65.71%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (42.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 563 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 78 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 432 ha by rock outcrops and 53 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 2 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Small area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 7 per cent area is shallow (25-50 cm) and 7 per cent area is very deep (>150 cm) soil.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is loamy soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 7 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha), 7 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 5 per area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 29 (5) 8 (2) Guava - - Maize - 38 (7) Sapota - - Bajra - 38 (7) Pomegranate - 38(7) Groundnut - - Musambi 8 (2) 29(5) Sunflower - 38 (7) Lime 8 (2) 29 (5) Redgram - 38 (7) Amla - 38 (7) Bengal gram 38 (7) - Cashew - - Cotton - 37 (7) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 38 (7) Jamun - 38 (7) Tomato - 8 (2) Custard apple 38 (7) - Brinjal 29 (5) 8 (2) Tamarind - 38 (7) Onion 29 (5) 8 (2) Mulberry - - Bhendi 38 (7) - Marigold - 38 (7) Drumstick - 38 (7) Chrysanthemum - 38 (7) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-3 is located at North latitude 160 49' 45.372" and 160 48' 2.856" and East longitude 770 15' 19.29'' and 770 13' 43.732" covering an area of about 562.73 ha coming under Belagera and Ashinal Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-3 micro watersheds of Bewanahalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 21 (60.00%) were marginal, 7 (20.00%) were small and 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 119 (55.87%) men and 94 (44.13 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.5, marginal farmers were 6.1, small farmers were 5.7 and semi medium farmers were 7.7.  Majority of the respondents (51.64%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 53.05 per cent of illiterates, 17.84 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.45 per cent high school education, 5.63 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.47 per cent of them had Diploma, 8.45 per cent attained graduation and 5.63 them had other education.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 57.28 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 37.14 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 68.57 per cent possess TV, 20.00 per cent possess mixer grinder, 85.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 54.29 per cent possess plough and 40.00 per cent possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill and Sprinkler, 34.29 per cent possess Sprayer, 45.71 per cent possess Weeder, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 2.86 per cent possess Sprinkler and 0.00 per cent possess drip system.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 25.71 per cent possess local cow and 14.29 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 7.30, women available in the micro watershed was 1.82, hired labour (men) available was 1.94 and hired labour (women) available was 9.61. 2  In the study area, about 0.47 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 600.00 kms for about 12.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 54.07 per cent (24.16 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 18.33 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 6.00 live bore wells and 6.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 17.14 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 51.43 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 25.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 68.75 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.73666.65, 52458.81, 92951.51, 101578.39 and 40439.00 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 1.50, 1: 1.30, 1: 0.90, and 1:2.50 respectively.  Further, 48.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 177206.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57692.86 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 27 horticulture trees and 24 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5285.71 for land development and Rs. 13000.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 14.29 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 105.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 105.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (25.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 80.00 per cent of the households and 20.00 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 31.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.43 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 2.86 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (97.14%) and oilseeds (62.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (80.00 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (62.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (80.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.57%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.00 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (54.29%), inadequate extension services (42.86 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (74.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

This issue of the RPPP begins with two studies on the role of these informal communities and their influence in other public policy areas. The article by Lujan Menazzi traces the functioning of this public-private articulation during the last military dictatorship in the field of public works. The author identifies the existence of a professional and business community linked to the development of public works and its articulation with the government areas that define budgets and assign works, with a frequent transit of public officials and private entrepreneurs who move from one side to another of the institutional differentiation, it defines a convergence of symbolic and material interests and legitimizes the characterization of this stage as a civic-military dictatorship. The same as in other capitalist societies, business efficiency (cost matrix, productivity, environmental impact, etc.) and proximity, through a variety of formal and informal practices, to the places in the institutional framework where decisions are made of politics, have helped to configure one of the strategic areas of political-corporate power, the rapid growth of business assets and the social prestige of its owners, with diffuse boundaries between public and private interests.Elsa Pereyra presents the case of a group of officials and professionals who, from a community of ideas, technical training and political will, faced the challenges posed by a deep fiscal mess and reduced its impact on the most vulnerable population. His article analyzes the experience of the team that led the Ministry of Economy of the province of Buenos Aires between 1987 and 2007 from the point of view of the construction of analytical, political and technical capacities. To do this, it reconstructs the process that led to the creation of the quasi-currency known as "Patacón", as an example of the type of productions that characterized the performance of this group of officials. The analysis of the ways in which politics and technique were combined in the interventions of the provincial economic team allows the author to compose profiles of state actors more complex than those stylized in the predominant literature in the field of public policies.The following three articles are studies on the policies of care, an issue that in recent years has entered the arena of public policy. Gisela Cánovas Herrera focuses on the debates about the social organization of care, within the framework of welfare studies and the contributions of feminism. Universal Assignment by Child is taken as a case that allows the author to investigate the assumptions related to the role implicitly assigned to women in this social policy and its effects on their participation in the labor market. Erika Van Rompaey examines the concept of quality home care for people in situations of dependency and their different approaches, to reflect on the impact of the material and technical conditions of care offered by the State in the protection of the right to care ; takes as a reference the recent experience of Uruguay, where a new care policy has been designed and implemented, with a provision specifically oriented towards home care. The text of Javier Moro analyzes the performance of the new municipal areas of attention to children and adolescents in the suburbs of Buenos Aires. The author argues that the emphasis on the focus of attention in the domestic-family sphere in detriment of the expansion of a programmatic offer of promotion and access to rights poses a limited and restrictive scope of the transformation stated in the regulations. The article proposes the adoption of a "new architecture" that contemplates the scope of the politics of childhood and adolescence at the local level, the definition of the problem with which these areas work and a territorial view of social policies.Assistance actions aimed at vulnerable population groups (emergency employment plans, conditional transfers of income, specific subsidies) integrated an important part of the social policies of recent years. In addition to the discussion regarding the effectiveness of these actions to address the problems they are aiming at, there were debates about the objective and subjective conditions effectively met by the recipients of the assistance, frequently dyed with discriminatory tonalities. The article by Malena Hopp and Eliana Lijterman reconstructs the arguments and controversies raised about these programs in the target subjects and in workers integrated into labor markets.Juan Pablo Hudson discusses the change in the institutional focus recorded since the change of government in 2015 regarding employment policies aimed at unemployed or precarious employment sectors, highlighting the emphasis on entrepreneurship and individualism, as well as free associativism contrast with the promotion of cooperative formation and the wide-ranging stimulus programs for the popular economy and its most dynamic government actors that took place between 2002 and 2015. Finally Graciela Mingo and Elisa Sarrot focus on the interactions between the State and a variety of actors social and labor issues in the Pro.Cre.Ar plan (2012-2015) in a municipality in the province of Entre Ríos, as an active policy to facilitate access by the middle sectors of society to their own homes; a program that has also suffered cuts and reorientations in recent years. ; El presente número de la RPPP se inicia con dos estudios sobre el papel de estas comunidades informales y su gravitación en otras tantas áreas de política pública. El artículo de Luján Menazzi rastrea el funcionamiento de esta articulación público-privada durante la última dictadura militar en el terreno de la obra pública. La autora identifica la existencia de una comunidad profesional y empresarial vinculada al desarrollo de obras públicas y su articulación con las áreas del gobierno que definen los presupuestos y asignan las obras, con un frecuente tránsito de funcionarios públicos y empresarios privados que se mueven de un lado a otro de la diferenciación institucional, define una convergencia de intereses simbólicos y materiales y legitima la caracterización de esta etapa como dictadura cívico-militar. Lo mismo que en otras sociedades capitalistas, la eficiencia empresarial (matriz de costos, productividad, impacto ambiental, etc.) y la proximidad, a través de una variedad de prácticas formales e informales, a los lugares del entramado institucional donde se toman las decisiones de política, han contribuido a configurar uno de los ámbitos estratégicos del poder político-corporativo, al vertiginoso crecimiento de patrimonios empresariales y al prestigio social de sus titulares, con fronteras difusas entre el interés público y el privado.Elsa Pereyra presenta el caso de un grupo de funcionarios y profesionales que, a partir de una comunidad de ideas, formación técnica y voluntad política enfrentó los desafíos planteados por un profundo desbarajuste fiscal y a reducir su impacto sobre la población más vulnerable. Su artículo analiza la experiencia del equipo que condujo el Ministerio de Economía de la provincia de Buenos Aires entre 1987 y 2007 desde el punto de vista de la construcción de capacidades analíticas, políticas y técnicas. Para ello, reconstruye el proceso que condujo a la creación de la cuasi-moneda conocida como "Patacón", como ejemplo del tipo de producciones que caracterizaron la actuación de ese colectivo de funcionarios. El análisis de los modos en que se combinaron política y técnica en las intervenciones del equipo económico provincial, permite a la autora componer perfiles de actores estatales más complejos que los estilizados en la literatura predominante en el campo de las políticas públicas.Los tres artículos siguientes son estudios sobre las políticas del cuidado, un asunto que en años recientes ha ingresado a la arena de las políticas públicas. Gisela Cánovas Herrera pone el foco en los debates acerca de la organización social del cuidado, en el marco de los estudios del bienestar y los aportes del feminismo. La Asignación Universal por Hijo es tomada como caso que permite a la autora indagar los supuestos relacionados con el rol implícitamente asignado a las mujeres en esta política social y sus efectos sobre su participación en el mercado de trabajo. Erika Van Rompaey examina el concepto de calidad del cuidado en domicilio de personas en situación de dependencia y sus distintos abordajes, para reflexionar sobre el impacto que tienen las condiciones materiales y técnicas de la atención ofrecida por el Estado en la protección del derecho a ser cuidado; toma como referencia la experiencia reciente de Uruguay, donde se ha diseñado e implementado una nueva política de cuidados que cuenta con una prestación orientada específicamente hacia los cuidados en domicilio. El texto de Javier Moro analiza el desempeño de las nuevas áreas municipales de atención a la niñez y adolescencia en el conurbano bonaerense. Sostiene el autor que el énfasis en el eje de atención en el ámbito doméstico-familiar en desmedro de la expansión de una oferta programática de promoción y acceso a derechos plantea un alcance limitado y restrictivo de la transformación declamada en la normativa. El artículo postula la adopción de una "nueva arquitectura" institucional que contemple los alcances de la política de niñez y adolescencia en el nivel local, la definición del problema con la que trabajan estas áreas y una mirada territorial de las políticas sociales.Las acciones de asistencia dirigidas a grupos vulnerables de población (planes de empleo de emergencia, transferencias condicionadas de ingreso, subsidios específicos) integraron una parte importante de las políticas sociales de los años recientes. Además de la discusión respecto de la eficacia de esas acciones para enfrentar las problemáticas a las que apuntan, se registraron debates acerca de las condiciones objetivas y subjetivas efectivamente reunidas por los receptores de la asistencia, frecuentemente teñidos de tonalidades discriminatorias. El artículo de Malena Hopp y Eliana Lijterman reconstruye los argumentos y controversias suscitadas en torno a estos programas en los sujetos destinatarios y en trabajadores integrados a mercados de trabajo.Juan Pablo Hudson discute el cambio del enfoque institucional registrado a partir del cambio de gobierno de 2015 respecto de las políticas de empleo dirigidas a sectores desempleados o de empleo precario, destacando el énfasis en el emprendedorismo y el individualismo, así como en el asociativismo libre por contraste con la promoción de formación de cooperativas y los amplios programas de estímulo a la economía popular y a sus más dinámicos actores de los gobiernos que se sucedieron entre 2002 y 2015. Finalmente Graciela Mingo y Elisa Sarrot enfocan las interacciones entre Estado y una variedad de actores sociales y laborales en el plan Pro.Cre.Ar (2012-2015) en un municipio de la provincia de Entre Ríos, como política activa para facilitar el acceso de sectores medios de la sociedad a la vivienda propia; un programa que también ha sufrido recortes y reorientaciones en los años recientes.

