Suchergebnisse

Background: Non-fatal outcomes of disease and injury increasingly detract from the ability of the world's population to live in full health, a trend largely attributable to an epidemiological transition in many countries from causes affecting children, to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) more common in adults. For the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 (GBD 2015), we estimated the incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for diseases and injuries at the global, regional, and national scale over the period of 1990 to 2015. Methods: We estimated incidence and prevalence by age, sex, cause, year, and geography with a wide range of updated and standardised analytical procedures. Improvements from GBD 2013 included the addition of new data sources, updates to literature reviews for 85 causes, and the identification and inclusion of additional studies published up to November, 2015, to expand the database used for estimation of non-fatal outcomes to 60 900 unique data sources. Prevalence and incidence by cause and sequelae were determined with DisMod-MR 2.1, an improved version of the DisMod-MR Bayesian meta-regression tool first developed for GBD 2010 and GBD 2013. For some causes, we used alternative modelling strategies where the complexity of the disease was not suited to DisMod-MR 2.1 or where incidence and prevalence needed to be determined from other data. For GBD 2015 we created a summary indicator that combines measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility (the Socio-demographic Index [SDI]) and used it to compare observed patterns of health loss to the expected pattern for countries or locations with similar SDI scores. Findings: We generated 9·3 billion estimates from the various combinations of prevalence, incidence, and YLDs for causes, sequelae, and impairments by age, sex, geography, and year. In 2015, two causes had acute incidences in excess of 1 billion: upper respiratory infections (17·2 billion, 95% uncertainty interval [UI] 15·4–19·2 billion) and diarrhoeal diseases (2·39 billion, 2·30–2·50 billion). Eight causes of chronic disease and injury each affected more than 10% of the world's population in 2015: permanent caries, tension-type headache, iron-deficiency anaemia, age-related and other hearing loss, migraine, genital herpes, refraction and accommodation disorders, and ascariasis. The impairment that affected the greatest number of people in 2015 was anaemia, with 2·36 billion (2·35–2·37 billion) individuals affected. The second and third leading impairments by number of individuals affected were hearing loss and vision loss, respectively. Between 2005 and 2015, there was little change in the leading causes of years lived with disability (YLDs) on a global basis. NCDs accounted for 18 of the leading 20 causes of age-standardised YLDs on a global scale. Where rates were decreasing, the rate of decrease for YLDs was slower than that of years of life lost (YLLs) for nearly every cause included in our analysis. For low SDI geographies, Group 1 causes typically accounted for 20–30% of total disability, largely attributable to nutritional deficiencies, malaria, neglected tropical diseases, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. Lower back and neck pain was the leading global cause of disability in 2015 in most countries. The leading cause was sense organ disorders in 22 countries in Asia and Africa and one in central Latin America; diabetes in four countries in Oceania; HIV/AIDS in three southern sub-Saharan African countries; collective violence and legal intervention in two north African and Middle Eastern countries; iron-deficiency anaemia in Somalia and Venezuela; depression in Uganda; onchoceriasis in Liberia; and other neglected tropical diseases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Interpretation: Ageing of the world's population is increasing the number of people living with sequelae of diseases and injuries. Shifts in the epidemiological profile driven by socioeconomic change also contribute to the continued increase in years lived with disability (YLDs) as well as the rate of increase in YLDs. Despite limitations imposed by gaps in data availability and the variable quality of the data available, the standardised and comprehensive approach of the GBD study provides opportunities to examine broad trends, compare those trends between countries or subnational geographies, benchmark against locations at similar stages of development, and gauge the strength or weakness of the estimates available.

Background Non-fatal outcomes of disease and injury increasingly detract from the ability of the world's population to live in full health, a trend largely attributable to an epidemiological transition in many countries from causes affecting children, to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) more common in adults. For the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 (GBD 2015), we estimated the incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for diseases and injuries at the global, regional, and national scale over the period of 1990 to 2015. Methods We estimated incidence and prevalence by age, sex, cause, year, and geography with a wide range of updated and standardised analytical procedures. Improvements from GBD 2013 included the addition of new data sources, updates to literature reviews for 85 causes, and the identification and inclusion of additional studies published up to November, 2015, to expand the database used for estimation of non-fatal outcomes to 60 900 unique data sources. Prevalence and incidence by cause and sequelae were determined with DisMod-MR 2.1, an improved version of the DisMod-MR Bayesian meta-regression tool first developed for GBD 2010 and GBD 2013. For some causes, we used alternative modelling strategies where the complexity of the disease was not suited to DisMod-MR 2.1 or where incidence and prevalence needed to be determined from other data. For GBD 2015 we created a summary indicator that combines measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility (the Socio-demographic Index [SDI]) and used it to compare observed patterns of health loss to the expected pattern for countries or locations with similar SDI scores. Findings We generated 9.3 billion estimates from the various combinations of prevalence, incidence, and YLDs for causes, sequelae, and impairments by age, sex, geography, and year. In 2015, two causes had acute incidences in excess of 1 billion: upper respiratory infections (17.2 billion, 95% uncertainty interval [UI] 15.4-19.2 billion) and diarrhoeal diseases (2.39 billion, 2.30-2.50 billion). Eight causes of chronic disease and injury each affected more than 10% of the world's population in 2015: permanent caries, tension-type headache, iron-deficiency anaemia, age-related and other hearing loss, migraine, genital herpes, refraction and accommodation disorders, and ascariasis. The impairment that affected the greatest number of people in 2015 was anaemia, with 2.36 billion (2.35-2.37 billion) individuals affected. The second and third leading impairments by number of individuals affected were hearing loss and vision loss, respectively. Between 2005 and 2015, there was little change in the leading causes of years lived with disability (YLDs) on a global basis. NCDs accounted for 18 of the leading 20 causes of age-standardised YLDs on a global scale. Where rates were decreasing, the rate of decrease for YLDs was slower than that of years of life lost (YLLs) for nearly every cause included in our analysis. For low SDI geographies, Group 1 causes typically accounted for 20-30% of total disability, largely attributable to nutritional deficiencies, malaria, neglected tropical diseases, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. Lower back and neck pain was the leading global cause of disability in 2015 in most countries. The leading cause was sense organ disorders in 22 countries in Asia and Africa and one in central Latin America; diabetes in four countries in Oceania; HIV/AIDS in three southern sub-Saharan African countries; collective violence and legal intervention in two north African and Middle Eastern countries; iron-deficiency anaemia in Somalia and Venezuela; depression in Uganda; onchoceriasis in Liberia; and other neglected tropical diseases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Interpretation Ageing of the world's population is increasing the number of people living with sequelae of diseases and injuries. Shifts in the epidemiological profile driven by socioeconomic change also contribute to the continued increase in years lived with disability (YLDs) as well as the rate of increase in YLDs. Despite limitations imposed by gaps in data availability and the variable quality of the data available, the standardised and comprehensive approach of the GBD study provides opportunities to examine broad trends, compare those trends between countries or subnational geographies, benchmark against locations at similar stages of development, and gauge the strength or weakness of the estimates available.

VIRIBUS VNITIS. DAS BUCH VOM KAISER Viribus Vnitis. Das Buch vom Kaiser ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([V]) Impressum ([VI]) Titelseite ([VII]) [Abb.]: ([VII]) Unter dem höchsten Protectorate ihrer kaiserl. . ([VIII]) [Abb.]: ([VIII]) Inhalt. ([IX]) Mit Bildern u. Zeichnungen von ([X]) Vowort. (XI) Des Kaisers Jugend (XIII) [4 Abb.]: (1)Habsburg. (2)Lothringen. (3)Wappen von Österreich u. der Enns. (4)Wappen von Österreich ob. der Enns. (XIII) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wappen von Salzburg u. Steiermark (2)[Zeitungsausschnitt]: Oesterreichische-kaiserliche privilegirte Wiener Zeitung 189. Donnerstag, den 19. August 1830. (XIV) [Abb.]: Wappen von Kärnten und Krain. (XV) [Abb.]: Wappen von Stadt Triest, Görz und Gradiska. (XVI) [Abb.]: Wappen von Tirol mit Vorarlberg. (XVII) [Abb.]: Wappen v. Böhmen. (XVIII) [Abb.]: Wappen von Mähren und Schlesien. (XIX) [Abb.]: Wappen von Galizien und Bukowina. (XX) [Abb.]: Wappen von Istrien und Dalmatien. (XXI) [Abb.]: Wappen v. Ungarn und Siebenbürgen. (XXII) [Abb.]: Wappen v. Croatien und Slavonien. (XXIII) [Abb.]: Vorstellung des ersten Ministeriums am 2. Dezember 1848. (XXIV) [Gedicht]: Hymne. ([1]) [Abb.]: ([1]) In Wien (3) [Abb.]: Leibbüchenspanner Déjeuner anrichtend. (3) [Abb.]: Leibkammerdiener im Schlafzimmer des Kaisers. * Rudolf Rottner. (4) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser am Arbeitstisch. ([5]) [Abb.]: In der Uniformen-Garderobe. * Leibkammerdiener Eugen Ketterl. (6) [Abb.]: Kaiser und Kaiserin beim Frühstück ihrer Majestät. ([7]) [Abb.]: Gewehrkammer. * Leibkammerdiener Raimund Zrunek. (8) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser fährt aus. ([9]) [Abb.]: Im Bureau des ersten Hofrathes Wetschl. * 1. Regierungsrath Victor Horsetzky Edler von Hornthal; 2. Erster Hofrath Franz Wetschl; 3. Oberbaurath Heinrich Schemfil. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)In der Hofwäschekammer. * 1. Hofwäschebewahrerin Helene Rudler; 2. Hofwäschebewahrerin Anna Dietrich; 3. Hofwäschebewahrerin Johanna Hofer. (2)Ein Hofwäschewagen. (11) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zimmeraufseher. * Josef Traxler. (2)Holzträger. **Franz Meidl. (12) [Abb.]: Pensionstag im Hofzahlamte. * 1. Pens. Hofcapellendiener Ziehrer; 2. Cassendiener Dorndorfer; 3. Hof-Reisecassier Stöger; 4. Pens. Hoflakai Sukup; 5. Pens. Revierjäger Jelinek; 6. Rehberger, Ordonanz von Schöbrunn. (13) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Hofweinkeller. *1. Officiendiener Stadler; 2. Officiant Aimoth; 3. Extra - Officiendiener Teufelbauer. (2)Gläserauspackung nach einer Hofreise. **1. Extra-Officiendiener Joh. Beran; 2. Officiant Franz Holzinger; 3. Gehilfe Franz Waismayer; 4. Officiendiener Johann Smikal. (14) [Abb.]: In der Hofküche. *1. Hofkoch Bernardt; 2. Küchenträger Seiser; 3. Bestallungskoch Wscheteczka: 4. Mundkoch Skoda; 5. Hofkoch Münsch; 6. Hofkoch Hampel; 7. Wetty; 8. Rosa Kral. ([15]) [Abb.]: In der Hofzuckerbäckerei. *1. Hofzuckerbäcker Franz Effenberger; 2. Hofzuckerbächer Wilhelm Fürnkranz; 3. Officiendiener Johann Dobery; 4. Officienfrau Helene Petrik. (16) [Abb.]: In der Freudenau: vor der Hofloge. *1. Erzherzog Otto; 2. Erzherzogin-Witwe Stephanie; 3. G. d. C. Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Fürst Carl Trautmannsdorff; 7. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 8. Gräfin Thun-Wilczek; 9. Minister d. Aussern Graf Agenor Goluchowski; 10. Oberst Carl Graf Auersperg; 11. Minister-Präsident Graf Franz Thun; 12. Erzherzog Franz Salvator. (17) [Abb.]: Bei Vater Emmerich. *1. Leopoldine Müller; 2. Anton Musch; 3. Hofdiener Franz Zapletal; 4. Emmerich Danyicska. (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vor dem Schweizerhofthor. *1.Hofstabs-Adjutant Oberlieutenant Anton Trost; 2. Hofstabs-Feldwebel Weber. (2)Wachzimmer d. Leibgarde - Infanterie. **1. Leopold Drexler; 2. Johann Baumgärtner; 3. Josef Csacska; 4. Wenzel Rosin; 5. Wenzel Werner; 6. Wilhelm Peiker; 7. Raimund Hejtmann; 8. Michael Heinsel; 9. Johann Houžek. (19) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser beim Fenster während der Burgwache-Ablösung. (20) [Abb.]: Bei der Burgmusik. ([21]) [Abb.]: Im Audienzsaal. I*1. K. u. Garde u. Rittm. Otto v. Unghváry; 2. k. u. Garde u. Rittm. Franz v. Borsiczky; 3. k. u. Garde-Vice-Wachtm. u. Major Julius v. Zsarnay; 4. k. u. k. Garde u. Rittm. Johann v. Soukup; 5. k. u. k. Garde u. Rittm. Eugen Freiherr v. Pillerstorff; 6. k. u. k. Garde-Vice-Wachtm. Otto v. Lesonitzky; 7. k. u. Garde u. Rittm. Leonh. v. Kiss; 8. Flügeladjutant Carl Ritter v. Wessely; 9. Graf Hans Wilczek jun.; 10. Geh. Rath Nik. Dumba. Im Audienzsaal. II.*1. Hof-Commissär Ritter von Weckbecker; 2. kaiserlicher Rath J. E. Ruthmayer; 3. Hof-Obercommissär Carl Pusch; 4. FZM. Rudolf Freiherr von Merkl; 5. Geh. Rath Carl Graf Lanckoroński; 6. Nuntius Mns. Taliani; 7. Geh. Rath Josef Freiherr von Bezecny; 8. Cardinal Fürsterzbischof Dr. Gruscha; 9. Unterrichtsminister Dr. Julius Wlassics; 10. Dr. Rob. Pattai; 11. Marquis Moussa Freige. (22 - 23) [Abb.]: Vor dem Audienzsaal. *1. Polizei Oberkommissär Otto Marinovich: 2. Official im Obersthofmeisteramt Ritter von Waldhütter. (24) [Abb]: Vor der Erstattung des Vortrages. *1. Minister des Aeussern Graf Agenor Goluchovski; 2. Geheimer Rath Emil Freiherr von Chertek; 3. Geheimer Rath Adolf Freiherr von Braun. (25) [Abb.]: Garden beim Fenster. *1. Kgl. ungar. Garde und Rittmeister Ludwig von Dadányi; 2. k. u. k. Garde und Rittmeister Johann Soukup von Salisko. (26) [Abb.]: Im Flügeladjutanten-Zimmer. *1. Flügel-Adjutant Major Heinrich Freiherr von Kulmer; 2. Flügel-Adjutant Obst. Hugo Fürst Dietrichstein; 3. Flügel-Adjutant Major Carl Ritter v. Wessely. (27) [Abb.]: Vortrag des ersten Obersthofmeisters. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein. (28) [Abb.]: Gemeinsame Minister-Conferenz unter Vorsitz des Kaisers. *1. Österreichischer Finanzminister Dr. Josef Kaizl; 2. Vice-Admiral Freiherr von Spaun; 3. Hofrath Cajetan von Mérey; 4. Reichs-Finanz-Minister Benjamin v. Kállay; 5. ungarischer Ministerpräsident Ladislaus Lukács; 7. Reichs-Kriegsminister G. d. C. Edmund Edler v. Krieghammer; 8. österreichischer Ministerpräsident Franz Graf Thun; 9. Minister d. Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski. ([29]) [Abb.]: Feierliche Eröffnung des Reichsrathes. ([30 - 31]) [Abb.]: Säbel Radetzky's und Standarte des I. Englische Dragoner-Reg. (32) [Abb.]: Das Ministerium Thun vor der Beeidung. *1. Garde-Vice-Wachtmeister u. Major Otto Edler v. Lesonitzky; 2. Garde u. Rittmeister Arthur Prennschitz v. Schützenau; 3. Garde u. Rittmeister Adolf Foser; 4. Garde u. Rittmeister Ladislaus Edler v. Benesch; 5. Garde-Vice-Wachtmeister u. Major v. Herdlicska; 6. Garde u. Rittmeister Sigmund Juhász de Kislapás; 7. Oberstkämmerer Hugo Graf v. Abensperg-Traun; 8. Garde u. Rittmeister Raimund Sebetić; 9. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 10. Landesverteidigungs-Minister FZM Zeno Graf Welsersheimb; 11. Hof-Ober-Commissär Maximilian von Eltz; 12. Hof-Commissär Josef Renglovics; 13. Minister-Präsident Franz Graf Thun; 14. Finanz-Minister Dr. Josef Kaizl; 15. Justiz-Minister Dr. Ignaz Edler von Ruber; 16. Ackerbau-Minister Michael Freiherr von Kast. 17. Minister für Galizien, Adam Ritter von Jędrzejowicz; 18. Eisenbahn-Minister Dr. Heinrich Ritter v. Wittek; 19. Unterrichts-Minister Arthur Graf Bylandt-Rheidt; 20. Handels-Minister Dr. Josef Maria Baernreither; 21. Hofrath Eugen Freiherr v. Hausenschield-Bauer. ([33]) [Abb.]: Auferstehung: Mitglieder der Hofcapelle. *1. Paukenträger Rohrhofer; 2. Hof-Trompeter Adolf Stiegler; 3. Paukist Franz Weber; 4. Hoftrompeter Franz Stiegler; 5. Paukenträger Franz Jellinek. (35) [Abb.]: Fusswaschung: Pfründner wird heimgeführt. (36) [Abb.]: Ceremonie der Fusswaschung. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 2. Oberhof-Caplan Dr. Carl Schnabl; 3. Propstpfarrer Ph. Dr. Gottfried Marschall; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Erzherzog Eugen. ([37]) [Abb.]: Frohnleichnams-Procession: Kämmerer und Truchsessen. *[linke Bildseite] 1. Marian von Bogdanovics; 2. Ernst Freiherr von Laudon; 3. Oberlieutenant Ernst Graf Hoyos; 4. Emmerich Freiherr von Mattencloit; 5. Oberlieutenant Baron Dobrzenski; 7. Adolf Graf Beust; 8. Gustav Graf Pötting. [rechte Bildseite] 1. Béla Gr. Cziráky; 2. Oberl. C. Gr. Kinsky; 3. Flügel-Adj. Maj. Fr. Folliot de Crenneville-Poutet; 8. Hofsecr. E. Frh. v. Weber; 9. M. Gr. Bossi-Fedrigotti; 10. Flüg.-Adj. Gr. Alberti de Poja. (38 - 39) [Abb.]: Frohnleichnams-Procession: ungarische Leibgarde. *1. FML. Alexander Ritter Baccarcich von Nagy-Écs; 2. kgl. ung. Garde u. Rittmeister Adalbert Farkas von Orbánfalva; 3. kgl. ung. Garde und Rittmeister Alexander Zgórski von Gyarmata; 4. kgl. ung. Garde und Rittmeister Coloman Miticzky de Nemes-Miticz; 5. kgl. ung. Garde und Rittmeister Novaković Edler von Gyuraboj. (40) [Abb.]: 1. Oberhofmeister Alfred Fürst Montenuovo; 2. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 3. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Erzherzog Leopold Ferdinand; 7. Erzherzog Josef Ferdinand; 8. Erzherzog Leopold Salvator; 9. Erzherzog Friedrich; 10. Erzherzog Eugen; 11. Garde-Capitän G. d. C. Eugen Freiherr v. Piret; 12. Erzherzog Rainer; 13. Cardinal Fürst-Erzbischof Dr. Anton Gruscha; 14. Garde-Infant.-Compagnie-Commandant Oberst Carl Freiherr v. Minutillo; 15. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Prinz Rudolf Liechtenstein; 16. Garde-Hauptmann Franz Mayer; 17. Geheimer Rath Ferdinand Fürst Kinsky; 18. FML. Josef Sommer; 19. Garde Wachtmeister Major Carl Geiger v. Klingenberg; 20. Garde und Rittmeister Hermann Freih. v. Waldegg. ( - ) [Abb.]: Frohnleichnams-Procession: Ankunft des Kaisers vor der Stephanskirche. ([41]) [Abb.]: Hofball: Cercle. *1. Gräfin Roman Potocka-Radziwill; 2. Fürstin Pauline Metternich; 3. Gräfin Wilcek-Kinsky; 4. Weihbischof Eduard Angerer; 5. Minister-Präsident a. D. Paul Frh. v. Gautsch; 6. Geh. Rath Johann Graf Harrach; 7. Aelxander Markgraf Pallavicini; 8. Leopold Graf Podstatzky-Liechtenstein; 9. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein; 10. Statthalter Graf Erich Kielmansegg; 11. Capit. d. ung. Leibg. Andreas Pálffy. (43) [Abb.]: Hofball: Erzherzogin Maria Josepha Hält Cercle. *1. Obersthofmeisterin Gräfin Marietta Széchenyi-Hoyos; 2. Erzherzogin Maria Josefa; 3. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie. (44) [Abb.]: Hofball: Vorstellung des Diplomatischen Corps im Marmorsaale. *1. Bayer. Gesandter Clemens Freiherr von Podewils-Dürniz; 2. Gesandter von Nordamerika Charlemagne Tower; 3. Niederländ. Gesandter Frederic Philippe Van der Hoeven Jonkheer; 4. Belgischer Gesandter E. Baron de Borchgrave; 5. Gesandter der Schweiz Alfred de Clapréde; 6. Belg. Legations-Rath Konrad Buisseret-Steenbecque; 7. Rumän. Gesandter Emile J. Ghika; 8. Persischer Gesandter General Nériman Khan; 9. Französischer Botschafter Marquis Frédéric de Reverseaux; 10. Französ. Milit. Attaché, Escadrons-Chef Baron de Berckheim; 11. Engl. Botschafter Sir Horace Rumbold; 12. Engl. Milit.-Attaché Oberst F. M. Wardrop C. B.; 13. Türkischer Botschafter Mahmoud Nedim Bey; 14. Span. Botschafter Don Isidoro Hoyos Marquis se Hoyos; 15. Span. Milit.-Attaché, Oberstlieut. des Gen.-Stabes Don José Centano; 16. Russ. Milit.-Attaché Oberst Stephan de Woronine; 17. Russ. Botschafter Peter Graf Kapnist; 18. Deutscher Botschafter Philipp Graf zu Eulenburg-Hertefeld; 19. Russ. II. Botschafts-Secretär Nikolaus v. Stolypine; 20. Deutscher Milit.-Attaché Oberstlieut. Kuno Graf v. Moltke; 21. Deutscher Boptschafter Prinz Carl Max v. Lichnowsky; 22. Italien. Botschafter Conte Constantin Nigra; 23. Italien. Milit.-Attaché Oberst im Gen.-Stab Cav. Luigi Nava; 24. Ital. Botschafts-Secretär Marchese Cusani Confalonieri; 25. Apost. Nuntius Erzbischof Mons. Emilio Taliani; 26. Päpstl. Uditore Monsign. Achille Locatelli; 27. Päpstl. Secretär Monsign. Charles Montagnini. ([45]) [Abb.]: Hofball: Der Kaiser verlässt den Saal. (46) [Abb.]: 1. Elisabeth Gräfin Kinsky-Henckl; 2. Geh. Rath Ferdinand Fürst Kinsky; 3. Obersthofmeister Alfred Fürst Montenuovo; 4. Geh. Rath Adolf Josef Fürst zu Schwarzenberg; 5. Präsident, Geheimer Rath Dr. Josef Alexander Freiherr von Helfert; 6. Marie Gräfin Wydenbruck-Fugger; 7. Präs. d. Gemeins. Obersten Rechnungshofes, Geh. Rath Ernst von Plener; 8. Oberceremonienmeister G. d. C. Koloman Graf Hunyady; 9. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rud. Prinz Liechtenstein; 10. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 11. Erzherzogin Franz Ferdinand; 12. Erzherzogin Isabella; 13. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 14. Erzherzog Otto; 15. Hans Graf Wilcek jun.; 16. Anastasia Gräfin Kielmansegg-Lebedeff. ( - ) [Abb.]: Hofball: beim Buffet. (47) [Abb.]: Hofball: ermüdet. (48) [Abb.]: Hofball: im Theesalon. *1. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 2. Grossherzogin Alice von Toscana; 3. Prinzessin Maria Louise von Cumberland; 4. Erzherzogin Maria Josepha; 5. Prinzessin Maria von Liechtenstein-Apponyi; 6. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 7. Gräfin Elisabeth Wilcek-Kinsky; 8. Fürstin Franziska Montenuovo Kinsky; 9. Fürstin Josefine Trauttmansdorff-Pallavicini; 10. Gräfin Marietta Széchenyi-Hoyos. ([49]) [Abb.]: Ball bei Hof: Comtessen-Insel. *1. Comtesse Gabrielle Eleonore Chotek; 2. Prinzessin Marie Montenuovo; 3. Prinzessin Windischgrätz; 4. Prinzessin Julie Montenuovo; 5. Comtesse Marie Kinsky; 6. Comtesse Sofie Bawarowska; 7. Comtesse Franziska Larisch; 8. Graf Ottokar Czernin; 9. Baronesse Ida Gudenus; 10. Comtesse Gabrielle Rechberg; 11. Garde-Rittm. Erbgraf Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg; 12. Kämmerer Marian Ritter von Rosco-Bogdanovicz. (50) [Abb.]: Ball bei Hof: Vortänzer. *1. Erzherzog Ferdinand Carl; 2. Prinzessin Marie Montenuovo; 3. Prinzessin Windischgrätz; 4. Prinzessin Julie Montenuovo; 5. Gräfin Caroline Széchenyi-Ledebur; 6. Garde-Oberlieutenant Ottokar Freiherr von Dobrzensky; 7. Lieutenant Prinz Friedrich Liechtenstein; 8. Comtesse Essi Fürstenberg; 9.Baronesse Marie Gudenus. (51) [Abb.]: Ball bei Hof: Auf der Botschafterstiege. (52) [Abb.]: 1. Botschafter Sir Horace Rumbold; 2. Lady Luiza Rumbold; 3. Fürstin Marie Kinsky-Liechtenstein; 4. Erster Stallmeister, Rittmeister Graf Ferdinand Kinsky; 5. Landesvertheidigungs-Minister FZM. Graf Zeno Welsersheimb; 6. Minister a. D. Geh. Rath Dr. Leon Ritter von Bilinski; 7. Fürstin Franziska Montenuovo-Kinsky; 8. Geh. Rath Fürst Paul Esterházy; 9. Oberstkämmerer Graf Hugo Abensperg-Traun; 10. Oberstjägermeister Leopold Freiherr von Gudenus; 11. Oberlieutenant Carl Graf Trauttmannsdorff-Weinsperg; 12. Unterrichtsminister Arthur Graf Bylandt-Rheidt; 13. Bank-Gouverneur Geheimer Rath Julius Kautz; 14. Rittmeister Carl Fugger Babenhausen; 15. Gräfin Eleonore Fugger-Hohenlohe; 16. Othon Baron de Bourgoing; 17. Baronin Therese Bourgoing-Kinsky; 18. Gräfin Marie Wydenbruck-Fugger. ( - ) [Abb.]: Portier beim Aufgang zu den kaiserlichen Apartements. *Josef Schlögl. (53) [Abb.]: Hofrath von Loebenstein, Hofconcipist Nepalleck und Hofcommissär Bar. Lütgendorff. (54) [Abb.]: Empfang des Kaisers Wilhelm II. auf dem Nordbahnhofe. *1. Sattelmeister Dithrich; 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 3. Botschafter Philipp Graf Eulenburg; 4. Botschafter Ladislaus von Szögenyi-Marich; 5. G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 6. Erzherzog Rainer; 7. General Graf Schlieffen; 8. Militär-Attaché Graf Hülsen-Haeseler; 9. General-Adjutant Graf von Hahnke; 10. Erzherzog Friedrich; 11. Erzherzog Otto; 12. Statthalter Erich Graf Kielmannsegg; 13. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 14. Erzherzog Eugen. ([55]) [Abb.]: Galavorstellung in der Oper zu Ehren des Kaisers Wilhelm II. *1. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 2. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 3. Erzherzogin Caroline Imaculata; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Kaiser Wilhelm II. 6. Erzherzogin Maria Theresia; 7. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 8. Erzherzogin Elisabeth; 9. Erzherzog Rainer; 10. Erzherzog Albrecht. (56) [Abb.]: Fahrt des Kaisers mit Kaiser Nikolaus II. in die Hofburg. ([57]) [Abb.]: Saalthürherr. *Alois Hein. (58) [Abb.]: Galadiner zu Ehren Kaiser Nikolaus II. im Ceremoniensaal. *1. Minister d. Aeussern Graf Agenor Goluchowski; 2. Erzherzogin-Witwe Stephanie; 3. Kaiserin Alexandra; 4. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 5. Kaiser Nikolaus II.; 6. Erzherzogin Maria Josepha. (59) [Abb.]: Galadiner: auftragende Lakeien. (60) [Abb.]: Trauung des Prinzen Louis Philipp von Orleans in der Hofburgpfarrkirche. *1. Cardinal Fürst-Erzbischof Gruscha; 2. Bischof von Stuhlweissenburg Dr. Philipp Steiner; 3. Hofburgpfarrer Prälat Dr. Laurenz Mayer; 4. Hofceremoniär Dr. Schnabl; 5. Herzog Louis Philipp von Orleans; 6. Erzherzogin Maria Dorothea; 7. Nuntius Mns. Taliani; 8. Erzherzog Joseph; 9. Herzog von Chartres; 10. Maria Amalia Königin von Portugal; 11. Erzherzogin Clotilde. ([61]) [Abb.]: Erster Stallmeister Graf Kinsky bei der Bespannung. *1. Futtermeister Ankowitsch; 2. Stallübergeher Martin Kasamas; 3. Erster Stallmeister Graf Kinsky; 4. Hofkutscher Kaspar; 5. Hofkutscher Rufera; 6. Hofkutscher Fialka; 7. Hofkutscher Boursch. (62) [Abb.]: Aus dem Lipizaner Gestüt. (63) [Abb.]: Oberbereiter Styles und Leibbereiter Lechartier. (64) [Abb.]: Im Marstall: bei der Morgen-Toilette. *1. Ober-Reitknecht Czerny; 2. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 3. Leibbereiter Adolf Lechartier. ([65]) [Abb.]: Lipizaner in Dressur. *Oberbereiter Meixner. (66) [Abb.]: Officiersgardewagen.* 1. K. u. k. Garde und Rittmeister Ernst Graf Wurmbrand-Stuppach. (67) [Abb.]: Im Künstlerhause.* 1. Erzherzog Otto; 2. Baurath Prof. Deininger; 3. Maler Eugen Felix; 4. Maler Hans Temple. (69) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Atelier Angeli. (70) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in der Ausstellung der "Vereinigung der Bildenden Künste Oesterreichs".* 1.Flügel-Adjut. Major Karl Ritter von Wessely; 2. Präsident Gustav Klimt; 3. Professor Rudolf Alt; 4. Josef Engelhart; 5. Carl Moll; 6. Franz Hohenberger; 7. Hans Tichy; 8. Architekt Josef Olbrich; 9. Carl Müller; 10. Eugen Jettel. ([71]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in der Incognitologe des Burgtheaters.* 1. General-Director Eduard Palmer; 2. Hofrath Dr. Max Burckhard; 3. Schriftsteller Hermann Bahr; 4. Gen.-Director Theodor Ritter v. Taussig; 5. Albert Freiherr von Rothschild; 6. Schriftsteller Ludwig Speidl; 7. Gen.-Intendant Aug. Freih. v. Plappart; 8. Director des Burgtheaters Dr. Paul Schlenther; 9. Redakteur Julius Bauer; 10. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Nothnagel; 11. Schauspielerin Rosa Retty; 12. Hofrath Friedr. Uhl; 13. Redakteur Ludwig Hevesi. (73) [Abb.]: Bei der Audienz.* Kammer- und Hofopern Sängerin Marie Renard. (74) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser bei der Rettungsgesellschaft.* 1. Erzherzog Eugen; 2. Erzherzog Rainer; 3. Landesgerichtspräsident Eduard Graf Lamezan; 4. Chefarzt Dr. Charas; 5. Geheimer Rath Hans Graf Wilczek. 6. Weihbischof Dr. Eduard Angerer; 7. Bürgermeister Dr. Karl Lueger. (76) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser auf dem Ball der Stadt Wien.* 1. Zweiter Vice-Bürgermeister Dr. Josef Neumayer; 2. Statthalter Erich Graf Kielmansegg; 3. Erster Vice-Bürgermeister Josef Strobach; 4. Erzherzog Rainer; 5. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 6. Apostol. Nuntius Monsign. Taliani; 7. Erzherzog Otto; 8. Marie Porzer; 9. Käthe Kment; 10. Mathilde Cžjžek-Breymann; 11. Amalie Pattai; 12. Anastasia Gräfin Kielmansegg-Lebedeff; 13. Emmy v. Eisner-Eisenhof; 14. Stadtrath Dr. Theodor Wähner. 15. Bürgermeister Dr. Carl Lueger; 16. Stadtrath Vincenz Wessely. (77) [Abb.]: Leibkutscher und Leibjäger beim Wagen sr. Majestät. (78) [Abb.]: Hofcourier. (79) [Abb.]: Schönbrunn: der Kaiser besichtigt die Orangenbäume. (80) [Abb.]: Schönbrunn: der Kaiser spricht einen Gärtner an. (81) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser verlässt Schönbrunn. (82) In Budapest. (83) [Abb.]: Der Portier der Ofner Burg in Wintergala.* Alois Rauschbacher. (83) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in seinem Arbeitszimmer. (84) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Burggarten. (85) [Abb.]: Das Schlafzimmer des Kaisers. (86) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser wohnt in der Burgcapelle der Messe bei. (87) [Abb.]: Domherr Vézinger. (88) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Rauchzimmer. (89) [Abb.]: Adjutantenzimmer. Flügeladjutant Graf Alberti. (90) [Abb.]: Ministerpräsident Baron Banffy beim Vortrag. (91) [Abb.]: Hoftafel.* 1. Bischof Karl Rimély; 2. Stefan Rakovszky; 3. Josef von Szlávy; 4. Graf Aladár Andrássy. (92) [Abb.]: Der grosse Vorsaal des Audienzzimmers.* 1-4. Herzegov. Deputation; 5. Georg Zala; 6. Johann Fadrusz; 7. Baron Friedrich Podmaniczky; 8. Baron Alexius Nopcsa; 9. Ignaz Darányi; 10. G. d. C. Baron Géza Fejérváry; 11. Alexander Erdélyi; 12. Desiderus Szilágyi; 13. Cardinal Lorenz Schlauch. ([93]) [Abb.]: Die Herolde des Banderiums. (94) [Abb.]: Graf Zeno Csáky an der Spitze des Banderiums des Békéser Comitates. (95) [Abb.]: Minister des Inneren Perczel und Gefolge. (96) [Abb.]: 1. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 2. Kronprinzessin-Witwe Stephanie; 3. Erzherzogin Gisela; 4. Erzherzogin Clotilde; 5. Erzherzogin Isabella; 6. Erzherzogin Auguste; 7. Erzherzog Eugen; 8. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 9. Erzherzog Joseph; 10. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 11. Erzherzog Otto; 12. Erzh. Friedrich; 13. Ferdinand IV., Grossherzog v. Toscana; 14. Erzherzog Joseph August; 15. Erzherzog Leopold Salvator; 16. Erzherzog Ludwig Victor; 17. Geh. Rath Eugen Graf Zichy; 18. Michael Munkácsy; 19. Geh. Rath Eugen Graf Karácsonyi; 20. Honvédminister FZM. Géza Baron Féjerváry; 21. Dr. Maurus Jókai; 22. Mitglied des Magnatenhauses Feodor Baron Nikolics; 23. Reichstagsabgeordneter Aurel Münnich; 24. Präsident des ung. Abgeordnetenhauses Desider v. Szilágyi; 25. Ung. Ministerpräsident a. D. Geh. Rath Koloman von Tisza; 26. Geh. Rath Albin Graf Csáky; 27. Banus Carl Graf Khuen-Héderváry; 28. Cardinal Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary; 29. Ung. Handelsminister Ernst Baron Dániel; 30. Ung. Minister-Präsident Desider Baron Bánffy; 31. Präsident des österr. Abgeordnetenhauses Johann Freih. v. Chlumecky; 32. Ung. Oberstkämmerer Geh. Rath Aladár Graf Andrássy; 33. Kronhüter Koloman von Széll; 34. Cardinal Lorenz Schlauch; 35. Ung. Staats-Secretär geh. Rath Desider von Gromon; 36. Reichstagsabgeordneter Albert Graf Apponyi; 37. Ung. Unterrichtsminister Dr. Julius von Wlassics; 38. Österreichischer Minister-Präsident Kasimir Graf Badeni; 39. Präs. des ung. Verwalt.-Gerichtshofes, Geh. Rath Dr. Alex. Wekerle; 40. Min. d. Aeussern Graf Agenor Gluchowski. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser eroffnet die Millenniumsausstellung. ([97]) [Abb.]: Géza Melzer im Banderium des Borsoder Comitats. (98) [Abb.]: Graf Andreas Bethlen mit der Fahne Siebenbürgens. (99) [Abb.]: Abgeordnete erwarten vor dem Reichstagsgebäude die ungarische Krone. (100) [Abb.]: Millenniums-Tedeum: Rede des Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary. *1. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 2. Oberstkämmerer Graf Aladár Andrássy; 3. Generaladjutant G. g. C. Graf Paar; 4. Oberstküchenmeister Graf Bellegarde; 5. Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary. ([101]) [Abb.]: Prachtcarrosse mit der ungarischen Krone. ([102]) [Abb.]: Gefolge des Kronenwagens. *1. Karl Gerlóczy; 2. Karl Vosits; 3. Paul Olhauser. (103) [Abb.]: Cardinal Fürstprimas Vaszary in seiner Prachtcarosse. (104) [Abb.]: Der ungarische Reichstag huldigt dem Herrscherpaare. - Rede Desider Szilágyi's. * 1. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 2. Landesvertheidigungs-Minister G. d. C. Baron Géza Fejérváry; 3. Minister für Cultus und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics; 4. Minister-Präsident Baron Desiderius Bánffy; 5. Erzbischof von Kolocsa Georg Császka; 6. Fürstprimas Claudius Vaszary; 7. Koloman Tisza; 8. Präsident des Abgeordnetenhauses Desiderius Szilágyi; 9. Vicepräsident des Abgeordnetenhauses Graf Tibor Károlyi. ([105]) [Abb.]: Baron Georg Bánffy. (106) [Abb.]: Graf Tassilo Festetics. (107) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser bei dem Turnfest der Schuljugend. *1. Reichskriegsminister G. d. C. Baron Krieghammer; 2. Corps-Commandant FZM. Prinz Lobkowitz; 3. Oberststabelmeister Albert Berzeviczy; 4. Vicebürgermeister Karl Gerlóczy; 5. Handelsminister Baron Ernst Dániel; 6. Minister für Cultus und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics. (108) [Abb.]: Einzug des deutschen Kaisers Wilhelm II. in Budapest. ([109]) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und Kaiser Wilhelm II. gehen vom neuen Reichstagsgenäude zum Justizpalast. *1. Baron Desiderius Bánffy; 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II., 3. Béla Rudnay. (110 - 11) [Abb.]: Obersthofmeister Garf Ludw. Apponyi. (112) [Abb.]: Trinkspruch Kaiser Wilhelms II. ([113]) [Abb.]: Das beleuchtete Ofen. (114) [Abb.]: Das Redoutengebäude während der Beleuchtung. ([115]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser mit dem rumänischen Königspaare im Parkclub. *1. Baron Béla Aczél; 2. Graf Csekonits; 3. Frau von Perczel; 4. König von Rumänien; 5. Königin von Rumänien; 6. Graf Széchényi; 7. Gouverneur von Fiume Graf Ladislaus Szapáry; 8. Baronin Dániel; 9. Oberstkämmerer Graf Aladár Andrássy. (117) [Abb.]: Die Burg in Ofen. (118) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser wird vor der Kunsthalle erwartet. *1.Erzherzog Josef; 2. Ferdinand IV. Grossherzog von Toscana; 3. Herzog Philipp von Coburg; 4. Erzherzog Leopold Salvator; 5. Erzherzog Josef August; 6. Erzherzog Friedrich; 7. Minister für Cultur und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics; 8. Honvédminister Baron Ernst Dániel; 10. Erzherzog Otto; 11. Staatssecretär Albert Berzeviczy; 12. Sectionsrath Dr. Nicolaus von Zsmerecsányi. ([119]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser bei dem Photographen Koller. *1.Roman Forché; 2. Stefan Gálfy. (120) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser lässt sich durch Michael Munkácsy dessen Bild "Ecce Homo" erklären. *1. Sectionsrath Dr. Nikolaus v. Szmrecsányi; 2. Minister für Cultus und Unterricht Dr. Julius Wlassics; 3. Michael Munkácsy. ([121]) [Abb.]: Das neue Parlamentsgebäude. (122) [Abb.]: Georg Zala modelliert die Büste des Kaisers. ([123]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser besichtigt die neuen Burgbauten. *Oberpolier Franz Grossmann. (124) [Abb.]: Burghauptmann Ludwig Ritter von Ybl. (125) [Abb.]: Ansicht der neuen königl. Burg mit der Statue des Urhebers Nikolaus Ybl. (126) [Abb.]: Huldigungs-Fackelzug für den Kaiser. ([127]) [Abb.]: 1. Hauptstädt. Rath Karl Vosits; 2. Gemeinderath Andreas Thék; 3. Reichstagsabgeordneter Advokat Johann Radócza; 4. Gemeinderath Franz Fektor; 5. Reichstagsabgeordneter Gemeinderath Albert von Berzeviczy; 6. Hauptstädt. Rath Dr. Johann Vaszilievits; 7. Vice-Bürgermeister Karl Gerlóczy; 8. Bez.-Vorst. Paul Olhauser; 9. Hauptstädt Rath Franz Faller; 10. Ober-Bürgermeister Josef Márkus; 11. Gemeinderath Johann Mérő; 12. Bürgermeister Johann Halmos; 13. Gemeinderath Architekt Julius Pártos; 14. Gemeinderath Sigmund Medrey; 15. Pfarrer Vincenz Stieber; 16. Reichstags-Abgeordneter Gemeinderath Alexander Hegedüs; 17. Oberhausmitglied Gemeinderath Julius Ludvigh; 18. Gemeinderath Samuel Tiller; 21. Gemeinderath Truchsess Dr. Gustav Degen; 22. Gemeinderath Baumeister Joh. Bobula; 23. Gemeinderath Architekt Alfred Wellisch; 24. Reichstagsabgeordneter Advokat Géza Polonyi; 25. Reichstags-Abgeordneter Gemeinderath Dr. Max Falk; 26. Gemeinderath Jos. Pucher. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser empfängt die Abordnung der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Budapest. ([129]) Auf Reisen. (131) [Abb.]: (131) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser begibt sich in den Hofzug. *1.Wagenmeister Josef Lehmayer; 2. Hofrath Klaudius Ritter von Klaudy; 3. Ingenieur August Hagen; 4. Wagenrevisor Josef Müller. (132) [Abb.]: Hofzug auf der Fahrt. (133) [Abb.]: In der Küche des Hofzuges. (134) [Abb.]: Kaiser mit Suite an der Tafel im Speisesalon des Hofzuges. *1. Generalstabs-Hauptmann Rudolf Dittl v. Wehrberg; 2. Kaiserl. russ. Oberst und Militär-Attaché Stefan de Woronine; 3. Oberstabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl; 4. Flügel-Adjutant Major Hugo Fürst v. Dietrichstein; 5. Flügel-Adjutant Oberstlieutenant Thaddäus graf Alberti; 6. Oberlieutenant Adolf Graf Ledebur-Wicheln; 7. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 8. Hofrath Klaudius Alexander Ritter v. Klaudy; 9. General-Adjutant FML. Arthur Bolfras von Ahnenburg; 10. Obersthofmeister Alfred Fürst von Montenuovo; 11. Erzherzog Otto; 12. Generalstabs-Oberst Ludwig Wanka; 13. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 14. Generalstabs-Chef FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 15. Geh. Rath Julius Freiherr von Zwiedinek-Südenhorst. (135) [Abb.]: Schlafsalon des Kaisers im Hofzuge. (136) [Abb.]: Klosterneuburg: der Kaiser in der Grabcapelle des heiligen Leopold. *1. Erzherzog Carl Ludwig; 2. Erzherzog Rainer; 3. Professor Paul Wache; 4. Stiftsdechant Leopold Hanauska; 5. Abt Ubald Kostersitz. (137) [Abb.]: Korneuburg: Vorstellung des Gemeinderathes. *1. Kriegsminister G. d. C. Edm. Edl. von Krieghammer; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Bürgermeister Schaumann; 4. General-Adjutant Arthur von Bolfras. (138) [Abb.]: Linz: im Garten des Museums. *1. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; Erzherzog Carl Ludwig; 3. Statthalter Victor Freiherr von Pouthon. (140) [Abb.]: Graz: costümierte Reiter geleiten den Kaiser zur Universität. (141) [Abb.]: Graz: der Kaiser in der Universität. *1. Rector Hofrath Alexander Rollet; 2. Professor Dr. Moriz Holl; 3. Professor Dr. Schütz; 4. FZM. Wilhelm Freiherr von Reinländer. (142) [Abb.]: Abbazia: Kaiser Franz Joseph und Kaiser Wilhelm II. vor dem Hotel Stephanie. *1. Director Anton Silberhuber; 2. Oberst Guido Wachter; 3. General-Adjutant Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzog Josef; 5. Kaiser Wilhelm II. (143) [Abb.]: Das beleuchtete Abbazia vom Meere aus. ([145]) [Abb.]: Abbazia: die Deutsche Kaiserfamilie bei der Villa Amalaia. *1. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 2. Kaiserin Auguste; 3. Kaiserliche Prinzen. (146) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: eine historische Abtheilung d. Festzuges. (147) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: Enthüllung des Andreas Hofer-Denkmals. *1. Erzherzog Carl Ludwig. (148) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: der Kaiser am Schiessstand. *1. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 2. Leibjäger Friedrich Spannbauer; 3. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar. (149) [Abb.]: Innsbruck: aus dem Festzug der alten Tiroler Schützen. (150) [Abb.]: Prag: der Hradschin. (151) [Abb.]: Prag: in der Ausstellung. *1. Carl Max Graf Zedwitz. (152) [Abb.]: Prag: Bauernhochzeit in der Ausstellung. (153) [Abb.]: Prag: Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand in der Landesausstellung. *1. FML. Hugo Graf Wurmbrand; 2. GM. Leo Graf Wurmbrand; 3. Franz Graf Thun; 4. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand. (154) [Abb.]: Prag: Der Kaiser vor dem Grabdenkmal des heil. Johannes von Nepomuk. *1. Carl Max Graf Zedwitz; 2. Cardinal Fürst-Erzbischof Graf Schönborn; 3. Franz Graf Thun; 4. Georg Fürst von Lobkowitz. (155) [Abb.]: Prag: Typen böhmischer und mährischer Landbevölkerung in der Landesausstellung. (156) [Abb.]: Landskron: Begrüssung durch weissgekleidete Mädchen. *1. Französischer Militär-Attaché Baron den Berckheim; 2. Erzherzog Albrecht; 3. General-Adjutant FML. von Bolfras; 4. Erzherzog Rainer. (157) [Abb.]: Mährische Königsreiter. (158) [Abb.]: Landskron: Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand, Franz Graf Thun und Prinz Rudolf von und zu Liechtenstein. ([159]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser mit fremdländischen Attachés auf dem Bahnhof Welleschin. *1. Russ. Mil.Attaché Oberst Steph. de Woronine; 2. Niederl. Mil.-Attchaé Col. Fredric Meyer Wardrop C. B.; 4. Deutsch. Mil.-Attaché Graf Hülsen-Häseler; 5. Leibgarde-Esc.-Commandant Oberst Jos. v. Görgey; 6. Italien. Mil.-Attaché Oberst Luigi Nava; 7. Türk. Mil.-Attaché Ahmed Abouk Bey. (160) [Abb.]: Bistriz: der Kaiser am heiligen Hostein. *1. Stadtrath von Kremsier J. N. Harna; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Kriegsminister FZM. Edler von Kriegshammer; 4. Generalvicar Johann Weinlich; 5. Herrenhaus-Mitglied Ernst Baron Laudon; 6. Lieutenant Julius Graf Seilern; 7. Reichsrathsabgeordneter Ph. Dr. Anton Stojan. (161) [Abb.]: Brünn: der Kaiser im Schützenzelt. *1. Landeshauptmann Graf Vetter von der Lilie; 2. Statthalter Ritter von Löbl; 3. Oberschützenmeister Anton Jelinek; 4. Bürgermeister Gust. Winterholler; 5. Fahnenträger S. Fluss; 6. Vicebürgermeister Rudolf Rohrer. (162) [Abb.]: Brünn: Schützenvorstand mit Banner. *1. Ada Robinson; 2. Fritz Haas; 3. Josef Jelinek; 4. A. Diensthuber. (163) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brünn: Austria - Festwagen. (2)Teschen: Erzherzog Rainer im Gespräch mit Erzh. Wilhelm. (164) [Abb.]: Teschen: Landmädchen erwarten den Kaiser. (165) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lemberg: Ruthenisches Mädchen in der Ausstellung. (2)Lemberg: ländl. Bevölkerung in der Ausstellung I. (166) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lemberg: ruthenischer Bauer in der Ausstellung. (2)Lemberg: ländl. Bevölkerung in der Ausstellung II. (167) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lemberg: der Kaiser im Gespräch mit Fürst Sapieha. *1. Adam Fürst Sapieha; 2. Julius Graf Falkenhayn; 3. Landtagsabgeordneter Franz Hoszard. (2)Krakau: Banderium. (168) [Abb.]: Lemberg: der Kaiser nimmt ein Gesuch entgegen. (169) [Abb.]: Kolomea: der Kaiser spricht einen Invaliden an. *1. Adam Fürst Sapieha; 2. Kriegsminister Edler von Krieghammer. (170) [Abb.]: Zara: auf dem Landungsplatze. *1. Admiral Maximilian Freiherr Daublebsky von Sterneck; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. FZM: Emil David von Rhonfeld. ([171]) [Abb.]: Sinj: das Volk erwartet den kaiserlichen Wagen. (172) [Abb.]: Debreczin: galoppierendes Banderium. (173) [Abb.]: Debreczin: der Kaiser kommt! (174) [Abb.]: Orsova: der Kaiser begrüsst den König von Rumänien und den König von Serbien. *1. Serbischer Gesandter Milan Michailowitsch; 2. König Alexander; 3. König Karl I. (175) [Abb.]: Orsova: Fahrt durch den Kasanpass. (176) [Abb.]: Serbische Landbevölkerung begrüsst bei Salaria das Kaiserschiff. ([177]) [Abb.]: Am Ufer von Ada Kaleh. *1. Bego Mustapha. (178) [Abb.]: Besichtigung von Herkulesbad. *1. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 2. Minister des Aussern Graf Góluchowski; 3. FZM. Friedrich Freih. v. Beck; 4. Herzog Albert von Coburg; 5. König Karl von Rumänien; 6. König Alexander von Serbien. (179) [Abb.]: Pressburg: Enthüllung des Maria Theresien - Denkmales. *1. Erzherzog Josef August; 2. Erzherzog Friedrich; 3. Bildhauer Johann Fadrusz; 4. Erzherzog Otto; 5. Bürgermeister Tröxler. (180) [Abb.]: Agram: Mädchen streuen Blumen vor der Ankunft des Kaisers. (181) [Abb.]: Agram: Schlussteinlegung des Theaters. *1. Architekt Leo Hönigsberg; 2. Baurath Hermann Helmer. (182) [Abb.]: Agram: der Kaiser verlässt die Synagoge. *1. Vorstand der israelitischen Cultusgemeinde Josef Siebenschein; 2. Banus Carl Graf Khuen-Héderváry; 3. Ober-Rabbiner Dr. J. Jakobi. (183) [Abb.]: Agram: der Kaiser verlässt die evangelische Kirche. *1. Banus Carl Graf Khuen-Héderváry; 2. Vorstand der evangelischen Gemeide A. Munda; 3. Sections-Chef Dr. J. Kršnjavi; 4. Pastor Kolaček; 5. Minister-Präsident Desider Freiherr von Bánffy. (184) [Abb.]: Empfang des Kaisers auf dem Bahnhofe Rohnstock. *1. G. d. C. Graf Waldersee; 2. General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Prinz Heinrich von Preussen; 4. Prinz Albert von Preussen; 5. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 6. König Albert von Sachsen; 7. Prinz Friedrich Leopold von Preussen; 8. Graf Caprivi; 9. General-Adjutant von Hahnke; 10. Graf von Wedel. ([185]) [Abb.]: Kaiserin-Witwe Auguste überreicht dem Kaiser Franz Joseph I. das Bild des Kaisers Wilhelm I. *1. Kaiserin Auguste; 2. Kaiser Wilhelm II. (186) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und Kaiser Wilhelm II. im Charlottenburger Mausoleum. (187) [Abb.]: Berlin: Besuch des Kaisers beim Fürsten Bismarck. (188) [Abb.]: Berlin: grosse Truppen-Parade. *1. Oesterreichischer Militär-Bevollmächtigter Baron Steininger; 2. Prinz zu Engalitschew; 3. General-Adjutant von Hahnke; 4. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand; 5. Kaiserin Auguste Victoria; 6. Kaiser Wilhelm II. ([189]) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und Kaiser Wilhelm II. auf dem Manöver-Felde. (190) [Abb.]: Preussisch-Schlesien: Manöver-Kritik. *1. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 2. G. d. C. Graf Waldersee; 3. Graf Caprivi; 4. Major Steininger. (191) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in der Uniform seines Deutschen Husaren-Regimentes. (192) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in d. Uniform seines Deutschen Garde-Grenadier-Regimentes. (193) [Abb.]: Stettin: Kaiser Wilhelm II., Kaiser Franz Joseph I. und König Albert von Sachsen. (194) [Abb.]: Tegernsee: der Kaiser im Hochzeitszuge. *1. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 2. Prinz Regent Luitpold von Bayern; 3. Königin Carola von Sachsen; 4. Erzherzogin Maria Theresia; 5. König Albert von Sachsen; 6. Erzherzogin Maria Josepha; 7. König von Neapel. ([195]) [Abb.]: St. Petersburg: Besuch bei der Kaiserin. (196) [Abb.]: St. Petersburg: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. zur Parade reitend. *1. Kaiser Nikolaus II.; 2. Grossfürst Wladimir; 3. Erzherzog Otto; 4. Baron Meindorf. (197) [2 Abb.]: (1)St. Petersburg: Kaiser Franz Joseph I. führt sein Regiment dem Kaiser von Russland vor. *1. Kaiser Nikolaus II.; 2. Grossfürst Waldimir. (2)St. Petersburg: Fahrt zum Fürsten Liechtenstein. (198) [Abb.]: Rumänien: rumänische Mädchen am Ufer der Donau. (199) [Abb.]: Rumänien: Truppen Revue in Bukarest. *1. General-Adjutant Graf Paar; 2. Herzog Albert von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha; 3. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 4. Kronprinzessin Marie von Rumänien; 5. Königl. rumän. Kriegsminister; 6. König Karl I. (200) [Abb.]: Rumänien: im Familienkreise in Sinaia. *1. Königin Elisabeth von Rumänien; 2. König Karl I.; 3. Herzog Albert von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha; 4. Kronprinzessin Marie von Rumänien; 5. Kronprinz Ferdinand von Rumänien: ([201]) [Abb.]: Rumänien: Schloss Pelesch. (202) [Abb.]: Territet: das Kaiserpaar auf einem Ausfluge. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 2. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Graf Paar; 3. General-Adjutant FML. von Bolfras; 4. Kaiserin Elisabeth. (203) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: das Kaiserpaar bei den Pinien der Madonna. (204) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser inNizza prominierend. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein; 2. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar. (205) [Abb.]: Village d'Eze. (206) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: Fahrt des Kaisers zum Präsidenten Faure. (207) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: Besuch des Kaisers beim Präsidenten Faure. (208) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser besichtigt die Spielsäle von Monaco. *1. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Graf Paar; 2. Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz zu Liechtenstein. (209) [Abb.]: Cap Martin: das Kaiserpaar mit der Kaiserin Eugenie im Hôtelgarten. *1. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 2. Kaiserin Eugenie. (210) Der oberste Kriegsherr. (211) [Abb.]: Einzug der Burggendamerie. (211) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser in Parade-Uniform. (212) [Abb.]: Der Vorstand der Militär-Kanzlei Generaladjutant FML. v. Bolfras beim Rapport. ([213]) [Abb.]: Oberst Wanka in der Militär-Kanzlei. (214) [Abb.]: Die Rothe Tasche. *1. Hauptmann Gust. Mallász; 2. Garde-Wachtmeister Michael Popescul. (215) [Abb.]: Trabanten-Leibgarde. (216) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fahnenübergabe bei der Burgwache - Ablösung. (2)Hofrath Karl Appel in der Militärkanzlei. (217) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: im reservierten Raum vor Beginn. *1. Secondelieutenant d. R. Albert Gschwind; 2. Premierlieutenant d. R. Manuel Mahn; 3. Secondelieutenant d. Z. Max Rolffs; 4. Kammersängerin Frau Ellen Forster Brandt; 5. Secondelieutenant d. r. Gustav Illner. (218) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: Gruppen aus der Suite. *1. Leibbereiter Adolf Lechartier. (219) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: FZM. Anton Baron von Schönfeld und Oberst Emil Ritter von Brasseur. (220) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: Ankunft des Kaisers. *1. S. W.-Inspector-Stellvertreter Julius Pawelka; 2. S. W.-Oberinspector Roman Fuchs; 3. S. W. Josef Schwelle; 4. S. W.-Revier-Inspector Johann Kolba; 5. S. W. Johann Biegler. ([221]) [Abb.]: Revue auf der Schmelz: Ankunft Kaiser Wilhelm's II. (222) [2 Abb.]: (1)Revue auf der Schmelz: Oberst von Brasseur Ordnung schaffend. (2)Revue auf der Schmelz: Gardereiter zu Pferd in Parade-Adjustierung. (223) [Abb.]: Die beiden Monarchen verlassen die Schmelz. *1. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 2. Erzherzog Friedrich; 3. Erzherzog Eugen. (224) [2 Abb.]: (1)Revue auf der Schmelz Abfahrt der Erzherzoginnen. *1. Obereiter Wilhelm Wagner; 2. Bereiter Stephan Tautmann; 3. Leibkutscher Hengge; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 5. Gräfin Cornis; 6. Erster Stallmeister Graf Ferdinand Kinsky. (2)Inspicierung im Prater: Regiment auf der Krieau-Wiese den Kaiser erwartend. **1. Hauptmann Johann Fernengel; 2. Hauptmann Carl Stracker; 3. FML. Josef Sommer; 4. Corps-Commandant Alexander Graf Üxküll-Gyllenband. (225) [2 Abb.]: (1)Inspicierung im Prater: der Kaiser in der Plänklerkette. *1. General-Adjutant FML. Artur von Bolfras. (2)Inspicierung in Bruck: Regiment auf der Spitalswiese aufgestellt. (226) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: der Kaiser lässt ein Cavallerie-Regiment vorrücken. *1. Erzherzog Otto. (227) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: Fremdländische Militär-Attachés. *1. Russischer Militär-Attaché Oberst Stephan v. Woronine; 2. Rumänischer Militär-Attaché Major Auréle Demetrescu; 3. Französischer Militär-Attaché Baron de Berckheim; 4. Serbischer Militär-Attaché Oberst Alexander Machine. (228) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: der Kaiser setzt mit Husaren über einen Strassengraben. (229) [2 Abb.]: (1)Inspicierung in Bruck: Defilierung eines Uhlanen-Regimentes. (2)Inspicierung in Bruck: der Kaiser lässt im Zuge Exercieren. (230) [Abb.]: Inspicierung in Bruck: Schlussbesprechung. (231) [Abb.]: Schloss in Totis. (232) [Abb.]: Im Totiser Park. *1. Erzherzog Rainer. (233) [2 Abb.]: (1)Altes Kastell in Totis. (2)Totiser Feuerwehr. (234) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Bergleute von Ober-Galla. (235) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Streuen von Lorbeer-Blättern. (236) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: in Tóváros vor der Ankunft des Kaisers. ([237]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Totiser Manöver: Banderium. (2)Totiser Manöver: Aufziehen der Mädchenschule mit Fahne. (238) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Honvéd in Reserve. ([239]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Mädchen-Spalier. (240) [2 Abb.]: (1)Totiser Manöver: Genossenschaften und Sänger. (2)Totiser Manöver: Deputationen aus der Umgebung. (241) [2 Abb.]: (1)Totiser Manöver: Schankzelt am Wege z. Bahnhof. (2)Auswaggonierung von Handgepäck. (242) [Abb.]: Hofequipagen beim Totiser Bahnhofe. (243) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Leiterwagen-Tribüne auf freiem Felde. (244) [Abb.]: Totis: die Manöver-Oberleitung. *1. FZM. Friedr. Freih. v. Beck; 2. G.-St.-Oberst Oskar Potiorek; 3. G.-St.-Major Franz Freiherr von Khun; 4. G.-St.-Oberst Johann Schemua. (244) [2 Abb.]: (1)FZM. Freiherr v. Beck mit Officieren den Gang des Totiser Manövers beobachtend. *1. FML. Heinrich Ritter von Pitreich; 2. Oberlieutenant Gordian Freiherr von Gudenus; 3. Oberst Johann Schemua; 4. Hauptmann Josef von Schneider; 5. Oberst Oscar Potiorek; 6. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr vonBeck; 7. Hauptmann Josef Graf Ledóchowsky; 8. Major Franz Freiherr von Kuhn; 9. Major Franz Freiherr von Gerstenberger; 10. FML. Alexander Graf Hübner. (2)Totiser Manöver: Militär-Attachés. **1. Englischer Militär-Attaché Colonel Frederic Meyer Wardrop C. B.; 2. Französischer Militär-Attaché Baron de Berckheim. (246) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: FZM. Fejérváry und der deutsche Generalstabs-Chef von Schlieffen. ([247]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: der russische Generalstabs-Chef Obrutschew. (248) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Fremdländische Militär-Attachés. *1. Italienischer Militär-Attaché Oberst Luigi Nava; 2. Japanischer Militär-Attaché Major D'Ohara; 3. Spanischer Militär-Attaché Oberstlieutenant José Centano; 4. Englischer Militär-Arraché Colonel Frederic Meyer Wardrop C. B. ([249]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: die Schiedsrichter. *1. Oberst Carl Georgi. (250) [2 Abb.]: (1)FZM. Prinz Lobkowitz. (2)Totiser Manöver: Schnapshändler. (251) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Rastende Honvéd-Infanterie. (252) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Erzherzog Friedrich mit Suite. *1. Erzherzog Friedrich; 2. Oberst Friedrich Georgi; 3. Oberst Carl Schikofsky. ([253]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: improvisierte Platzmusik in Tóváros nach Schluss der Manöver. (254 - 255) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Zuschauer. (256) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Generalstabs-Chef von Schlieffen lässt sich das österr. Geschütz erklären. ([257]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Suite am Rendezvous-Platz die Majestäten erwartend. *1. FZM. Anton Galgótzy; 2. Kriegsminister Edmund Edler von Kriegshammer; 3. Deutscher Militär-Attaché Graf Hülsen-Haeseler. (258) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Victualien-Händler und Marketender-Wagen. (259) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: zuschauende Bauern. (260) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: FML. von Kropatschek, Auffahren des 13. Corps-Art.-Reg. (261) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Bagagewagen-Colonne. (262) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Mannschaftsküche an der Strasse in Kocs. ([263]) [Abb.]: Markt in Totis. (264) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: Vorrücken zur grossen Cavallerie-Attaque. ([265]) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: das Ende der Festlichkeiten. ([266]) [Abb.]: Schwimmteich des Militär-Waisenhauses in Fischau. (267) [Abb.]: Kriegshafen in Pola. (268) [Abb.]: Totiser Manöver: der Kaiser mit FZM. Freiherrn von Beck, Minister von Krieghammer und Engerer Suite. *1. Italienischer Militär-Attché Oberst Luigi Nava; 2. Major Ferdinand von Khuepach; 3. Gen.-Adj. G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Oberst Oscar Potiorek; 5. Gen.-Adj. FML. Arthur v. Bolfras; 6. FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 7. Reichskriegsminister Edmund Edler von Krieghammer. ([269]) [Abb.]: Admiral Freiherr von Sterneck. (270) [Abb.]: Vice-Admiral Freiherr von Spaun. (271) [Abb.]: Linienschiffs-Lieutenant Huber in der Militär-Kanzlei. (272) Auf der Jagd (273) [Abb.]: (273) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: das Jagdschloss. (274) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: der Kaiser ertheilt dem Leibkammerdiener Aufträge. *1. Leibkammerdiener Raimung Zrunek. (275) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Gedicht der Erzherzogin Marie Valerie. (276) [Abb.]: Mürzzuschlag: Ankunft der Jagdgäste auf dem Bahnhofe. *1. Ingenieur August Haben; 2. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 3. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 4. Flügel-Adjutant Oberstlieut. Thaddäus Graf Alberti; 5. Erster Obersthofmeister Prinz Rudolf zu Liechtenstein; 6. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 7. König Albert von Sachsen; 8. Ober-Forstrath Gustav Förster. ([277]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hofrath Pichler. (2)Josef Kundrat. (278) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: äsende Gemsen. (279) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Herunterbringen des erlegten Wildes. (280) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Zusammenkunft bei der Taschelschwelle nach einer Winterjagd. *1. Ober-Forstrath Gustav Förster; 2. König Albert von Sachsen; 3. Generalstabs-Chef FZM. Friedr. Freih. v. Beck; 4. Reichskriegsminister G. d. C. Edmund Freiherr v. Krieghammer; 5. Prinz Leopold v. Bayern; 6. Gutsbesitzer Bräunlich; 7. Forstverwalter Jul. Greiner. ([281]) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Nachsuche des angeschossenen Wildes. (282) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Eingang zum "Todten Weib". (283) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Gedenktafel beim "Todten Weib". (284) [Tabelle]: Programm für die Allerhöchste Hofjagd am 26. September 1894. (284) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: vor der Heimfahrt bei der Lechnerbrücke. *1. Forstverwalter Guido Hentsch; 2. Forstverwalter Julius Greiner; 3. Postmeister von Mürzsteg Baron de Prey; 4. Werksdirektor G. A. Pummer; 5. Bezirks-Jagdarzt Dr. Sonnenthal; 6. Erster Obersthofmeister Prinz Rudolf Liechtenstein; 7. Reichskriegsminister G. d. C. Edmund Edler von Krieghammer; 8. Geh. Rath Johann Graf Ledebur-Wicheln; 9. Erzherzog Otto; 10. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 11. Generalstabs-Chef FZM. Friedrich Freiherr von Beck; 12. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freiherr von Wiederhofer; 13. Flügel-Adjutant Oberstlieut. Thaddäus Graf Alberti; 14. Kaiser Wilhelm II.; 15. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 16. König Albert von Sachsen; 17. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 18. Deutscher Botschafter Philipp Graf Eulenburg; 19. Sächsischer Ober-Stabsarzt Dr. F. W. Selle; 20. Gutsbesitzer Bräunlich; 21. Forstverwalter Hugo von Kham; 22. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchówski; 23. FZM. Gustav Freih. v. Wersebe. ([285]) [Abb.]: Oberjäger Mühlbacher. (286) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: der Kaiser und der König von Sachsen besichtigen beim Abstieg das erlegte Wild. *1. König Albert von Sachsen. (287) [Karte]: Jagdprogramm mit eigenhändigen Vormerkungen des Kaisers. (288) [Abb.]: Mürzsteg: Conversation nach dem Diner. *1. Ober Forstrath Gustav Förster; 2. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freih. v. Widerhofen; 3. Geh. Rath Johann Graf Ledebur-Wicheln; 4. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 5. König Albert von Sachsen; 6. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 7. Flügel-Adjutant Major Carl Ritter v. Wessely; 8. Oberstjägermeister Leopold Freiherr v. Gudenus; 9. FML. Gustav Freiherr von Wersebe; 10. Sächsischer Ober-Stabsarzt Dr. F. W. Selle; 11. Statthaltereirath Franz Sarsch; 12. General-Adjutant Graf Bellegarde; 14. Forstverwalter Unger; 15. Gutsbesitzer Bräunlich. ([289]) [Abb.]: Jagdschloss Radmer. (290) [2 Tabellen]: (1)Die Abschußtabellen des bei den Hofjagden erlegten Wildes in den Salzkammergut-Jagdgebieten ergeben folgendes Resultat: (2)In allen kaiserlichen Hochgebirgsrevieren erlegte der Kaiser, soweit es aus den Abschusslisten nachweisbar ist: (291) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser mit seinen Jagdgästen beim frühstück vor der Kaiserhütte in der Seeau. *1. König Albert von Sachsen. (291) [Abb.]: Gretl. (292) [Abb.]: Eisenerz: der Kaiser am Abend zur Birsch gehend. (293) [Abb.]: Ebensee: der Kaiser besichtigt eine kleine Strecke beim Almhaus Fahrnau. (294) [Abb.]: Der Kaiserstand bei der Grünbergjagd im Offenseer Jagdrevier. (295) [Abb.]: Ebensee: Vorderer Langbathsee. (296) [Abb.]: Ebensee: der Kaiserstand bei der Steinbergjagd. (297) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stoanhansl. (2)Ebensee. der Kaiser und Prinz Leopold verlassen das Jagdhaus auf der Spitzalm. *1. Prinz Leopold von Bayern. (298) [Abb.]: Jägermeister Grill mit Treibern. (299) [Abb.]: Ebensee: sieben Geweihe von, bei einer Jagd in Steineckfahrnau, vom Kaiser erlegten Hirschen. (300) In Ischl. (301) [2 Abb.]: (2)Der Kaiser auf einem Spaziergange. (301) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ansicht v. Ischl und der Kaiserlichen Villa. (2)Eingang z. Kaiserlichen Park. (302) [Abb.]: Vor der Ankunft des Hofes. *1. Hofdiener Franz Gruber; 2. Hofdiener Felix Gastauger; 3. Hofdiener Friedr. Hanna; 4. Villen-Inspector Nikol. Zellner. (303) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser u. seine Jagdgäste reiten auf die Zimnitz. *1. Leibkammerdiener Raimund Zrunek; 2. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 3. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Prinz Georg von Bayern; 5. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 6. Ob.-Stabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl; 7. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freih. v. Widerhofen. (304) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser auf dem Wege zur Kirche. ([305]) [Abb.]: Hofrath Titz empfängt den Kaiser am Rendevousplatz zur Jagd. *1. Leibkutscher Josef Walter; 2. Hofrath und Hofjagdleiter Leo Titz; 3. Forst- und Domänen-Verwalter Franz Straschilek; 4. Prinz Leopold von Bayern. (306) [Abb.]: Speisenbeförderung von der Küche in die Villa. *1. Hof-Zuckerbäcker Carl Geraus; 2. Chef-Koch Richard Skoda; 3. Hofkeller-Officiant August Bischof; 4. Hoftafel-Inspector Anton Grill; 5. Hofwirtschafts-Adjunct Carl von Prileszky. ([307]) [Abb.]: Erzherzogin Gisela radfahrend. *1. Erzherzogin Gisela; 2. Prinz Konrad v. Bayern. (308) [Abb.]: Familien-Diner. *1. Prinz Leopold von Bayern; 2. Prinz Konrad von Bayern; 3. Kaiserin Elisabeth; 4. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 5. Erzherzogin Gisela; 6. Prinz Georg v. Bayern; 7. Erzh. Marie Valerie. ([309]) [Abb.]: Leibarzt Hofrath Widerhofer. *1. Thorwächter Anton Wiesauer; 2. Hofrath Dr. Hermann Freiherr von Widerhofer. (310) [Abb.]: Reichskanzler Fürst zu Hohenlohe und Minister Graf Golouchowski vor dem Hotel Elisabeth. *1. Alfred Freiherr von Springer; 2. Redacteur Julius Bauer. 3. Deutscher Reichskanzler Chlodwig Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst; 4. Minister des Aeussern Agenor Graf Goluchowski; 5. Hotelier Franz Koch. ([311]) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser Zeitung lesend. (312) [Abb.]: Kaisers Geburtstag: die Kinder der Erzherzogin Valerie gratulieren. (313) [Abb.]: Kaisers Geburtstag: Aufmarsch der Salinenkapelle. *1. Salinenmeister Bruckschlögel. (314) [Abb.]: Kaisers Geburtstag: Concert auf der Esplanade. *1. Adele Strauss; 2. Componist Johann Strauss; 3. Flügel-Adjutant Heinrich Freiherr von Kulmer; 4. Anastasia Gräfin Kielmansegg-Lebedeff; 5. Statthalter Victor Freiherr von Puthon; 6. Sections-Chef Ludwig von Dóczy; 7. Hof-Reise-Cassier Victor Stöger; 8. Kammer-Virtuose Alfred Grünfeld; 9. General-Director Eduard Palmer. ([315]) [Abb.]: Erster Obersthofmeister Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein und General-Adjutant Eduard Graf Paar auf dem Kreuzplatze. (316) [Abb.]: Flügel-Adjutant Major Heinrich Freih. v. Kulmer; 2. Flügel-Adjutant Major Hugo Fürst v. Dietrichstein; 3. General-Adjutant G. d. C. Eduard Graf Paar; 4. Erzherzogin Marie Valerie; 5. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 6. Hof-Wirthschafts-Adjunkt Carl Prileszky von Prilesz; 7. Ober-Stabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl; 8. Hof-Secretär Franz v. Hawerde-Wehrlandt; 9. Regierungs-Rath Carl Edler von Herdliczka; 10. Hof-Schauspielerin Wilhelmine Mitterwurzer; 11. Alexander Girardi; 12. Bezirkshauptmann Julius Graf Salburg; 13. Kämmerer Andreas Graf Csekonits; 14. Statthalter Victor Freiherr von Puthon; 15. Theater-Director J. Wild; 16. Chef-Redakteur Dr. Ed. Bacher; 17. Villen-Inspector i. P. Nikolaus Zellner; 18. Maler Artur Halmi; 19. Bürgermeister von Ischl Wiesinger; 20. Hofwirthschafts-Assistent Max Eckmann; 21. Hof-Reisecassier Victor Stöger. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Kaiser im Theater. (317) [Abb.]: Erzherzog Franz Salvator von einer Bergpartie heimkehrend. *1. Alexander Girardi; 2. Kammervorsteher Rittmeister Hugo Freiherr von Lederer; 3. Erzherzog Franz Salvator; 4. Ob.-Stabsarzt Dr. Josef Kerzl. (318) [Abb.]: Im Stiegen-Vestibül. *1. Erzherzogin Elisabeth Franziska; 2. Erzherzog Franz Carl Salvator; 3. Erzherzog Franz Salvator. (319) [Abb.]: Die Obersthofmeister seiner Majestät. *1. Erster Obersthofmeister FML. Rudolf Prinz Liechtenstein; 2. Obersthofmeister Alfred Fürst von Montenuovo. (320) Schlusswort. (321) [Abb.]: (321) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - ) Buchschnitt ( - ) Buchschnitt ( - ) Buchschnitt ( - )

BACKGROUND: Timely assessment of the burden of HIV/AIDS is essential for policy setting and programme evaluation. In this report from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 (GBD 2015), we provide national estimates of levels and trends of HIV/AIDS incidence, prevalence, coverage of antiretroviral therapy (ART), and mortality for 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. METHODS: For countries without high-quality vital registration data, we estimated prevalence and incidence with data from antenatal care clinics and population-based seroprevalence surveys, and with assumptions by age and sex on initial CD4 distribution at infection, CD4 progression rates (probability of progression from higher to lower CD4 cell-count category), on and off antiretroviral therapy (ART) mortality, and mortality from all other causes. Our estimation strategy links the GBD 2015 assessment of all-cause mortality and estimation of incidence and prevalence so that for each draw from the uncertainty distribution all assumptions used in each step are internally consistent. We estimated incidence, prevalence, and death with GBD versions of the Estimation and Projection Package (EPP) and Spectrum software originally developed by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). We used an open-source version of EPP and recoded Spectrum for speed, and used updated assumptions from systematic reviews of the literature and GBD demographic data. For countries with high-quality vital registration data, we developed the cohort incidence bias adjustment model to estimate HIV incidence and prevalence largely from the number of deaths caused by HIV recorded in cause-of-death statistics. We corrected these statistics for garbage coding and HIV misclassification. FINDINGS: Global HIV incidence reached its peak in 1997, at 3·3 million new infections (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 3·1-3·4 million). Annual incidence has stayed relatively constant at about 2·6 million per year (range 2·5-2·8 million) since 2005, after a period of fast decline between 1997 and 2005. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has been steadily increasing and reached 38·8 million (95% UI 37·6-40·4 million) in 2015. At the same time, HIV/AIDS mortality has been declining at a steady pace, from a peak of 1·8 million deaths (95% UI 1·7-1·9 million) in 2005, to 1·2 million deaths (1·1-1·3 million) in 2015. We recorded substantial heterogeneity in the levels and trends of HIV/AIDS across countries. Although many countries have experienced decreases in HIV/AIDS mortality and in annual new infections, other countries have had slowdowns or increases in rates of change in annual new infections. INTERPRETATION: Scale-up of ART and prevention of mother-to-child transmission has been one of the great successes of global health in the past two decades. However, in the past decade, progress in reducing new infections has been slow, development assistance for health devoted to HIV has stagnated, and resources for health in low-income countries have grown slowly. Achievement of the new ambitious goals for HIV enshrined in Sustainable Development Goal 3 and the 90-90-90 UNAIDS targets will be challenging, and will need continued efforts from governments and international agencies in the next 15 years to end AIDS by 2030. ; Funding: We thank the countless individuals who have contributed to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study 2015 in various capacities. We specifically thank Jeffrey Eaton and John Stover. HW and CJLM received funding for this study from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; the National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health (NIH; R01MH110163); and the National Institute on Aging, NIH (P30AG047845). LJAR acknowledges the support of Qatar National Research Fund (NPRP 04-924-3-251) who provided the main funding for generating the data provided to the GBD-Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation effort. BPAQ acknowledges institutional support from PRONABEC (National Program of Scholarship and Educational Loan), provided by the Peruvian government. DB is supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (grant number OPP1068048). JDN was supported in his contribution to this work by a Fellowship from Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia, Portugal (SFRH/BPD/92934/2013). KD is supported by a Wellcome Trust Fellowship in Public Health and Tropical Medicine (grant number 099876). TF received financial support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF; project number P300P3-154634). AG acknowledges funding from Sistema Nacional de Investigadores de Panama-SNI. PJ is supported by Wellcome Trust-DBT India Alliance Clinical and Public Health Intermediate Fellowship. MK receives research support from the Academy of Finland, the Swedish Research Council, Alzheimerfonden, Alzheimer's Research & Prevention Foundation, Center for Innovative Medicine (CIMED) at Karolinska Institutet South Campus, AXA Research Fund, Wallenberg Clinical Scholars Award from the Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Foundation, and the Sheika Salama Bint Hamdan Al Nahyan Foundation. AK's work was supported by the Miguel Servet contract financed by the CP13/00150 and PI15/00862 projects, integrated into the National R&D&I and funded by the ISCIII (General Branch Evaluation and Promotion of Health Research), and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF-FEDER). SML is funded by a National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Clinician Scientist Fellowship (grant number NIHR/CS/010/014). HJL reports grants from the NIHR, EU Innovative Medicines Initiative, Centre for Strategic & International Studies, and WHO. WM is Program analyst, Population and Development, in the Peru Country Office of the United Nations Population Fund, which does not necessarily endorse this study. For UOM, funding from the German National Cohort Consortium (O1ER1511D) is gratefully acknowledged. KR reports grants from NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, NIHR Career Development Fellowship, and Oxford Martin School during the conduct of the study. GR acknowledges that work related to this paper has been done on the behalf of the GBD Genitourinary Disease Expert Group supported by the International Society of Nephrology (ISN). ISS reports grants from FAPESP (Brazilian public agency). RSS receives institutional support from Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales, UDCA, Bogota Colombia. SS receives postdoctoral funding from the Fonds de la recherche en sante du Quebec (FRSQ), including its renewal. RTS was supported in part by grant number PROMETEOII/2015/021 from Generalitat Valenciana and the national grant PI14/00894 from ISCIII-FEDER. PY acknowledges support from Strategic Public Policy Research (HKU7003-SPPR-12).

Background: timely assessment of the burden of HIV/AIDS is essential for policy setting and programme evaluation. In this report from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 (GBD 2015), we provide national estimates of levels and trends of HIV/AIDS incidence, prevalence, coverage of antiretroviral therapy (ART), and mortality for 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. Methods: for countries without high-quality vital registration data, we estimated prevalence and incidence with data from antenatal care clinics and population-based seroprevalence surveys, and with assumptions by age and sex on initial CD4 distribution at infection, CD4 progression rates (probability of progression from higher to lower CD4 cell-count category), on and off antiretroviral therapy (ART) mortality, and mortality from all other causes. Our estimation strategy links the GBD 2015 assessment of all-cause mortality and estimation of incidence and prevalence so that for each draw from the uncertainty distribution all assumptions used in each step are internally consistent. We estimated incidence, prevalence, and death with GBD versions of the Estimation and Projection Package (EPP) and Spectrum software originally developed by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). We used an open-source version of EPP and recoded Spectrum for speed, and used updated assumptions from systematic reviews of the literature and GBD demographic data. For countries with high-quality vital registration data, we developed the cohort incidence bias adjustment model to estimate HIV incidence and prevalence largely from the number of deaths caused by HIV recorded in cause-of-death statistics. We corrected these statistics for garbage coding and HIV misclassification. Findings: global HIV incidence reached its peak in 1997, at 3·3 million new infections (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 3·1–3·4 million). Annual incidence has stayed relatively constant at about 2·6 million per year (range 2·5–2·8 million) since 2005, after a period of fast decline between 1997 and 2005. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has been steadily increasing and reached 38·8 million (95% UI 37·6–40·4 million) in 2015. At the same time, HIV/AIDS mortality has been declining at a steady pace, from a peak of 1·8 million deaths (95% UI 1·7–1·9 million) in 2005, to 1·2 million deaths (1·1–1·3 million) in 2015. We recorded substantial heterogeneity in the levels and trends of HIV/AIDS across countries. Although many countries have experienced decreases in HIV/AIDS mortality and in annual new infections, other countries have had slowdowns or increases in rates of change in annual new infections. Interpretation: scale-up of ART and prevention of mother-to-child transmission has been one of the great successes of global health in the past two decades. However, in the past decade, progress in reducing new infections has been slow, development assistance for health devoted to HIV has stagnated, and resources for health in low-income countries have grown slowly. Achievement of the new ambitious goals for HIV enshrined in Sustainable Development Goal 3 and the 90-90-90 UNAIDS targets will be challenging, and will need continued efforts from governments and international agencies in the next 15 years to end AIDS by 2030. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and National Institute of Mental Health and National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health

Background Timely assessment of the burden of HIV/AIDS is essential for policy setting and programme evaluation. In this report from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 (GBD 2015), we provide national estimates of levels and trends of HIV/AIDS incidence, prevalence, coverage of antiretroviral therapy (ART), and mortality for 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. Methods For countries without high-quality vital registration data, we estimated prevalence and incidence with data from antenatal care clinics and population-based seroprevalence surveys, and with assumptions by age and sex on initial CD4 distribution at infection, CD4 progression rates (probability of progression from higher to lower CD4 cell-count category), on and off antiretroviral therapy (ART) mortality, and mortality from all other causes. Our estimation strategy links the GBD 2015 assessment of all-cause mortality and estimation of incidence and prevalence so that for each draw from the uncertainty distribution all assumptions used in each step are internally consistent. We estimated incidence, prevalence, and death with GBD versions of the Estimation and Projection Package (EPP) and Spectrum software originally developed by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). We used an open-source version of EPP and recoded Spectrum for speed, and used updated assumptions from systematic reviews of the literature and GBD demographic data. For countries with high-quality vital registration data, we developed the cohort incidence bias adjustment model to estimate HIV incidence and prevalence largely from the number of deaths caused by HIV recorded in cause-of-death statistics. We corrected these statistics for garbage coding and HIV misclassification. Findings Global HIV incidence reached its peak in 1997, at 3.3 million new infections (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 3.1-3.4 million). Annual incidence has stayed relatively constant at about 2.6 million per year (range 2.5-2.8 million) since 2005, after a period of fast decline between 1997 and 2005. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has been steadily increasing and reached 38.8 million (95% UI 37.6-40.4 million) in 2015. At the same time, HIV/AIDS mortality has been declining at a steady pace, from a peak of 1.8 million deaths (95% UI 1.7-1.9 million) in 2005, to 1.2 million deaths (1.1-1.3 million) in 2015. We recorded substantial heterogeneity in the levels and trends of HIV/AIDS across countries. Although many countries have experienced decreases in HIV/AIDS mortality and in annual new infections, other countries have had slowdowns or increases in rates of change in annual new infections. Interpretation Scale-up of ART and prevention of mother-to-child transmission has been one of the great successes of global health in the past two decades. However, in the past decade, progress in reducing new infections has been slow, development assistance for health devoted to HIV has stagnated, and resources for health in low-income countries have grown slowly. Achievement of the new ambitious goals for HIV enshrined in Sustainable Development Goal 3 and the 90-90-90 UNAIDS targets will be challenging, and will need continued efforts from governments and international agencies in the next 15 years to end AIDS by 2030. Copyright (C) The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY license

ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. SECHSTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Sechster Band. (Sechster Band) ( - ) [Einband]: Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914-17 ( - ) [Abb.]: Rumänische Heeresteile verwüsten auf ihrer regellosen Flucht vor der Armee Mackensen die Ortschaften der Walachei. ( - ) [Titelblatt]: Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. ( - ) [Impressum]: ( - ) Kriegskalender zur Original=Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Sechster Band enthaltend die Ereignisse vom 1. Januar bis 30. Juni 1917 ( - ) Januar. ( - ) Februar. ( - ) März. ( - ) April. ( - ) Mai. ([I]) Juni. ([I]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten (IV) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 126 (Heft 126) ([1]) [Abb.]: Kaiser Karl von Österreich, König von Ungarn. ([1]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberst Marquard, der Leiter der Ersatzabteilung und des Arbeitsamts im neugeschaffenen Kriegsamt, bisher Generalstabschef einer Armee. (2)Dr. Kurt Sorge, Direktor des Magdeburger Grusonwerkes, der Chef des technischen Stabes des neuen Kriegsamts. (2) [ 2 Abb.]: (1)Typen rumänischer Gefangener aus der Walachei. (2)Talmacz an der Roten Turm=Strasse, das die Rumänen auf ihrer Flucht durchzogen. (3) [Abb.]: Der Donauübergang der Truppen des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Mackensen am 24. November 1916 bei Svistow ([4 - 5]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Minenräumer der österreichisch=ungarischen Donauflottille auf der Streife gegen Rumänien. (2)Deutscher 21=cm=Mörser kurz nach dem Abschuss im Roten Turm=Pass. (6) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf Patrouille im Roten Turm=Pass. Sichtung des Feindes. (2)[Abb.]: Durch Panzertürme befestigter rumänischer Schützengraben auf rumänischem Gebiet, den österreichisch=ungarische Truppen im ersten Sturm eroberten. (7) [Abb.]: Strassenleben in der mazedonischen Stadt Jstip. (8) [Abb.]: Das "Eiserne Tor Bulgariens", die Schlucht des Isterflusses im Balkan. (9) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (10) Wofür kämpfen wir? (10) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgshaubitze an der griechisch=mazedonischen Front. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von der Festung auf den Ort Dchrida am Dchridasee in Mazedonien. Im Vordergrunde bulgarische Infanterie. (2)Stand eines Töpfers im Basar der mazedonischen Stadt Dchrida am Dchridasee. (11) [Abb.]: Türkisches Ballonabwehrgeschütz an der Südspitze von Gallipoli, wo sich die Dardanellen mit dem Ägäischen Meer vereinigen. Der Kampfplatz der Franzosen und Engländer, den sie am 9. Januar 1916 fluchtartig verliessen. Auf der Höhe Sedd ul Bahr. Drüben, auf asiatischer Seite, Kum Kaleh und das Tal von Troja. (12) Die starkbefestigte Sighine=Schlucht auf Gallipoli. (12) [Abb.]: Die Sighine=Schlucht auf Gallipoli. Diese Schlucht, die vom Golf von Saros bis zum Dorfe Krythia unterhalb des heissumstrittenen Berges Altchi=Tepe sich hinzieht, war von den Engländern auf das grossartigste befestigt worden. Die fast senkrechten Abgänge waren oft bis acht Stockwerke übereinander mit unterständen versehen und auf alle Art uneinnehmbar gemacht. Aber die Einsicht, dass ein weiteres Vordringen unmöglich war und das englische Riesengrab auf Gallipoli täglich mehr Menschen verschlang, veranlasste sie, sich aus dieser einzigartigen Befestigung zurückzuziehen. ([13]) [Abb.]: Die Beobachter eines österreichisch=ungarischen Wasserflugzeuges beim Anlassen des Motors. (14) Wasserflugzeuge. (14) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarisches Wasserflugzeug wird zu einem Aufstieg aus dem Schuppen geholt. (15) Die Vorbereitung der Friedenswirtschaft. 4. Hebung der wirtschaftlichen Tätigkeit. (15) [Abb.]: Start eines Wasserflugzeuges der österreichisch=ungarischen Marine. (15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vom Erholungsurlaub der kriegsgefangenen Internierten der kriegführenden Staaten in der Schweiz. In Luzern ist ein Hofspital errichtet, in dem sich ein Anzahl Kriegsinternierter befindet. Die bereits wiederhergestellten Soldaten besorgen täglich die Post für ihre Kameraden, wobei jedesmal ein Deutscher, ein Franzose und ein Engländer unter Aufsicht eines Schweizer Soldaten zu gleicher Zeit den Dienst versehen. (2)Vereidigung österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen in Lida in Russland anlässlich der Krönung des Kaisers Karl. (16) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 127 (Heft 127) ([17]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant zur See Kurt Frankenberg, (2)Kapitänleutnant der Reserve Max Dietrich, die Führer der in der Nacht zum 28. November 1916 beim Luftschiffangriff auf England verunglückten Fahrzeuge. (3)Zu den abermaligen Vorstoss deutscher Seestreitkräfte gegen die englische Küste in der Nacht vom 26. 27. November 1916: Versenken eines englischen Vorpostenschiffes und Gefangennahme der Mannschaft. ([17]) [Abb.]: Artilleriestellung australischer Truppen nördlich der Somme. (18) [Abb.]: Französische 15,5=cm=Batterie=Stellung an der Sommefront. (19) [Abb.]: Rückeroberung des Nordrandes des St. Pierre=Vaast=Waldes in der Nachmittagsdämmerung des 15. November 1916 durch das hannoversche Füsilierregiment Nr. 73. ([20 - 21]) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant Otto v. Garnier, dessen Truppen zugleich mit denen der Generale v. Kathen, v. Boehn, v. Schenck, Sixt v. Arnim und Freiherr vom Hügel an der Sommerfront den blutigsten feindlichen Angriffen standhielten. Generalleutnant v. Garnier ist Führer eines Reservekorps und erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)Munitionsnachschub für die schwere englische Artillerie an der Somme. (2)Eines der von den Engländern an der Westfront gebrauchten, von deutscher Artillerie vielfach zusammengeschossenen Panzerautomobile, "Tant" oder auch "Caterpillar" (Raupe) genannt, auf die die Engländer vergeblich ihre Hoffnungen setzten. (23) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (24) Das britische Weltreich und der Krieg. (24) [3 Abb.]: Die Wacht an der österreichisch=ungarischen Südwestfront im Gebiet des Ortlers. (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Hochgebirgspatrouille begibt sich auf die tief verschneite Ortlerspitze. (2)Schützengrabenbau im Hochgebirge (3)Das am höchsten stehende Geschütz im Weltkrieg auf einem 3860 Meter hohen Berggipfel. (24) [Abb.]: Aus den Wochen der deutschen Heeresreserve in Flandern. Deutsche Feldgraue bei einem fröhlichen Plauderstündchen auf einem flandrischen Bauernhofe. ( - ) [Abb.]: Tiroler Kaiserjäger weisen am Monte Piano heftigste italienische Angriffe ab, nachdem sie am Tage vorher verloren gegangene Stellungen in kühnem Gegenangriff zurückgewonnen hatten. ([25]) [Abb.]: Einer der österreichisch=ungarischen Donaumonitore, die sich im Feldzug gegen Rumänien besonder hervorgetan haben. (26) [8 Abb.]: Der Donauübergang der Armee Mackensen bei Svistow. (1)Eine Dampffähre setzt Truppen über die Donau. (2)Artilleriebeobachter am rechten Donauufer. (3)An der Ansatzstelle der Brücke (4)Die Brücke während des Baues. (5)Ein neuer Brückenteil wird angesetzt. (6)Artillerie überschreitet die fertige Brücke. (7)Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen und sein Generalstabschef Generalmajor Tappen beobachten auf der rumänislchen Seite den Übergang. (8)Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen und sein Generalstabschef Generalmajor Tappen besichtigen das Gelände am rumänischen Zollhaus gegenüber von Svistow. ([27]) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 3. Die Eroberung der kleinen Walachei. (28) [Abb.]: Der siegreiche Reiterführer in der Walachei, Generalleutnant Eberh. Graf v. Schmetrow, der mit seiner Reiterei eine rumänische Kavaleriedivission am Alt zurückschlug, ein Sohn des Kommandeurs der Halberstädter Kürassiere bei dem Todesritt von Mars=la=Tour. (28) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kavallerie unter Führung des Generalleutnants Grafen v. Schmettow wirft am 25. November 1916 im Gelände östlich des unteren Alt eine sich zum Kampf stellende rumänische Kavalleriedivision unter siegreichem Nachdrängen. ([29]) [2 Abb.]: Aus einer staatlichen Geschossfabrik. (1)Dreherei. Hydraulische Presse zur Formgebung der Geschosse. (2)Füllen der Schrapnelle mit Bleikugeln. (30) [2 Abb.]: Aus einer staatlichen Geschossfabrik. (1) Teil eines Lagerraums für Geschosse der Fuss= und Feldartillerie. (2)Abnahme der Geschosse für Fuss= und Feldartillerie. (31) Deutsche Schiessbedarfwerke. (32) [Abb.]: Schweizer Patrouille auf dem Monte Rosagletscher mit Blick auf Matterhorn und Gornergrat. (32) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Hef 128 (Heft 128) ([33]) [Abb.]: Russische Soldaten, links das Idealbild eines Russen, wie ihn die französische Zeitung "Le Temps" ihren Lesern in ihrer Nr. 28 vorführt mit der Bemerkung, dass mehrere Millionen Leute wie dieser dem Verbündeten im Osten zur Verfügung ständen. Wie der russische Durchschnittsoldat in Wirklichkeit aussieht, zeigt das Bild auf der rechten Seite. ([33]) [3 Abb.]: Von der Front des Generalobersten Erzherzog Joseph. (1)Sturm ungarischer Honvedinfanterie. (2)Rast in einem kleinen Ort unweit der Front. (3)Transport einer schweren Haubitze auf schneebedeckten Waldwegen. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generaloberst Erzherzog Joseph, der Oberkommandierende im Frontabschnitt, den bisher Kaiser Karl befehligt hat. Erzherzog Joseph (nich zu verwechseln mit Erzherzog Joseph Ferdinand, der früher die 4. österreichisch=ungarische Armee bei Luck kommandierte) stand in Friedenszeiten an der Spitze des 7. Armeekorps in Budapest und führte dieses Armeekorps auch seit Beginn des Krieges, besonders erfolgreich in den Karpathenkämpfen. Als der Krieg mit Italien ausgebrochen war, übernham er das Oberkommando einer Armee an der Isonzofront. (2)Ein deutsches Feldlazarett westlich von Luck. (35) [Abb.]: Eroberung russischer Feldstellungen bei Strobowa. (36 - 37) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zum Kampf am Strobowabach (36 - 37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Angriff deutscher Seeflugzeuge auf feindliche Streitkräfte im Hafen von Reval. Im Vordergrund ein Flugzeugmutterschiff mit zwei Unterseebooten, links der Hafen mit Krieg= und Hilfschiffen, rechts die Werft (2)Angriff deutscher Seeflugzeuge auf militärische Anlagen im Hafen des russischen Stützpunktes Reva. Der Rauch kennzeichnet die Einschlagstellen der geworfenen Bomben (38) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Luftstreitkräfte auf die Küste am Rigaischen Meerbusen. ([39]) [Abb.]: Der Hafen von Archangelsk am Weissen Meer, in dem eine furchtbare Explosion mehrerer für Rumänien bestimmter Munitionsdampfer ausbrach. (40) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (40) Der Tag von Strobowa. (40) [Abb.]: Einzug des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Mackensen in Bukarest an der Spitze deutscher und bulgarischer Truppen. Empfang durch die Stadtvertretung und andere Behörden auf der Calea Victoriei. ( - ) [Abb.]: Kämpfe mit russisch=kaukasischen Streifkorps (Tscherkessen) in den Waldkarpathen nördlich des Prislop=Sattels. ( - ) [Abb.]: Von den türkischen Truppen in der Dobrudscha gefangene Russen auf dem Transport nach dem Innern Kleinasiens. (42) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen mit seinem Stab bei einer Parade türkischer Truppen nach den siegreichen Kämpfen gegen die Rumänen. (43) Schwäbische Regimenter aus der Sommeschlacht. (43) [Abb.]: General Hilmi Pascha, der Führer der Türken in der Dobrudscha, und General Toscheff, der Generalissimus der bulgarischen Truppen auf dieser Kampffront, auf ihrem Gefechtstand vor Medgidia in der Dobrudscha. (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bulgarische Batteriestellung an der Donau. (2)Einschiffen von deutschem schwerem Geschütz durch österreichisch=ungarische Pioniere an der Donau. (44) [Abb.]: Eine Eskadron des Pasewalker Kürassier=Regiments "Königin" nimmt am 28. November 1916 unter Führung des Rittmeisters v. Borcke eine rumänische Kolonne bei Ciolanesti gefangen. (45) Das britische Weltreich und der Krieg. (45) [2 Abb.]:(1) General der Infanterie Kosch, Führer der von Svistow vorgedrungenen Donauarmee. (2)Generalleutnant Kühne, siegreicher Heerführer in der Schlacht am Arges. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Festung Bukarest. (2)Die Übergangstelle der Armee Mackensen über die Donau und das Kriegsgebiet von Bukarest, nach Generalstabskarten bearbeitet. (47) [Abb.]: Eroberter englischer Schützengraben an der Somme. (48) Die Verluste des Vierverbandes gegen Ende des Jahres 1916. (48) [Abb.]: Von den farbigen Engländern: Indische Soldaten mit einem Hotchkitzmaschinengewehr an der Front von La Bassée. (48) [Abb.]: Rast eines Gefangenentransportes afrikanischer Jäger in der Abenddämmerung am Toten Mann. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. (Heft 129) ([49]) (Abb.]: Die denkwürdige Reichstagsitzung am 12. Dezember 1916: Der deutsche Reichskanzler v. Bethmann Hollweg verliest das Friedensangebot der Mittelmächte. ([49]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Alarmierung einer deutschen Sturmabteilung an der Somme. (2)Zu den ausserordentlichen artilleristischen Anstrengungen der Franzosen und Engländer an der Sommefront: Der Verkehr auf einer Strasse hinter der Front. (50) [Abb.]: In Kämpfen nördlich der Somme gefangene Australier. (51) [Abb.]: Ein von den deutschen Truppen bei Verdun erobertes Negerdorf. Erdhütten der Senegalneger. (52) [Abb.]: Erfolgreicher Sturm auf den "Backenzahn" auf Höhe 304 vor Verdun durch deutsche Handgranatenkämpfer am 6. Dezember 1916. ([53]) [Abb.]: Mächtiger bombensicherer deutscher Unterstand in einem französischen Walde. (54) [Abb]: Notlandung eines österreichisch=ungarischen Flugzeuges. (55) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (56) Schwäbische Regimenter aus der Sommeschlacht. (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der französischer General Nivelle, der Verteidiger Verduns und Nachfolger Joffres im Oberbefehl an der Westfront. (2)Aufstellung eines österreichisch=ungarischen 30,5=cm=Mörsers. (56) [Abb.]: Vorstoss deutscher Tauchboote in den Hafen von Funchal auf Madeira am 4. Dezember 1916 morgens. ([57]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Soldat in den Alpen auf Vorposten. (58) [Abb.]: Ankunft deutscher Soldaten in einer österreichischen Ortschaft an der italienischen Front. (59) Der Flugplatz. (59) [Abb.]: Schwere Niederlage der Armee Sarrail in der Monastirebene und in den Bergen des Cernabogens durch Scheitern eines grossen Angriffs meist afrikanischer Truppen von Trnova (nordwestlich Monastir) bis Makovo ([60 - 61]) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie Otto v. Below, der heldenmütige Erstürmer eines Berggipfels in Serbisch=Mazedonien, wurde zum Chef des Jägerbataillons ernannt, an dessen Spitze er den Sturm ausführte (62) Praktische Ernährungsfragen im Kriege. (62) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Kolonne durchschreitet einen Gebirgsbach in den Babunabergen (Mazedonien). (2)Ein deutsches Auto auf halber Höhe des Babunapasses (Mazedonien). Im Vordergrunde ein deutscher Soldat, der mit der eingeborenen Bevölkerung beim Zerkleinern des Strassenpflasters beschäftigt ist. (64) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Truppen setzen in der Nacht auf den 10. Dezember 1916 im Schutze der Dunkelheit zwischen Tutrakan und Cernavoda über die Donau. Infolge dieses kühnen Unternehmens wurden die gegenüber Cernavoda liegenden russischen und rumänischen Truppen gezwungen, ihre mächtig ausgebauten Stellungen zu räumen und in überstürzte Weise den Rückzug anzutreten. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 130 (Heft 130) ([65]) [Abb.]: Russische Gefangene am Lagerfeuer. ([65]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Ostfront. (1)Stellungswechsel der Artillerie im winterlichen Osten. (2)Die größte für Kriegszwecke gebaute Brücke, die Brücke über das Tal des Szczeberkabaches im Osten, die 845 Meter lang ist und in 16 Tagen von einer deutschen Eisenbahnkompanie errichtet wurde. (3)Deutsche Patrouille im Sumpfgebiet am Stochod. ([67]) [Abb.]: Beschiessung einer rumänischen Stellung im Gebirge durch Teile des linken Flügels der 9. Armee. (68 - 69) [Abb.]: Blick auf Kirlibaba in den östlichen Karpathen. (70) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (70) Praktische Ernährungsfragen im Kriege. (70) [2Abb.]: (1)Graf Stanislaus Szeptycki, Kommandant der polnischen Legion. (2)Einmarsch der polnischen Legion in Warschau. Die polnische Kavallerie im Vorbeimarsch am Hotel Bristol, vor dem der deutsche Generalgouverneur von Polen General der Infanterie v. Beseler die Parade abnimmt. Nachdem polnische Legionen schon ruhmreich an der Seite der Mittelmächte gegen Russland gefochten, war die Bewilligung einer eigenen Wehrmacht ein brennender polnischer Wunsch und ein Zeichen besonderen Vertrauens der Mittelmächte. (71) [Abb.]: Siebenbürgische Flüchtlinge kehren nach der Wiedereroberung ihres Landes durch die Armee Falkenhayn in ihren Heimatort zurück. (72) [Abb.]: Rumänische Freischärler. ([73]) Die Opferung englischer und französischer Hilfsvölker. (74) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Falkenhayn, der Führer der siegreichen 9. Armee vor seinem Hauptquartier in einer kleinen rumänischen Stadt. (74) Deutscher Heldenfriedhof in Therapia. (74) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von deutschen Pionieren bei dem Vormarsch auf Bukarest über den Alt geschlagene Schiffbrücke. Im Hintergrund die Ortschaft Caineni. Truppen beim Überschreiten der Brücke. (2)Durch eine deutsche Fliegerbombe zerstörter rumänischer Munitionszug Deutsche Soldaten beim Aufräumen der Trümmer. (75) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im Oktober und November 1916 und die Kämpfe an der Ugandabahn im Januar und Februar 1916. (76 - 77) [Abb.]: Friedhof der in der Türkei gefallenen deutschen Helden im Botschaftsgarten zu Therapia am Bosporus. (76 - 77) [Abb.]: Askari=Hornist von Deutsch=Ostafrika. (78) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. (78) 1. Lloyd George als englischer Volksheld. (78) [Abb.]: Blick auf Tabora, das am 4. September 1916 vom Feinde besetzt wurde. (78) [2 Abb.]:(1) Eine Abteilung rhodesianischer Truppen, die auf ihrem Vormarsch im dichten Busch Deutsch=Ostafrikas von den Deutschen vollkommen vernichtet wurde. (2)General Smuts, der Kommandeur der englischen Truppen in Ostafrika, besichtigt von seinem Panzerauto aus das Gelände. (79) [2Abb.]: (1)Englische Offiziere beobachten den Verlauf eines Gefechtes ab der Tanga=Moschi=Eisenbahn von dem Dache eines Hauses aus. (2)Lloyd George, der englische Diktator. (80) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 131 (Heft 131) ([81]) [Abb.]: Nächtliches Artilleriefeuer mit Leuchtgranaten an der Sommerfront. ([81]) [Abb.]: In voller Ausrüstung gefangen genommener französischer Soldat. (82) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schützengraben im Westen nach schwerem Minen= und Artilleriefeuer.(2)Die Fahrspuren der englischen Riesen=Panzerwagen, der sogenannten Tanks. (83) [Abb.]: Englische Riesen=Panzerwagen, sogenannte "Tanks", im Kampf an der Sommefront. ([84 - 85]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Tragtierkolonne mit Infanteriemunition durchschreitet den Ort Lebocourt im Westen. (2)Tragtier mit Infanteriemunition begibt sich durch einen Laufgraben in eine vordere Stellung im Westen. (86) [Abb.]: Rast vor der Kirche von Véry vor Verdun. (87) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant d. R. Gustav Leffers, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite, am 27. Dezember 1916 im Luftkampf gefallen. (2)Hauptmann Zander, einer unserer erfolgreichen Luftkämpfer, der sich in den Kämpfen am 27. Dezember 1916 besonders auszeichnete. (88) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (88) Die roten Teufel in Rumänien. (88) [Abb.]: Ein südwestlich von Lille gelandeter englischer Vickers=Doppeldecker. (88) [Abb.]: Der Munitionstransportdampfer "Suchan" der russischen Freiwilligen=Flotte wird auf seiner Fahrt von Amerika nach Archangelsk durch ein deutsches U=Boot im Nördlichen Eismeer aufgebracht und in schwerem Wetter, im Schnee= und Regensturm durch die Nordsee in einen deutschen Hafen geleitet. Eine seemännische Glanzleitstung der deutschen Marine. ([uncounted]) [Abb.]: Flugzeugabwehrgeschütz auf einem Kraftwagen beschiesst feindliche Flieger. ([89]) [Abb.]: Die Besatzung des deutschen U=Bootes, das den russischen Munitionstransportdampfer "Suchan" in einen deutschen Nordseehafen brachte. Von links nach rechts stehend: Deckoffizier Berner, Oberleutnant z. S. Mertens, Deckoffizier Bergmann; Marineoberingenieur Ahrens, Kapitänleutnant Buss (Kommandant), Oberleutnant z. S. d. R. Hashagen (Prisenoffizier). (90) Fliegerkämpfe bei Ostende und Zeebrügge. (90) [Abb.]: Gefangengene Engländer von Kut=el=Amara auf dem Abtransport. (91) Erfolgloser russischer Sturmangriff auf eine deutsch=türkische Minenwerferstellung Kaukasus. (91) [Abb.]: Kapitänleutnant Max Valentiner, Kommandant des U=Boots 38, der bis Ende 1916 128 Schiffe von 282 000 Bruttoregistertonnen versenkte. Er führte auch den Angriff im Hafen von Funchal (siehe Seite 52) aus und wurde mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet. (91) [Abb.]: Oberstleutnant Guse (X), Chef des Generalstabes der III. ottomanischen Armee, und Major Paulke (XX), Instrukteur und Kommandeur der Schi= und Hochgebirgstruppen. (92) Rumäniens Erdölquellen. (92) [Abb.]: Bayerischer 15=cm=Haubitzbatterie geht an die Front in Mesopotamien. Die Gespanne bestehen aus zwanzig Ochsen. (92) [Abb.]: Erfolgloser russischer Sturmangriff auf eine deutsch=türkische Minenwerferstellung im Kaukasus. ([93]) [Abb.]: Köpfe von Kriegszeitungen, davon die erste eine Feldzeitung der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee, die letzte in türkischer Sprache für die türkischen Truppen. Der "Champagne=Kamerad" hat auch in Deutschland Verbreitung gefunden (94) Kriegszeitungen. (94) [Abb.]: Köpfe von Kriegszeitungen, von denen zwei in französischer Sprache erscheinen, die erste, "Le Journal du Camp d´Ohrdruf", als Blatt des französischen Kriegsgefangenenlagers zu Ohrdruf in Thüringen, die letzte, "Gazette des Ardennes", als offizielles Nachrichtenblatt in den besetzten Teilen Frankreichs. Diese enthält auch ein Verzeichnis sämtlicher in deutsche Gefangenschaft geratenen Franzosen und ist in der kurzen Zeit ihres Bestehens (seit 1. November 1915) bereits zu einer Auflage von über 100 000 Exempülaren angewachsen (siehe auch die Abbildungen aus ihrem Betriebe Band IV Seite 77). Grosser Beliebtheit erfreut sich die seit Mitte Oktober 1914 erscheinende "Liller Kriegszeitung" auch in Deutschland. (95) [Abb.]: Die erste Nummer der griechischen Zeitung "NEA TOY GÖRLITZ", die in Görlitz für die dort untergebrachten griechischen Gäste in ihrer Sprache herausgegebenn wird. Die Zeitung wird von griechischen Soldaten gesetzt und bringt ausser dem deutschen Heeresbericht Nachrichten aus Griechenland und einen grossen Vergnügungsanzeiger, da die griechischen Offiziere alle öffentlichen Veranstaltungen besuchen können. (96) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 132 (Heft 132) ([97]) [Abb.]: Das Flussgebiet des Sereth und Pruth im nördlichen Teil von Rumänien. ([97]) [Abb.]: Kolonnen überschreiten die Donaubrücke bei Sviftow. (98) [6 Abb.]: Im eroberten Bukarest. (1)Vor dem königlichen Schloss in Bukarest. (2)Deutsche Feldkpostautos vor dem Grand Hotel de Londres in Bukarest. (3)Deutsche Radfahrerkompanie (Jäger) überquert den Schlossplatz in Bukarest. Links das Sparkassengebäude. (4)Der Vierbund beim Einkauf: ein türkischer, deutscher, österreichisch=ungarischer und bulgarischer Soldat beim Einkaufen von Pfefferkuchen auf dem Schlossplatz von Bukarest. (5)Österreichisch=ungarische Kavallerie zieht, von einer schaulustigen Menge betrachtet, in Bukarest ein. (6)Gefangene eines Bukarester Regiments werden durch die Calea Victoriei, die Hauptstrasse von Bukarest, geführt. ([99]) [Abb.]: Russische Artillerie wird zur Verstärkung der wankenden rumänischen Front herbeigeholt. ([100 - 101]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Haubitze fährt durch einen Rebenfluss der Putna in Stellung. (102) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verhör eines gefangenen rumänischen Offiziers durch deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Offiziere. (2)Eine Gruppe gefangener rumänischer Soldaten. (103) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ansicht von Galatz von den Hafenanlagen aus. (2)Lagerräume des österreichischen Lloyd im Hafen von Galatz. (3)Ansicht des Hafens von Braila. (104) [Abb.]: Angriff ungarischer Honved auf russische Infanterie. ( - ) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Donaumonitore beschiessen die rumänische Schiffbrücke bei Rahovo. (105) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Kriegsauszeichnungen. 1. Das Tapferkeitskreuz 3. Klasse. 2. Das Tapferkeitskreuz 4. Klasse. 3. Der Orden Pour le Mérite für Mannschaften. 4. Alexanderorden mit Schwertern 5. Klasse. 5. Der Militärverdienstorden 4. Klasse am Kriegsbande. Die Orden werden mit Ausnahme des Alexanderordens, der an einem roten Bande befestigt ist, an einem lila Band, das an der Seite mit Silber durchwirkt ist, getragen (106) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsauszeichnungen. Das Militärverdienstkreuz mit Kriegsdekoration 1) 1. Klasse, 2) 2. Klasse, 3) 3. Klasse. Die Farben des Ordens sowie der Schleife sind weiss und rot. (107) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (107) Österreichisch=ungarische Donaumonitore beschiessen die Schiffbrücke von Rahowo (107) [Abb.]: Kriegsleben am Schwarzen Meer. Verladen von schweren deutschen Geschützen und Kriegsmaterial in der Poirasbucht. (108 - 109) Verladen von Kriegsmaterial und schweren Geschützen in der Poirasbucht des Schwarzen Meeres. (108 - 109) Münzrecht in den besetzten Gebieten des Ostens. (110) Die Wirtschaftslage der kriegführenden Mächte. (111) [3 Abb.]: Ein Fünfzig=Kopeken= und ein Ein=Rubel=Schein, die mit Genehmigung der Regierung von der Ostbank für Handel und Gewerbe in Posen für das Gebiet des Oberbefehlshabers Ost herausgegeben wurden. (1)Ein Dreikopekenstück, das der Oberbefehlshaber Ost zur Hebung des Kleingeldmangels hat schlagen lassen. Vorder= und Rückseite. (2)Vorderseite. (3)Rückseite. (111) [Abb.]: Ein französischer Lenkballon, im Begriff, aufzusteigen. (112) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 133 (Heft 133) ([113]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (-) Die englischen Zerstörungen im rumänischen Petroleumgebiet. (118) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldten vor ihrem Quartier in einem türkischen Bauernhause in Prilep (Mazedonien). (118) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. (119) [Abb.]: Deutsche Wasserflugzeugstation an der bulgarisch=griechischen Grenze am Ägäischen Meer. (119) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte von Athen und Umgebung mit dem Piräus und der Bucht von Phaleron. (120) [Abb.]: Vernichtung rumänischer Petroleumraffinerien in Ploesci durch die skrupellose englische "Zerstörungskommission" im Dezember 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Auf der Kommandobrücke eines deutschen Vorpostenbootes (Fischdampfer) im Schneesturm. ([121]) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant z. S. Wolfgang Steinbauer, der Kommandant des U=Bootes, das am 27. Dezember 1916 im Ägäischen Meer das von Bewachungsstreitkräften gesicherte französische Linienschiff "Gaulois", am 1. Januar 1917 im Mittelmeer den von Zerstörern begleiteten englischen Truppentransportdampfer "Ivernia", und am 3. Januar ebenda einen weiteren Transportdampfer versenkt hat. (122) Verteidigung des polnischen Gutes Poronosziewo. (122) [3 Abb.]: (1) Das englische Schlachtschiff "Cornwallis", das am 1. Januar 1917 von einem deutschen Unterseeboot im Mittelmeer versenkt wurde. Die "Cornwallis" wurde im Jahre 1901 gebaut und verdrängte 15250 Tonnen. Sie führte vier 30,5=cm und zwölf 15=cm=Geschütze. Die Besatzung betrug 750 Mann. (2)Das am 12. Dezember 1916 von einem deutschen Unterseeboot 55 Seemeilen ostsüdöstlich von Malta torpedierte französische Linienschiff "Vérité" von der "Patrieklasse". Es ist 1907 vom Stapel gelaufen, verdrängt 14900 Tonnen und läuft 19,3 Knoten in der Stunde. Seine Bewaffnung besteht aus vier 30,5=cm=, zehn 19,4=cm=, dreizehn 6,5=cm und zehn 4,7=cm=Geschützen. Die Besatzung umfasst 735 Mann. (3)Das italienische Linienschiff "Regina Margherhttp://goobi.landesbibliothek.at/goobi/uii/metseditor.xhtml#ita", das vor Valona gesunken ist. Es war 1901 vom Stapel gelaufen, verdrängte 13 400 Tonnen und lief 20,3 Knoten in der Stunde. Seine Bewaffnung bestand aus vier 30,5=cm=, vier 20,3=cm=, zwölf 15=cm= und zwanzig 7,6=cm= Geschützen. Die Besatzung umfasste 820 Mann. (123) [Abb.]: Verteidigung des polnischen Gutes Poronosziewo (Gouvernement Suwalki) durch die 1. Kompanie des 1. Ersatzbataillons des Landwehr=Infanterieregiments Nr. 12 gegen Teile der russischen Infanterieregimenter Tambow Nr. 122 und Koslow Nr. 123 und Kommandos vom 4. Sappeurbataillon am 6. Oktober 1914. (124 - 125) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze 1 zu dem Aufsatz "Die Wahrheit über Combles". (126) Die Wahrheit über Combles. (126) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze 2 zu dem Aufsatz "Die Wahrheit über Combles". (126) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze 3 zu dem Aufsatz "Die Wahrheit über Combles". (127) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kriegslage beim deutschen Friedensangebot. (2)Was die Mittelmächte nach dem Willen des Vierverbandes bei dem Frieden verlieren sollen. (128) [Abb.]: Auffahrende Artillerie. ( - ) [Abb.]: Italienische Gefangene am Lagerfeuer auf dem Balkankriegschauplatz. ([113]) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Kavallerie auf dem Marsche. (114) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Infanterie auf dem Marsche in Mazedonien. (115) [Abb.]: Bau eines bombensicheren Unterstandes durch deutsche Truppen in Mazedonien. (116) [Abb.]: Bulgaren stürmen eine von serbischen Truppen verteidigte Ortschaft in Mazedonien. ([117]) [Abb.]: Katapulte zum Handgranatenschleudern bei der bulgarischen Armee an der mazedonischen Front. (118) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 134 (Heft 134) ([129]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Karte zu den Kämpfen an der Aa.(2)Die deutsche Front am Rigaischen Meerbusen, der äusserste linke Flügel der gesamten Ostfront. ([129]) [Abb.]: Rast eines Korpsbrückentrains auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (130) [2 Abb.]:(1) Österreichisch=ungarische Reiterabteilung bei einem Umgehungsversuch gegen die Russen bei Dorna Watra. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Feldwache in den Waldkarpathen. (131) [Abb.]: Sturmangriff des deutschen Infanterieregiments 189 nördlich der Oitozstrasse am 10. Januar 1917 auf stark ausgebaute, zäh verteidigte russische Höhenstellungen. ([132 - 133]) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte der Moldau. ([135]) [3 Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee gegen Rumänien. (1)Verschneite österreichisch=ungarische Feldhaubitze. (2)Eroberte rumänische Stellung. (3)Holztransport mittels Pferden einer österreichisch=ungarischen Maschinengewehrabteilung für die Vorpostendeckung. (136) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen an der Heeresfront des Erzherzogs Joseph. Abwehr des grossen Russenangriffs beiderseits der Strasse Valeputna-Jakobeny durch die Armee des Generalobersten Kövesz v. Köveszhaza. ([137]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Grabenstellung an der italienischen Front. (138) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (138) Deutschlands Weltstellung und der Friede. (138) [Abb.]: Aufstellung eines schweren italienischen Marinegeschützes an der italienisch=österreichischen Fr ont. (139) [Abb.]: Lawinengefahr im Hochgebirge (140 - 141) Die Neutralität der Schweiz. (142) [Abb.]: Soldaten der schweizerischen Armee mit Probehelmen aus Stahl, wie solche auch bei der eidgenössischen Armee eingeführt werden sollen. (142) [Abb.]: Zu den verstärkten Sicherheitsmassnahmen der Schweiz. Fertiger Kehlgraben mit einem Verbindungsgang, der in einen Stützpunkt einmündet. (143) Valuta. (143) [Abb.]: Zu den verstärkten Sicherheitsmassnahmen der Schweiz. Beobachtungstand mit grossen Fernsichtinstrumenten. (143) [Abb.]: Generaloberst Freiherr v. Falkenhausen, Führer einer Armeegruppe im Westen, erhielt in warmer Anerkennung seiner dem Vaterland geleisteten Dienste den hohen Orden vom Schwarzen Adler. (144) [Abb.]: Torpedobootsangriff. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 191417. Heft 135 (Heft 135) ([145]) [Abb.]: Eines der neuen amerikanischen Grosskampfschiffe. Der Über=Dreadnought "Revada", ein Schiff von 27 500 Registertonnen Wasserverdrängung und mit einer Bestückung von zehn 35=cm=Geschützen. Die durch Ölfeuerung betriebenen Turbinen entwickeln 25 000 Pferdekräfte und bewirken eine Geschwindigkeit von 21 Knoten in der Stunde. ([145]) [Abb.]: Beförderung deutscher Truppen auf Kraftwagen zur Front im Westen. (146) [3 Abb.]: (1)Richten eines 21=cm=Mörsers. (2)21=cm=Mörser wird geladen. (3)21=cm=Mörser in vorzüglicher Deckung. (147) [Abb.]: Rückkehr einer erfolgreichen Patrouille an der Combreshöhe, der die französische Artillerie etwa 1000 Granaten nachsandte (148) [Abb.]: Erstürmung feindlicher Gräben im Priesterwalde am 2. Januar 1917 durch eine Abteilung des deutschen Landwehrinfanterieregiments Nr. 93. ([149]) [4 Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegerbeute im Westen. (1)Französischer Farman=Doppeldecker mit 160 Pferdekräften (Renaultmotor, 6=Zylinder=Standmotor). Unter dem Beobachtersitz befindet sich ein Scheinwerfer. Rechts neben dem Flugzeug die beschädigte Motorhaube. Es wurde an der Somme erbeutet, wo sich die Insassen, ein französischer Leutnant als Führer und ein englischer Hauptmann als Beobachter, im Nebel verirrt hatten. (2)In der Chhampagne abgeschossenes französisches Flugzeug. (3)Französisches Nieuport=Kampfflugzeug (Einsitzer), das infolge einer Notlandung in die Hände der Deutschen fiel.(4)Französischer Breguet=Doppeldecker mit 220 Pferdekräften (Renaultmotor), der imstande ist, 800 Kilogramm Bomben zu tragen. Die Abwurfgeschosse sind unter den Tragflächen sichtbar. (150) [Abb.]: Bestattung zweier französischer Flieger auf einem Friedhof im Westen. An der Beerdigung nahmen eine Abordnung Infanteristen und eine Abordnung Luftschiffer teil. (151) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (151) Kriegsgefangen. (151) [Abb.]: Das nach ruhmreichen Kampf in der Nordsee am 23. Januar 1917 in Qmuiden eingelaufene deutsche Torpedoboot "V 69". Nachdem es mit eigenen Mitteln seine Seefähigkeit wiederhergestellt hatte, lief es in der Nacht zum 11. Februar wieder aus und erreichte Tags darauf wohlbehalten einen deutschen Stützpunkt. (152) [Abb.]: Beschiessung des befestigten Platzes Southwold an der englischen Ostküste durch deutsche leichte Seestreitkräfte in der Nacht vom 25. auf den 26. Januar 1917. ([153]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Arilleristen im Taurusgebirge beim Überschreiten der cilicischen Pässe. (154) Die Verwaltung von "Ober=Ost". (154) [ 2Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Kraftfahrerabteilung im Taurus. (2)Botzanti, die vorläufige Endstation der Bagdadbahn am Taurus, wo deutsche und türkische Truppen ein grosses Lager aufgeschlagen und Vorräte an Lebensmitteln und anderem Material aufgespeichert haben. (155) [Abb.]: General Halil=Pascha, Kommandant der 6. türkischen Armee, der Eroberer von Kut=el=Amara, und Oberstleutnant Wilhelmi bei einer Besprechung in Bagdad. (156) [Abb.]: Die Russen räumen, von den Türken vertrieben, die persische Stadt Hamadan am 4. Januar 1917. ([157]) Generalmajor Anton Höfer. (158) [Abb.]: Generalmajor Höfer, Leiter des österreichischen Amtes für Volksernährung. (158) Aufgaben der Luftschiffe beim Eisenbahnrückzug. (158) [8 Abb.]: Friedliche Bilder aus dem "Gebiet des Oberbefehlshabers Ost". (1)Russische Bauernhäuser nach deutscher Bearbeitung. (2)Inneres eines Blockhauses im Osten, das mit Birkenstämmen und Birkenrinde wohnlich gemacht ist. (3)Fischen von Holz aus einem russischen Fluss. (4)Erbeutete grosse Holzlager in einem russischen Fluss. (5)Fortschaffen erbeuteten russischen Holzes aus einem Fluss. (6)Von deutschen Soldaten errichtetes Elektrizitätswerk in einem russischen Dorfe. (7)Lebensmittelausgabe in einem russischen Walde. (8)Musterung russischer Pferde in einem Dorfe. ([159]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu dem Artikel "Aufgaben der Luftschiffe beim Eisenbahnrückzug". (160) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 136 (Heft 136) ([161]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Erkundungsabteilung sucht sich eine Furt durch einen halb zugefrorenen Bach im russischen Walde. ([161]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen im Raume Mitau=Riga. (162) [Abb.]: Vorgetriebener deutscher Schützengraben mit Beobachtungsposten an der kurländischen Front. ([163]) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Stosstruppen an der Dünafront. (164 - 165) [Abb.]: Vorgehen einer deutschen Infanterieabteilung im Sturm gegen Monte Miglele (1299 Meter) in den rumänischen Karpathen (Anfang November 1916). (166) [Abb.]: Deutsche Munitionsverladestelle in der Walachei. (167) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (167) Heldentat des Majors Viola (167) [Abb.]: An die Front ziehende Bosniaken in Rimnicul=Sarat. (167) [ 3 Abb.]: Die Sicherung der erbeuteten Petroleum= und Benzinvorräte in Bukarest. (1)Abtransport von Petroleum aus den rumänischen Raffinerien am Bahnhof von Bukarest (2)Wegführen wohlgefüllter Benzinwagen in Bukarest. (3) Die unversehrten Petroleumlager am Bukarester Bahnhof unter deutscher Aufsicht. (168) Die Verwaltung von "Ober=Ost". (169) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bulgarischer Verwundetentransport in einer Strasse von Constanza. (2)Deutscher Offizier auf der Strandpromenade von Constanza. (169) [Abb.]: Sturmangriff österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen an der italienischen Front. (170) [Abb.]: Mittagessen österreichisch=ungarischer Soldaten in luftiger Höhe an der italienischen Front. (171) Vom deutschen Kleinkrieg zur See. (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Gekaperte Dampfer in flandrischen Häfen. Die Prisen im Hafen von Zeebrügge. (172 - 173) Minensperren. (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Skizze zu dem Artikel "Minensperren". (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Skizze zu dem Artikel "Minensperren". (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Deutscher Tauchboot=Minenleger beim Auslegen der Minen. Die in der Abbildung angegebenen Zahlen haben folgende Bedeutung : 1. Kettenlast. 2. Anker 3. Flutventile. 4. Minenrohre. 5. Pressluftflaschen. 6. Druckschott. 7. Türe. 8. Lotmaschine. 9. Boje mit Fernsprecher und Lampe. 10. Ventilator. 11. Turm mit Sehrohr und Fernrohrmast. 12. Hintere Luke. 13. Zentrale. 14. Wohnraum. 15. Elektrischer Kraftsammler. 16. Maschine. 17. Schalldämpfer. 18. Ölkasten. 19. Wasserballast. 20. Sicherheitsgewicht. 21. Ballastkiel. 22. Hinterer Trimmraum. Das Legen der Minen vollzieht sich in folgender Weise: Nach Lösung des Süerrhebels vom Turm aus gleitet die Mine samt Stuhl und Anker zum Rohr hinaus und sinkt. Nach Berührung des Bodens beginnt die Sperrung der Mine im Stuhl sich zu lösen. Die nach gewisser zeit freigewordene Mine steigt, das Untertau, wickelt sich ab. Die Mine stellt sich selbstätig auf bestimmte Tiefe unter dem Wasserspiegel ein. (174) Fliegerhauptmann Buddecke. (175) Die Milch=, Butter= und Käseversorgung während und nach dem großen Kriege. (175) [Abb.]: Italienischer Minenleger während der Fahrt. (175) [Abb.]: Fliegerhauptmann Buddecke, der auf dem türkischen Kriegschauplatz bis zum 1. Oktober 1916 zehn feindliche Flugzeuge abgeschossen hat und dafür mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet wurde. (176) [Abb.]: Minensprengung an der kurländischen Küste. Die bei Nordweststürmen antreibenden russischen Minen werden durch besondere Sprengkommandos entweder gesprengt oder entschärft, d. h. durch vorsichtiges Herausnehmen der Zündvorrichtung unschädlich gemacht. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 137 (Heft 137) ([177]) [Abb.]: Auf der Kommandobrücke eines deutschen Unterseebootes. Das U=Boot beim Auslaufen aus einem deutschen Hafen. ([177]) [Abb.]: Karte zur deutschen Sperrgebietserklärung. (178) [Abb.]: Abschiessen treibender Minen von Bord eines Vorpostenschiffes aus. ([179]) [Abb.]: Vernichtung eines französischen Segelschiffes durch ein deutsches U=Boot. Das Schiff wird, während die Mannschaft zu Boote gelassen wird, in Brand gesetzt. ([180 - 181]) [Abb.]: Blick auf das Deck des amerikanischen Grosskampfschiffes "New York" (182) [3 Abb.]: Aus einem deutschen Küstenfort. (1)Ein grosser Geschosslagerraum unter der Erde, in dem die Geschosse mittels Flaschenzuges auf kleine Karren geladen werden. (2)Ein schweres Geschoss wird zu einem Küstengeschütz befördert. (3)Das Klarmachen eines grossen Küstengeschützes. (183) [2 Abb.]: Die Verwendung deutscher Handgranaten im Schützengrabenkrieg. (184) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen an der Aa bei Mitau. ( - ) [Abb.]: Alarm in einem Ort der Champagne. ([185]) [Abb.]: Ein Grössenvergleich: Sieger und Besiegter. Das kleine deutsche Fokkerflugzeug (links) und ein von ihm bezwungener englischer Kampfdoppeldecker. (186) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (186) Abschiessen von treibenden Minen. (186) [Abb.]: Französischer Doppeldecker mit zwei Motoren und einem Maschinengewehr zum Aufsstieg bereit. (186) [Abb.]: Zur Beschiessung feindlicher Anlagen durch deutsche Flugzeuge (187) Die Kämpfe zwischen Mitau und Riga im Januar 1917. (187) [Abb.]: Deutsche Funkerabteilung beim Überschreiten einer Passstrasse in Siebenbürgen. (188) [Abb.]: Deutsche Alpentruppen im Kampf gegen Rumänen in den siebenbürgischen Karpathen. ([189]) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 4. Um die Serethlinie. I. Der Vormarsch um Sereth. (190) [Abb.]: General Hilmi=Pascha, der Führer der Türken, und General der Infanterie Kosch, der Führer der siegreichen Donauarmee und Eroberer von Braila, während der Kämpfe am Serethufer. (190) [3 Abb.]: Der Donauübergang bei Braila. (1)Blick auf das Donauufer. Die Truppen setzen auf Fähren über den Fluss. (2) Die Bagagewagen werden mittels der Fähre bei Braila über die Donau gebracht. (3)Das Beladen der Fähre zum Übergang über die Donau bei Braila. (191) Die Milch=, Butter= und Käseversorgung während und nach dem grossen Kriege. (192) [Abb.]: Abzeichen, das an der Heeresfront des Erzherzogs Karl (jetzigen Kaisers Karl) getragen wurde; hergestellt nach dem Entwurfe des Bildhauers Heinrich Kautsch, Wien. (192) [Abb.]: Auf der Rückzugstrasse der geschlagenen Rumänen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 138 (Heft 138) ([193]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Mineure begeben sich zur Vornahme einer Sprengung in die dem Feinde am nächsten liegende Stellung. ([193]) [Abb.]: Ablösung von Schanzarbeitern aus der Feuerlinie im Osten. (194) [3 Abb.]: Bilder zu den Kämpfen bei Mitau. (1)Blick über den Markt von Mitau, von der Trinitatiskirche aus. (2)Blick in das verschneite Aatal bei Mitau. (3)Zurückkehrende Jägerpatrouille am kurländischen Ostseestrande. (195) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen in Rumänien erbeutetes Bretterlager. (2)Einer der österreichisch=ungarischen Donaumonitore, die die Unternehmungen gegen Rumänien erfolgreich unterstützten. (196) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Vormarsch an der unteren Donau. Im Vordergrunde rumänische Gefangene. ([197]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen um Galatz. (198) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (198) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 5. Um die Serethlinie. II. Die Wegnahme der Brückenköpfe und die russische Gegenoffensive. (198) [Abb.]: Vom Flüchtlingselend in Bessarabien. Übergetretene rumänische und russische Flüchtlinge werden hinter den deutsch=österreichisch=ungarischen Linien in Sicherheit gebracht. Der Abschub der rumänischen Zivilbevölkerung nach der Moldau und nach Bessarabien hatte dort eine grossse Hungersnot verursacht, weshalb die russsischen und rumänischen Familien in Scharen wieder auswanderten. Sie wendeten sich jedoch nicht, wie anzunehmen wäre, nach Russland, sondern suchten bei ihren Feinden Schutz. Das bessarabische Kampfgebiet hinter den Linien der Verbündeten wurde von Flüchtlingskarawanen geradezu überschwemmt, und die zuständigen Stellen, die den armen Auswanderern Unterkunft und Nahrung verschaffen mussten, hatten ein schwierige Aufgabe zu lösen. (199) [Abb.]: Serbische Gefangene kaufen Brot in einem serbischen Dorfe. (200) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im Dezember 1916 und im Januar 1917. (200) [Abb.]: Durch einen Schrapnellschuss am Arm und an der Hand verwundeter Knabe in einem serbischen Grenzorte. (200) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unterstände im Berglande an der griechischen Grenze, wo das zu ihrem Bau nötige Holz oft von weit her geholt werden musste. (2)Deutsche und bulgarische Truppen beim Wiederaufbau einer von den Serben gesprengten Eisenbahnbrücke. (201) [Abb.]: Das am 3. Dezember 1916 bei Marlinje im Karstgebiet abgeschossene Caproni=Flugzeug. (202) Die Milch=, Butter= und Käseversorgung während und nach dem grossen Kriege. (202) [Abb.]: Ausladen von Lebensmitteln für die österreichisch=ungarische Armee in Albanien in einem Hafenort der südlichen Adria. (203) [Abb.]: Aufsteigen eines türkischen Kampf=Wasserflugzeuges. (204) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. 3. Grosswesir Talaat Pascha. (204) [Abb.]: Zur erfolgreichen Tätigkeit der türkischen Flieger im Ägäischen Meer, die eine Anzahl Dampfer auf hoher See. Zwei türkische Offiziere in ihrem Kampf=Wasserflugzeug, fertig zum Aufstieg. (204) [Abb.]: Deutsche Minenleger bei der Arbeit. ([205]) [Abb.]: Einzug türkischer Truppen in Jerusalem. (206) [Abb.]: Gefangene Engländer werden nach einem erfolgreichen Gefecht auf der Sinai=Halbinsel in Jerusalem eingebracht. (207) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der neue türkische Grosswesir Talaat Pascha (links), der türkische Kriegsminister Enver Pascha (rechts) und der Militärbevollmächtigte der deutschen Botschaft in Konstantinopel, bayrischer Generalmajor v. Lossow. (2)Ankunft englischer Offiziere in Jerusalem, die in einem Gefecht an der Suezkanal=Front gefangen wurden. (208) Deutsche Minenleger bei der Arbeit. ([205]) [Abb.]: Die Erstürmung der Höhe 185 bei Ripont in der Champagne am 15. Februar 1917. Nach der Zertrümmerung der feindlichen Stellung durch das deutsche Trommelfeuer wurde die französische Besatzung von den deutschen Sturmwellen überrannt und mit Handgranaten, Kolben und Bajonett niedergerungen. Abgeschnitten, durch das deutsche Feuer fast aufgerieben, verschüttet in Gräben und Unterständen, mussten sich die Franzosen gruppenweise ergeben. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 139 (Heft 139) ([209]) [Abb.]: Karte zu den Kämpfen südlich von Ripont. ([209]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Alarmposten im vordersten Graben auf Bauquois. ([209]) [Abb.]: Englische Motorfahrerabteilung an der Somme. An jedem Motorrad befindet sich ein Anhängewagen mit eine Maschinengewehr. (210) [Abb.]: Englische Soldaten begeben sich an die Front, um neue Drahtverhaue anzulegen, zu deren Befestigung sie an Stelle der Holzpflöcke Eisenstäbe benützen, die an einem Ende schraubenförmig gebogen sind und sich deshalb leicht in den Boden bohren lassen. (211) [Abb.]: Englische Viermastbark wird im Sperrgebiet von einem deutschen U=Boot versenkt. ([212 - 213]) [Abb.]: Unterseeboot=Kommandant Kapitänleutnant Willy Petz, der innerhalb 24 Stunden 52 000 Tonnen feindlicher Handelschiffe versenkte. Alle diese Schiffe waren mit Munition und Lebensmitteln schwer befrachtet, so dass nicht nur der versenkte Schiffsraum, sondern auch die versenkte Ladung einen schweren Verlust für die Feinde bedeutete. (214) [Abb.]: Die Grösse der bedeutendsten Handelsflotten vor dem Kriege. (214) [Abb.]: Leutnant z. S. v. R. Badewitz. Ein deutsches Prisenkommando in Stärke von 16 Mann von der Besatzung des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Möwe II" brachte unter Führung des Leutnants Badewitz den im Atlantischen Ozean gekaperten englischen Dampfer "Darrowdale" (4600 Tonnen) mit 469 Gefangenen in Swinemünde ein. (215) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (215) Mit der neuen "Möwe" auf hoher See. (215) [Abb.]: Die Hafenanlagen von Dünkirchen, von einem deutschen Flugzeuge aus aufgenommen. Man sieht im Hafen eine Anzahl feindlicher Kriegschiffe liegen. (215) [Abb.]: Die Überreste des in der Nacht vom 23. zum 24. Februar 1917 durch Abwehrfeuer brennend zum Absturz gebrachten französischen Luftschiffes im Walde bei Wölferdingen. (216) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen einer Reservedivision an der Somme. Aufrollen eines feindlichen Grabenstückes. ([217]) Die Bewertung der Erfolge des U=Bootkrieges. (218) [Abb.]: Senegalschütze, in der Champagne bei Berry au Bac gefangen. (218) [Abb.]: Senegalschütze vor dem Abtransport nach Deutschland (219) Ein tapferes Regiment. (219) [Abb.]:Das tapfere Olmützer k. u. k. Landwehr=Rego,emt Mr- 13 beo Werbem am Styr, von dem der russische Generalstabsbericht vom 22. Juli 1916 fälschlich behauptet hatte, dass es in diesen Kämpfen gefangen genommen worden sei. ([220 - 221]) [Abb.]: Ein englisches Kamelreiterkorps am Suezkanal. Die Kamele werden wie Pferde verwendet, der Reiter benutzt Sattel und Steigbügel; nur die Offiziere erhalten einen bequemeren Sitz. (222) Der Suezkanal. (222) [Abb.]: Ein deutscher Doppeldecker vom ägyptischen Kriegschauplatz wird von deutschen Ansiedlern besichtigt. (222) [Abb.]: Reichsgraf Fritz v. Hochberg mit Mitgliedern seiner Sanitätsexpedition in Jericho am Toten Meer. (223) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze vom Suezkanal. (224) [Abb.]: Der Chef des Stabes der Suezexpedition, Oberst Freiherr Kress v. Kressenstein (X), mit seinem Stabe im Hauptquartier in Jerusalem. (224) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen im südöstlichen Kaukasus. Die Vorhut russisch=kaukasischer Reiterei gerät in einen türkisch=persischen hinterhalt. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 140 (Heft 140) ([225]) [Abb.]: Feldmarschalleutnant Szurmay, der volkstümlichste ungarische Heerführer, ist zum ungarischen Honvedminister ernannt worden. ([225]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Angriff österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen im Osten. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Flammenwerfer=Schleichpatrouille vernichtet feindliche Drahthindernisse im Osten. (226) [Abb.]: Soldaten einer deutschen Schneeschuhtruppe bringen ein Maschinengewehr in die Feuerlinie. (227) [Abb.]: Durch Schneeschmelze eingetretene Überschwemmung in einer deutschen Waldstellung vor Galatz in Rumänien. (228) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (228) Winterflug im Osten. (228) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen an der litauischen Front. Russische Angriffe werden abgewiesen. ([229]) [3 Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Wacht in Ostgalizien. (1)Feldwache in Ostgalizien. (2)Vorgehende Batterie in den Karpathen. (3)Sumpfstellungen in Ostgalizien. Im Hintergrund sieht man deutlich die Drahtverhaue. (230) [3 Abb.]: Winterbilder aus Rumänien. (1)Blick in das Putnatal mit einer von deutschen Truppen über den Fluss geschlagenen Holzbrücke. (2)Vorgeschobener deutscher Posten in den Waldkarpathen. (3)Deutsches Lager in einem Walde der Putnaniederung. (231) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines rumänischen Dorfes vor Mizil. (232) Offensive. (233) [2 Abb.]:(1) Eines der Lager reifer rumänischer Maiskolben in Braila, von denen eine grosse Menge in die Hände der Eroberer fiel. (2)Von den Russen auf ihrer Flucht zerstörte Maschinenhallen in Fauri. (233) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten an einem Sonntagmorgen am Wardar im serbischen Mazedonien. (234) Der Kampf um Bagdad. (235) [Abb.]: Zum verschärften U=Bootkrieg. Englische, von Zerstörern begleitete und nach Italien bestimmte Kohlenflotte wird im Mittelmeer von deutschen Unterseebooten mit Erfolg angegriffen. (235) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen um Kut=el=Amara. (236) [Abb.]: Idyll am Kanal von Basra am westlichen Ufer des Schat=el=Arab, von wo die Engländer auf einer neu angelegten Schmalspurbahn ihren Munitionsnachschub an die Irakfront bewirkten. (236) [Abb.]: Ein unter Aufopferung indischer Hindutruppen von den Engländern unternommener Ansturm bei Kut=el=Amara. ([237]) Die Ausgaben für den Krieg. (238) [Abb.]: Abb I. Die Kriegsausgaben der kriegführenden Staaten vom August 1914 bis zum 6. Februar 1917 in Milliarden Mark. Die schwarzen Teile der Blöcke bezeichnen die durch feste Anleihen aufgenommenen Verträge. (238) [Abb.]: Abb. III. Prozentualer Anteil der kriegführenden Staaten an den Gesamtausgaben für den Krieg im Betrage von 293 Milliarden Mark. (238) [Abb.]: Abb. II. Die Kriegsausgaben der kriegführenden Staaten vom August 1914 bis zum 6. Februar 1917 auf den Kopf der Bevölkerung berechnet. (239) [Abb.]: Abb IV. Der Wert der Weltproduktion in einem Jahre an: 1. Weizen, 2. Reis, 3. Hafer, 4. Mais, 5. Roggen, 6. Stein- und Braunkohlen, 7. Baumwolle, 8. Kartoffeln, 9. Gerste, 10. Erzen, 11. Edelmetallen, der zusammen 90 615 Millionen Mark beträgt, sowie 12. der Edelmetallgewinnung seit 1493 (116 108 Millionen Mark) im Verhältnis zu den Gesamtausgaben für den Weltkrieg. (239) Motorboote im Kriegsdienst. (239) [Abb.]: Motorboote im Kriegsdienst. Ein Motorboot mit einem Torpedoboot auf der Streife. (240) Feldmarschalleutnant Alexander Szurmay. (240) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 141 (Heft 141) ([241]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Beobachtungsposten auf einem Kirchturm im Westen. ([241]) [Abb.]: Das Schlachtfeld von Soyécourt an der Somme. Französische Schützengräben und Granattrichter in allen Grössen; links schlagen deutsche Granaten ein. (242) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem von den Deutschen freiwillig geräumten Gebiete zwischen Bapaume und Peronne. (1) Ansicht der Dorfstrasse von Le Transloy. (2)Ein Teil der Strasse Bapaume-Le Transloy-Peronne. (3)Ein französisches Dorf im Sommegebiet, das dauernd unter englischem Artilleriefeuer lag. (243) [Abb.]: Das Kampfgebiet an der Somme und Ancre aus der Vogelschau. (244 - 245) [Abb.]: Deutscher Motorradfahrer auf einer Erkundungsfahrt im Westen. (246) [Abb.]: Englisches Geschütz wird durch den vom Regen aufgeweichten und von unzähligen Granaten durchwühlten Boden an der Westfront in Stellung gebracht. ([247]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Korvettenkapitän Konrad Albrecht, Führer eines Teils der deutschen Torpedobootstreitkräfte, die in der Nacht vom 25. zum 26. Februar bis über die Linie Dover-Calais und in die Themsemündung vordrangen. (2)Kapitänleutnant Hans Walter, der für die Versenkung des französischen Linienschiffes "Suffren" den Orden Pour le Mérite erhielt. (3)Oberleutnant z. S. Otto Steinbrinck, einer der erfolgreichsten deutschen u=Bootkommandanten, der das Ritterkreuz des Hohenzollerischen Hausordens mit Schwertern und den Orden Pour le Mérite erhielt. (248) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (248) Eine U=Bootfalle. (248) [Abb.]: Deutsches Torpedoboot im Kampf mit englischen Zerstörern bei bewegter See. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsches Tauchboot im Kampf mit einem als U=Bootfalle eingerichteten englischen Tankdampfer vor dem Bristolkanal. ([249]) [Abb.]: Doppelmotoriger französischer Caudron, im Luftkampf abgeschossen. (250) Die Luftwaffe. (250) Das "Schlosskasino" bei Francs=Fossés. (251) [Abb.]: Ballonaufstiegplatz bei Verdun. (251) [Abb.]: Lager "Schlosskasino" der Fernsprechabteilung einer Reservedivision bei Francs=Toffés in den Argonnen. ([252 - 253]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Dromedar=Proviantkolonne in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (2)Militär=Kraftwagenkolonne in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (254) Die Kämpfe am Kilimandscharo im März 1916. (254) [Abb.]: Erkundungsabteilung der 13. Kompanie der deutsch=ostafrikanischen Schutztruppe bei einer Aufklärungsfahrt in der Gegend von Mahenge. (255) [3 Abb.]:(1) Schausch (eingeborener Unteroffizier) von der Schutztruppe in Deutsch=Ostafrika (vom Stamm der Manyema), der sich durch hervorragende Tapferkeit auszeichnete. (2)Sol (eingeborener Feldwebel) von der Schutztruppe in Deutsch=Ostafrika (vom Stamm der Sudanesen) mit dem Militärehrenzeichen für Tapferkeit am schwarzweissen Bande. (3)Die Stationsquelle in Kilimatinde in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (256) [Abb.]: Die nach stärkerem Artillerie= und Minenwerferfeuer bei Kostanjevica vorbrechenden Italiener werden von den k. u. k. Truppen mit Handgranaten und Bajonetten zurückgeworfen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 142 (Heft 142) ([257]) [Abb.]: Erkletterung einer Felswand im Hochgebirge an der Südwestfront. ([257]) [Abb.]: Unterstände österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen auf dem Krn. (258) [2 Abb.]: (1)In 1600 Meter Höhe liegende Fassungstelle in Tirol.(2)Österreichisch=ungarische Kolonne mit Vorräten im Aufstieg zu einer 2500 Meter hoch liegenden Lebensmittelfassungstelle an der italienischen Front. (259) [Abb.]: Vom österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen erobertes italienisches Riesenschiffsgeschütz im verschneiten Wald. (260) [Abb.] Österreichisch=ungarisches Wachtkommando auf dem Tonale. ([261]) [2 Abb.]: (1) Vizeadmiral v. Kailer, der neue österreichisch=ungarische Marineminister. (2)Gepanzertes österreichisch=ungarisches Küstenfahrzeug. (262) [Abb.]: Linienschiffsleutnant Franz Mikulezky, der Chef des österreichisch=ungarischen Seeflugwesens. (263) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (263) Kriegsentschädigungen. (263) (Abb.]: Rastende Lebensmittel= und Munitionskolonne auf dem Balkankriegschauplatz. Im Hintergrunde eine Haubitzenbatterie in Feuerstellung. (263) [3 Abb.]: (1)Russische Überläufer. (2)Deutsche Offizierpatrouille auf Schneeschuhen mit Vorspann bei der Postenrevision. (3)Deutsche Husarenabteilung setzt bei Sdruga in Mazedonien über die Dvina. (264) [Abb.]: Ein Annäherungsversuch russischer Infanterie auf dem vereisten Sankt=Georgs=Arm der Donau wird von den Bulgarischen Posten zurückgewiesen. ([269]) [Abb.]: Die vielumstrittene Höhe Mesticanesti in den Waldkarpathen. (266) Giftgase als Kampfmittel. I. (266) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Vormarsch in dem zerklüfteten Vereczker Waldgebirge. (267) [3 Abb.]: (1)Grossfürst Michael Alexandrowitsch, der Bruder des Zaren, zu dessen Gunsten der Zar abdankte, war anfänglich für die Regentschaft in Aussicht genommen. (2)Der entthronte Kaiser und Selbstherrscher aller Reussen Zar Nikolaus II. (3)Grossfürst Nikolai Nikolajewitsch. Vom Zaren vor der Abdankung zum Oberbefehlshaber der russischen Armee ernannt. (268) [3 Abb.]: (1)Michael Rodzianko, Präsident der Duma und Vorsitzender des revolutionären Vollziehungsausschusses. (2)George W. Buchanan, britischer Botschafter in Petersburg. (3)Miljukow, der neue russische Minister des Auswärtigen. (268) [Abb.]: Eroberung des Grenzkammes des 1340 Meter hohen Magyaros in den ostsiebenbürgischen Karpathen durch galizische Infanterie= und ungarische Landwehrregimenter sowie Teile eines deutschen Regiments. ([270]) [Abb.]: Begrüssung der in Gent angekommenen Hilfsdienstpflichtigen durch eine Ansprache des Rittmeisters Schnitzler. (270) Charakterköpfe der Welkriegsbühne. (270) [Abb.]: Anmeldung der Hilfsdienstpflichtigen in Gent bei Rittmeister Schnitzler und Leutnant Davidts in der Schreibstube Abteilung II b. (271) Der vaterländische Hilfsdienst. (271) [Abb.]: Die nach Gent gekommenen Hilfsdienstpflichtigen werden den einzelnen Arbeitstellen zugeteilt. (271) [Abb.]: Der zur Einführung bestimmte neue schweizerische Stahlhelm. (272) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 143 (Heft 143) ([273]) [Abb.]: Angriff eines deutschen Stosstrupps mit Handgranaten und Flammenwerfer auf einen englischen Trichtergraben bei Sailly=Saillisel nördlich vom St. Pierre=Vaastwalde. ([273]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem von den Deutschen freiwillig geräumten Gebiet im Westen. (1)Blick auf die Kathedrale von Noyon vom Rathausturm aus. (2)Malerische Straße in Noyon, im Hintergrunde die Kathedrale. (3)Die von den Franzosen zerschossene katholische Kirche in Roye. (274) [Abb.]: Wie es auf dem von den Deutschen im Westen geräumten Geländestreifen aussah. (275) [Abb.]: Karte des von den Deutschen geräumten Gebietes im Westen. (276) [Abb.]: Wegnahme eines französischen Bagagetransportes. ([277]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Frühjahrschlamm an der Ancrefront. (2)Eroberte französische Gräben auf der Höhe 304 bei Verdun. (278) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (279) Aus meinem Tiroler Kriegstagebuch. (279) [Abb.]: Ribot, französischer Minister des Äussern und Vorsitzender des Ministeriums (279) [4 Abb.]: (1)Vizefeldwebel Friedrich Manschott, einer der erfolgreichsten deutschen Kampfflieger, ist im Luftkampf gefallen. Er hat in drei Monaten acht Flugzeuge und drei Fesselballone vernichtet. Noch an seinem Todestag schoss er einen feindlichen Fesselballon ab. (2)Kapitänleutnant Morath, Kommandant des deutschen Unterseebootes, durch dessen Torpedoschiffe das 18.400 Tonnen verdrängende französische Linienschiff "Danton" am 19. März 1917 im westlichen Mittelmeer versenkt wurde. (3)Prinz Friedrich Karl von Preussen, der Zweite Sohn des Prinzen Friedrich Leopold, eines Vetters des Deutschen Kaisers, wurde im Luftkampf zwischen Arras und Peronne abgeschossen und geriet, schwer verwundet, in englische Gefangenschaft, wo er an den Folgen einer Operation starb. (4) Die neueren Typen der amerikanischen Linienschiffe und Panzerkreuzer. 1. Oklahoma und Nevada. 2. L. Michigan und South Carolina. 3. L. Delaware und North Dakota. 4. L. Texas und New York. 5. L. Arizona und Pennsylvania. 6. L. Florida und Utah. 7. L. Missouri, Maine und Ohio. 8. L. Vermont, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Louisiana, Kansas und Connecticut. 9. L. Vigrinia, Georgia, Nebraska, New Jersey und Rhode Island. 10. L. Alabama, Illinois und Wisconsin. 11. L. Kentucky und Hearfarge. 12. L. Arkansas und Wyoming. 13. P.=K. Montana, North Carolina, Washington und Tennessee. 14. P.=K. Constitution, Constellation, Alliance und Congress. 15. P.=K. South Dakota, San Diego, West=Virginia, Colorado, Maryland und Pittsburgh. 16. P.=K. St. Louis, Milwaukee und Charlestown. (280) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Verwundetensammelstelle in einem eroberten italienischen Ort. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vernichtung des durch Torpedoboote und Patrouillenschiffe gesicherten französischen Linienschiffes "Danton" durch zwei Torpedoschüsse eines deutschen Tauchbootes am 19. März 1917 im westlichen Mittelmeer. ([281]) Giftgase als Kampfmittel. II. (282) S. M. Schiff "Szamos" und sein tapferer Kommandant. (283) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eduard Kankovsky, Kommandant des österreichisch=ungarischen Donaumonitors S. M. Schiff "Szamos", der für seine kühnen Leistungen in den Kämpfen an der unteren Donau das Eiserne Kreuz und den Eisernen Kronenorden erhielt. (2)S. M. Schiff "Szamos", dessen Beschädigungen im Dock ausgebessert werden. (283) Erstürmung der Höhen von Tameczysko bei Grybow durch die Bayern. (283) Die Sicherung marschierender und ruhender Truppen im Kriege. (284) [Abb.]: Die Ruinen der Zuckerfabrik in Przeworsk bei Jaroslau, die die Russen am Tage ihres Rückzugs in Brand setzten. (284) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Taeczyskoberges bei Grybow durch das 3. bayrische Infanterieregiment. ([285]) [2 Abb.]: Die Sicherung marschierender und ruhender Truppen. (1)Die Marschsicherung eines den Vortrupp bildenden Bataillons. Der Aufstand der aufklärenden Kavalleriespitze ist beliebig, ebenso der der Kavallerievorhut von der Infanteriespitze. Die Entfernung der Infanteriespitze von der Spitzenkompanie beträgt 400 bis 500 Meter, von der Spitzenkompanie bis zum Vortrupp ebensoviel. Dazwischen gehen Verbindungsleute oder =rotten in Ruf= und Sichtweite zu beiden Seiten des Weges. (2)Biwak eines Bataillons. Bei sehr schlechtem Wetter wird das Lederzeug mit in die Zelte genommen. Beim Alarm eilt jede Kompanie auf ihren Alarmplatz, schnallt um und tritt zugweise an die Gewehre. (286) [2 Abb.]: Die Sicherung marschierender und ruhender Truppen. (1) Ortsunterkunft eines Detachements. In dem Dorfteil, der dem Feinde zugekehrt ist, liegt das 1. Bataillon und die Kavallerie, in der Mitte das 2. Bataillon und ein Teil der Artillerie, in der vom Feinde abgekehrten Seite das 3. Bataillon und der Rest der Artillerie sowie die Bagagae. Zeichenerklärung:A.W.1 Aussenwache 1, Quartier des Ortskommandanten, Innenwache, Regimentstab und Artillerieabteilungstab, Ortskrankenstube, Telegraph. (2)Vorpostenaufstellung im Gelände. Die Posten sind in Wirklichkeit nicht sichtbar, sondern befinden sich in voller Deckung. Zeichenerklärung: Aussenwach, U.P. Unteroffizierposten, F.W. Feldwache, St.P. stehende Patrouille, V.P. vorgeschobener Posten, Beobachtungsposten, Richtung nach dem Feinde. (287) Angriff eines deutschen Stosstrupps mit Handgranaten und Flammenwerfer auf einen englischen Trichtergraben bei Sailly=Saillisel. (288) [Abb.]: Gefreiter eines sächsischen Sturmtrupps. (288) [Abb.]: Aus den Strassenkämpfen der russischen Revolution. Vor dem kaiserlichen Winterpalast in Petersburg. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 144 (Heft 144) ([289]) [2 Abb.]: Russische Generale des alten Regimes, von denen sich Ewerth mit Russki und Alexejew (siehe Abbildung Band III, Seite 304) der Revolution anschloss, während Iwanow dem Zaren treu blieb. (1)General Ewerth. (2)General Iwanow. ([289]) [4 Abb.]: Die Führer der russischen Revolution. (1)Gutschkow, Landesverteitigungsminister. (2)Tscheidse, der Führer der Sozialisten. (4)Kerenski, Justizminister. (4)Fürst Lwow, Ministerpräsident. ([289]) [Abb.]: Von der russischen Revolution. Brotverteilung durch eine der in den Stadt= und Landbezirken eingesetzten Brotkommissionen. (290) [Abb.]: Stellung im Sumpfgelände der Ostfront. (291) [Abb.]: Karte zum deutschen Erfolg an der Schtschara (292) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Minenwerferstellung. (292) [Abb.]: Deutscher Vorstoss an der Beresina. ([293]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarischer Flammenwerfer. (294) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (294) Die Verpflegung unseres Feldheeres. I (294) [Abb.]: Russische Militärtransporte auf dem Bahnhof Radziwilow werden durch Bombenabwürfe deutscher und österreichisch=ungarischer Flieger zerstört. ([295]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lagernde türkische Division im Taurus in Kleinasien. (2)Ein Lager der arabischen Kamelreitertruppe am Sinai. (296) [Abb.]: Türkische Truppen auf dem Marsche durch Anatolien. ([297]) [Abb.]: Musterhaft ausgebaute Stellungen der österreichisch=ungarischen Isonzoarmee auf der Karsthochfläche. (298) Ein U=Boot im Kampf. (298) Die zweite Kreuzerfahrt der "Möwe". (299) [Abb.]: Italienische Gefangene werden hinter die Front geführt. (299) [Abb.]: Versenkung eines russischen Transportdampfers im Schwarzen Meer mittels Torpedos durch den türkischen Panzerkreuzer"Javus Sultan Selim". ([300 - 301]) [2 Abb.]: Von der erfolgreichen zweiten Fahrt des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Möwe". (1)Ein feindliches Handelschiff wird durch das Megaphon angerufen. (2)Die Mannschaft eines versenkten englischen Schiffes wird an Bord genommen. (302) [2 Abb.]: (1) Die zahlreichen Gefangenen an Bord der "Möwe". (2) Von der erfolgreichen zweiten Fahrt des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Möwe". Burggraf und Graf zu Dohna=Schlodien hält nach glücklich vollbrachter Kreuzerfahrt im Heimathafen eine Ansprache an seine Mannschaft. (303) Wie sich die Deutschen auf feindliche Flugzeuge einschiessen. (303) [Abb.]: Wie sich die Deutschen auf feindliche Flugzeuge einschiessen. (304) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 145 (Heft 145) ([305]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Horchposten mit Schalltrichter in einem Granatloch auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. ([305]) [Abb.]: Bei Peronne an der Somme gefangene Franzosen und Engländer. (306) [3 Abb.]: (1)General v. Hülsen, der Führer einer Gefechtsabteilung in der Champagne. (2)Deutscher Sturmtrupp baut einen frisch besetzten Minentrichter zur Verteidigung aus. (3)Der Zug der bei Ripont in der Champagne gefangenen Franzosen. (307) [Abb.]: Der Platz vor dem Rathaus in St. Quentin. (308) [Abb.]: Deutsche Maschinengewehre im Kampf um eine Ortschaft. ([309]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die stehen gebliebenen Überreste des Dorfes Boursies in dem geräumten Gebiet zwischen Arras und St. Quentin. (2)In den Trümmern des vernichteten Dorfes Boursies. (310) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme aus dem geräumten Gebiet im Westen. Die Strasse Roye-Lancourt, die durch Sprengungen derart unterbrochen ist, dass sie nicht mehr befahren werden kann. Vor dem Trichter in der Mitte des Bildes sieht man drei französische Kraftwagen, die infolge der Sprengungen nicht weiterkommen. (311) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (311) Die Verpflegung unseres Feldheeres. II. (311) [3 Abb.]: (2)Zwei deutsche Kampfflieger als Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (1)Leutnant d. R. Werner Voss. (2)Rittmeister Manfred Freiherr v. Richthofen. (2) Kapitänleutnant Felix Graf v. Luckner, Kommandant des deutschen Kaperschiffes "Seeadler". (312) [Abb.]: Beschiessung von Dünkirchen durch deutsche Torpedoboote in der Nacht vom 25. zum 26. März 1917. ( - ) [Abb.]: Gefecht deutscher Torpedoboote mit englischen Zerstörern am 18. März 1917, wobei die Zerstörer "Paragon" und "Llewellyn" vernichtet wurden. ([313]) [Abb.]: Eine der letzten entscheidenden Sitzungen des amerikanischen Kabinetts vor der Erklärung des Kriegszustandes mit Deutschland. Von links nach rechts: Präsident Wilson, Finanzminister G. Mc Adoo, Justizminiser Thomas W. Gregory, Marinenminister Josephus Daniels, Landwirtschaftsminister D. F. Houston, Minister der öffentlichen Arbeiten William Wilson. - Vordere Reihe: Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen R. Lansing, Kriegsminister Newton D. Baker, Generalpostmeister Albert S. Burleson, Minister des Innern Franklin K. Lane, Handelsminister W. C. Redfield. (314) Monastir und Saloniki. (315) [Abb.]: Infanteristen von der als Freiwilligenkorps nach dem Kriegschauplatz in Frankreich abgegangenen amerikanischen Maschinengewehrabteilung. (315) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zu den Kämpfen vor Monastir. Sächsische Jäger im Feuer. (2)Zu den Kämpfen vor Monastir. Vorgehende bulgarische Schützenlinien. (316) [Abb.]: Abweisung eines französischen Sturmangriffs auf die deutschen Stellungen an den Ufern des Prespasees. ([317]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Füllen eines deutschen Fesselballons. (2)Fertig gefüllter deutscher Fesselballon. (318) Unsere modernsten Soldaten. (319) [Abb.]: Auf der Verladerampe beim Umzug einer Fliegerabteilung (319) [Abb.]: Offiziersunterstand eines deutschen Fliegerabwehrzuges an der Aisne. (320) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 146 (Heft 146) ([321]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Vormarsche in den verschneiten Karpathen. ([321]) [Abb.]: Fahrbare und zusammenlegbare österreichisch=ungarische Beobachtungstelle mit Telephon (322) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu dem Artikel "Der Sieg von Toboly", (322) [Abb.]: Vogelschauansicht der Gegend am Brückenkopf von Toboly am Stockod. (323) [2 Abb.]: (1)Letschitzky, russischer General, erhielt das Kommando an der rumänischen Front, das er jedoch bald wieder abgeben musste. (2)Aus den Kämpfen in Rumänien. Österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgskanone in Feuerstellung (324) [Abb.]: Entwicklung österreichisch=ungarischer Schützenregimenter unter Führung des Generals der Kavallerie Freiherrn v. Hauer zum Sturmangriff auf den Brückenkopf von Toboly am Stochod am Morgen des 3. April 1917. Rechts im Vordergrunde die liegende Batteriebedienungsmannschaft. ([325]) [Abb.]: General Tülff v. Tschepe und Weidenbach, der Leiter der deutschen Militärverwaltung in Rumänien. (326) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (326) Der Sieg von Toboly. (326) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kamele im Dienste des Roten Halbmonds im Sandsturm in der Wüste. (2)Auf einem Verbandplatz in der Wüste. Die neu angekommenen Verwundeten werden von den türkischen Ärzten in Behandlung genommen. (327) [2Abb.]: (1)Soldat der k. u. k. berittenen Marine auf dem Kriegschauplatz an der adriatischen Küste. (2) Karst und Adria, die südlichste Frontspitze auf dem österreichisch=ungarisch=italienischen Kriegschauplatz. (328) [Abb.]: Der Sieg von Toboly. Eindringen deutscher Sturmbataillone in die "Tobolylöcher", die völlig verwahrlosten russischen Unterstände am Stochodbrückenkopf ( - ) [Abb.]: Hungerrevolte in Mailand. Berittene treiben die nach Brot und Frieden schreiende Menge auseinander. ([329]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant z. S. d. R. Conrad Sörensen, Kommandant des Hilfsdampfers "Marie", der Anfang 1916 aus einem deutschen Hafen auslief und allen feindlichen Nachstellungen zum Trotz grosse Mengen Kriegsmaterial in der Sudibucht in Deutsch=Ostafrika ablieferte. Mit dem entleerten Schiff gelang ihm dann der Durchbruch nach Niederländisch=Indien, von wo aus er später mittels eines Segelbootes Manila auf den Philippinen erreichte. (2)Oberleutnant z. S. d. R. Carl Christiansen, dem es glückte, im Februar 1915 sein mit Munition und anderem Kriegsmaterial für die Schutztruppe in Deutsch=Ostafrika beladenes Schiff durch die Kette der englischen Bewachungsfahrzeuge in der Nordsee und den atlantischen Gewässern sowie an der afrikanischen Küste zu führen, wodurch die Widerstandsfähigkeit der sich heldenmütig verteidigenden Schutztruppe gekräftigt wurde. (330) Unter deutscher Flagge nach Ostafrika. (330) [3 Abb.]: (1)Jkoma in Deutsch=Ostafrika. Der Fluss Grunesti. (2)Jtilima in Deutsch=Ostafrika. Ansicht der Steppenlandschaft. (3)Blick auf den goldhaltigen Kitengeraberg in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (331) Rumänische Treibminen. (332) [Abb.]: Rumänische Treibminen. (332) [Abb.]: Die Furcht vor den deutschen U=Booten. Eine Reihe von Transportschiffen der Verbandsmächte wird von Zerstörern geleitet. ([333]) Das Schutzgeleit von Handelschiffen. (334) [Abb.]: Prinz Zia Eddin Effendi (1), der älteste Sohn des Sultans, der den vom Sultan dem Deutschen Kaiser verliehenen Ehrensäbel überbrachte, bei seinem Aufenthalt in Berlin. In seinem Gefolge befinden sich Generalleutnant Zekki Pascha (2), Tewsik Bei (3), erster Kammerherr und Oberhofmarschall, und Salib Pascha (4), Generaladjudant. (334) Die der Person Seiner Majestät des Deutschen Kaisers zugeteilten Offiziere der mit dem deutschen Heere verbündeten Armeen. (334) [Abb.]: K. u. K. Generalmajor Alois Ritter Klepsch Kloth v. Roben. (335) Strategischer Rückzug. (335) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der bulgarische Militärbevollmächtigte und Flügeladjutant Oberst Gantschew. (2)Zekki Pascha, Generalleutnant und Generaladjutant. (335) [Abb.]: Denkmalsenthüllung auf dem Heldenfriedhof Viéville=sous=les=Cótes, auf dem über 1000 Gefallene ruhen. (336) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 147 (Heft 147) ([337]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant v. Moser. (2)Generalleutnant v. Hofacker. Zwei verdienstvolle württembergische Heerführer, erhielten den Orden Pour le Mérite. Die von ihnen geführten tapferen Truppen hatten sich in der Schlacht bei Arras wiederum ausgezeichnet geschlagen und den Engländern keinen Fussbreit Boden überlassen. ([337]) [Abb.]: Karte zu der Schlacht bei Arras. (338) [Abb.]:Vorgeschobene Stellung der deutschen Linie an der Strasse Arras=Cambrai. (338) [Abb.]: Der vollständig zusammengeschossene Ort Givenchy nördlich von Arras. (339) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein deutscher Sturmtrupp erhält Anweisungen vor dem Angriff im Aprilschnee an der Westfront. (2)Deutscher Sturmtrupp bei der Überwindung von Drahthindernissen im Aprilschnee an der Westfront. (340) [Abb.]: Ein im Gebiet südlich von der Scarpe bei Monchy angesetzter englischer Reiterangriff bricht im deutschen Feuer verlustreich zusammen. ([341]) [3 Abb]:(1) Karte zu der Schlacht an der Aisne. (2)Wie sich die Franzosen den Angriff an der Aisne dachten. (3)Karte zu der französischen Offensive in der Champagne. (342) [2 Abb.]:(1) Schloss in Cravonne. (2)Eine stark ausgebaute vorgeschobene Stellung bei Cravonne. (343) [Abb.]:Einer der erbeuteten englischen Tanks (Panzerwagen), die, von der deutschen Artillerie getroffen, bei den feindlichen Durchbruchsversuchen kläglich versagten. (344) [Abb.]: Nach vorn zum Schanzen. ( - ) [6 Abb.]: Durch englisches Artilleriefeuer angerichtete Zerstörungen in der nordfranzösischen Stadt St. Quentin. (1)Ein beliebtes Ziel der englischen Artillerie. Eine Granate schlägt in das Dach der Kathedrale. (2)Durch englisches Artilleriefeuer in Trümmer gelegte Häuser am Dufourplatz. (3)Ein beschädigter Teil der Kathedrale. (4)Der linke Flügel des Justizpalastes. (5)Häuserruinen der Rue de Paris. (6)Austellungsraum in dem völlig verwüsteten Warenhaus Galerie Nouvelle. ([345]) [Abb.]: Aufgefundene Reste von englischen Brandbomben, die bei dem barbarischen englischen Fliegerangriff auf die offene Stadt Freiburg i. Br. am 14. April 1917 abgeworfen wurden (346) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (346) Auf Patrouille. (346) [5 Abb.]: (1)Kampfflieger Oberleutnant Hans Berr, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite, stiess während eines Luftkampfes mit dem Flugzeug eines Kameraden zusammen und stürzte tödlich ab. Er hat neun feindliche Flugzeuge und einen Fesselballon abgeschossen. (2)Kampflieger Offizierstellvertreter Reimann, Ritter des Eisernen Kreuzes erster Klasse, der in kurzer Zeit fünf feindliche Flugzeuge zum Absturz gebracht hatte, fand den Heldentod im Luftkampf. (3)Oberstleutnant Thomsen, Chef des Generalstabes der Luftstreitkräfte, erhielt am 8. April 1917 den Orden Pour le Mérite. (4)Kampfflieger Leutnant Hans Müller, hat bis Mitte April 1917 acht feindliche Flugzeuge und sieben Fesselballone vernichtet. (5)Kampfflieger Leutnant d. R. Boehme, hat bis Mitte April 1917 zwölf Gegner im Luftkampf bezwungen. (347) Volltreffer eines deutschen Flugzeuges in die Transportmannschaft eines englischen Schiffsgeschützes. (348 - 349) [Abb.]: Volltreffer eines deutschen Flugzeuges in die Transportmannschaft eines schweren englischen Schiffsgeschützes in der Gegend vom Gommecourt am 23. März 1917. Das Geschützrohr ist mit einem Stoffüberzug versehen. (348 - 349) Der Schipperdienst. (348 - 349) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten bei Schanzenarbeiten auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (350) Die Abendmeldung. (350) [Abb.]: Beim Bau von Unterständen in dem Felsgebirge an der Front bei Doiran. (351) General der Infanterie Rudolf Stoeger=Steiner v. Steinstätten, der neue österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsminister. (352) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie Rudolf Stoeger=Steiner v. Steinstätten, der nach dem Rücktritt des Freiherrn v. Krobatin (siehe Abbildung Bad I Seite 3) zum k. u. k. Kriegsminister ernannt wurde. (352) Die Rüstungslieferungen der Vereinigten Staaten an den Vierverband. (352) [Abb.]: Reitergefecht im Diala, einem Nebenfluss des Tigris. Im Hintergrund die flachen Berge des Djebel Hamrin. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 148 (Heft 148) ([353]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Sturmtruppen mit Stahlhelmen beziehen ihre Stellungen an der Südtiroler Kampffront. ([353]) [Abb.]: Telephon in einem von österreichisch=ungarischen Sappeuren besetzten Sprengtrichter. (354) [Abb.]: Einem durch Rauchgase verunglückten österreichisch=ungarischen Sappeur wird Sauerstoff zur Wiederbelebung zugeführt. (355) [Abb.]: Rumänische Bauern liefern ihre Getreide an die Mühle eines deutschen Proviantamtes in Bukarest ab (356) [Abb.]: Im russischen Sumpfgebiet auffahrende deutsche Artillerie ([357]) [Abb.]: Mit Lebensmittel beladene Kamel kommen in einem deutschen Feldlager hinter der türkischen Irakfront an. (358) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (358) Der Stellungswechsel im Westen. (358) [11 Abb.]: (1)Josephus Daniels, der amerikanische Marineminister. (2)Der frühere amerikanische Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen William J. Bryan. (3)Der Chef des amerikanischen Admiralität, Admiral William S. Berson. (4)Der amerikanische Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen R. Lansing. (5)Der frühere spanische Ministerpräsident Maura. (6)Graf Romanones, der zurückgetretene spanische Ministerpräsident. (7)General Aguilera, der neue spanische Kriegsminister. (8)General Hugh Scott, der Chef des amerikanischen Generalstabs. (9)Roosevelt, der frühere Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten. (10)Affonso Costa, der neue portugiesische Ministerpräsident. (11)Knudsen, norwegischer Ministerpräsident. (359) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Sappeure erwarten auf der Karsthochfläche Befehle. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Hundebatterie der Isonzoarmee auzf der Karsthochfläche. (360) [Abb.]: Eroberung der Hohen Schneid durch österreichisch=ungarische Truppen. ([361]) Die russische Sommeroffensive. (362) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten beim Baden im Wardar in Mazedonien. (362) [2 Abb.]: (1)Korvettenkapitän Gautier, der mit leichten deutschen Seestreitkräften in der Nacht vom 20. zum 21. April 1917 in den östlichen Kanal und gegen die Themsenmündung vorstiess und die Festungen Dover und Calais auf nahe Entfernungen mit insgesamt 650 Schuss wirkungsvoll unter Feuer nahm. (2)Scharfschiessen eines grossen deutschen Panzerkreuzers. (363) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Marineluftschiff unter Führung des Kommandanten Kapitänleutnant Koch bringt am 23. April 1917 siebzig Seemeilen von Hornsriff in der Nordsee die mit Grubenholz nach Westhartlepool beladene norwegische Bark "Royal" auf und lässt sie durch ein Prisenkommando unter Befehl des Obersteuermannsmaats Fegert mit drei Matrosen des Luftschiffes in einen deutschen Hafen einlaufen. ([364 - 365]) Aufbringen eines Seglers durch ein deutsches Marineluftschiff. (366) [6 Abb.]: Bei der Jagdstaffel des Rittmeisters Manfred Freiherrn v. Richthofen. (1)Kampfflieger Vizefeldwebel Sebastian Festner, der den berühmten englischen Flieger Robinson im Luftkampf zum Niedergehen hinter den deutschen Linien zwang und nach 12 Luftsiegen im Mai 1917 im Luftkampf fiel. (2)Kampfflieger Leutnant Lothar Freiherr v. Richthofen, der jüngere Bruder des Rittmeisters, kehrt von einem Fluge zurück. Bis zum 7. Mai 1917 hat er 20 Gegner zum Absturz gebracht. (3)Im Quartier des Rittmeisters v. Richthofen. An den Wänden Nummern und Abzeichen abgeschossener feindlicher Flugzeuge. Von der Decke herab hängt als Kronleuchter der Motor einesenglischen Flugzeuges. (4)Die starbereiten Flugzeuge der Jagstaffel, die bis zum 22. April 1917 einhundert feindliche Flugzeuge im Luftkampfe zum Niedergehen gezwungen hat. (5)Kampfflieger Leutnant Schäfer, der am 1. Mai 1917 seinen 24. und 25. Luftsieg errang. (6)Kampfflieger Leutnant Wolff, der am 1. Mai 1917 seinen 28. und 29. Gegner besiegte. ([367]) Jagdstaffel Richthofen. (368) [Abb.]: Oberst Freiherr v. Oldershausen, der neue Chef des Feldeisenbahnwesens. (368) Der neue Chef des Feldeisenbahnwesens. (368) [Abb.]: Bei Braye an der Aisnefront zum Gegenstoss vorgehende deutsche Sturmtruppen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 149 (Heft 149) ([369]) [Abb.]: In Erwartung eines feindlichen Angriffs im vordersten deutschen Graben. ([369]) [Abb.]: Kanadische Truppen bringen bei einem Angriff im Westen ihre Maschinengewehre in Stellung. (370) [2 Abb.]: (1) Gepanzerter Sappentopf für ein Maschinengewehr in der La=Folie=Stellung bei Vimy im Norden von Arras. (2)Deutsches Maschinengewehr in Feuerstellung während eines Gasangriffs. (371) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Arras. Deutsche Sturmtruppen im Kampf mit englischen Panzerkraftwagen. (372 - 373) [Abb.]: Ein in der Schlacht an der Aisne erbeuteter, völlig in Trümmer geschossener französischer Panzerkraftwagen. (374) [6 Abb.]: Bilder von der Schlacht an der Aisne. (1)Strasse in einer unter feindlichem Feuer stehenden Ortschaft. (2)Die rauchenden Trümmer eines im Kampftraum liegenden Ortes (3)Mit Gasmaske und Stahlhelm versehener deutsche Meldereiter. (4)Deutsche Radfahrerpatrouille fährt durch eine zerstörte Ortschaft. (5)Im Kampfgebiet rastende deutsche Trainabteilung. (6)Deutsches Feldlazarett unmittelbar hinter der Kampflinie. ([375]) Zeitschriftenteil (376) Infanterieflieger. (376) [Abb.]: Gegen die feindlichen Gräben vorgehender deutscher Stosstrupp in der Champagne. (376) Sturm. (376) [Abb.]: Infanterieflieger im Westen, die der stürmenden Infanterie voranfliegen und mit Maschinengewehren die feindlichen Linien beschiessen. Im Mittelgrund des Bildes ein zusammengeschossener englischer Panzerkraftwagen. ([377]) [Abb.]: Ansicht einer Strasse von Reims. Die zerschossenen Häuser waren früher Hotels. (378) Pferdeschwemme bei Vaux=les=Mouron im Aisnetal. (378) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feindlicher Farman=Doppeldecker wird im Luftkampfe brennend zum Absturz gebracht. (2)Kampfflieger Leutnant v. Bertrab, der in seinem ersten siegreichen Luftgefecht am 6. April 1917 vier englische Flugzeuge zum Absturz brachte. (379) Major v. Olberg, der Leiter der Oberzensurstelle im deutschen Kriegspresseamt. (379) [Abb.]: Kampfflieger Leutnant Bernert, der bis zum 1. Mai 1917 22 Gegner abschoss, wurde mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet. (379) [Abb.]: Pferdeschwemme bei Baux=les=Mouron an der Aisne. ([380 - 381]) [Abb.]: Major v. Olberg, der Leiter der Oberzensurstelle im deutschen Kriegspresseamt in seinem Arbeitszimmer. (382) Das Leben unserer U=Bootmannschaften. (382) Brieftauben. (383) [Abb.]: Die Mannschaft eines gesunkenen Unterseebootes rettet sich mittels eines mit einer Sauerstoffpatrone versehenen Atmungsapparates, der zugleich als Schwimmweste dient. (383) [3 Abb.]: Die Brieftauben im deutschen Heeresdienst. Oberes Bild: Verbringen von Brieftauben zur Brieftaubenstation in die vordersten Stellungen. Zum Schutz gegem Gasangriffe wird ein Gasschutzkasten mitgeführt. -- Mittleres Bild: Bei einem drohenden Gasangriff werden die Brieftauben im Unterstand in den Gasschutzkasten gebracht. - Unteres Bild: Eine Meldung wird zur Beförderung durch Brieftauben aufgeschrieben. (384) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 150 (Heft 150) ([385]) [Abb.]: Rückkehr deutscher U=Boote aus dem Sperrgebiet (Passieren der ersten deutschen Vorpostenboote). ([385]) [Abb.]: Prinz Heinrich von Preussen (X) unterhält sich auf einer deutschen Wasserflugzeugstation mit einem zurückgekehrten Flieger. (386) [Abb.]: Vorstoss deutscher Seestreitkräfte gegen die englische Küste. (387) [Abb.]: Bayrische Funkerabteilung wechselt im serbischen Feuer in der Nähe der Stadt Prizrend in Mazedonien ihre Stellung. (388 - 389) [Abb.]: Luftige Wohnung eines bulgarischen Soldaten an der Front in Mazedonien. (390) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (390) Von der österreichisch=ungarischen Isonzoarmee. (390) [Abb.]: Schweres deutsches Marinegeschütz auf dem Wege zur Front in Mazedonien. (391) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaiser und König Karl bei einem Besuch der Front im Wippachtal. (2)Feldmarschall Freiherr Conrad v. Hötzendorf beim k. u. k. 59. Infanterieregiment an der Front gegen Italien. ([392]) [Abb.]: Die wichtigsten Kriegsorden und =ehrenzeichen Deutschlands, Österreich=Ungarns, Bulgariens und der Türkei Tafel I. ( - ) [Abb.]: Artilleriekampf im Ortlergebiet. (393) Schweizerische Sappeure beim Bau einer Behelfsbrücke. (393) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein englisch=indisches Lager in einem Palmenhain in Mesopotamien. (2)Versorgung englischer Truppen mit Wasser in Mesopotamien. (394) [Abb.]: Deutsche Stosstruppen dringen am Nordosthang des Coman in den Waldkarpathen in die russischen Stellungen und Unterstände ein (395) Die Kriegsbrücke bei Caineni. (395) [3 Abb.]: Bau einer Jochbrücke durch Pioniere der schweizerischen Armee. (1)Oberes Bild: Die Arbeitsbrücke muss infolge Steigens des Wassers gehoben werden. - (2)Mittleres Bild: Die Pionieroffiziere beim Rammbock. - (3)Unteres Bild: Die fertige Brücke. (396) Die Abwehrschlacht an der Aisne. (396) [Abb.]: Die Kriegsbrücke bei Caineni in Rumänien, von einer württembergischen Ersatz=Bahnkompanie in acht Tagen erbaut. (397) Die Kriegsorden und =ehrenzeichen Deutschlands. Österreich=Ungarns, Bulgariens und der Türkei. I. (398) [Abb.]: Deutsche Stosstruppen am Aisne=Oise=Kanal erwarten den Befehl zum Vorgehen. (399) [Einband]: (404) [Einband]: (405)

The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funders. Data for this research was provided by MEASURE Evaluation, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of USAID, the US Government, or MEASURE Evaluation. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics granted the researchers access to relevant data in accordance with licence no. SLN2014-3-170, after subjecting data to processing aiming to preserve the confidentiality of individual data in accordance with the General Statistics Law-2000. The researchers are solely responsible for the conclusions and inferences drawn upon available data. ; Background Assessments of age-specific mortality and life expectancy have been done by the UN Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Affairs (UNPOP), the United States Census Bureau, WHO, and as part of previous iterations of the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD). Previous iterations of the GBD used population estimates from UNPOP, which were not derived in a way that was internally consistent with the estimates of the numbers of deaths in the GBD. The present iteration of the GBD, GBD 2017, improves on previous assessments and provides timely estimates of the mortality experience of populations globally. Methods The GBD uses all available data to produce estimates of mortality rates between 1950 and 2017 for 23 age groups, both sexes, and 918 locations, including 195 countries and territories and subnational locations for 16 countries. Data used include vital registration systems, sample registration systems, household surveys (complete birth histories, summary birth histories, sibling histories), censuses (summary birth histories, household deaths), and Demographic Surveillance Sites. In total, this analysis used 8259 data sources. Estimates of the probability of death between birth and the age of 5 years and between ages 15 and 60 years are generated and then input into a model life table system to produce complete life tables for all locations and years. Fatal discontinuities and mortality due to HIV/AIDS are analysed separately and then incorporated into the estimation. We analyse the relationship between age-specific mortality and development status using the Socio-demographic Index, a composite measure based on fertility under the age of 25 years, education, and income. There are four main methodological improvements in GBD 2017 compared with GBD 2016: 622 additional data sources have been incorporated; new estimates of population, generated by the GBD study, are used; statistical methods used in different components of the analysis have been further standardised and improved; and the analysis has been extended backwards in time by two decades to start in 1950. Findings Globally, 18·7% (95% uncertainty interval 18·4–19·0) of deaths were registered in 1950 and that proportion has been steadily increasing since, with 58·8% (58·2–59·3) of all deaths being registered in 2015. At the global level, between 1950 and 2017, life expectancy increased from 48·1 years (46·5–49·6) to 70·5 years (70·1–70·8) for men and from 52·9 years (51·7–54·0) to 75·6 years (75·3–75·9) for women. Despite this overall progress, there remains substantial variation in life expectancy at birth in 2017, which ranges from 49·1 years (46·5–51·7) for men in the Central African Republic to 87·6 years (86·9–88·1) among women in Singapore. The greatest progress across age groups was for children younger than 5 years; under-5 mortality dropped from 216·0 deaths (196·3–238·1) per 1000 livebirths in 1950 to 38·9 deaths (35·6–42·83) per 1000 livebirths in 2017, with huge reductions across countries. Nevertheless, there were still 5·4 million (5·2–5·6) deaths among children younger than 5 years in the world in 2017. Progress has been less pronounced and more variable for adults, especially for adult males, who had stagnant or increasing mortality rates in several countries. The gap between male and female life expectancy between 1950 and 2017, while relatively stable at the global level, shows distinctive patterns across super-regions and has consistently been the largest in central Europe, eastern Europe, and central Asia, and smallest in south Asia. Performance was also variable across countries and time in observed mortality rates compared with those expected on the basis of development. Interpretation This analysis of age-sex-specific mortality shows that there are remarkably complex patterns in population mortality across countries. The findings of this study highlight global successes, such as the large decline in under-5 mortality, which reflects significant local, national, and global commitment and investment over several decades. However, they also bring attention to mortality patterns that are a cause for concern, particularly among adult men and, to a lesser extent, women, whose mortality rates have stagnated in many countries over the time period of this study, and in some cases are increasing. ; Research reported in this publication was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the University of Melbourne, Public Health England, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health (award P30AG047845), and the National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health (award R01MH110163). ; Peer reviewed

ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. NEUNTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Neunter Band. (Neunter Band) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: Zurück zur Arbeit! ( - ) Titelseite ([I]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten. (IV) Kriegskalender zur Original-Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Neunter Band enthaltend die Ereignisse vom 1. Juli 1918 bis 28. Juni 1919. ( - ) Juli. ( - ) August. ( - ) September. ( - ) Oktober. ( - ) November. Dezember. Januar 1919. ( - ) Februar. März. April. Mai. Juni. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 201 (Heft 201) ([1]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen durchschreiten im Vorgehen die eigenen Artillerielinien. ([1]) [Abb.]: Gefangener englischer Beobachtungsoffizier mit Tarnkappenmaske. (2) [Abb.]: Chateau-Thierry, von einem deutschen Flieger einen Tag vor der Besetzung durch die Deutschen aufgenommen. Man sieht, daß das Städtchen vollkommen unzerstört ist. (3) [Abb.]: Türkische Kavallerie bei der Verfolgung der auf dem östlichen Jordanufer geschlagenen Engländer. (4 - 5) [Abb.]: Prinz Wahid Eddin Efendi, jüngerer Bruder des verstorbenen türkischen Sultans Mohammed V., erhielt als dessen Nachfolger den Namen Mohammed VI. (6) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (6) Das deutsch-österreichisch-ungarische Wirtschaftsbündnis. (6) [5 Abb.]: (1)Kampfflieger Oberleutn. Göhring, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (2)Leutnant Veltjens, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger. (3)Leutnant Jacobs, erfolgreicher deutscher Kampfflieger. (4)Kampfflieger Leutnant Pütter, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (5)Der Marktplatz von Brügge, von einem deutschen Flugzeuge aus aufgenommen. Anläßlich des Markttages ist auf dem Platz ein reger Verkehr bemerkbar. (7) [Abb.]: Ein italienischer Flieger wird von einem eroberten italienischen Abwehrturm aus mittels eines österreichisch-ungarischen Maschinengewehrs beschossen. (8) Die deutschen Luftstreitkräfte in der Aisne-Schlacht. (8) [Abb.]: Nächtlicher französischer Angriff auf deutsche Stellungen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Die Schwierigkeiten des österreichisch-ungarischen Vormarsches im Piavedelta. Geschütztransport durch eine überschwemmte Ortschaft. Im Vordergrunde italienische Gefangene. ([9]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Luftschifferabteilung im Vormarsch auf Ham. (10) [3 Abb.]: Bei einer deutschen Feldluftschifferabteilung. (1)Oberes Bild: Landung des Ballonbeobachters nach dem Absprung mit dem Fallschirm. Die Fallschirmleinen haben sich in einem Baum verfangen. (2)Mittleres Bild: Maschinengewehr zur Abwehr feindlicher Flieger bei einem verankerten Fesselballon. (3)Unteres Bild: Der Beobachter fertig zum Aufstieg im Korbe. Er hat über dem Kopf an Bügeln die Telephonhörer, um den Leib den Gurt für den Fallschirmabsprung, rechts außen am Korbe ist der Fallschirm sichtbar, links das Kartenbrett. (11) Fliegerfunker. (11) [Abb.]: Deutsche Feldfunkerstation. ([12- 13]) [Abb.]: Englische Lügen. Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme des umfangreichen englischen Truppenlagers von Etaples vom 21. Mai 1918, zwei Tage nach einem Angriff deutscher Bombengeschwader. (14) Englische Lügen. (15) [Abb.]: Englische Lügen. Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme desselben Lagers vom 27. Mai 1918, nachdem es inzwischen Rote-Kreuz-Abzeichen erhalten hat. (15) K. u. k. Hundespitäler. (16) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberes Bild: Ankunft eines Hundekrankentransports. (2)Mittleres Bild: In einem österreichisch-ungarischen Kriegshundespital in Pflege befindlicher Hund mit umgehängtem Lederkragen zur Verhinderung des Kratzens und Leckens der Wunde. (3)Unteres Bild: Aufnahmebehandlung nach der Ankunft in einem österreichisch-ungarischen Kriegshundespital. (16) [Abb.]: Deutscher Sturmwagen säubert eine französische Ortschaft. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 202 (Heft 202) ([17]) [Abb.]: Aus den Verfolgungskämpfen an der Aisne. ([17]) [Abb.]: Von den Deutschen erbeutete Batterie von 28-cm-Mörsern bei dem Dorfe Mareuil. (18) [Abb.]: Straße im zerstörten Lassigny zwischen Montdidier und Noyon. (19) [Abb.]: Rückzug der Franzosen über den Ricquebourgrücken im deutschen Feuer. ([20 - 21]) [Abb.]: Italienische Kulturtaten im eigenen Lande: Von den Italienern zerstörtes Schloß in Sonegliano. (22) [Abb.]: Der Piavefluß - ein reißender Strom. (23) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (23) Die Tschechoslowaken in Rußland. (23) [Abb.]: Der Piavefluß - ein seichtes Gewässer. (23) [3 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Küstenbatterie an der Adria. (2)Gepanzertes österreichisch-ungarisches Küstengeschütz an der Adria.