As a cradle of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow River Basin has a very long human-environment interrelationship, where early anthropogenic activities re- sulted in large scale landscape modifications. Today, the impact of this relationship has intensified further as the basin plays a vital role for China's continued economic development. It is one of the most densely-populated, fastest growing, and most dynamic regions of China with abundant natural and environmental resources providing a livelihood for almost 190 million people. Triggered by fundamental economic reforms, the basin has witnessed a spectacular economic boom during the last decades and can be considered as an exemplary blueprint region for contemporary dynamic Global Change processes occurring throughout the country, which is currently transitioning from an agrarian-dominated economy into a modern urbanized society. However, this resourcesdemanding growth has led to profound land use changes with adverse effects on the Yellow River social-ecological systems, where complex challenges arise threatening a long-term sustainable development. Consistent and continuous remote sensing-based monitoring of recent and past land cover and land use change is a fundamental requirement to mitigate the adverse impacts of Global Change processes. Nowadays, technical advancement and the multitude of available satellite sensors, in combination with the opening of data archives, allow the creation of new research perspectives in regional land cover applications over heterogeneous landscapes at large spatial scales. Despite the urgent need to better understand the prevailing dynamics and underlying factors influencing the current processes, detailed regional specific land cover data and change information are surprisingly absent for this region. In view of the noted research gaps and contemporary developments, three major objectives are defined in this thesis. First (i), the current and most pressing social-ecological challenges are elaborated and policy and management instruments towards more sustainability are discussed. Second (ii), this thesis provides new and improved insights on the current land cover state and dynamics of the entire Yellow River Basin. Finally (iii), the most dominant processes related to mining, agriculture, forest, and urban dynamics are determined on finer spatial and temporal scales. The complex and manifold problems and challenges that result from long-term abuse of the water and land resources in the basin have been underpinned by policy choices, cultural attitude, and institutions that have evolved over centuries in China. The tremendous economic growth that has been mainly achieved by extracting water and exploiting land resources in a rigorous, but unsustainable manner, might not only offset the economic benefits, but could also foster social unrest. Since the early emergence of the first Chinese dynasties, flooding was considered historically as a primary issue in river management and major achievements have been made to tame the wild nature of the Yellow River. Whereas flooding is therefore largely now under control, new environmental and social problems have evolved, including soil and water pollution, ecological degradation, biodiversity decline, and food security, all being further aggravated by anthropogenic climate change. To resolve the contemporary and complex challenges, many individual environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by various Chinese ministries. However, these policies often pursue different, often contradictory goals, are too general to tackle specific problems and are usually implemented by a strong top-down approach. Recently, more flexible economic and market-based incentives (pricing, tradable permits, investments) have been successfully adopted, which are specifically tailored to the respective needs, shifting now away from the pure command and regulating instruments. One way towards a more holistic and integrated river basin management could be the establishment of a common platform (e.g. a Geographical Information System) for data handling and sharing, possibly operated by the Yellow River Basin Conservancy Commission (YRCC), where available spatial data, statistical information and in-situ measures are coalesced, on which sustainable decision-making could be based. So far, the collected data is hardly accessible, fragmented, inconsistent, or outdated. The first step to address the absence and lack of consistent and spatially up-to-date information for the entire basin capturing the heterogeneous landscape conditions was taken up in this thesis. Land cover characteristics and dynamics were derived from the last decade for the years 2003 and 2013, based on optical medium-resolution hightemporal MODIS Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series at 250 m. To minimize the inherent influence of atmospheric and geometric interferences found in raw high temporal data, the applied adaptive Savitzky-Golay filter successfully smoothed the time series and substantially reduced noise. Based on the smoothed time series data, a large variety of intra-annual phenology metrics as well as spectral and multispectral annual statistics were derived, which served as input variables for random forest (RF) classifiers. High quality reference data sets were derived from very high resolution imagery for each year independently of which 70 % trained the RF models. The accuracy assessments for all regionally specific defined thematic classes were based on the remaining 30 % reference data split and yielded overall accuracies of 87 % and 84 % for 2003 and 2013, respectively. The first regional adapted Yellow River Land Cover Products (YRB LC) depict the detail spatial extent and distribution of the current land cover status and dynamics. The novel products overall differentiate overall 18 land cover and use classes, including classes of natural vegetation (terrestrial and aquatic), cultivated classes, mosaic classes, non-vegetated, and artificial classes, which are not presented in previous land cover studies so far. Building on this, an extended multi-faceted land cover analysis on the most prominent land cover change types at finer spatial and temporal scales provides a better and more detailed picture of the Yellow River Basin dynamics. Precise spatio-temporal products about mining, agriculture, forest, and urban areas were examined from long-trem Landsat satellite time series monitored at annual scales to capture the rapid rate of change in four selected focus regions. All archived Landsat images between 2000 and 2015 were used to derive spatially continuous spectral-temporal, multi-spectral, and textural metrics. For each thematic region and year RF models were built, trained and tested based on a stablepixels reference data set. The automated adaptive signature (AASG) algorithm identifies those pixels that did not change between the investigated time periods to generate a mono-temporal reference stable-pixels data set to keep manual sampling requirements to a minimum level. Derived results gained high accuracies ranging from 88 % to 98 %. Throughout the basin, afforestation on the Central Loess Plateau and urban sprawl are identified as most prominent drivers of land cover change, whereas agricultural land remained stable, only showing local small-scale dynamics. Mining operations started in 2004 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which resulted in a substantial loss of pristine alpine meadows and wetlands. In this thesis, a novel and unique regional specific view of current and past land cover characteristics in a complex and heterogeneous landscape was presented by using a multi-source remote sensing approach. The delineated products hold great potential for various model and management applications. They could serve as valuable components for effective and sustainable land and water management to adapt and mitigate the predicted consequences of Global Change processes. ; Der Gelbe Fluss - in der Landessprache Huange He genannt - ist für die Ausprägung und Entwicklung der chinesischen Kultur von großer Bedeutung. Aufgrund der frühen Einflussnahme auf die natürlichen Ökosysteme in dieser Region durch den Menschen, entwickelte sich dort eine ausgeprägte Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Diese Wechselbeziehung hat sich infolge der gegenwärtigen rapiden sozioökonomischen Veränderungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten weiter intensiviert. Das Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses bildet die Lebensgrundlage für fast 190 Millionen Menschen, die zum Großteil von natürlichen Ressourcen abhängig sind. Zudem gehört es zu den wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten und am schnellsten wachsenden Regionen in ganz China. Durch weitreichende Reformen wurde ein wirtschaftlicher Aufstieg forciert, um den Agrarstaat China zu einem modernen Industrie- und Dienstleistungsstaat weiterzuentwickeln. Ein derartiges rasantes wie auch ressourcenintensives Wirtschaftswachstum führte schließlich zu einem enormen Wandel in den Bereichen der Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Hinzu kamen neue und komplexere wirtschafts-, sozial- und umweltpolitische Herausforderungen, die bis heute eine langfristige und nachhaltige Entwicklung der Region gefährden. Aus diesem Blickwinkel kann das Becken des Gelben Flusses als regionales Spiegelbild der durch den Globalen Wandel bedingten, gegenwärtigen Veränderungsprozesse in ganz China gelten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den adäquaten Umgang mit den Herausforderungen des Globalen Wandels sind kontinuierliche Informationen über aktuelle sowie historische Veränderungen von Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Infolge der technologischen Entwicklung steht heute eine Vielfalt an Satellitenbildsystemen mit immer höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung zur Verfügung. In Verbindung mit kostenfreien und offenen Datenzugriffen ist es möglich, daraus neue Forschungsperspektiven im Bereich der Landoberflächenkartierung - insbesondere für heterogene Landschaften - zu entwickeln. Zur Generierung thematischer Karten werden häufig Klassifikationen entlang verschiedener räumlicher und zeitlicher Skalen vollzogen. Daraus können zusätzlich die nötigen Informationen für lokale wie auch regionale Entscheidungsträger abgeleitet werden. Trotz dieser neuen Möglichkeiten sind regionalspezifische Informationen, die einem besseren Verständnis der Dynamiken von Landoberflächen im Bereich des Gelben-Fluss-Beckens dienen, noch rar. Dieses Forschungsdesiderat wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen, wobei folgende Schwerpunkte gesetzt werden: (i) Zunächst werden die vorherrschenden sozioökologischen Herausforderungen für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses dargestellt sowie verschiedene Management- sowie Politikmodelle für eine nachhaltigere Ressourcennutzung diskutiert. (ii) Darauf aufbauend wird die fernerkundliche Ableitung von Landbedeckungs- und Landnutzungsveränderungen der letzten Dekade im Gebiet des gesamten Gelben Flusses flächendeckend durchgeführt und anschließend interpretiert. (iii) Im letzten Schritt werden basierend auf den zuvor abgeleiteten Informationsprodukten die dominierenden Landoberflächendynamiken in höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung detailliert untersucht. Insbesondere die dynamischen Prozesse der Minenausbreitung, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebiete und der urbanen Räume rücken in den Fokus. Aufgrund jahrzehntelanger Übernutzung der natürlichen Ressourcen im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses in Verbindung mit politischen Entscheidungen, der vorherrschenden kulturellen Prägung wie auch der Entwicklung der dort ansässigen Institutionen ist eine vielschichtige Problematik entstanden, die für die gesamte Region eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Durch frühzeitige Maßnahmen der Flutbekämpfung und Flussregulierung konnte den zahlreichen Überflutungen der Vergangenheit entgegengewirkt und das Risiko großflächiger Überschwemmungen minimiert werden. Trotz dieser Erfolge ergeben sich laufend neue, komplexere Herausforderungen mit verheerenden Auswirkungen auf Ökologie und Gesellschaft, wie zum Beispiel Boden- und Wasserdegradation, Entwaldung, Rückgang der Artenvielfalt, Ernährungsunsicherheiten und ein steigendes soziales Ungleichgewicht. Durch den anthropogenen Klimawandel werden diese negativen Probleme noch weiter verstärkt. Zwar wurden sie von der chinesischen Regierung als solche erkannt, dennoch scheiterten die Versuche, mit zahlreichen Gesetzen und Verordnungen die genannten Folgen einzudämmen, an unkonkreten Formulierungen, so dass diese der Komplexität der Herausforderungen nicht gerecht wurden. Die in jüngster Zeit verfolgten modernen und deutlich flexibleren, marktorientierten Ansätze (z.B. Subventionen, Wasserzertifikate), die speziell an die lokalen Gegebenheiten angepasst wurden, zeigen bereits Erfolge. Mit Hilfe einer gemeinsamen Daten- und Informationsplattform, beispielsweise in Form eines Geographischen Informationssystems (GIS), wäre eine integrierte und holistische Flussmanagementstrategie für den Gelben Fluss leichter realisierbar. Auf diese Weise könnten alle verfügbaren statistischen-, räumlichen- und Feldaufnahmen gespeichert, harmonisiert und geteilt und so die bisher noch unvollständigen und veralteten Daten laufend aktualisiert werden. Die Flussbehörde des Gelben Flusses (Yellow River Conservancy Commission) böte sich an, ein solches System zu verwalten. In dieser Arbeit wird die heterogene Landbedeckungsstruktur für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses für die Jahre 2003 und 2013 erfasst und interpretiert. Die fernerkundlichen Eingangsdaten für die einzelnen Klassifikationen bestehen aus optischen MODIS NDVI-Zeitserien, aus denen jährlich phänologische Parameter berechnet werden. Da die Qualität optischer Satellitenbilder häufig durch Wolken und Schatten beeinträchtigt ist, müssen die betroffenen Flächen maskiert und entfernt werden. Die so entstandenen Lücken in der Zeitserie werden durch einen Filteralgorithmus (SavitskyGolay) aufgefüllt und geglättet. Die verwendeten RandomForest-Klassifikationsverfahren ermöglichen die Ableitung von Landbedeckungen und -dynamiken. Diese neuen und räumlich detaillierten Produkte unterscheiden insgesamt 18 verschiedene Landbedeckungsund Landnutzungsklassen. Erstmals liefern diese eine regional spezifische Charakterisierung der vorherrschenden Landbedeckung im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine sowohl zeitlich als auch räumlich detailliertere Untersuchung der wichtigsten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landbedeckung, die auf dichten Landsat-Zeitserien basiert. Jährliche Informationen über Dynamiken von Minenabbaugebieten, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebieten und urbanen Räumen zeigen präzise lokale Veränderungen im Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse lassen insbesondere auf dem Lössplateau die Auswirkungen ökologischer Restorationsmaßnahmen erkennen, bei denen degradierte Flächen in Waldsysteme umgewandelt wurden. Auf dem Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau zeigt sich eine dramatische Ausbreitung von Kohletagebau zu Lasten der besonders anfälligen alpinen Matten und Feuchtgebiete. Auch der anhaltende Trend zur Urbanisierung spiegelt sich in den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen deutlich wider. Durch die Kombination von Fernerkundungsdaten unterschiedlicher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösungen liefert diese Arbeit neue und bisher einzigartige Einblicke in historische und aktuelle Landbedeckungsdynamiken einer heterogenen Landschaft. Die regionalen Analysen wie auch die thematischen Informationsprodukte besitzen somit großes Potential zur Verbesserung der Informationsgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse dienen außerdem als aussagekräftige Entscheidungsgrundlage mit dem Ziel eines angemessenen und nachhaltigen Land- und Wassermanagements für die natürlichen Ökosysteme im Becken des Gelben Flusses.

Master in the Electric Power Industry ; The project context is the energy poverty. This theme is very actual and has a lot of social repercussion nowadays as electricity and gas price volatility has affected too many humble people in Europe. People, governments and utilities are becoming more and more aware of the magnitude of the penetration of energy poverty in the society and the efforts to reduce it have never been as many as now. The energy services are essential for a country, for its development and the welfare of its population. For example, electricity consumption is strongly related with the GDP growth of a country. The main energetic vectors that concern the energy poverty are the access and consumption of electricity, gas and heat water. These energy vectors are essential to have a decent household habitability. Despite so, it is estimated that 1.2billion people still do not have to electricity. These people are distributed mainly over Africa and Asia and with a higher proportion in rural areas. Two important figures to have in mind are that 17% of global population do not have electricity and 38% of global population do not have cooking facilities. There are two essential parts concerning the energy poverty, the energy access and the energy consumption, i.e. people not having the opportunity to consume electricity, gas or heat water because the grid is not developed to meet them, and the people who despite having the connection cannot consume because they are not able to pay for the cost of the consumption. In the case of Spain, geographical target of this study, the energy access is universal and is considered as a solved issue and the energy poverty was thought to be linked with the economic crisis despite it existed before too. The reality of the energy poverty has motivated and maintained the community doing studies around the topic despite the difficulties due to the little resource availability. To promote an effective and useful debate about the different possible solutions, to identify and imply the different agents and actors including the public administrations, the media, the energy utilities and the political parties among others. The objective of the study is to calculate the basic energy consumptions in Spain under different scenarios. These consumptions will be used to develop and analyse projects and strategies to mitigate the energy poverty. To achieve so, there are many variables that have to be determined and studies for different scenarios to study the energy needs to meet a worthy habitability in order to keep the household heated during the winter and cooled during the summer, to have energy to cook and do the normal living. So, the project's main objective is the development of a tool to compute different energy poverty scenarios and quantify in monetary terms the subsidies that would be needed to cover the problem break down into autonomous communities, provinces and rural and urban area. There must be a distinction between the water, electricity and gas expenses taking into account the different demands and consumes of the different regions in Spain. The program has been developed in Excel due to the simplicity of the programming and the capacity to be easily extended during and after the project. In the excel tool there are many freedom degrees in order to let the user create cases regarding its needs. For this purpose, there have been added especially modifiable quantities marked in pink in the general data sheet. These variables are: Water consumption: the frequency and quantities of water consumption can be modified in order to create different water consumption profiles. Cooking frequency: the number of cooks per week can be modified to adapt it to the case of study desired. Television and computer: the frequency and hours can be modified to create different consumption profiles. Fixed cost of water: due to the fact that it was too complex to take into account each water supply company, the different bills have been simplified with a variable term plus a fix term as it was explained before. The fixed term depends on the company and thus has been let free to change as a variable of the case. Electricity contracted power: contracted electricity power. Normally with a contracted power of 3.3kW of electric capacity is enough to cover the peak demand, but the term has been let variable to generate different cases. Electricity price: the electricity price is very volatile depending on the weather, costs of fuel etc. It is interesting to see how its different prices may affect energy poverty and quantify it. Social bonus: the social bonus is already acting and thus, it has been let free to be able to quantify the energy poverty with and without its effect. Size of the household: the size of the household is modifiable; for the base case the size has been extracted from the minimum habitability cellule, but it has been let free to generate different cases. The size of the household is directly related to the heat and air conditioning consumptions. Heating coefficient: gives the percentage of the heated surface of the household in the optimal case. For the base case, it is only considered to have 20m2 of heated surface. Air conditioned surface: gives the possibility to modify the air-conditioned surface to create new scenarios or compute its effect. Percentage of energy poverty to cover: gives the possibility to adjust the percentage of the households that is under energy poverty whose energy expenses are going to be take into account to be covered. Gas penetration coefficient: this coefficient affects the hypothesis of the gas penetration. Let it in 0 the penetration of the gas is only in the urban areas, but if it is higher than 0 there exist buildings with gas in the rural areas. This tool allows the creation of new scenarios and is interesting to see how the gas penetration affects energy poverty. Energy efficiency factor: this factor can take values from 0 to 5. If 1, then the efficiency is the one extracted from the studies and used in the base case. If 0, all the buildings are considered old and thus, with bad efficiency characteristics. The higher the value, the higher the proportion of new buildings with better efficiency characteristics. It is essential to mention another useful tool used to show the results in a summarized way. The map of Spain with the different provinces also developed in Excel allows to show the values of anything, for example, demands, water cost, electricity costs, etc. in a simple way. [Source: Blog "Análisis y decision." http://analisisydecision.es/nuevo-y-muy-mejorado-mapa-de-espana-por-provinciascon- excel/] Given the base case consumption profile and hypothesis, and having the actual image of Spain in terms of distribution of population in rural and urban areas, the gas penetration, the population of the different cities and provinces and the reference demands, the expenses that the State should dispose in order to cover the total of the energy vulnerability should be the ones shown in the table below. Given the absence of direct policies to combat energy poverty by the central government beyond this incomplete social bond, it is at the regional and municipal levels that we find the most relevant initiatives. We highlight the case of the Generalitat of Catalonia that, for just over a year and a half, is working with the central government in relation to a regulation on energy poverty. This work aimed to establish a winter truce between November and March, both included, so that the energy supply (water, electricity and gas) would not be interrupted to families in vulnerable situation. The Social Inclusion Plan of the Government of Andalusia includes an Extraordinary Program for vital minimum supplies and social emergency benefits. The program is endowed with 6.5 million euros and will be carried out through transfers to municipalities. Specific costs are considered to cover basic energy supplies, electricity costs and expenses related to water supply. On the other hand, the budget in the Basque Country includes a budget of 200,000 euros to cover the needs of families who cannot cope with energy bills, although the mechanisms for allocating this item have not yet been defined. It is important to note that this is in addition to social emergency aid, which includes energy bills by law. Finally, the Xunta de Galicia has just launched the second call for its social electric ticket with a budget of 1.5 million euros. The aid, which is requested for half-year, is 180 euros for families with one or two children (under 18 years) and 300 euros for large families. As it can be seen, the actual measures are insufficient. It has to be taken into account that the numbers shown in the previous table are the sum of the expenses for all the vulnerable consumers, and not only the ones suffering energy poverty. In addition, it has to be mentioned that finally not all the people under energy poverty would ask for the aid due to lack of information etc. Analysing in further detail the two existing measures regarding direct payments to cover energy invoices: The Basque Country only destinies 200.000€ to fight the energy poverty. The amount calculated for the vulnerable consumers is 19.2 million euros per year for all the electricity and gas consumptions but taking into account all the vulnerable consumers. Despite this number is overestimated because not all the vulnerable consumers will suffer from energy poverty and neither all of them will ask for the aid, the amount designated is considered lower than the real amount needed. The Xunta de Galicia designates 1.5million euros to fight the energy poverty in the electricity and gas concepts. The calculated amount to cover the energy vulnerable consumers in Galicia is around 20 million euros per year. As in the above case, this includes all the expenses in electricity and gas taking into account all the vulnerable population of Galicia. The amount is small compared to the needs because estimating with the energy poverty percentage the amount needed is around 10 million euros. Finally, it is important to point out that the payment of the unpaid invoice does not solve the root problem, it merely alleviates a situation of vulnerability which, with few exceptions, is not only a temporary problem of the home, but a chronic situation in time. For this reason, it is thought that this type of measures must be accompanied by other measures of greater depth that allow to mitigate Energy poverty. However, it must be realized that certain situations of social urgency require funds to be allocated to measures that, although mitigating, are those that can be implemented more quickly and those that allow an emergency to be dealt with immediately.