(3)Österreichisch-ungarische Wacht an der Adria. (24) [Abb.]: Die Plünderung des Palazzo Cassarelli, des deutschen Botschafterpalastes in Rom, durch den aufgehetzten römischen Pöbel, der nach Sprengung des großen Gartentores unter den Augen der Polizei in das Gebäude eindrang und in den prunkvollen Gemächern, besonders dem mit den Bildern von Hermann Prell geschmückten Festsaal, grauenvolle Verwüstungen anrichtete. ( - ) [Abb.]: Das Brentatal bei Carpane-Valstagna unter dem schweren Geschützfeuer der österreichisch-ungarischen Batterien. (25) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zu der Tätigkeit der Tschechoslowaken an der sibirischen Bahn und zu der Besetzung der Murmanküste durch die Engländer. (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Revolutionsfahne, deren Vorderseite Kerenski zeigt, wie er die Zarenkrone zertrümmert. (2)Der frühere Zar Nikolaus II. als Gefangener in Zarskoje-Selo vor seiner Überführung nach Tobolsk. (27) Die Schlacht zwischen Soissons und Reims. (27) [Abb.]: Der von russischen Sozialrevolutionären in Moskau ermordete deutsche Gesandte Graf v. Mirbach-Harff. (28) [Abb.]: Unterdrückung der Moskauer Verschwörung Anfang Juli 1918. ([29]) Wer strebt nach der Weltherrschaft? (30) [8 Abb.]: Deutsche Ernte im Feindesland. (1)An der Dreschmaschine. (2)Füllen der Säcke mit ausgedroschenem Getreide. (3)Mähen des Hafers mittels Selbstbinders. (4)Aufladen der Garben. (5)Einbringen des ausgedroschenen Getreides. (6)Französische Zivilarbeiter werden zur Arbeit geführt. (7)Anfertigen von Harken. (8)Reparaturwerkstätte für landwirtschaftliche Maschinen. ([31]) Ein deutscher Motorminensucher. (32) [Abb.]: ein Minenräumer, wie er nach der Ansicht der Engländer bei der deutschen Flotte im Gebrauch ist. (32) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 203 (Heft 203) ([33]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Konteradmiral Paul v. Hintze, der neue deutsche Staatssekretär des Äußeren. (2)Alexander Malinow, der neue bulgarische Ministerpräsident und Minister des Äußeren. (3)Erfrischungspause während einer Sitzung des Versailler Kriegsrates. ([33]) [Abb.]: Belgischer Grabenposten mit einem Visierhelm. (34) [Abb.]: Feldlager bei Hannonville. (35) [Abb.]: Deutscher Blinkerposten. (36) [Abb.]: Gefechtstand eines Infanterieregiments. ([37]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (38) Gegen Compiègne. (38) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sanitätsabteilung eines bayrischen Alpenregiments auf dem Wege zur mazedonischen Front. (2)Straßenleben in Veles am Wardar. (39) [3 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarischer Kampfflieger k.u.k. Oberleutnant Linke-Crawford. (2)Leutnant z.S.d.Res. Theodor Osterkamp. (3)Kampfflieger Hauptmann Schleich (vorn) mit den Fliegern der von ihm geführten Jagdfliegerformation. (40) [Abb.]: Erfolgreicher Angriff deutscher Seeflugzeuge auf ein englisches U-Boot vor der Themsemündung am 6. Juli 1918. ([41]) Die Schiffahrt auf dem Schwarzen Meer und seinen Zuflüssen. (42) [Abb.]: Internationale nautisch-technische Kommission für das Schwarze Meer in Sebastopol. (42) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor Vogel, der Kommandant der deutschen Truppen in Odessa, auf der Mole des Hafens. (2)Der Hafen von Sebastopol mit russischen Kriegschiffen. (43) Essenfassen auf dem Kirchplatz von Grandpré. (43) [Abb.]: Essenfassen auf dem Kirchplatz in Grandpré in den Argonnen. ([44 - 45]) [Abb.]: Gefechtsübung einer Landwehr-Maschinengewehrkompanie der schweizerischen Armee. (46) Die schweizerische Armee. (47) [2 Abb.]: (1)Übungsmarsch einer Landwehr-Maschinengewehrkompanie der schweizerischen Armee über die Kleine Scheidegg. (2)Übungsmarsch einer Landwehr-Maschinengewehrkompanie der schweizerischen Armee über die Kleine Scheidegg. (47) [Abb.]: Die neuen endgültigen Grad- und Waffengattungsabzeichen der schweizerischen Armee. (48) [Abb.]: Übergang des Vortrupps der Armee des Generalobersten v. Boehn über die Marne am Morgen des 16. Juli 1918. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 204 (Heft 204) ([49]) [Abb.]: Vordringen von Maschinengewehren durch die Sperrzone. ([49]) [Abb.]: Bei Thierry erbeutetes französisches 28,5-cm-Eisenbahngeschütz. (50) [3 Abb.]: Zu den siegreichen deutschen Kämpfen in der Champagne. (1)Deutsche Minenwerfer gehen zur Eroberung des Keilberges im feindlichen Feuer in Stellung. (2)Deutscher Minenwerfer wird in Stellung gebracht, um einen feindlichen Stützpunkt niederzukämpfen. (3)Deutscher Minenwerfer beim Sturmreifschießen eines feindlichen Stützpunktes am Keil- und Poehlberg. (51) [Abb.]: Feuerüberfall auf Reims. ([52 - 53]) [Abb.]: Die wirtschaftliche Aushilfe aus Rumänien: Kerzengießmaschinen in einer unter Militärverwaltung stehenden rumänischen Seifen- und Kerzenfabrik. (54) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die wirtschaftliche Aushilfe aus Rumänien: Füll- und Packraum in einer unter Militärverwaltung stehenden Seifen- und Kerzenfabrik. (2)Die wirtschaftliche Aushilfe aus Rumänien: Eiertrocknungsanlage in einer unter Militärverwaltung stehenden rumänischen Nährmittelfabrik. (55) [Abb.]: Korvettenkapitän v. Nostiz und Jänckendorf, erfolgriecher deutscher U-Kreuzer-Kommandant. (56) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (56) Deutsche Kriegswirtschaft in Rumänien. (56) [Abb.]: Versenkung des durch eine große Zahl von Torpedo- und Patrouillenbooten gesicherten englischen Hilfskreuzers "Justicia" der White-Star-Linie an der Nordküste von Irland. ([57]) [Abb.]: Grusinischer General bei Verhandlungen auf einer kleinen Bahnstation bei Tiflis im Kaukasus. (58) [3 Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen bei Tiflis im Kaukasus. (1)Deutsche Kriegsgepäckkolonnen beim Vormarsch im Kaukasus. (2)Verhör gefangener tatarische Bandenführer durch deutsche Offiziere vermittels Dolmetschern. (3)Tatarischer Parlamentär mit weißer Fahne. An der Seite vorgehende deutsche Infanterie. (59) [Abb.]: Bürgerkrieg in Rußland: Aufrührerische Bauern werden bei der Plünderung eines reichen Gutshofes östlich von Moskau von einer anderen russischen Abteilung überfallen. (60 - 61) Der Kriegsphotograph. (62) [Abb.]: Amerikanische Kriegsphotographen an der englischen Front mit eigenartigen Stahlhelmen zum Schutz gegen Bombensplitter. (62) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberes Bild: Deutscher Kriegsphotograph mit einem Kinematographenapparat beim Aufnehmen einer Fliegerabteilung im Gebirge. (2)Mittleres Bild: Einrichten des Kinematographenapparates zur Aufnahme eines Flugplatzes. (3)Unteres Bild: Deutscher Kriegsphotograph mit Gasmaske und Stahlhelm bei einem Maschinengewehrposten in der vorderen Stellung. (63) Der Gefangenenaustausch zwischen Deutschland und Frankreich. (64) [Abb.]: Begrüßung der ersten auf Grund des Austauschabkommens zwischen Deutschland und Frankreich heimgekehrten deutschen Mannschaften durch den Großherzog von Baden am 20. Juli 1918 in Konstanz. (64) [Abb.]: Vorbrechende feindliche Sturmwagengeschwader werden von der deutschen Artillerie gefaßt, während deutsche Schlachtflieger die unter dem Schutze der Wagen mit Sturmfahnen vorgehende feindliche Infanterie aus niedriger Höhe unter Maschinengewehrfeuer nehmen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 205 (Heft 205) ([65]) [Abb.]: Von der deutschen Artillerie zerschossener französischer Beobachtungstand am Hochberg in der Champagne. ([65]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kolonnen auf dem Marktplatz in Nesle zwischen St. Quentin und Montdidier. (66) [Abb.]: Ein deutscher Zeltverbandplatz im Westen. (67) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen säubern das Waldgelände westlich von Vrigny vom Feinde. (68 - 69) [3 Abb.]: "Erfolge" feindlicher Fliegerangriffe auf militärisch bedeutungslose Ziele in Westdeutschland. (1)Oberes Bild: Feindlicher Fliegerangriff auf Mannheim: Zerstörtes Wohnhaus. (2)Mittleres Bild: Feindlicher Fliegerangriff auf Kaiserslautern: Der Hof eines schwer beschädigten Arbeiterwohnhauses. (3)Unteres Bild: Feindlicher Fliegerangriff auf Ludwigshafen: Zertrümmertes Wohnhaus. (70) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (70) Die Pioniere der Hochseeflotte. (70) [2 Abb.]: "Erfolge" feindlicher Fliegerangriffe auf militärisch bedeutungslose Ziele in Westdeutschland. (1)Feindlicher Fliegerangriff auf Trier: Blick in einen Raum des zerstörten Provinzialmuseums mit vernichteten wertvollen Sammlungsgegenständen. (2)Feindlicher Fliegerangriff auf Trier: Hof und Gebäude des zerstörten Provinzialmuseums. (71) [Abb.]: Zugang zum Artilleriebeobachter und zu den Unterkünften einer österreichisch-ungarischen Gebirgstellung im Adamellogebiet in einer Höhe von 3200 Metern. (72) [Abb.]: Ein gefährlicher Auftrag. Ein Unteroffizier der Kaiserschützen vernichtet eine italienische Feldwache. ([73]) Die Fragen der Übergangswirtschaft. (74) [4 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant Loeb, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (2)Flugzeugbeobachter Leutnant d. Res. Nielebock, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (3)Kampfflieger Leutnant Bolle, Führer der Jagdstaffel Bölcke. (4)Großadmiral v. Holtzendorff, trat von seinem Amt als Chef des Admiralstabes zurück. (74) [Abb.]: Im Hafen von Cattaro. (75) Ein Luftangriff auf Paris. (76) [Abb.]: Der osmanische Prinz Osman Fuad, der nach Vollendung seiner militärischen Ausbildung in Deutschland in Tripolis landete. (76) [Karte]: General v. Lettow-Vorbecks Kriegszug durch Mozambique. (77) [Abb.]: Deutsche Feldgraue als Gäste eines Arabermucktars (Dorfschulzen) bei einer feierlichen Mahlzeit. (77) In einer Armeekonservenfabrik. (78) [3 Abb.]: In einer deutschen Armeekonservenfabrik. (1)Im Entbeinungsraum: Die Rinder werden zerteilt und das Fleisch wird von den Knochen gelöst. (2)Konservierung von Rinderzungen. (3)Im Büchsenstopfraum: Füllen der Konservenbüchsen mit Fleischstücken. (78) [3 Abb.]: In einer deutschen Armeekonservenfabrik. (1)Gemüsemischraum. Herstellung von Bohnen-, Linsen- und Erbsmehlgemüse. Im Vordergrunde Kessel mit flüssigem Fett, das dem Gemüsemehl beigemengt wird. (2)Gemüsemehl wird auf Blechen ausgebreitet und zum Kühlraum geschafft. (3)An der Maschine zur Herstellung von Gemüsemehlwürfeln: Das Gemüsemehl wird in die Maschine geschüttet und kommt als Würfel wieder heraus. (79) Gefecht zwischen österreichisch-ungarischen und italienischen Torpedoeinheiten in der Nordadria am 2. Juli 1918. (80) [Abb.]: Nachtgefecht in der Nordadria zwischen österreichisch-ungarischen und italienischen Torpedoeinheiten. (80) Was kostet ein Kanonenschuß? (80) [Abb.]: Deutsche Haubitzkolonne in Staub und Nebel in Stellung gehend. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 206 (Heft 206) ([81]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Pioniere in Fontenoy. ([81]) [Karte]: Statistische Darstellung der Bombenabwürfe deutscher Bombenflugzeuggeschwader im Westen in der Woche vom Sonntag, dem 14. Juli, bis zum Sonnabend, dem 20. Juli 1918, in welcher Zeit über 250 000 Kilogramm Sprengstoff auf kriegswichtige Plätze abgeworfen wurden. (82) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Ehrenzeichen für Heimatverdienst, das vom Herzog von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha gestiftet wurde. (2)Kleine französische Sturmwagen, die, in Formationen zusammengefaßt, in der Schlacht zwischen Aisne und Marne in großer Menge verwendet wurden. (83) [Abb.]: Völkerrechtswidrige Beschießung eines deutschen Lazaretts im Westen. ([84 - 85]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zur Bluttat in Kiew. Eine der letzten Aufnahmen des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Eichhorn und seines persönlichen Adjutanten Hauptmann v. Dreßler. (2)Generaloberst Graf Günther v. Kirchbach, wurde an Stelle des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Eichhorn Oberbefehlshaber der deutschen Truppen in der Ukraine. (86) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick vom Gleise der transsibirischen Eisenbahn auf ein Dorf bei Irkutsk. (2)Eine Strecke der transsibirischen Eisenbahn im Uralgebirge. (3)Japanisches Infanterieregiment auf dem Marsch. (87) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (87) Madame Bunk. Eine Begegnung. (87) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines englischen Maschinengewehrnestes. (88) [Abb.]: Angriff eines deutschen Jagd- und Schlachtfliegergeschwaders auf eine französische Kavallerieabteilung. ([89]) Die Seidenspinnerei im besetzten Gebiete Veneziens unter österreichisch-ungarischer Militärverwaltung. (90) [Abb.]: Ofen zur Abtötung der Puppen in den Kokons mittels heißer Luft. (90) [4 Abb.]: Venezianische Seidenspinnerei in österreichisch-ungarischem Militärbetrieb. (1)Ausscheiden der vollkommenen Kokons von den fehlerhaften. (2)In der Spinnerei. (3)Zusammenwinden und Eindrehen der losen Seidensträhne, wie sie vom Haspel abgenommen werden, zu versandfähigen Bündeln. Vorne Fächer für die Seidenproben zur Bestimmung der Dicke der Rohseide, die eine jede Arbeiterin täglich gewinnt. (4)Verpackung der Rohseide für den Versand. (91) Granaten auf Bassano! (92 - 93) [Abb.]: Beschießung der Stadt Bassano am Ausgange des Brentatales in der venezianischen Ebene. (92 - 93) Auf dem Kriegspfad in der Luft. (94) [Abb.]: Rumpf eines abgeschossenen feindlichen Flugzeuges, das mit einem großen Auge als Geschwaderabzeichen bemalt ist. (94) [3 Abb.]: (1)Eigenartiges Geschwaderabzeichen eines abgeschossenen feindlichen Flugzeuges. Im Hintergrund ein deutsches Flugzeug mit dem deutschen Hoheitsabzeichen des Eisernen Kreuzes in seiner neuen Form. (2)Der bayrische Löwe, den gallischen Hahn jagend, als Abzeichen eines zu einer bayrischen Schutzstaffel gehörenden Flugzeuges. (3)"Pik-Aß" als Abzeichen eines abgeschossenen feindlichen Flugzeuges. (95) Minenwerfer in der Durchbruchschlacht. (95) Die englischen Dum-Dum-Geschosse. (96) [2 Abb]: (1)(2) Englische Dum-Dum-Geschosse. (96) "Die deutschen Schandtaten im Luftkrieg." (96) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 207 (Heft 207) ([97]) [Abb.]: Übergang einer deutschen Sturmabteilung über die Somme. Ein englisches Maschinengewehrnest wird gestürmt. ([97]) [Abb.]: Ein amerikanisches Bombenflugzeuggeschwader fliegt gegen die deutschen Stellungen in Frankreich. (98) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erbeutete englische und französische Sturmwagen auf einer der Zufahrtstraßen zwischen Amiens und Montdidier. (2)Der Marktplatz mit den zerstörten Häusern des zerschossenen Ortes Château-Thierry am Nordufer der Marne. (99) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen gesprengtes italienisches Panzerwerk Beano in Venetien. (2)Geschützstand des von österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen eroberten italienischen Werkes Sedegliano in Venetien. (100) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Artilleriebeobachter am Piavedelta. (101) [Karte]: Karte zum österreichisch-ungarischen Vormarsch in Albanien. (102) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (102) Die Muches. (102) [Abb.]: Das Westtor von Cattaro mit der alten Zugbrücke. (103) [Abb.]: Gebirgslandschaft in Nordmazedonien. (104) [Abb.]: Von der Jordanfront in Palästina: Die Trümmer der im Audschatal vernichteten englischen Kavalleriebrigaden. ( - ) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Bataillone nehmen, unterstützt durch Gebirgsartillerie, im Sturm die Höhen am oberen Devoli. ([105]) Flammenwerfer vor! (106) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen an der Westfront: Das Reservelager eines deutschen Jägerregiments in den Riesenhöhlen nördlich der Maß. (106) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Flammenwerfer bei der Arbeit. (2)Deutsche Flammenwerfer werden durch die zerstörten Drahthindernisse vorgebracht. (107) Schwimmende Lazarette. (107) [Abb.]: Ausräucherung einer von den Franzosen besetzten Höhle im Mont Lenilly durch deutsche Flammenwerfer. Oben das im Jahre 1914 zerstörte Gut Lenilly. ([108 - 109]) Kriegstädtebilder. 1. St. Quentin. (110) [6 Abb.]: Schwimmende Lazarette. (1)Das Hospitalschiff des Norddeutschen Lloyd "Sierra Ventana", in 8500-Tonnen-Schiff. (2)Ein Krankenzimmer an Bord des Hospitalschiffes "Sierra Ventana" mit mehreren Betten. (3)Rettungsapparat an Bord eines Lazarettschiffes des Norddeutschen Lloyd. (4)Beförderung von Verwundeten auf ein Lazarettschiff des Norddeutchen Lloyd. (5)Die Apotheke auf einem Lazarettschiff des Norddeutschen Lloyd. (6)Der Verbandraum auf dem Hospitalschiff "Sierra Ventana". ([111]) [Abb.]: Hindenburg (X) und Ludendorff (XX) auf dem historischen Marktplatz in Brüssel. (112) [Abb.]: Englischer Transportdampfer wird trotz starker Sicherung im Kanal von deutschen U-Booten angegriffen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 208 (Heft 208) ([113]) [Abb.]: Zerstörte Ölmühle im Avretal. ([113]) [Karte]: Stand der Schlacht im Westen zwischen Arras und Reims am 15. August 1918. Das zwischen Marne und Aisne und zwischen Ancre und Oise von den Deutschen aufgegebene Gebiet. (114) [Abb.]: Hinter den deutschen Linien zusammengeschossener kleiner französischer Sturmwagen. (114) [Abb.]: Das heiß umstrittene Schloß Tilloloy, ein ehemaliger Herzogsitz, zuletzt angeblich im Besitz des französischen Ministerpräsidenten Clemenceau. (115) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (116 - 117) "Hier Maulwurf - -" (116 - 117) [Abb.]: Zur Strecke gebracht! (116 - 117) [Abb.]: Ein Kampffeld bei Chaulnes. (118) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durch deutschen Fliegerangriff zerstörtes feindliches Munitionslager bei Ornes. (2)Durch eine schwere deutsche Fliegerbombe verursachter Riesentrichter in einer eroberten französischen Ortschaft. (119) Die Wohnungsfrage nach dem Kriege. (119) [3 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant v. Schrader. (2)Leutnant z.S. Freudenberg. (3)Deutsche Linienschiffe und Torpedoboote auf der Fahrt. (120) [Abb.]: Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte im Kampfe mit englischen Flotteneinheiten vor der Deutschen Bucht am 11. August 1918. Volltreffer auf einem englischen Schnellboot. ([121]) [Abb.]: Blick auf Wladiwostok. (122) Der Kampf um die Grappahöhen. (122) [7 Abb.]: Typen der chinesischen Armee, die von den Engländern als künftige Verbündete angesehen wird. (1)Artillerie der Südarmee. (2)Zeltaufschlagen. (3)Hornisten der Nordarmee. (4)Die Verpflegungsabteilung der chinesischen Nordarmee. (5)Transport von leichten Geschützen. (6)Artillerie auf dem Marsche. (7)Feuernde Batterie. ([123]) [Abb.]: Die Eroberung einer Höhe im Grappa-Gebiet durch die k.u.k. Truppen des 1. Korps am 15. Juni 1918. ([124 - 125]) Die Bedeutung Ägyptens. (126) [Abb.]: Enthüllung eines Denkmals für gefallene deutsche Flieger an der Palästinafront. Hauptmann Schaumburg hält die Weiherede. (126) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englische Kavalleriepatrouille an der Grenze von Südpalästina, nach Wasser grabend. (2)Kamelgespann einer englischen Feld-Telegraphen- und Fernsprechabteilung in der Wüste von Südpalästina. (127) Englische Fliegerabwehrkanone. (128) [Abb.]: Eine englische Fliegerabwehrkanone mit Offizier und Bedienungsmann. (128) [Abb.]: Der Deutsche Kaiser auf einem Gefechtstande bei der Trigny-Mühle vor Reims. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 209 (Heft 209) ([129]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Sturmtruppen überschreiten während des feindlichen Sperrfeuers im Morgengrauen die Ailette. ([129]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Brücke über die Aisne. (130) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von den Deutschen gebaute Kanalbrücke bei St. Mard. (2)Blick in das Aisnetal. Im Hintergrunde der Chemin des Dames. (131) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Sturmtrupp grieft unter dem Schutze des durch Nebelbomben hervorgewrufenen Rauches eine sturmreif geschossene Ortschaft zwischen Aisne und Marne an. (2)Französische Überläufer in den Kämpfen zwischen Aisne und Marne. (132) [Abb.]: Deutsche Grabenbesatzung bei der Abwehr englischer Sturmwagen. ([133]) [3 Abb.]: (1)St. Mard; im Hintergrund der Chemin des Dames. (2)Rechts St. Mard, links Le Rhu, im Hintergrund der Chemin des Dames. (3)Blick auf den Marktplatz von Roye. (134) [Abb.]: Anmarsch deutscher Reserven zum Kemmel. (135) [Abb.]: Der Tonale-Paß, der Schauplatz der für die österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen erfolgreichen Kämpfe. (136) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (136) Aussetzen eines Wasserflugzeuges. (136) [Abb.]: Bau einer Alpenstraße an der italienischen Front durch österreichisch-ungarische Soldaten. (136) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Tragtierkolonne in den Bergen an der Südwestfront. (137) Wüstenmarsch. (138) [3 Abb.]: Bei einer deutschen Seefliegerabteilung. (1)Oberes Bild: Maschinenanlage zum Aussetzen der Flugzeuge an Bord eines Flugzeugmutterschiffes. (2)Mittleres Bild: Aussetzen eines Wasserflugzeuges von einem Flugzeugmutterschiff. Rechts die an Bord des Schiffes befindliche Flugzeughalle. (3)Unteres Bild: Loslösen eines von einem Flugzeugmutterschiff ausgesetzten Wasserflugzeuges. Im Hintergrunde ein deutsches U-Boot. (139) Der Weltkrieg und die Zukunft des Kaukasus. (139) [Abb.]: Schlachtviehankauf in der Wüste. Es werden immer zwei bis drei Hämmel zusammen an der Wiegevorrichtung, die in einer Hebelwage mit Schiebegewicht besteht, lebend abgewogen. ([140 - 141]) [Abb.]: Hauptmann v. Egon Krieger, der Chef der deutschen Militärmission in Tiflis. (142) [8 Abb.]: Bilder aus Tiflis im Kaukasus. (1)Die engste Stelle der Kura mit den auf den Felsen errichteten Gebäuden. (2)Blick von den umliegenden Höhen auf die Stadt. (3)Ein Markttag in Tiflis. (4)Straßenverkäufer. (5)Ladenmagazine im neuen russischen Viertel. (6)Volkstypen auf einer Bahnstation bei Tiflis. (7)Straßenbild. (8)Tuchhändler. ([143]) [Abb.]: Die Kartoffelerzeugung der Welt. (144) [Abb.]: Straßenkampf mit Engländern in Cormicy. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 210 (Heft 210) ([145]) [Abb.]: Stimmungsbild aus einer Vogesenortschaft: Deutsche Munitionskolonne in einer Kleinstadt. ([145]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Verwundeter erhält nach erfolgreichem Kampf den ersten Verband. (146) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahmen von der Vogesenfront. Im Vordergrund die deutschen, auf den gegenüberliegenden Anhöhen (unterhalb des Waldes) die französischen Stellungen. (147) [Abb.]: Deutsche Feuerstellung. ([148 - 149]) [Karte]: Karte zu den englischen Offensive zwischen Arras und Chaulnes. (150) [Abb.]: Erstürmung der Ruinen eines zerstörten französischen Dorfes durch deutsche Sturmabteilungen. (151) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (152) Die Nacht des Schreckens. Ein Kriegsbild aus Italien. (152) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Berat. (2)Straßenbild aus dem wiedereroberten Berat. (152) [Abb.]: K.u.k. Sturmtruppen und Maschinengewehrabteilungen dringen in Fieri ein. ([153]) [Abb.]: Dr. Solf, der deutsche Staatssekretär des Kolonialamtes. (154) Fliegerangriff auf Otranto. (154) [5 Abb.]: (1)Kirche in Kola im Murmangebiet. (2)Ansicht von Tomsk. (3)Fahne der Russischen Sozialistischen Föderativen Sowjetrepublik. (Goldene Schrift auf rotem Tuch.) (4)Renntierschlitten im Murmangebiet. (5)Posthaus in Kola. (155) [3 Abb.]: (1)Kampfflieger k.u.k. Leutnant Otto Stella, starb auf dem italienischen Kriegschauplatz den Heldentod. (2)K.u.k. Oberleutnant v. Fiala, einer der erfolgreichsten österreichisch-ungarischen Kampfflieger. (3)Österreichisch-ungarischer Kampfflieger mit seinem Flugzeuge in der Flughalle. (156) Unterrichtsoffiziere. (156) Angriff österreichisch-ungarischer Seeflugzeuge auf die englischen Flughallen bei Otranto im südlichen Italien in der Nacht zum 25. Juli 1918. ([157]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eingang zum deutschen Soldatenheim in Namur. (2)Im deutschen Soldatenheim in Namur. (158) Takt und Taktlosigkeiten in der Kriegszeit. (158) [2 Abb.]: (1)Andacht im deutschen Soldatenheim in Brüssel. (2)Im deutschen Soldatenheim in Beverloo. (159) Ein grausamer Lagerkommandant. (159) Doppelkolbengewehr. (160) [Abb.]: Französisches Doppelkolbengewehr, das ein genaues Zielen aus guter Deckung ermöglicht. (160) Die Besetzungsmarken der Mittelmächte in Rumänien. (160) [Abb.]: Ein Offizier und vier Mann bedienen bis zum letzten Augenblick das einzige noch brauchbare Geschütz einer Feldbatterie, die einem nordöstlich von Courcelles gegen große englische Übermacht kämpfenden sächsischen Infanteriebataillon zugeteilt ist. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 211 (Heft 211) ([161]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein englisches Bomben-Flugzeug neuester Bauart, das nordwestlich von Metz durch deutsches Maschinengewehrfeuer zum Landen gezwungen wurde. Die Flügelspannung beträgt 30 Meter; es ist mit fünf Maschinengewehren ausgerüstet und hat eine Besatzung von sechs Mann. (2)Amerikanische Abteilung in der Gefahrzone auf dem Wege zur Stellung. ([161]) [Karte]: Skizze der Westfront Anfang September 1918. (162) [2 Abb.]: (1)Räumung des im August 1918 von den Deutschen freiwillig aufgegebenen Geländes im Westen: Rückkehr eines Feldlazaretts. (2)Räumung des im August 1918 von den Deutschen freiwillig aufgegebenen Geländes im Westen: Abfahren der Preßstrohlager. (163) [Abb.]: Deutsche Begleitbatterie geht mit Infanterie vor. (164 - 165) [Abb.]: Ein Lager englischer Fliegerbomben. (166) [3 Abb.]: "Militärische" Erfolge feindlicher Bombenangriffe auf das deutsche Heimatgebiet. (1)Oberes Bild: Bombentreffer in einem Wohnhaus in Darmstadt. (2)Mittleres Bild: Zerstörtes Haus in Ludwigshafen. (3)Unteres Bild: Durch Bombenwurf verwüstete Wohnung in einem Hause in Frankfurt a.M. (167) [Abb.]: Mittagsruhe bei einer deutschen Batterie am Rossignalhügel Ploegsteert südlich von Ypern. (168) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (168) Im Raume der drei "M" (Meteren-Merris-Merville). (168) [Abb.]: Nach abgeschlagenem Angriff werden feindliche Truppen durch deutschen Gegenangriff zurückgeworfen. ([169]) [Abb.]: Anlegen des Fliegerfallschirmgürtels. Der Fallschirm selbst liegt auf dem Flugzeug hinter dem Sitz. (170) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Rue St. Jacques in Douai. (2)Blick auf Douai mit dem Rathaus. (171) Der Fliegerfallschirm. (171) Kriegstädtebilder. 2. Douai. (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Munitionsübernahme an Bord eines deutschen Tauchbootes. (172 - 173) Munitionsübernahme an Bord eines deutschen Tauchbootes. (174) An den Gestaden der Krim. (174) [Abb.]: Markt der Tataren in Jalta in der Krim. (174) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die Hauptstraße am Meer in Jalta in der Krim. (2)Auf der Strandpromenade von Jalta an der Krim. (3)An der Meeresbucht von Balaklawa in der Krim. (175) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaiser Wilhelm im Gespräch mit dem zum Besuch bei ihm weilenden Hetman der Ukraine, General Skoropadski. (2)Der Warenaustausch Österreich-Ungarns mit der Ukraine: Löschen eines Handelsdampfers im Hafen von Odessa. (176) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 212 (Heft 212) ([177]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Kampfflieger Leutnant Fritz Rumey, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite, im bürgerlichen Beruf Dachdecker. Erfolgreiche deutsche Flieger. (2)Links: Jagdflieger Leutnant Neckel. (3)Rechts: Jagdflieger Leutnant Klimke. (4)In der Mitte: Schlachtflieger Vizefeldwebel Ehmann (am Maschinengewehr) mit seinem Flugzeugführer. ([177]) [Abb.]: Auf den Schlachtfeldern im Westen: Französische, in lockerer Linie vorgehende Infanterie gräbt sich auf offenem Sumpfgelände ein. (178) [3 Abb.]: Räumung des von den Deutschen freiwillig aufgegebenen Geländes im Westen. (1)Erbeutete englische Straßenwalze auf dem Rückzug. (2)Deutsche Kolonnen überschreiten den Bahnübergang bei Gouzeaucourt. (3)Räumung des Priviantamtes in Fins. (179) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Truppen bei St. Mihiel (an der Combreshöhe). ([180 - 181]) [Karte]: Skizze des alban. u. macedon. Kriegsschauplatzes. (182) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Streifenpatrouille und albanische Freiwillige während einer Rast in Albanien. (2)Deutscher, österreichisch-ungarischer und bulgarischer Posten am Bahnhof in Üsküb. (183) [Abb.]: Englischer Küstenschoner wird von deutschen Luftstreitkräften an der englischen Küste angehalten und versenkt. (184) [Abb.]: Ansprache des Deutchen Kaisers an die Arbeiter der Kruppschen Werke im Saalbau "Friedrichshalle" am 10. September 1918. ( - ) [Abb.]: Der französische Panzerkreuzer "Dupetit Thouars", das Führerschiff eines stark beschützten, von Amerika nach Frankreich fahrenden Geleitzuges, wird im Atlantischen Ozean durch ein deutsches U-Boot torpediert. ([185]) [Karte]: Grossrussland nach dem deutsch-russischen Ergänzungs-Vertrag. (186) [Abb.]: Die nach dem deutsch-russischen Finanzabkommen in Berlin eingetroffene erste Goldsendung. Der Güterzug von fünf Wagen enthielt ein und eine halbe Milliarde russisches Gold. Unser Bild zeigt einen mit zehn Millionen russischem Gold beladenen Rollwagen fertig zur Abfahrt nach der Reichsbank. (186) [6 Abb.]: Mit deutschen Jägern quer durch Finnland. (1)Tanz im Freien. (2)Begeisterte Begrüßung in Mukos. (3)Für deutsche Truppen am Waldrand gedeckte Milchtafel. (4)Einzug in Mukos. (5)An einem finnischen See. (6)Im Teerboot vor der Abfahrt durch die Stromschnellen. ([187]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (188 - 189) Mit deutschen Jägern quer durch Finnland. (188 - 189) [Abb.]: Deutscher U-Kreuzer rüstet auf hoher See den amerikanischen Dampfer "Triumph" als Hilfskreuzer aus. (188 - 189) Abzeichen der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee. (190) [2 Abb.]: (1)(2)Abzeichen der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee. (190) [2 Abb.]: (1)(2)Abzeichen der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee. (191) Die französische Taktik während der Schlacht in der Champagne im Juli 1918. (191) [Abb.]: Militärisches Leben und Treiben auf einer Ausladerampe in der Bukowina. (192) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 213 (Heft 213) ([193]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Artur James Balfour, englischer Außenminister. (2)Blick von den Ausläufern der Cote Lorraine. In der Mitte die Combreshöhe, rechts die Moevre-Ebene. ([193]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Stellung zwischen den Trümmern eines Eisenbahnzuges. (194) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit Gasmaske und leichtem Maschinengewehr ausgerüsteter deutscher Motorradfahrer auf der Fahrt im Westen. (2)Eine deutsche Motorradfahrer-Maschinengewehrabteilung in Kampfstellung im Westen. (195) [Abb.]: Deutsche Maschinengewehrabteilungen halten im Trichtergelände feindliche Angriffe auf. (196 - 197) [Abb.]: Deutsche Sturmtruppen durchschreiten eine Schlucht am Chemin des Dames. (198) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (198) Bemalen englischer Geschütze gegen Fliegersicht. (198) [3 Abb.]: In einem Lager für gefangene Amerikaner. (1)Gefangene beim Brotholen. (2)Anmarsch neuer Gefangener. (3)Deutscher Offizier im Gespräch mit Gefangenen. (199) "Hier ruht ein tapferer Franzose." (199) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Geschützstellung an der Front gegen Italien. (200) [Abb.]: Bemalen englischer schwerer Geschütze gegen Fliegersicht. ( - ) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme von Engländern an der italienischen Bergfront. ([201]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus Mazedonien. (1)Lebensmittelbeförderung durch Esel. (2)Deutscher Soldatenfriedhof in Cericani in Mazedonien. (3)Ankunft eines Lebensmitteltransportes. (202) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus Mazedonien. (1)Die Höhe 1050 bei Cericani in Mazedonien. (2)Auf einer Kleinbahnstation in Mazedonien. (3)Paßstraße bei Gradiska. (203) Weltkrieg und Geldkrieg. Ein Ausschnitt aus dem Zahlenbild des Krieges. (203) [Karte]: Vogelschaukarte von der Bagdadfront bis zum Kaspischen Meer. (204) [Abb.]: Vertreibung der Engländer aus Baku durch tatarische Freischärler in der Nacht zum 16. September 1918. ([205]) [Abb.]: Gesamtkosten des Weltkrieges. (206) Die Ereignisse zur See im achten Kriegshalbjahr. (206) [Abb.]: Frachtkostensteigerung und U-Bootkrieg. (207) Kriegstädtebilder. 