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Veterinárias, Especialidade de Sanidade Animal ; Cardiopulmonary nematodes, Dirofilaria immitis and Angiostrongylus vasorum, are severe and life-threatening parasites that are increasingly reported throughout Europe. However, in Portugal, accurate data on both illnesses is scarce, hampering the awareness and the implementation of effective prevention and control strategies. A multidisciplinary study was therefore designed to characterize and assess the current situation regarding dirofilariosis and angiostrongylosis in carnivores from Portugal. A national survey was conducted to assess the prevalence and distribution of D. immitis and A. vasorum in canine and red fox populations in Portugal, confirming the occurrence of both diseases in canids either from northern, central and southern regions. An overall prevalence of 11.9% and 0.7% dogs, and 8.5% and 12.7% foxes were positive to D. immitis and A. vasorum, respectively. Additionally, a high prevalence of D. immitis was found in pinnipeds kept at an oceanographic park in the Algarve region where the South African fur seal was also reported as a new host for D. immitis infection. DNA of the endosymbiont bacterium Wolbachia pipientis was detected in dogs naturally infected with D. immitis in Portugal. The transmission risk period for Dirofilaria spp. in Portugal was estimated, showing that although transmission is markedly seasonal, the necessary climatic factors are starting earlier and lasting longer than the summer. A new minimally invasive surgical technique was developed to extract D. immitis adult worms from the hearts of dogs through transjugular catheterization with a non-traumatic snare. A questionnaire conducted on Portuguese pet owners showed that the majority deworm their dogs at irregular and consequently ineffective intervals and their level of knowledge about parasites and parasitic diseases is low. Although exposure may differ depending on the region of Portugal, the likelihood of cardiopulmonary dirofilariosis and angiostrongylosis is considerable nationwide. Active surveillance, increasing awareness and regular preventive measures are crucial to control cardiopulmonary parasitic diseases in carnivores in the country. ; RESUMO - Dirofilaria immitis e Angiostrongylus vasorum: epidemiologia e impacto dos principais nemátodes cardiopulmonares em carnívoros em Portugal - A dirofilariose e a angiostrongilose são doenças parasitárias crescentemente notificadas em toda a Europa, representando uma ameaça grave para a saúde animal. São causadas respetivamente pelos nemátodes cardiopulmonares Dirofilaria immitis (agente transmitido por mosquitos culicídeos) e Angiostrongylus vasorum (agente transmitido por moluscos gastrópodes). Os fatores subjacentes a esta expansão são diversos, destacando-se a globalização, as alterações climáticas, a conjuntura socioeconómica, espécies invasoras com capacidade vetorial, urbanização de hospedeiros silvestres, bem como novos métodos de diagnóstico. Dados concretos sobre a prevalência e distribuição são cruciais para o controle de doenças animais e, no caso de D. immitis e Dirofilaria repens, também para o controlo de doenças potencialmente zoonóticas. Contudo, em Portugal, a informação existente à data de início deste trabalho era escassa e pontual. Com o intuito de clarificar esta situação e colmatar esta lacuna, foi delineado o presente trabalho para caracterizar a situação da dirofilariose e da angiostrongilose em Portugal. Como primeiro objetivo pretendeu-se avaliar a prevalência atual e áreas de distribuição de Dirofilaria spp. e A. vasorum em canídeos domésticos e selvagens em Portugal. Relativamente à dirofilariose, foram testados 696 canídeos domésticos de três distritos do centro de Portugal (Coimbra, Santarém e Setúbal), durante 2011, 2012 e 2013. Para avaliação das espécies de Dirofilaria circulantes, foram utilizadas técnicas parasitológicas diretas, serológicas e moleculares. Setúbal registou a maior prevalência (24,8%), seguido de Coimbra (13,8%) e Santarém (13,2%), observando-se uma prevalência média global de 15,1%. A espécie D. immitis foi detetada nos três distritos, durante os três anos de estudo, com uma prevalência crescente. Em 2014, dada a escassez de dados epidemiológicos nas regiões transfronteiriças de Portugal e Espanha, este estudo foi alargado a mais sete distritos (i.e., Beja, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Évora, Faro, Guarda e Portalegre), envolvendo mais 248 canídeos. Beja foi o distrito que registou maior número de casos de infeção por D. immitis (8.9%), seguido pela Guarda (6,7%), Faro (2,7%) e Castelo Branco (2,5%). Não foram registados casos positivos de infeção por D. immitis em Bragança, Évora e Portalegre, e não foram observadas outras espécies de Dirofilaria em todo o País. No total observou-se uma prevalência global de 11,9% de cães positivos a D. immitis nos dez distritos, um valor superior comparativamente ao reportado anteriormente. No que respeita à angiostrongilose, foi efetuado o primeiro rastreio serológico nacional de infeção por A. vasorum. Foram testados 906 canídeos domésticos provenientes de 16 distritos (i.e., Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Lisboa, Portalegre, Porto, Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real e Viseu). Foi utilizada a nova técnica de imunoabsorção enzimática (ELISA) de elevada sensibilidade para deteção de antigénios circulantes de A. vasorum e de anticorpos específicos contra este parasita. Observou-se um total de 0,7% de animais positivos simultaneamente para antigénio e anticorpo, dispersos pelas zonas norte, centro e sul de Portugal, indicando a presença de infeções ativas de A. vasorum distribuídas pelo País. Adicionalmente observou-se 1,3% de animais positivos apenas para anticorpo de A. vasorum, sugerindo uma exposição prévia ao parasita. No geral, esta prevalência foi semelhante à registada noutros países europeus. Este rastreio permitiu não só confirmar a endemicidade de A. vasorum em cães de diferentes zonas geográficas de Portugal, como colmatar a lacuna de conhecimento deste parasita em Portugal. Atendendo ao facto de os cães militares constituírem um grupo de risco de exposição a doenças transmitidas por vetores pela natureza da sua atividade e longos períodos de permanência no exterior, foi efetuado um rastreio de infeção por D. immitis e A. vasorum à população de canídeos da Força Aérea Portuguesa. Foram testados 100 animais, mantidos em bases militares localizadas em Aveiro, Beja, Leiria, Lisboa, Setúbal, Madeira e Açores. Dos animais testados, 5% apresentaram anticorpos específicos contra A. vasorum (Aveiro, Lisboa e Setúbal) e 1% antigénios circulantes de A. vasorum. Não foram observados casos de infeção para D. immitis. Este rastreio permitiu alargar a informação sobre a presença e distribuição geográfica de D. immitis e A. vasorum em Portugal. Com o objetivo de avaliar a prevalência de D. immitis e A. vasorum em canídeos silvestres, foi efetuado um rastreio serológico a 118 raposas (Vulpes vulpes) abatidas durante a época oficial de caça, provenientes de oito distritos de Portugal, distribuídos por duas regiões: Norte (Aveiro, Braga, Bragança, Porto, Viana do Castelo e Vila Real) e Sul (Évora e Setúbal). Observou-se uma prevalência de 8,5% de animais positivos para D. immitis. Adicionalmente, foi encontrada uma prevalência de 12,7% de animais positivos para A. vasorum, dos quais 5,9% simultaneamente positivos para antigénios e anticorpos de A. vasorum, 5,1% positivos exclusivamente para antigénios de A. vasorum e 1,7% positivos exclusivamente para anticorpos de A. vasorum. Os animais positivos para dirofilariose cardiopulmonar e angiostrongilose foram detetados nas regiões Norte e Sul de Portugal, ampliando a distribuição destes agentes a nível silvestre e destacando o seu potencial papel como reservatório para carnívoros domésticos. Embora os hospedeiros definitivos da dirofilariose sejam principalmente canídeos domésticos e selvagens, D. immitis apresenta baixa especificidade de hospedeiro vertebrado, sendo capaz de infetar outras espécies de mamíferos silvestres, incluindo aquáticos. Durante a execução deste trabalho, surgiu a possibilidade de rastrear uma população de pinípedes mantidos num parque oceanográfico no Algarve. Foi encontrado DNA de D. immitis em três espécies distintas (focas comuns, leões-marinhos Californianos e Otárias Sul-Africanas), com uma prevalência global de 43.8%, e foi pela primeira vez documentada a Otária Sul Africana (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) como hospedeiro de D. immitis. Tendo em conta as múltiplas implicações da bactéria Wolbachia spp. na patogénese da dirofilariose, outro dos objetivos deste projeto consistiu na pesquisa deste agente em canídeos domésticos, naturalmente infetados com D. immitis em Portugal. Utilizando métodos de deteção molecular, foi encontrado DNA de Wolbachia pipientis em 52,6% de amostras testadas, tendo-se deste modo efetuado a descrição deste endosimbionte em populações caninas em Portugal. Adicionalmente, foram utilizadas ferramentas geoespaciais para avaliação do risco de transmissão de dirofilariose em Portugal, utilizando o modelo graus-dia. Recorreu-se aos valores médios diários de temperaturas registados na última década (de 2003 a 2013), em cinco estações meteorológicas: Faro, Funchal, Lisboa, Porto e São Miguel. Consideraram-se como pré-requisitos um limiar de temperatura de 14°C, 130 unidades de desenvolvimento de Dirofilaria spp., e uma expetativa máxima de vida dos vetores de 30 dias. A região da Madeira foi a que registou um maior número de dias com condições compatíveis à transmissão de D. immitis (média de 209,9 dias/ano), seguida de Faro (175,2 dias/ano), Lisboa (163,5 dias/ano), Açores (140 dias/ano) e Porto (117,2 dias/ano). Observou-se também na última década um período médio de risco de transmissão desta parasitose de 8 meses/ano na Madeira, 6,9 meses/ano em Faro, 6,4 meses/ano em Lisboa, 5,6 meses/ano nos Açores e de 5 meses/ano no Porto. Dada a elevada virulência de D. immitis e complicações tromboembólicas associadas, outro dos objetivos deste estudo consistiu na elaboração de uma nova abordagem terapêutica minimamente invasiva. Para isso, desenvolveu-se um método não traumático de remoção percutânea de vermes adultos de D. immitis, baseado na utilização de fio coronário para extração de espécimes de vermes da artéria pulmonar e ventrículo direito, que se revelou eficaz. Outros dos objetivos deste trabalho consistiu em caracterizar as práticas de desparasitação e o conhecimento dos proprietários de animais de companhia sobre doenças parasitárias, tendo sido efetuado um questionário aos utentes do Hospital da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária da Universidade de Lisboa. Observou-se que apesar da generalidade dos proprietários desparasitar o seu animal, esta prática é efetuada a intervalos irregulares e consequentemente ineficazes: apenas 11,8% dos cães são desparasitados internamente com a periodicidade aconselhada (i.e., mínimo trimestral) e apenas 28,4% estão protegidos continuamente ao longo do ano contra artrópodes. Adicionalmente 37% refere não efetuar a recolha de dejetos dos seus cães em todos os locais públicos, contribuindo para a contaminação ambiental. O nível de conhecimento público sobre parasitas e doenças parasitárias ainda é reduzido no País, com 88% dos donos afirmando nunca ter ouviu falar de "verme do coração" e 85% de "zoonose". Como corolário deste trabalho, foi efetuada uma caracterização da situação epidemiológica nacional da dirofilariose e da angiostrongilose cardiopulmonar em canídeos nos últimos vinte anos. Conclui-se que apesar do risco de exposição dos carnívoros ser variável de acordo com a região geográfica de Portugal, a probabilidade de infeção por D. immitis e A. vasorum é considerável em todo o País, ainda que se observe uma prevalência de D. immitis muito superior à de A. vasorum. Tendo em conta as atuais alterações climáticas e sociodemográficas, prevê-se um aumento do risco de infeção por estes agentes em áreas endémicas e não endémicas. Atendendo à gravidade da patologia provocada por D. immitis e A. vasorum e considerando o potencial zoonótico e impacto em saúde pública da Dirofilaria spp., estes dados alertam para a necessidade de sensibilização da comunidade médico-veterinária e da população em geral, para a realização de uma profilaxia anti-parasitária dirigida e regular em animais de companhia em Portugal. ; Institut für Parasitologie, Universität Zürich, as well as from Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, for laboratory materials and reagents. ; N/A

ABSTRAKJudul tesis ini adalah Eksistensi Naskah Akademik Dalam Pembentukan Rancangan Peraturan Daerah Berdasarkan Pasal 56 ayat (2), Pasal 57 ayat (2) Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011 dan Pasal 18,20,30 Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 1 Tahun 2014 (Studi di Kabupaten Bengkayang). Adapun latar belakangnya adalah bahwa Naskah Akademik mempunyai kedudukan yang kuat,karena dengan ditandani naskah akademik menjadi keharusan/wajib dalam Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-undangan. Namun dalam pembentukan Peraturan Daerah masih belum terlalu kuat hanya bersifat fakultatif dan bisa dilengkapi dengan keterangan atau penjelasan. Urgensi naskah akademik dapat dilihat dari tujuan, kegunaannya dan isi dari naskah akademik dalam pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-undangan. Masalahnya adalah (1) Apakah Penyertaan Naskah Akademik Dalam Pembentukan Rancangan Peraturan Daerah diluar Rancangan Peraturan Daerah Tentang Anggaran dan Belanja Daerah berdasarkan Pasal 56 ayat (2), Pasal 57 ayat (2) Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011, dan Pasal 18, Pasal 20, Pasal 30 Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 1 Tahun 2014 terhadap rancangan Peraturan Daerah baik yang merupakan inisiatif Pemerintah Daerah (eksekutif di daerah) dan DPRD (legislatif di daerah) wajib disertai dengan penjelasan atau keterangan dan/atau naskah akademik atau hanya bersifat imperatif yang tidak wajib atau fakultatif? (2) Mengapa dalam penyusunan Rancangan Peraturan Daerah di Kabupaten Bengkayang diluar Rancangan Peraturan Daerah Tentang Anggaran dan Belanja Daerah belum seluruhnya menyertakan naskah akademik berdasarkan Pasal 56 ayat (2), Pasal 57 ayat (2) Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011, dan Pasal 18, Pasal 20, Pasal 30 Peraturan Menteri dalam Negeri Nomor 1 Tahun 2014 bahwa rancangan Peraturan Daerah baik yang merupakan inisiatif Pemerintah daerah (eksekutif di daerah) dan DPRD (legislatif di daerah) ?Hasil penelitian tesis dapat disimpulkan, bahwa pertama, Penyertaan Naskah Akademik Dalam Pembentukan Rancangan Peraturan Daerah diluar Rancangan Peraturan Daerah Tentang Anggaran dan Belanja Daerah berdasarkan Pasal 56 ayat (2), Pasal 57 ayat (2) Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011, dan Pasal 18, Pasal 20, Pasal 30 Peraturan Menteri dalam Negeri Nomor 1 Tahun 2014 terhadap rancangan Peraturan Daerah baik yang merupakan inisiatif Pemerintah daerah (eksekutif di daerah) dan DPRD (legislatif di daerah) wajib disertai dengan penjelasan atau keterangan dan/atau naskah akademik atau hanya bersifat imperatif yang tidak wajib atau fakultatif, Kedua, Bahwa penyusunan Rancangan Peraturan Daerah di Kabupaten Bengkayang diluar Rancangan Peraturan Daerah Tentang Anggaran dan Belanja Daerah belum seluruhnya menyertakan naskah akademik berdasarkan Pasal 56 ayat (2), Pasal 57 ayat (2) Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011, dan Pasal 18, Pasal 20, Pasal 30 Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor 1 Tahun 2014 bahwa rancangan Peraturan Daerah baik yang merupakan inisiatif Pemerintah daerah (eksekutif di daerah) dan DPRD (legislatif di daerah) belum seluruhnya rancangan Peraturan daerah di Kabupaten Bengkayang disertai naskah akademik, hal ini karena beberapa faktor yang dapat dikemukana sebagai berikut: (a) Kedudukan naskah akademik menurut UU Nomor 12 Tahun 2011 menjadi wajib bagi pembentukan Undang –2Undang namun dalam pembentukan Peraturan Daerah masih bersifat fakultatif dimana dengan demikian pembuatan naskah akademik boleh digantikan dengan keterangan atau penjelasan. Naskah Akademik hanya sebagai saran dan tidak diwajibkan. (b) Bahwasannya peranan Naskah Akademik sangat diperlukan keberadaannya dalam pembentukan peraturan perundang – undangan di Indonesia baik Undang – Undang maupun Peraturan Daerah, maka naskah akademik dalam pembentukan peraturan daerah juga seharusnya di wajibkan. Dengan kehadiran Naskah Akademik, maka diharapkan dapat lebih efisien, efektif, solutif, adaptif dan mampu menghindari beberapa kali perubahan yang justru akan "mubazir" dalam hal waktu serta pembiayaannya; (c) Eksistensi Naskah Akademik dalam pembentukan Peraturan Daerah dapat dilihat dari Naskah akademik memiliki tujuan dan kegunaan, memuat mengenai landasan dari pada pembuatan suatu aturan yang diambil dari teori-teori perundang-undangan, dalam naskah akademik juga memberikan gambaran mengenai substansi, materi dan ruang lingkup dari peraturan daerah yang akan dibuat yang benar-benar berkualitas dan sesuai dengan tuntutan masyarakat secara luas. (d) Naskah Akademik juga memiliki urgensi dimana dalam naskah akademik memberikan ruang bagi para pengambil keputusan yang berwenang untuk membahas dan menetapkan peraturan daerah (baik pemerintah daerah maupun Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah) untuk mempertimbangkan apakah substansi/materi yang terkandung dalam Peraturan Daerah itu layak diatur dalam bentuk peraturan daerah atau tidak, dan apakah hanya perlu satu peraturan daerah atau dimungkinkan untuk dituangkan dalam lebih dari satu peraturan (mungkin peraturan sederajat atau peraturan pelaksananya). Saran,(1) Kedudukan naskah akademik dalam pembentukan peraturan daerah seharusnya diwajibkan sama seperti dalam ketentuan mengenai naskah akademik pembentukan undang-undang. Dengan kehadiran Naskah Akademik dalam pembentukan perda sebagai keharusan, maka diharapkan peraturan perundang – undangan ditingkat daerah di seluruh Tanah Air dapat lebih efisien, efektif, solutif, adaptif dan mampu menghindari beberapa kali perubahan yang justru akan "mubazir" dalam hal waktu serta pembiayaannya; (2) Urgensi naskah akademik dalam pembentukan peraturan daerah harus didukung oleh sumber daya manusia yang lebih baik lagi, prosedur yang rumit dalam pembentukan naskah akademik peraturan daeah di upayakan lebih dipermudah, biaya dalam pembuatan naskah akademik perlu ditingkatkan, dan sering terjadi kendala karena keterbatasan waktu maka setidak-tidaknya dalam pembuatan naskah akademik harus diberikan waktu yang lebih banyakKata Kunci: Naskah Akademik, Peraturan Perundang-Undangan, Peraturan Daerah, menerbitkan peraturan daerah atau perda.ABSTRACTThe title of this thesis is The existence of the academic paper in the formation of The local regulation draf based on article 56 paragraph (2), article 57 paragraph (2) The act number 12 of 2011 and article 18,20,30 the minister of home number 1 of 2014 (Study In Bengkayang District) As for the background of the markings is that an academic paper has a strong position with academic paper became mandatory / compulsory in Formation regulatory legislation, but in the formation of Regional Regulation is still not too strong only voluntary and can be equipped with information or explanations. Urgency academic paper can be seen from the purpose, usefulness and content of academic texts in the formation of laws and regulations. The problem is (1) Does Participation Academic Paper In Formation Draft Regional Regulation outside the draft Regional Regulation About Budget and Expenditure under Article 56 paragraph (2), Article 57 paragraph (2) of Law Number 12 of 2011, and Article 18, Article 20, Article 30 Regulation of the Minister of Interior Number 1 of 2014 on the draft Regional Regulations either an initiative of local government (the executive in the area) and the Parliament (the legislative area) must be accompanied by an explanation or information and / or an academic paper or simply is imperative that not mandatory or optional? (2) Why in the preparation of the Draft Regional Regulations in Bengkayang outside the draft Regional Regulation About Budget and Expenditure not yet fully include academic paper by virtue of Article 56 paragraph (2), Article 573paragraph (2) of Law Number 12 of 2011, and Article 18, Article 20, Article 30 Regulation of the Minister of Interior Number 1 of 2014 that the draft Regulation of the Regional whether an initiative of local government (the executive in the area) and the Parliament (local legislative)? Results of the research thesis can be concluded that the first, the Participation Academic Paper In Formation Draft Regional Regulation outside the draft Regional Regulation About Budget and Expenditure under Article 56 paragraph (2), Article 57 paragraph (2) of Law Number 12 of 2011, and Article 18, Article 20, Article 30 Regulation of the Minister of Interior Number 1 of 2014 on the draft Regional Regulations either an initiative of local government (the executive in the area) and the Parliament (the legislative area) must be accompanied by an explanation or information and / or an academic paper or just is imperative that is not mandatory or optional, second, that the preparation of the Draft Regional Regulations in Bengkayang outside the draft Regional Regulation About Budget and Expenditure not yet fully include academic paper by virtue of Article 56 paragraph (2), Article 57 paragraph (2) of the Act Number 12 of 2011, and Article 18, Article 20, Article 30 Regulation of the Minister of Interior Number 1 of 2014 that the draft Regulation of the Regional whether an initiative of local government (the executive in the area) and Parliament (legislative in the area) are not entirely the draft Regulation of the area in Bengkayang with academic text, this is due to several factors that can mentioned as follows: (a) The position of academic texts according to Law Number 12 The year 2011 becomes mandatory for the formation of Law - Law but the establishment still voluntary Regional Regulation where thereby preparing academic papers may be replaced with a description or explanation. Academic Paper merely as suggestions and are not required. (b) Academic Paper indispensable role in the formation of its existence laws - laws in Indonesia, both Law - Law and Local Regulation, the academic paper in the formation of regional regulations should also be enjoined. With the presence of academic paper, it is expected to be more efficient, effective, solution-based, adaptive and able to avoid several amendments that it would be "redundant" in terms of timing and financing; (c) The existence of an academic paper in the formation of Regional Regulations can be seen from the manuscript of academic goals and usability, load on the foundation of the creation of a rule derived from the theories of legislation, in the academic paper also gives an overview of substance, matter and scope of regional regulations that will be made are really high quality and in accordance with the demands of society at large. (d) an academic paper also has the urgency in which the academic texts provide space for decision makers who are authorized to discuss and establish local regulations (both local government and the Council of Representatives Regional) to consider whether suabtsnasi / material contained in regulation area was decent set in the form of local regulations or not, and whether the rules need only one area or possible to poured in more than one rule (rule may equal or implementing regulations). Suggestions: (1) The position of academic texts in the formation of local regulations should be mandatory as in the provisions regarding academic paper making laws. With the presence of an academic paper on the establishment of regulations as a requirement, it is expected that laws - laws at the local level in the country can be more efficient, effective, solution-based, adaptive and able to avoid several amendments that it would be "redundant" in terms of timing and financing; (2) The urgency of an academic paper in the formation of local regulations should supported by human resources better, procedures are complicated in the formation of academic texts regulations elapsed areas in trying to do more in eases, the cost in making the academic paper needs to be improved, and the frequent obstacles due to time constraints it is at least in preparing academic papers should be given more timeKeywords: academic paper, Laws and Regulations, Regional Regulation

The defeat of the Confederacy, the prospect of military occupation and Republican state government, and the financial collapse of many plantations and businesses sent a number of white southerners in pursuit of life in a foreign land during the late 1860s. Between 1865 and the early 1870s approximately five thousand white and black southerners trekked to Mexico (28, 37).1 Todd W. Wahlstrom examines this resettlement by studying colonies in the Texas border state of Coahuila. Much of The Southern Exodus to Mexico chronicles the rise and fall of ambitious colonization plans of such ex-Confederates as Matthew Fontaine Maury (scientist and naval officer from Virginia) and former Louisiana governor Henry Watkins Allen (12, 22). Wahlstrom revises earlier histories, engaging Andrew Rolle's The Lost Cause: The Confederate Exodus to Mexico (1965) that describes Confederate flight as "an attempt to snatch some sort of victory out of defeat"2 and as an expression of delusional efforts to preserve Dixie in the Mexican highlands. Wahlstrom seeks to revise Rolle's contention that the southern exodus was a "failure" through revealing "the scope of the vision behind it" (xv). Although Rolle largely ignores the northern Mexican borderlands, Wahlstrom also emphasizes colonization in Coahuila, arguing that border states contributed to a "hemispheric south" where planters and railroad promoters envisioned business and trade networks across the Mexican borderlands and into Latin America during the last third of the nineteenth century (xxvii). Wahlstrom also considers the experiences of African Americans and non-slaveholding whites. Contra Rolle's account, southern emigrants to Mexico did not solely represent a "Lost Cause" flight of renegade whites, but a commercial vanguard. Economic interests yielded unlikely collaborations between Confederate exiles and Mexican liberals who returned to power in 1867 (85). Most of these commercial efforts involved agricultural enterprises, ranging from grand schemes for cotton plantations to the homesteads of black and white yeoman settlers who saw Mexico as an "agricultural paradise just waiting for southern migrants to build up its economy" (23). Mexico might seem an unlikely destination for defeated Confederates, as its government formally abolished caste distinctions and chattel slavery after it gained independence in 1821. Additionally, Mexico had engaged in a war with pro-slavery Anglo settlers in Texas during the 1830s, and was still reeling from the effects of US invasion and occupation from 1846 to 1848. Nevertheless, a unique set of political circumstances made settlement appear promising in the summer of 1865. Under the imperial rule of Maximilian, the republican opposition forces of Benito Juárez were at low ebb, despite growing US pressure for France to decrease its presence in Mexico. Even after Mexico's loss of its northern territory to the US in 1848, vast areas remained beyond government control. Imperial forces, republican resistance, local strongmen, and indigenous peoples all contested Mexico's shifting borderlands.3 Over three centuries after Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico traversed the region, nineteenth-century Coahuila remained a "middle ground" between Apache, Comanche, and Kickapoo Indians, indigenous peoples who migrated into the area to either avoid white settlement or raid white settler outposts. Readers of James Brooks, Pekka Hämäläinen, and Brian DeLay will recognize the "network of violence, theft, and trade" that characterized Coahuila's society during much of the nineteenth century (63–68).4 Wahlstrom does not go as far as these three historians in describing Indian nations as primary powers of this territory, as he finds their sway over Coahuila to be somewhat diminished by the 1860s (64–66). These indigenous groups figure primarily as vexatious raiders in The Southern Exodus to Mexico, not as existential threats to ex-Confederate settlements. Confederate migration to Mexico is one point in a longer arc of Spanish and Mexican efforts to attract settlers to their northern borders in order to control the region. Andrés Reséndez documents the motives that led Mexican officials and, particularly, an ambitious northern Mexican commercial class to attract US settlement and trade during the first half of the nineteenth century.5 Wahlstrom's research makes clear that the US-Mexico War did not diminish economic and settlement patterns. Instead, ex-Confederate migration mapped onto earlier patterns of migration from southern US states to the borderlands of Texas, New Mexico, and the adjacent areas of Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Chihuahua. There, white southerners from a slaveholding society found familiar class and labor dynamics. While Mexico was a multiracial nation that espoused the equality of all citizens before the law, it retained sharp divisions between Spanish-descended creoles, mestizos, and indigenous groups. Throughout the nineteenth century, Mexican liberals "argued that white immigration would bring economic advancement," modernization, and a whitening of the Mexican population (21). For their part, many white colonists brought a "racial exclusivity that only included elite Mexicans in the colonization plans." These transplants did not share the goal of transforming their host nation through assimilation or absorption (85). For many African Americans who escaped slavery or the new forms of bondage that emerged after the Civil War, Mexico often represented freedom from racial oppression.6 Sean Kelley, in a study of runaway slaves before the Civil War, vividly describes how Texan African Americans viewed Mexico as the land of liberty.7 While employment by white colonists—often former slave owners—brought an unspecified number of black southerners to Mexico, Wahlstrom argues that their migration "corresponds with other forms of African American agency in the postwar period" (133). However, Wahlstrom also states that black southerners often relocated "under duress" with their former masters (39). In such instances, this agency involved escaping the oversight of former slave owners, as was the case of Thomas C. Hindman, an ex-Confederate general who witnessed the flight of former slave Charlie and the "defection" of other former slaves to Mexico (39). A desire to acquire land and earn economic independence attracted blacks to Coahuila, even though many white colonists envisioned for them only a subservient role on estates that recreated southern plantation life (46, 132, 133). At times, black southerners attempted to form their own colonies. Wahlstrom describes the efforts of William Ellis, whose short-lived 1894 colony in the Laguna area of Durango stands outside the temporal scope of his study but warrants consideration as an emblematic representation of both Mexico's potential and peril to blacks. The settlers experienced "exploitation" as agricultural workers as well as a "swath of yellow fever." Ultimately, when the settlement disbanded, the seventy remaining blacks left the Laguna colony to work in nearby mines. Wahlstrom simply asserts that "seventy of these colonists picked up their hopes and went to the mining town of Mapimí to continue their pursuit of freedom" (46). However, William Beezley's discussion of mining in northern Mexico during this period casts a stark shadow on these optimistic notes; miners endured grueling labor conditions in unlit, poorly ventilated shafts, working with simple hand tools and suffering from exposure to mercury and other toxic compounds.8 Relocation to Mexico offered freedom from Jim Crow; nevertheless, opportunities for economic advancement were often limited for African American emigrants. Wahlstrom's emphasis on leading colonizers such as Matthew Maury, and the political machinations between elite southerners and Mexican officials, obscures insights into the everyday experiences of black and white southern emigrants. While Mexico's leaders found "common ground" with former Confederates in their quest for white immigration, popular Mexican reactions to this influx of American settlers, aside from frequent references to "banditry," do not appear in The Southern Exodus to Mexico (21). An overall impression emerges that white southern colonists created isolated, self-contained enclaves characterized by a southern Protestantism in sharp relief to Mexican Catholicism (143). Wahlstrom's study affords little insight into the competing concerns over religion, language, legal procedure, intermarriage, and schooling that marked the settlement of other Mexican colonies. Aside from passing references to marriages and women and children held as captives, this history centers almost entirely on male settlers. Nancy Brigham, a widowed woman who settled with a group of Texans in the Córdoba colony of central Mexico, is one of the few women mentioned. Wahlstrom ventures that "her involvement reflects the appeal of Mexico as grounds for economic revival, a way to resuscitate her family's future" (24). Nevertheless, beyond ambitions for new farmland and speculative business prospects, Wahlstrom does not investigate how settlers attempted to recreate Dixie on the Mexican borderlands in cultural or spatial terms. Instead, Wahlstrom traces US investment in Mexican railways, contending that economic interests were central to early efforts to link the two nations. He documents the competing efforts of former Union general William S. Rosecrans, who promoted a Mexico Pacific and Rio Bravo Railroad from New Orleans to Mazatlán, and Edward Lee Plumb, who planned to connect Laredo to San Blas on Mexico's Pacific Coast (115–117). As both proposals ultimately failed, Wahlstrom can only make limited claims about the "bilateral benefits of trade and economic development to Mexico and the South" (117). He nonetheless argues that these promoters "helped instill new pathways of prosperity and steer[ed] a course of transnational connections between the United States and Mexico during the second half of the nineteenth century" (127). Such glowing descriptions aside, the efforts of Confederate exiles in Mexico produced few tangible results in railroad and industry in the decade following the Civil War. The final chapter of The Southern Exodus to Mexico makes a more convincing case that southern emigration to Mexico was a harbinger of a "New South" where white leaders embraced industry, finance, and commerce to progressively diversify an agrarian economy, while maintaining a conservative approach to labor and race relations (124–125). At a general level, Mexico's leaders shared these conservative tendencies (21). The transition from imperial rule to liberal governance made economic interests paramount in Mexico's immigration efforts. Several of the Mexican officials who brokered for southern colonists in the 1860s later worked to forge a borderlands economy through the promotion of railroads, mining, and commercial agriculture under Porfirio Díaz. Santiago Vidaurri, a regional strongman and ally of Díaz who exercised political and military dominance over Coahuila, facilitated these emerging trade connections (71–72). Wahlstrom details how this particular migration period anticipates a coming era of US empire-building, where extensive commercial interests, especially in agriculture, created semi-colonial regimes in Mexico and Central America. Importantly, however, Confederate migration does not mark the beginning of US or imperial interest in Mexico. Juan Mora Torres, who also explores the emergence of a transnational economy in northeastern Mexico, dates the foundation of this "hemispheric" economy to the cotton trade that flourished before and during the Civil War.9 The Southern Exodus to Mexico makes a more convincing case that white southerners endeavored to promote cross-border business after the Civil War and that the increased publicity of Mexico's economic potential strengthened the case for foreign investment and more direct transportation linkages (111–112, 127). Ultimately, Wahlstrom provides few examples of lasting economic success or significant social transformations within these attempted southern colonies.

Uno de los habituales prejuicios a la hora de abordar el análisis del movimiento futurista, al igual que sucede con el constructivismo, es la consideración del contexto político en el que se desarrollaron ambas vanguardias. Sin embargo, y dejando a un lado un enfoque del arte con finalidad política de signo diverso, habría que insistir en el hecho de que posiblemente sean tanto el futurismo italiano como el constructivismo ruso, los movimientos que con mayor entusiasmo se manifestaron, en un sentido amplio, a favor de la modernidad. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, auténtico catalizador del grupo futurista y uno de los mejores interlocutores del arte de vanguardia, será el encargado de articular la ideología del culto a la máquina en correspondencia con la necesidad de una intervención social. Esta polémica antipasado explícita en los términos franceses del `Passeisme' frente al `Futurisme'- se presentaba como la única posibilidad de una auténtica renovación y como una superación de los límites espacio-temporales. Antonio Sant'Elia, con sus conocidas ciudades de diferentes niveles de circulación, profetizaba algunas realizaciones de la segunda mitad del siglo, con dibujos caracterizados por prescindir del ornamento y optar por contundentes volúmenes. Por otro lado, en el campo de la tipografía se llevaron a cabo experiencias de contraste visual, tipología o disposición en el formato que se adelantaban a propuestas posteriores, buscando crear en el lector un intencionado impacto visual asociado a experiencias sensitivas con frecuencia desconcertantes. La misma búsqueda de soluciones novedosas y experimentales era planteada de igual forma en pintura con artistas como Gino Severini o Giacomo Balla, con trabajos que sin duda influirían en el origen y formación de movimientos como el rayonismo ruso o el vorticismo inglés. Sin embargo, a pesar de la fuerza implícita en sus planteamientos, los primeros pintores futuristas eran aún deudores del puntillismo y del cubismo, pero también de las fotografías estroboscópicas de Muybridge y Marey. En el campo de la escultura, Umberto Boccioni, con su conocida obra Formas únicas de continuidad en el espacio pasaba a convertirse en uno de los autores más representativos del futurismo al intentar descomponer el movimiento en las tres dimensiones espaciales. Luigi Russolo, personaje carismático y polifacético, artista plástico y músico inventó el intonarumori o `máquina de ruidos' y redactó, en el año 1913, el manifiesto del ruidismo, un documento que hizo acompañar con la máquina diseñada por él. La propuesta futurista iba desde el vestido, la publicidad o la decoración a la casa y la ciudad, pero sin dejar de lado las artes escénicas o la música; la idea de simultaneidad posibilitaba la superación de la representación tradicional, la cual era sustituida por una propuesta integradora de gran diversidad de estímulos que producían la exaltación de los cinco sentidos. El ya mencionado Sant'Elia, fue, sin lugar a dudas, el principal paladín del futurismo arquitectónico, quizás, y en parte, por la contundencia de su manifiesto. Sin embargo, las propuestas arquitectónicas futuristas tuvieron, al igual que sucedió con el cubismo, muchas menos materializaciones concretas de las que hubiese cabido esperar, lo que no significa que las repercusiones de estas pocas producciones en el posterior panorama arquitectónico no fueran concluyentes. Tradicionalmente se habla de dos tipos diferentes de futurismo arquitectónico: el milanés -de tintes racionalistas- y el romano, éste último con un mayor interés por las artes plásticas. En 1917 Volt, seudónimo del conde Vicenzo Fani, redactaba otro manifiesto de arquitectura futurista, en el que se abogaba por las formas dinámicas, asimétricas y anticúbicas, pero también por cromáticas viviendas sin fachada, `transportables' y `mecánicas'. Por último, ya en la etapa final del movimiento, Marchi publicaba, en la revista Roma futurista, el 29 de febrero de 1920 el ¿Manifesto dell'architettura futurista dinamica, stato d'animo, drammatica¿; algo después, hacia 1934, y durante el que se ha dado en llamar el `segundo futurismo turinés', Marinetti, Mazzoni y Somenzi redactaron el ¿Manifiesto futurista de la arquitectura aérea¿ que sería publicado en el número tres de la revista Sant'Elia-. Junto a Sant'Elia, otro autor de un notable interés por sus novedosas propuestas fue el polifacético Fortunato Depero, quien en el año 1927 proyectó el Pabellón del Libro para la casa editorial Bestetti, Tuminelli y Treves, en la III Bienal de Artes Decorativas de Monza; se trataba de un diseño cúbico de arquitectura publicitaria que tenía un claro referente tipográfico -el continente pasaba a tener la forma del contenido- y que sin duda resultaría provocador rodeado de pabellones historicistas. Otro autor de un enorme interés fue Virgilio Marchi, artífice del primer diseño arquitectónico futurista construído, la rehabilitación de la Casa de Arte y Teatro de los Independientes (Roma, 1921), encargo de Anton Giulio Bragaglia, un conocido empresario y crítico de arte. Marchi propuso para la arquitectura la idea de `escultura habitable', con un fuerte protagonismo de los estímulos sensitivos, fruto de impresiones ópticas y sonoras, referidos al proyecto de metrópolis moderna. También es destacable el papel desempeñado por Sartoris, a pesar de que su adhesión al futurismo se vió matizada por una estética purista preocupada por la articulación de la planta -proyectos como Capilla-bar futurista (1927) o Notre Dame du Phare (1931)- lo que significa que su ruptura con la tradición no fue tan radical como en el caso de los futuristas ; One of the habitual prejudices at the moment of approaching the analysis of the futurist movement, as it happens with the constructivism, it is the consideration of the political context in which both vanguards were developed. Nevertheless, and leaving aside an approach of the art with political purpose of diverse sign, it would be necessary to insist on the fact that possibly they should be so much Italian futurism as the Russian constructivism, the movements that with greater enthusiasm was pronounced, on a wide sense, in favour of the modernity. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, authentic catalyst of the futurist group and one of the best speakers of the art of forefront, will be the manager of articulating the ideology of the worship to the machine in correspondence with the need of a social intervention. This polemic antipassed -explicit in the French terms of the 'Passeisme' opposite to ' Futurisme '- was appearing as the only possibility of an authentic renovation and like an overcoming of the space-temporary limits. Antonio Sant'Elia, with its well-known cities of different levels of traffic, was prophesying some accomplishments of the second half of the century, with drawings characterized for doing without the ornament and choosing for forceful volumes. On the other hand, in the field of the typography they led to themselves to end experiences of visual contrast, typology or disposition in the format that they were advancing to later offers, seeking to create in the reader a meaningful visual impact associated with sensitive experiences often disconcerting. The same search of novel and experimental solutions was raised of equal form in painting with artists as Gino Severini or Giacomo Balla, with works that undoubtedly they would influence the origin and formation of movements as the Russian rayonismo or the English vorticismo. Nevertheless, in spite of the implicit force of their expositions, the first futurist painters were still debit of the pointillism and of the cubism, but also of the stroboscopic photographies of Muybridge and Marey. In the field of the sculpture, Umberto Boccioni, with its well-known work unique Forms of continuity in the space was happening to be converted into one of the most representative authors of the futurism on having tried to separate into its elements the movement in all three spatial dimensions. Luigi Russolo, charismatic and versatile personage, plastic and musical artist invented the intonarumori or 'machine of noises ' and wrote, in the year 1913, the manifest of the ruidismo, a document that he made accompany on the machine designed by him. The futurist proposal went from the dress, the publicity or the decoration to the house and the city, but without leaving of side the scenic arts or the music; the idea of simultaneity was making possible the overcoming of the traditional representation, which was replaced with an of integration offer of great diversity of stimuli that were producing the exaltation of all five senses. Already mentioned Sant'Elia, it was, no doubt, the principal paladin of the architectural futurism, probably, and partly, by the forcefulness of his manifest. Nevertheless, the architectural futurist offers had, as it happened with the cubism, great fewer concrete materializations from which it had been necessary to expect, which does not mean that the repercussions of these few productions in the later architectural panorama were not conclusive. Traditionally one speaks about two different types of architectural futurism: The Milanese -of racionalist dyes- and the Roman, this one last one with a greater interest by the plastic arts. In 1917 Volt, pseudonym of the count Vicenzo Fani, he was writing another manifest of futurist architecture, in which one was pleading for the dynamical, asymmetric and anticubic forms, but also for chromatic housings without front, 'transportable' and 'mechanical'. Finally, already in the final stage of the movement, Marchi was publishing, in the magazine futurist Rome, on February 29, 1920 " futurist dynamical Manifesto dell'architettura, stato d'animo, drammatica "; a little later, about 1934, and during that it has been given in to call ' the second futurism turinés ', Marinetti, Mazzoni and Somenzi wrote " futurist Manifest of the air architecture " - that would be published in the number three of the magazine Sant'Elia-. Together with Sant'Elia, another author of a notable interest for his novel offers was the versatile Fortunato Depero, who in the year 1927 projected the Pavilion of the Book for the publishing house Bestetti, Tuminelli and Treves, in the Biennial III of Monza's decorative Arts; it was a question of a cubic design of advertising architecture that it had a clear typographical modal -the continent was happening to have the form of the content- and that undoubtedly would turn out to be provocative surrounded from historicist pavilions. Another author of an enormous interest was Virgilio Marchi, maker of the first architectural design futurist realized, the rehabilitation of the House of Art and Theatre of the Independent ones (Rome, 1921), I entrust of Anton Giulio Bragaglia, an acquaintance businessman and critic of art. Marchi proposed for the architecture the idea of ' inhabitable sculpture ', with a strong protagonism of the sensitive stimuli, fruit of optical and sonorous impressions, recounted to the project of metropolises modern. Also it is prominent the role recovered by Sartoris, in spite of the fact that his adhesion to the futurism was seen tinted by a purist aesthetics worried by the joint of the plant - projects as futurist Chapel-bar (1927) or Notre Dame du Phare (1931) - what means that its rupture with the tradition was not as radical as in the case of the futurist ones.

La tesis ofrece una nueva base de datos de gasto militar en España desde mediados del siglo diecinueve hasta la actualidad, así como tres análisis de los condicionantes y las consecuencias económicas y políticas del gasto militar en el largo plazo. En concreto, el primer capítulo presenta nuevas estimaciones de los recursos públicos destinados al ámbito militar en España desde 1850 hasta 2009, así como la desagregación económica, administrativa y funcional de dicho gasto. La nueva base de datos ha sido elaborada siguiendo el criterio metodológico de la OTAN, que es uno de los criterios más utilizados por parte de las instituciones internacionales dedicadas a la compilación de datos de gasto militar a nivel mundial. Dicho criterio permite obtener una nueva base de datos homologable a lo largo del tiempo y comparable con otros países del entorno europeo e internacional. El segundo capítulo de la tesis analiza la influencia de los regímenes políticos en la evolución del gasto militar en España desde principios de la Restauración Española hasta la actualidad. En contraste con los análisis cuantitativos anteriores, que generalmente destacan la influencia negativa de los regímenes democráticos en la evolución del gasto militar, el capítulo sugiere que las instituciones democráticas pueden estar asociadas a mayores niveles de gasto militar en determinados contextos históricos. En concreto, el análisis de puntos de ruptura de las series de gasto militar, así como los análisis econométricos subsiguientes y la revisión de la historiografía militar española, muestra que los primeros gobiernos democráticos establecidos después de la dictadura Franquista aumentaron significativamente el gasto militar en relación con las décadas anteriores. Ese aumento, que fue debido a los esfuerzos de dichos gobiernos para reorientar el ejército hacia misiones internacionales y para facilitar su adaptación a las nuevas instituciones democráticas, dio lugar al único punto de ruptura positivo de la serie histórica de gasto militar total que no guarda relación con el inicio o el final de un conflicto bélico. A su vez, el análisis sugiere que la nueva orientación de las políticas militares democráticas conllevó un esfuerzo financiero en pro de un ejército intensivo en capital que pudiera participar en nuevas misiones internacionales. El tercer capítulo analiza más a fondo los condicionantes políticos del gasto militar y su potencial impacto en términos de estabilidad institucional. Como es bien sabido, los ejércitos han intervenido recurrentemente en política mediante golpes de estado. Diversos autores sugieren que los gobiernos autocráticos o parcialmente democráticos han usado eventualmente el gasto militar como estrategia para contentar a las fuerzas armadas y evitar así su insubordinación. Aún así, y a pesar de la solidez del argumento, los análisis cuantitativos recientes basados en amplias bases de datos internacionales no han encontrado una relación significativa y concluyente entre la evolución del gasto militar y la frecuencia y el éxito de los golpes de estado. En ese tercer capítulo sugiero que el gasto militar total – medida comúnmente utilizada por parte de dicha literatura cuantitativa – puede no ser un buen indicador del esfuerzo financiero realizado por parte de los gobiernos para conseguir la lealtad del ejército. Aunque el gasto militar total no refleje ninguna relación con la frecuencia y el éxito de los golpes de estado, puede que los cambios en la composición del gasto sí que guarden una relación significativa con dicho fenómeno. El capítulo pretende abrir esa 'caja negra' del gasto militar estudiando el impacto de la evolución de la remuneración salarial de los oficiales en España desde mediados del siglo diecinueve hasta finales de la Restauración Española. En línea con la hipótesis apuntada, el análisis sugiere que los aumentos en la remuneración de los oficiales durante la segunda mitad del siglo diecinueve y principios del siglo veinte – junto con otras estrategias políticas y militares – están relacionados con una menor frecuencia de golpes de estado, mientras que el gasto militar total no parece mostrar ninguna relación al respecto. Finalmente, el cuarto capítulo examina el impacto de la guerra y el gasto militar en la evolución de los sistemas fiscales de una muestra de trece países europeos y norteamericanos en el largo plazo. La guerra y la competición militar han sido a menudo definidas como fuerzas motoras relevantes de la expansión de la capacidad fiscal de los estados durante la época contemporánea. Aún así, la evidencia empírica no ha sido concluyente, y aún se carece de una narrativa histórica que explique cómo los cambios en la naturaleza de la guerra han afectado a la evolución de los sistemas fiscales contemporáneos. El cuarto capítulo tiene como objetivo rellenar ese vacío mediante el análisis del impacto de la guerra en la evolución de la capacidad fiscal contemporánea a la luz de las llamadas 'Revoluciones de los Asuntos Militares' que tuvieron lugar en occidente desde mediados del siglo diecinueve hasta la actualidad. Los resultados sugieren que la relación entre la guerra y la expansión fiscal ha seguido una curva de U invertida, según la cual los cambios en las tácticas y la tecnología militar presionaron los recursos públicos al alza hasta que la capacidad destructiva de los ejércitos sobrepasó el umbral nuclear. Adicionalmente, los resultados sugieren que los sistemas políticos han sido relevantes para completar esa narrativa histórica, aunque hayan sido en ocasiones olvidados en ese tipo de análisis. ; The thesis offers a new database of military expense in Spain from middle of the century nineteen up to the current importance, as well as three analyses of the determining ones and the economic and political consequences of the military expense in the long term. In I make concrete, the first chapter presents new estimations of the public resources destined for the military area in Spain from 1850 until 2009, as well as the economic, administrative and functional disaggregation of the above mentioned expense. The new database has been elaborated following the methodological criterion of the OTAN, which is one of the criteria most used on the part of the international institutions dedicated to the compilation of information of military expense worldwide. The above mentioned criterion allows to obtain a new database throughout the time and comparably with other countries of the European and international environment. The second chapter of the thesis analyzes the influence of the political rate in the evolution of the military expense in Spain from beginning of the Spanish Restoration up to the current importance. In contrast with the previous quantitative analyses, which generally emphasize the negative influence of the democratic rate in the evolution of the military expense, the chapter suggests that the democratic institutions can be associated with major levels of military expense in certain historical contexts. In I make concrete, the analysis of points of break of the series of military expense, as well as the analyses econometrics subsequent and the review of the military Spanish historiography, it shows that the first democratic governments established after the Pro-Franco dictatorship increased significantly the military expense in relation with the previous decades. This increase, which was due to the efforts of the above mentioned governments to re-orientate the army towards international missions and to facilitate his adjustment to the new democratic institutions, gave place to the only positive point of break of the historical series of military total expense that does not guard relation with the beginning or the end of a warlike conflict. In turn, the analysis suggests that the new orientation of the military democratic policies carried a financial effort in favor of an intensive army in the capital that could take part in new missions international. The third chapter analyzes more thoroughly the determining politicians of the military expense and his potential I affect terms of institutional stability. Since it is known well, the armies have intervened suddenly in politics coups d'état. Diverse authors suggest that the autocratic or partially democratic governments have used eventually the military expense as strategy to satisfy to the armed forces and to avoid this way his insubordination. Nonetheless, and in spite of the solidity of the argument, the quantitative recent analyses based on wide international databases have not found a significant and conclusive relation between the evolution of the military expense and the frequency and the success of the coups d'état. In this third chapter I suggest that the military total expense - measured commonly used on the part of the above mentioned quantitative literature - cannot be a good indicator of the financial effort realized on the part of the governments to obtain the loyalty of the army. Though the military total expense does not reflect any relation with the frequency and the success of the coups d'état, it is possible that the changes in the composition of the expense yes that guard a significant relation with the above mentioned phenomenon. The chapter tries to open this ' black box ' of the military expense studying the impact of the evolution of the wage remuneration of the officials in Spain from middle of the century nineteen until ends of the Spanish Restoration. On line with the pointed hypothesis, the analysis suggests that the increases in the remuneration of the officials during the second half of the century nineteen and beginning of the century twenty - together with other political and military strategies - they are related to a minor frequency of coups d'état, whereas the military total expense does not seem to show any relation in the matter. Finally, the fourth chapter examines the impact of the war and the military expense in the evolution of the fiscal systems of a sample of thirteen European and North American countries in the long term. The war and the military competition have been defined often as forces relevant motorboats of the expansion of the fiscal capacity of the conditions during the contemporary epoch. Nonetheless, the empirical evidence has not been conclusive, and still one lacks a historical narrative that explains how the changes in the nature of the war they have concerned the evolution of the fiscal contemporary systems. The fourth chapter has as aim refill this emptiness by means of the analysis of the impact of the war in the evolution of the fiscal contemporary capacity in the light of so called ' Revolutions of the Military Matters ' that took place in west from middle of the century nineteen up to the current importance. The results suggest that the relation between the war and the fiscal expansion has followed a curve of Or invested, according to which the changes in the tactics and the military technology pressed the public resources to the rise until the destructive capacity of the armies exceeded the nuclear threshold. Additional, the results suggest that the political systems have been relevant to complete this historical narrative, though they have been in occasions forgotten in this type of analysis.

Actualmente, la conservación de los suelos (CS) en el medio rural puede ser considerada como una asignatura pendiente en España. Consecuencia de una intensa mecanización y tecnificación agrícola, junto a la puesta en cultivo de grandes superficies de tierra en las últimas décadas, en muchos casos, realizadas en suelos de mediocre o muy baja calidad agronómica y en laderas con pendientes elevadas, dejando de lado las prácticas y estructuras de CS tradicionales, se ha visto muy favorecida la erosión hídrica. Por otro lado, posteriormente, el progresivo abandono de cultivos marginales (no rentables) ha provocado, aún con mayor intensidad, la aceleración de estos procesos erosivos, especialmente en litologías deleznables y poco consistentes. Esto da como resultado pérdidas de suelo fértil muy cuantiosas, no admisibles para nuestros territorios, además de otros graves problemas colaterales aguas abajo en infraestructuras, poblaciones, cultivos y, en última instancia, afectando a todos los ecosistemas presentes en las áreas afectadas, y con gran impacto en regiones del sur y sureste de España como la Región de Murcia, caracterizadas por frecuentes episodios de torrencialidad. Para minimizar este grave problema, una de las herramientas más relevantes con que cuenta actualmente el estado y los gobiernos regionales son los denominados Programas de Desarrollo Rural (PDRs); instrumentos político-administrativos de la PAC, que movilizan una importante cantidad de recursos financieros (fondos FEADER). En éstos, se contemplan medidas (líneas de ayuda) entre las que existen algunas con potencial relevancia o repercusión en la lucha contra la erosión y la CS. Igualmente, a nivel nacional e internacional, existen también una amplia muestra de iniciativas y proyectos relacionados con la conservación y restauración de suelos degradados y, en concreto, muchos de ellos abarcan el problema de la erosión y/o las técnicas y prácticas de CS, utilizando diferentes metodologías y enfoques para su estudio y, especialmente, para la difusión, demostración y/o extensificación de dichas técnicas y prácticas, contando con los diversos agentes interesados: investigadores, expertos técnicos, agricultores, entre otros. En el presente trabajo, se expone el resultado de la investigación llevada a cabo con el objetivo general de aportar un mayor grado de conocimiento sobre los PDRs aplicados y proyectos e iniciativas relacionadas con la CS, con especial atención a la Región de Murcia. Para ello, se contempla el estudio y análisis de los PDRs de las diecisiete CC.AA., correspondiente al periodo 2007-2013, y del Marco Nacional que lo respalda, donde se incluyen una serie de exigencias (BPAs y BCAM). Todo ello, fue realizado y armonizado con la finalidad de identificar y evaluar las medidas y submedidas con potencial de cara a la CS, así como las técnicas y prácticas concretas y requisitos administrativos contemplados en éstas. Además, como un caso regional concreto de un área con alto riesgo de desertificación, se ha estudiado la Región de Murcia, con un horizonte temporal mayor, para realizar en último lugar, una validación de algunas de las líneas con impacto en la CS, mediante un estudio en campo de una muestra importante de expedientes de ayudas. Igualmente, se ha incluido como avance, un breve análisis del recientemente aprobado PDR 2014-2020, con el fin de poder valorar la tendencia con respecto a anteriores programas de esta región. Finalmente, también se han estudiado una extensa muestra de iniciativas y proyectos relacionados con la CS, evaluando por un lado, las temáticas y líneas de estudio y, por otro, las herramientas y estratégicas seguidas por éstos, para el desarrollo procesos colaborativos entre los diferentes agentes involucrados y los métodos para la aplicación estas técnicas y prácticas en el medio rural. Entre los resultados obtenidos resaltar que: (i) las ayudas destinadas a forestación, en sus distintas modalidades, serían las más efectivas por su duración y cobertura y, en general, por sus buena implantación; (ii) en las explotaciones agrarias donde se continua ejerciendo una actividad productiva, tendríamos otro grupo de ayudas con interés (ayudas agroambientales). Se trata de un grupo bastante heterogéneo de distintas líneas, en el cual existe un elevado número de ellas que muestran tener cierto interés, al estar claramente alineadas con la mejora de las prácticas agrarias, o bien, favoreciendo la implantación y/o mantenimiento de estructuras estables de CS; (iii) en el caso concreto de la Región de Murcia, destaca la línea denominada precisamente "Conservación de suelos", que contempla la ejecución de fajas de vegetación transversales a la pendiente, entre otros requisitos, aunque ésta sería sólo uno de los muchos ejemplos dentro de las distintas tipologías encontradas en toda España, tales como: sistemas de producción, prácticas agrícolas, ejecución de obras protectoras o de defensa, manejo de ganado, etc.; (iv) igualmente, se han hallado proyectos y acciones nacionales e internacionales de I+D muy relacionados con la CS, en los cuales existe información muy valiosa de las prácticas y técnicas estudiadas o evaluadas, además de las metodologías aplicadas para alcanzar una adecuada difusión e implantación a mayor escala, aspecto de gran importancia de cara a que todos estos trabajos tengan finalmente impacto real y supongan un avance social para el medio rural; (v) por último, gracias a todos los estudios y análisis llevados a termino en el trabajo, se han podido realizar una serie de aportaciones o sugerencias para la mejora de estos programas o de líneas de interés científico y social, pensando en la continuación de estudios relacionados con la temática de esta tesis. Palabras clave: conservación de suelos, erosión, medio rural, desarrollo rural, PDR, medidas agroambientales, forestación, buenas prácticas agrarias, condicionalidad. SUMMARY Nowadays, soil conservation (SC) in the rural areas can still be considered as a pending signature in Spain. The consequence of an intensive agricultural mechanisation and technification over the last decades, the cultivation of large surfaces of land with mostly mediocre or very bad agronomic quality soil, as well as high slopes hillsides, leaving aside the traditionally practices and structures of SC, has greatly favoured water erosion. On the other hand, the gradual abandonment of marginal crops (unprofitable) accelerated these erosive processes, specially on friable and inconsistent lithologies. As a result of that, an important quantity of fertile soil has been lost, which can not be permitted in our territory, besides others serious collateral problems downstream on infrastructures, settlements, crops and eventually, concerning all ecosystems in the areas affected, having a high impact on south and south-eastern regions of Spain like the Region of Murcia, characterized by frequent episodes of torrential nature. In order to minimise the consequences of this serious issue (water erosion), one of the more relevant tool currently available to the state and regional governments are the nominated Rural Development Programs (RDP); political-administrative instruments of the CAP that mobilises a significant quantity of financial sources (the EAFRD). These programmes include measures (such as grant lines), some of them with relevance or potential repercussions on erosion control and SC. At the same time, both at national and international level, also exist a wide range of initiatives and projects related to the conservation and restoration of degraded soil. Many of them cover the erosion issue and/or techniques and practices of SC using different methods and approaches for their studies, specially for dissemination, demonstration and/or extensification of these techniques and practices, counting with the diverse stakeholders: researchers, technical experts, farmers, among others. In the present study, the results of this research are presented with the general objective to contribute to a greater knowledge about the RDP applied and projects and initiatives related to SC, with special attention to the Region of Murcia. In order to do so, the RDP of the seventeen autonomous regions corresponding to the 2007-2013 period has been studied and analysed, as well as the corresponding national framework that supports them, including a series of requirements (GAP and GAEC). The whole study has been made and harmonized in order to identify and assess the measures and submeasures with emphasis to SC as well as the techniques, practices and administrative requirements included inside it. Furthermore, as a regional case of an area with high risk of desertification, the Region of Murcia has been studied with a longer time horizon to finally validate some of the lines with impact on SC, through a field study of an important sample of grant files. At the same time, a short analysis of the recently approved RDP 2014-2020 has been included as introduction to asses the tendency in respect to the previous programmes of this region. Finally, a wide sample of initiatives and projects related to SC has been studied assessing, on one hand, the topic and the lines of study and on the other, the tools and approaches followed to the development of collaborative process between the different stakeholders and the methods to the application of these techniques and practices on the rural areas. The following conclusions can be highlighted from this study: (i) the grants used to afforestation, in their different modalities, are the most effective measures due to the duration and coverage and in general for their proper implementation; (ii) the farms with a productive activity, could have another group of grants available (agri-environment grants). This is a rather heterogeneous group with different lines, in which a high number of them show to have a certain interest to be clearly aligned themselves with the improvement of the agricultural practices, or to favour the implementation and/or maintenance of steady structures of SC; (iii) in the specific case of the Region of Murcia, it just highlights the line named "Soil conservation", that takes into account the realisation of vegetation strips across the slope, among other requirements. However, this would only be one of the many examples within the different types of grant lines found in Spain, such as: production systems, agricultural practices, implementation of protective or defence works, livestock management and so on; (iv) it has been found national and international R&D projects and actions closely related to SC, in which exist information highly valuable about the practices and techniques studied and assessed, moreover the methods applied to reach a suitable large scale dissemination and implementation, that is a very important aspect for all kind of works with real impact and it supposes a social advance for the rural areas; (v) finally, thanks to the studies and analysis carried out in this work, a series of contributions and suggestions with regard to the improvement of these programmes or the lines of scientific and social interest has been able to made, for further study in relation to the subject of this thesis. Key words: soil conservation, erosion, rural areas, rural development, RDP, agri-environmental measures, afforestation, good agricultural practices, conditionality.