3. Cambrai. (207) [Abb.]: Das Fénelontor in Cambrai. (208) Mordgelüste eines amerikanischen Offiziers. (208) [Abb.]: Deutsche Schlachtflieger greifen englische Panzerwagen erfolgreich an. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 214 (Heft 214) ([209]) [Abb.]: Das Kriegerstandbild in Riga nach der Enthüllung am 3. September 1918, dem Jahrestage der Befreiung der Stadt. ([209]) [2 Karten]: (1)Die neue französische Offensive zwischen Reims und Maas. (2)Die neue Front zwischen Maas und Mosel. (210) [Abb.]: Die malerisch gelegene Kirche des französischen Dörfchens Savonnières an der Maas bei St. Mihiel. (211) [5 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor v. Renner, württembergischer General, der für hervorragende Verdienste bei den Rückzugskämpfen im Westen den Orden Pour le Mérite erhielt. (2)Generalleutnant v. Fritsch, Führer der 26. (württembergischen) Reserve-Division, die sich am 29. September 1918 in den Kämpfen um Cambrai auszeichnete. (3)Oberleutnant Martin Boelcke vom mecklenburgischen Grenadier-Regiment Nr. 89, dank dessen tatkräftigem Eingreifen ein Vorstoß der Amerikaner gegen Bazoches am 28. August 1918 zum Scheitern gebracht wurde. (4)Vizewachtmeister Bauermeister von der 2. Batterie des Reserve-Feldartillerie-Regiments Nr. 21 vernichtete mit einem Geschütz allein 6 feindliche Panzerwagen bei Miraumont.(5)Vizefeldwebel Paul Höhne, der erste Vizefeldwebel, der den Orden Pour le Mérite erhielt. (212) [Abb.]: Vernichtung feindlicher Sturmpanzerwagen durch deutsches Maschinengewehrfeuer. ([213]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Sawos, der gewesene Oberbefehlshaber der bulgarischen Armee. (2)General Lukow, einer der bulgarischen Unterhändler, die in Saloniki über die Preisgabe ihres Vaterlandes an den Verband verhandelten. (214) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen in Mazedonien im September 1918. (214) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (215) Der Tag von Riga. (215) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gemüsemarkt in Üsküb. (2)Topfmarkt in Üsküb. (215) Überraschungen einer U-Bootfahrt. (216) [Abb.]: Stellungswechsel einer österreichisch-ungarischen Batterie. (216) [Abb.]: Vereitelter Übergangsversuch der Italiener über die Piave bei Noventa. ([217]) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen in Palästina im Sept. 1918. (218) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberst Ali Fuad Bey, Führer des VIII türkischen Armeekorps an der Front östlich vom Jordan. (2)Abtransport Verwundeter auf Kamel-Kakulehs an der Palästinafront. (219) [Abb.]: Deutsche Infanterieflieger führen einer eingeschlossenen Kompanie Munition, Fleisch und Zwieback zu. (220 - 221) [Abb.]: Die Wirkung des U-Bootkrieges. (222) Die Rettungsengel. (222) [Abb.]: Die Kriegschiffverluste der Verbandsmächte. (223) Die Ereignisse zur See im achten Kriegshalbjahr. II. Der Kampf gegen die U-Boote. (223) [Abb.]: Die Wirtschaftshilfe der Vereinigten Staaten 1917-1918. (224) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 215 (Heft 215) ([225]) [Abb.]: Die historische Reichstagsitzung am 5. Oktober 1918, in der der neue Reichskanzler Prinz Max von Baden Mitteilung von dem erfolgten neuen deutschen Friedensangebot machte. ([225]) [16 Abb.]: Der Reichskanzler Prinz Max von Baden und die Mitglieder der von ihm neu gebildeten parlamentarischen Regierung. (1)Prinz Max von Baden, Reichskanzler und preußischer Minister des Äußern. (2)Dr. v. Payer, Vizekanzler, früher fortschrittlicher Reichstagsabgeordneter. (3)Dr. Eduard David, sozialdemokratischer Reichstagsabgeordneter, Unterstaatssekretär des Auswärtigen Amtes. (4)Karl Trimborn, Zentrum-Reichstagsabgeordneter, Staatssekretär des Innern. (5)Generalmajor Ulrich Hoffmann, Chef des Kriegsamtes. (6)General Scheüch, preußischer Kriegsminister. (7)Vizeadmiral Ernst Ritter v. Mann, Staatssekretär d. Reichsmarineamtes. (8)Kapitän z.S. Löhlein, Chef des U-Bootamtes. (9)Matthias Erzberger, Zentrum-Reichstagsabgeordneter, Staatssekretär ohne Portefeuille. 10)Adolf Gröber, Zentrum-Reichstagsabgeordneter, Staatssekretär ohne Portefeuille. 11)Konrad Haußmann, fortschrittlicher Reichstagsabgeordneter, Staatssekretär ohne Portefeuille. 12)Philipp Scheidemann, sozialdemokratischer Reichstagsabgeordneter, Staatssekretär ohne Portefeuille. (13)Graf Rödern, Staatssekretär des Reichsschatzamtes. (14)Gustav Bauer, sozaildemokratischer Reichstagsabgeordneter, Staatssekretär des Reichsarbeitsamtes. (15)Giesberts, Zentrum-Reichstagsabgeordneter, Unterstaatssekretär im Reichsarbeitsamt. (16)Otto Fischbeck, fortschrittlicher Reichstagsabgeordneter, preußischer Handelsminister. ([227]) [Abb.]: General v.d.Chevallerie, unter dessen Führung ostpreußische und posensche Bataillone beiderseits von Sequehart v.i. Cambrai am 1. Oktober 1918 den Feind zurückwarfen. (228) [Karte]: Die Front im Westen am 11. Oktober 1918. (228) [Abb.]: Von der französischen Bedienungsmannschaft verlassenes Eisenbahngeschütz bei St. Thierry wird von Engländern verteidigt. ([229]) [Abb.]: Ein neuer deutscher Flugzeugtyp: Fokker-Kampfeinseitzer. (230) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (231) Überraschungen einer U-Bootfahrt. (231) [Abb.]: Der "militärische Erfolg" des englischen Luftangriffs auf Stuttgart am 15. September 1918, von dem die Engländer behaupteten: "Die Daimler-Werke in Stuttgart wurden mit gutem Erfolg angegriffen." Getroffen wurde ein Wohnhaus inmitten der Stadt, in dem die durch alle Stockwerke schlagende Bombe 10 Zivilpersonen und 1 Soldaten tötete. (231) [3 Abb.]: (1)Vertreter des kaukasischen Bergvolkes der Chewsuren, die nach Tiflis gekommen sind, um der georgischen Regierung ihre Sympathien zu bekunden. (2)Beerdigung des höchsten Geistlichen im Kaukasus, des georgischen Katholikos Kirion II. in Tiflis, der Hauptstadt des neu gebildeten Staates Georgien: Geistliche im Trauerzuge. (3)Fechter der Chewsuren in ihrer Fechterkleidung. (232) [Abb.]: Die Bulgaren am Wardar. ( - ) [Abb.]: Zusammenziehung deutscher Streitkräfte in der Darialschlucht auf der grusinischen Heerstraße im Kaukasus. ([233]) Die Murmanküste und der Aufmarsch der Engländer gegen die Sowjetrepublik. (234) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kaserne in Omsk. (2)Blick auf den Hafen von Alexandrowsk. (234) [Karte]: Die Lage in Rußland Mitte September 1918. (235) [5 Abb.]: (1)Typische Bockbrücke der Murmanbahn. (2)Blick auf Tobolsk. (3)Das St. Innozent-Kloster in Irkutsk. (4)Der höchste Punkt der sibirischen Bahn im Ural. (5)Die Vorhut der Kalmücken des Sasker Kreises, die sich gegen die Tschecho-Slowaken erhoben haben, besetzt die Bahnlinie Pensa-Simbirsk. (236 - 237) [3 Abb.]: Bei den deutschen Nachrichtentruppen. (1)(2)Oberes und unteres Bild: Soldaten beim Legen einer Leitung in einer kleinen russischen Stadt. (3)Mittleres Bild: Leitungsturm einer deutschen Fernsprechabteilung. (238) Das Fernsprechwesen im Kriege. (239) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberes Bild: Soldaten bei der Bedienung von Fernsprechapparaten auf einer Station im Westen. (2)Mittleres Bild: Fernsprech- und Telegraphenvermittlung an der Aisne. (3)Unteres Bild: Soldaten beim Legen einer Leitung in einem russischen Städtchen. (239) [Abb.]: "Wir Barbaren!" Wo die wahre Kultur zu finden ist, zeigt ein Vergleich der Leistungen Deutschlands, Englands und Frankreichs an Hand der obigen bildlichen Darstellung. (240) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 216 (Heft 216) ([241]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant v. Brandenstein, Kommandeut des Infanterieregiments Alt-Württemberg Nr. 121, erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite. (2)Planmäßige Räumung im Westen: Verbringung französischer Gefangener aus Laon in rückwärts gelegene Lager. ([241]) [Abb.]: Planmäßige Räumung im Westen: Rückverlegung einer deutschen Artilleriewerkstatt. (242) [Abb.]: Eine interessante Tankabwehrübung. Der Tank wird von der Infanterie eingenebelt und von Flammenwerfern und Schlachtfliegern angegriffen. (243) [Abb.]: Von der großen Abwehrschlacht im Westen. Abteilung 1 des Gefechtstandes des Alpenkorps. (244) [Abb.]: Am Sommekanal bei Epenancourt. (245) [Abb.]: Großwesir Izzet Pascha, zugleich türkischer Kriegsminister. (246) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (246) Überraschungen einer U-Bootfahrt. (246) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Palästinafront. (1)Oberes Bild: Beisetzung eines gefallenen englischen Fliegeroffiziers durch deutsche Truppen. (2)Mittleres Bild: ein Divisionskommandeut besichtigt eine türkische Stellung. (3)Unteres Bild: Deutsche Sanitätskolonne auf dem Wege zur Front. (247) [Abb.]: Versenkung eines französischen U-Bootes durch ein österreichisch-ungarisches Tauchboot am 20. September 1918 nördlich von Durazzo. (248) [Abb.]: Douai unter dem Feuer schwerer englischer Geschütze. ( - ) [Abb.]: Fliegerabwehr an Bord eines österreichisch-ungarischen Großkampfschiffes im Hafen von Pola. (249) Unsere Ostafrikaner. (250) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte über die von den Truppen des Generals v. Lettow-Vorbeck zurückgelegten Wegstrecken. (251) Eine deutsche Feldpostsammelstelle. (251) [Abb.]: Deutsche Schutztruppenabteilungen aus Ostafrika durchqueren einen Flußlauf im portugiesischen Kolonialgebiet. . In langer Reihe die Trägerkolonnen. ([252 - 253]) [2 Abb.]: Die Feldpostsammelstelle in Frankfurt a.M. (1)Aussortieren der Heeresdienstpakete in der unterirdischen Durchgangspackkammer. (2)Verladen der fertigen Feldposten auf dem nördlichen Postverladebahnsteig im Hauptbahnhof. (254) [4 Abb.]: Die Feldpostsammelstelle in Frankfurt a.M. (1)Grobsortierstelle für Kolonnenformationen bei der Abteilung B im Oberpostdirektionsgebäude. (2)Päckchen-Feinsortierstelle "Aktive Regimenter". (3)Elektrisches Hebewerk für Päckchenposten. (4)Feldpostensortierstelle in der Pakethalle auf dem Hauptbahnhof. (255) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Sozialversicherung steht in der ganzen Welt vorbildlich und unerreicht da. (256) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 217 (Heft 217) ([257]) [Abb.]: Von der großen Rückzugschlacht im Westen: Vor Nesle. ([257]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Räumung des von den Deutschen freiwillig aufgegebenen Geländes im Westen: Anbringen der Sprengladung an einer Brücke. (2)Räumung des von den Deutschen freiwillig aufgegebenen Geländes im Westen: Sprengladungen werden an eine Brücke gelegt. (258) [Abb.]: Ein besonders konstruiertes Gewehr zur Bekämpfung der Sturmpanzerwagen. (259) [Abb.]: Die Räumung von Lille: Die Bewohner verlassen die Stadt. (260 - 261) [Karte]: Völker-Karte von Österreich-Ungarn. (262) [3 Abb.]: (1)Reichstagsabgeordneter Hauß (Zentrum), Staatssekretär von Elsaß-Lothringen. (2)Der ehemalige ungarische Ministerpräsident Graf Stephan Tisza (am 31. Oktober 1918 ermordet). (3)Der österreichische Ministerpräsident Freiherr Hussarek v. Heinlein. (263) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (264) U-Boottätigkeit im Sperrgebiet. "Bringen Sie die Papiere an Bord!" (264) [Abb.]: Aufgefischte englische Stahldrahtnetzsperre in der Halle des Seebahnhofes von Ostende. (264) Kriegstädtebilder. 4. Brügge. (264) [Abb.]: Auf den Festungswällen von La Fère. ( - ) [Abb.]: "Bringen Sie die Papiere an Bord!" ([265]) Die Bosniaken am Monte Solarolo. (266) Notgeldscheine und -münzen deutscher Städte. Mit Berücksichtigung der Kleingeldscheine in den von den deutschen Truppen besetzten Gebieten. (266) [Abb.]: Deutsche Matrosen auf einem Kanal in Brügge. (267) [Abb.]: In den Kämpfen im August 1918 von den k.u.k. Truppen gefangene Italiener warten im Brentatal auf ihre Abführung. (268) [Abb.]: Ein am 15. Juli 1918 von den Italienern unternommener Hauptstoß gegen die östereichisch-ungarischen Stellungen am Monte Solarolo wird von Bosniaken des 4. Regiments abgewiesen. Die Ausrüstung der Bosniaken ist die sogenannte "erleichterte", d.h. ohne Rucksack oder Tornister. Die Soldaten tragen nur den Patronentornister und darüber den gerollten Mantel. ([269]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Vier russische Kleingeldmarken. Kriegsnotgeld des Auslandes. Vier ukrainische Kleingeldmarken. (2)Kriegsmünze der Stadt Neuburg a.D. Vorder- und Rückseite. (3)1-Mark-Schein des Königreichs Polen. (4)Französischer Geldschein aus dem besetzten Gebiet. (270) Überraschungen einer U-Bootfahrt. (270) [10 Abb.]: (1)50-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Lindenberg i. Allgäu. (2)50-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Hammelburg. (3)50-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Würzburg. (4)50-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Lindau i. Bodensee. (5)50-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Bielefeld. (6)Kriegsmünze der Stadt Greilsheim i. Württ. (Vorderseite.) (7)25-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Bielefeld. (8)10-Pfennig-Schein der Stadt Bielefeld. (9)Kriegsmünze der Stadt Greilsheim i. Württ. (Rückseite.) 10)Gutschein für die Kriegsgefangenenlager des XVIII. Armeekorps. (271) [Abb.]: Die Beute der U-Bootfahrt. (272) [Abb-]: Die rauchenden Trümmer der französichen Festung La Fère werden von deutschen Truppen verteidigt. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 218 (Heft 218) ([273]) [Abb.]: Schweres deutsches Maschinengewehr im Vorfeld. ([273]) [2 Karten]: (1)Deutsche und polnische Sprachgebiete in den Provinzen Ostpreußen, Westpreußen, Posen und Schlesien. (2)Die Verbreitung der deutschen und französischen Sprache in Elsaß-Lothringen. (274) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Marsche. (2)Deutsche Geschütze werden durch Mannschaften in die Stellungen gezogen. (275) [Abb.]: Das 1. bayrische Infanterieregiment hält unter Führung seines Kommandeurs, Major Schmidtler, in zäher Verteidigung die Höhen östlich von Chestres gegen den heftigen Ansturm eines überlegenen Gegners. ([276 - 277]) [Abb.]: Die Abwehrkämpfe im Westen: Auf einer Marschstraße zwischen Maas und Mosel. (278) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick von den Maashöhen bei Braux. (2)Nouzon an der Maas. (3)Charleville an der Maas. (279) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (279) Die Wohnungsfrage nach dem Kriege. (279) [Abb.]: Deutsche Vorfeldbesatzung wehrt einen Tankangriff ab. (280) [Abb.]: Verbellen von deutschen Maschinengewehr-Stützpunkten. ([281]) Riesen-Flugzeuge. (282) [3 Abb.]: Bei einer deutschen Jagdstaffel. (1)Mitte: Abflugbereite Staffel von Kampfeinsitzern, genau in einer Reihe aufgestellt und ausgerichtet. (2)(3)Seitenbilder: Signalrakete, die als Zeichen zum Abflug auf dem Flugplatz abgefeuert wird, da Kommandoworte und Schüsse infolge des Motorenlärmes nicht hörbar sind. Links die unter starker Rauchentwicklung aufsteigende Rakete. Rechts: Richten des Abschußgestelles. (282) [Abb.]: Ein neues deutsches Riesen-Flugzeug nach einer englischen Darstellung. ([283]) Der Fliegerüberfall auf das österreichisch-ungarische Hospitalschiff "Baron Gall". (284) Finnlands wirtschaftspolitische Verhältnisse. (284) [Abb.]: Fliegerüberfall auf das österreichisch-ungarische Hospitalschiff "Baron Gall". (285) [Abb.]: Finnische Hochseefischer im Hafen von Helsingfors. (286) Unsere Unterwasserschneid-Abteilungen. (286) [6 Abb.]: Bilder aus Finnland. (1)Eine der größten Papierfabriken in Finnland. (2)Die Imatra Stromschnellen. (3)Rückkehr der abgelösten finnischen Wache in Helsingfors. (4)Markt in Helsingfors. (5)Der Nordhafen von Wyborg. (6)Oboßkische Brücke in Wyborg. ([287]) [Abb.]: Dräger-Taucher arbeitet mit Unterwasser-Schneidbrenner. (288) Ehrentafel. Bezwingung eines englischen Tanks. (288) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 219 (Heft 219) ([289]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kavallerieschützen mit Maschinengewehr. ([289]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche schwere Mörserbatterie im Rückzugsgefecht bei den Abwehrkämpfen im Westen. (2)Feuernde deutsche 15-cm-Haubitzenbatterie bei den Abwehrkämpfen im Westen. Vor den Geschützen angreifende Infanterie. (290) [Abb.]: Die Abwehrkämpfe im Westen: Deutsche Reserven werden in vorderster Stellung ausgeladen. (291) [Abb.]: Eine Stadt in Flandern im englischen Artilleriefeuer. (292 - 293) [Abb.]: Pierrepont. (294) [5 Abb.]: (1)Eine Straße in Douai am 2. Oktober 1918 nach erneuter Beschießung durch englische Artillerie. (2)Der Bahnhof von Douai am 2. Oktober 1918 nach erneuer Beschießung durch die Engländer. (3)Volltreffer in einem Hause von Douai nach erneuter Beschießung durch die Engländer am 2. Oktober 1918. (4)Volltreffer in der Ecole Chrétienne in Douai, durch den acht Personen getötet wurden. Deutsche Soldaten bergen die Verunglückten. (5)Die französische Bevölkerung von Vouziers flüchtet vor dem Artilleriefeuer ihrer eigenen Landsleute. ([295]) [Abb.]: Straßenleben in einer mazedonischen Ortschaft. (296) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (296) Der deutsche Arbeitsmarkt nach dem Kriege. (296) [Abb.]: Kampf mit serbischen Banden auf dem Rückzug der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee aus Serbien. ([297]) [5 Abb.]: (1)Hofrat Professor Dr. Heinrich Lammasch, der österreichischer Ministerpräsident wurde. (2)Graf Julius Andrassy, der als österreich.-ungar. Minister des Äußern von nur mehrtägiger Amtszeit das Angebot eines bedingungslosen Waffenstillstandes an Amerika richtete. (3)Graf Michael Karolyi, ungarischer Ministerpräsident, Führer der Radikalen Ungarns und Gegner des Bündnisses mit Deutschland. (4)Graf Janos Hadik, der, zum ungarischen Ministerpräsidenten ernannt, sein Amt sofort an Graf Karolyi abgeben mußte. (5)Dr. Viktor Adler, Führer der österreichischen Sozialdemokraten, wurde in der auf das Ministerium Lammasch-Andrassy folgenden Nationalregierung deutschösterreichischer Staatssekretär des Äußern. Er starb am 11. November 1918. (298) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der österreichische Kriegshafen Pola, der mit der gesamten Kriegsflotte den Kroaten ausgeliefert wurde. (2)Fiume. (299) Die Begleitbatterien der Infanterie. (300 - 301) [Abb.]: Überschiffung Verwundeter über die Piave während der Montelloschlacht. (300 - 301) Das Taubenhaus. (302) [Abb.]: Großer französischer Taubenturm, der in deutsche Hände gefallen ist. (302) [Abb.]: Das Innere des französischen Taubenturmes, in dem etwa 1500 Tauben nisten können. Eine drehbare Leiter ermöglicht es, an jedes Nest zu gelangen. (303) Der Bauch des Heeres. (304) [Abb.]: Die Nahrung der Kämpfer. (304) [Abb.]: Vizewachtmeister Halbreiter vom 1. Garde-Reserve-Feldartillerieregiment empfängt heranstürmende Abteilungen der Engländer aus nächster Nähe mit vernichtendem Schnellfeuer. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 220 (Heft 220) ([305]) [Abb.]: Franzensfeste in Tirol. ([305]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Professor Thomas Masaryk, Präsident der tschechoslowakischen Republik. (2)Dr. Kramarsch, der tschechoslowakische Ministerpräsident. (3)Benzin- und Öllager in Dalmatien. (306) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Volkstag in Troppau (Österreichisch-Schlesien) am 15. Oktober 1918. ([307]) [Abb.]: Gewaltiger deutscher Minenwerferangriff mit nachfolgendem Sturm auf eine französische Stellung, die durch die gleichzeitig einsetzende Beschießung aus tausend Feuerschlünden vollständig vernichtet wurde. (308 - 309) [3 Abb.]: Der deutsche Rückzug an der Westfront im Herbst 1918. (1)Abtransport eines deutschen Geschützes. (2)Deutsche Gepäckwagen fahren über die Kanalbrücke bei Bellenglise. (3)Der geordnete deutsche Rückzug, der ohne Hast vonstatten ging. (310) [Abb.]: Französische Landeseinwohner flüchten vor der französischen und englischen Beschießung. (311) [7 Abb.]: Bei den deutschen Fliegern im Westen. (1)Kampfflieger Vizefeldwebel Hennrich. (2)Vollkommen aus Metall gebautes deutsches Infanterieflugzeug mit gepanzertem Motor, fertig zum Abflug. (3)Kampfflieger Oberleutnant Greim. (4)Infanterieflieger, die einer vom Feind umfaßten Truppe Wasser in Kannen, ferner Konserven und Brot zuführen sollen, unterrichten sich auf der Karte über die Infanteriestellung. (5)Kampfflieger Leutnant Mai. (6)Maschinengewehre zur Fliegerabwehr auf dem Flugplatz eines deutschen Geschwaders. (7)Kampfflieger Oberleutnant Schmidt. (312) [Abb.]: Bayrische Grenzschutzwache an der Tiroler Grenze bei Kufstein. ( - ) [Abb.]: Feindliche Batterien werden von deutschen Fliegern zum Schweigen gebracht. ([313]) [5 Abb.]: (1)General v. Winterfeldt, Mitglied der deutschen Waffenstillstandsabordnung, früher deutscher Militärattaché in Paris. (2)Graf v. Oberndorf, Mitglied der deutschen Waffenstillstandsabordnung, vorher deutscher Gesandter in Bulgarien. (3)Kapitän z.S. Vanselow, Mitlied der deutschen Waffenstillstandsabordnung. (4)Geheimrat Frisch, als Vertreter der deutschen Zentral-Einkaufs-Gesellschaft zur Unterhandlung mit Foch ausersehen. (5)Der amerikanische Oberst House, von dem Präsidenten Wilson zu seiner Vertretung nach Europa gesandt. (314) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (315) Die Evakuierung von Valenciennes. (315) [Karte]: Die im Waffenstillstandsvertrag vereinbarte neutrale Zone. (315) Die politischen Ziele der Verbandsmächte in Syrien, Arabien und Mesopotamien. (315) [8 Abb.]: (1)Friedrich Ebert, mit Hugo Haase Vorsitzender des Rats der Volksbeauftragten (Sozialdemokrat). (2)Hugo Haase, neben Friedrich Ebert Vorsitzender des Rats der Volksbeauftragten (unabhängiger Sozialdemokrat). (3)Schiffer, Staatssekretär des Reichsschatzamtes (nationalliberal). (4)Eduard Bernstein, Beigeordneter im Reichsschatzamt (unabhängiger Sozialdemokrat). (5)Paul Göhre, Beigeordneter im Kriegsministerium (Sozialdemokrat). (6)Karl Kautsky, Beigeordneter im Auswärtigen Amt (unabhängiger Sozialdemokrat). (7)Robert Schmidt, Leiter des Kriegsernährungsamtes (Sozialdemokrat). (8)Kurt Eisner, Ministerpräsident der bayrischen Republik (unabhängiger Sozialdemokrat). (316) [Abb.]: Am Abend des 7. Novembers 1918 vor der Theatinerkirche in München (links die Feldherrnhalle). ([317]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der deutschen Revolution. (1)Das Landtagsgebäude in München, der Sitz des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrats. (2)Von Mitgliedern des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrats besetzte Kraftwägen mit roten Fahnen in den Straßen Berlins. (3)Ein von bewaffneten Soldaten besetzter Lastkraftwagen des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrates, der die Straßen Berlins durchstreift, am Brandenburger Tor. (318) [Abb.]: Ein Soldat mit weißer Armbinde, der im Auftrag des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrates am Sicherheitsdienst in Berlin teilnimmt. (319) Kriegstädtebilder. 5. Gent. (319) [Abb.]: Straßenbild aus Gent. (320) Die deutschen, die britischen und die amerikanischen Verluste. (320) [Abb.]: Räumung der deutschen Stellung am Knie im Argonnenwald. Im Hintergrund zeichnen sich gegen die Luft die aufgeworfenen Erdhügel der deutschen Schützengräben ab. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 221 (Heft 221) ([321]) [Abb.]: Stenay. Im Vordergrund das Gebäude, in dem sich das Oberkommando der deutschen V. Armee befand. ([321]) [Abb.]: Die Revolution in Deutschland: Der kaiserliche Marstall in Berlin mit den Spuren von Maschinengewehrschüssen. Aus diesem dem Schloß gegenüberliegenden Gebäude wurde lebhaft auf die Revolutionäre geschossen. (322) [Abb.]: Die neue württembergische Regierung. Von links: Baumann, Dr. Lindemann, Blos, Kiene, Heymann, Liesching, Crispien. (323) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die erste Sitzung des Soldatenrats im Reichstagsgebäude am 11. November 1918. (2)Eine Sitzung des Rates der Volksbeauftragten. Von links: Barth, Landsberg, Ebert, Haase, Dittmann, Scheidemann. (324) [Abb.]: Die Umwälzung in Berlin. Ein Soldat mit roter Fahne hält von einem mit bewaffneten Matrosen und Soldaten besetzten Automobil am Brandenburger Tor eine Ansprache an die Menge. Links entfernt ein Soldat die Kokarde von seiner Mütze. ([325]) [Abb.]: Im Luftkampf abgeschossenes englisches Flugzeug, das vor der Kirche von Latour en Woevre niederstürzte. (326) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (326) "Wir machen eine Trichtersprengung." (326) [Abb.]: Deutsche Nachhut hält die Trümmer einer französischen Ortschaft gegen feindlichen Infanteriesturm. ([327]) [Abb.]: Von der Westfront heimkehrende deutsche Truppen in einer Stadt des besetzten Gebiets, die zum Empfang der nachrückenden Verbandstruppen festlich beflaggt ist. (328) [Abb.]: Kavallerie auf dem Marsche. ([329]) Der Eisenbetonschiffbau in Amerika. (330) [Abb.]: Das amerikanische Eisenbetonschiff "Faith" im Bau. (330) [5 Abb.]: (1)Das dänische Betonboot "Beton I" verläßt kieloben die Bauhalle. (2)Das Betonboot "Beton I" nach seiner Umkehrung. (3)Stapellauf des amerikanischen Eisenbetonschiffes "Faith". (4)Die Eisenspanten des "Faith". (5)Das amerikanische Eisenbetonschiff "Faith" auf der Fahrt. (331) Abwehr eines See- und Luftangriffes auf Durazzo. (332) [Abb.]: Der erste Friedensbrunnen in Deutschland, der in Mittweida in Sachsen auf Kosten der Stadt errichtet wurde. (332) [Abb.]: Ein See- und Luftangriff auf Durazzo wird erfolgreich abgeschlagen. ([333]) Die politischen Ziele der Verbandsmächte in Syrien, Arabien und Mesopotamien. (334) [Abb.]: Ansicht von Damaskus. (334) [3 Abb.]: (1)Blick in eine Straße der schöngepflegten Anlagen von Beirut in Syrien. (2)Blick auf einen Teil der französischen Gebirgsbahn bei Beirut. Im Hintergrund rechts eine vierhundertjährige Brücke. (3)Gesamtansicht von Beirut am Fuße des schneebedeckten Libanongebirges. (335) [Abb.]: Englische Kamelkolonne im Jordantal in Palästina, durch das Jahrhunderte vorher die Kamelreiter und Transportzüge der Assyrer und Babylonier in Palästina eindrangen. (336) Ein Engländer über seine Behandlung in Deutschland. (336) Die Weltkriegskosten. (336) [Abb.]: Von der Westfront heimkehrende deutsche Truppen marschieren durch Köln am Rhein. Rechts die mächtigen Mauern des Kölner Domes. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 222 (Heft 222) ([337]) [Abb.]: Ansicht des belgischen Badeortes Spaa in der Provinz Lüttich, in dem die Verhandlungen der Waffenstillstandskommission geführt wurden. ([337]) [Abb.]: Rückkehr deutscher Truppen aus dem Westen. Die Züge sind so überfüllt, daß die Soldaten sogar auf den Dächern Platz genommen haben. (338) [8 Abb.]: Durchmarsch der heimkehrenden deutschen Truppen durch Köln a.Rh. (1)Die flaggengeschmückte Hohe Straße in Köln. (2)Truppen ziehen durch die Springergasse in Köln. (3)Rast vor dem Kölner Dom. (4)Ein Jäger-Radfahrerbataillon in den Straßen Kölns. (5)Kölner Jungen auf einem heimkehrenden Automobil. (6)Die Jugend begleitet die Truppen durch die Stadt. (7)Automobil-Transportzug in den Straßen Kölns. (8)Ein ungewohnter Anblick in den Straßen Kölns. ([339]) [Abb.]: Kameraden. (340) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen räumen Grandpré. ([341]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Admiral Sir David Beatty, der als Bevollmächtigter der englischen Admiralität die abzuliefernde deutsche Kriegsflotte entgegennahm. (2)Konteradmiral Meurer, der im Auftrage des deutschen Flottenrates die Verhandlungen zur Übergabe der deutschen Kriegsflotte leitete. (3)Lord Robert Cecil, der zurückgetretene englische Blockademinister. (342) [Abb.]: Ansicht von Kiel mit dem Kriegshafen. (343) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Posten an der Stützmauer von Helgoland. (2)Deutsche Torpedoflotte im Hafen von Helgoland. (344) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (344) Die Ursachen des Zusammenbruchs des deutschen Heeres. (344) [Abb.]: Deutsche Luft- und Seestreitkräfte verlassen den Hafen von Helgoland. ([345]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Karl Renner, der deutschösterreichische Staatskanzler, ein Führer der österreichischen Sozialdemokratie. (2)Dr. Ludo M. Hartmann, der neuernannte Vertreter der Deutschösterreichischen Republik in Berlin. (3)Professor Dr. Preuß, deutscher Staatssekretär des Innern. (346) [Abb.]: Die erste Nationalversammlung der Abgeordneten von Deutsch Österreich im Sitzungsaal des Wiener Landhauses. (347) Aus der Praxis des russischen Bolschewismus. (347) [Abb.]: Verkündigung der Deutschösterreichischen Republik und ihres Anschlusses an den deutschen Freistaat am 12. November 1918 vor dem Parlament in Wien. (348 - 349) [Abb.]: Russische Bolschewisten überfallen mit umherstreifenden Soldatenbanden einsame Bauernhöfe, in denen sie Anhänger des Zarismus vermuten. (350) [3 Abb.]: (1)Schnelle Aburteilung durch bolschewistische Rote Garde an der finnischen Grenze. (2)Bolschewistische Soldateska legt nach Plünderung Feuer an ein Amtsgebäude. (3)Bolschewistische Rechtsprechung in Petersburg. ([351]) [Abb.]: Daheim - und Friede! (352) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 223 (Heft 223) ([353]) [Abb.]: Die Reichskonferenz der bundesstaatlichen Volksregierungen am 25. November 1918 im Sitzungsaal des Reichskanzlerhauses in Berlin. Im Hintergrund am mittleren Fenster, stehend, Friedrich Ebert. ([353]) [Abb.]: Die Urkunde über die Abdankung Wilhelms II. (354) [3 Abb.]: (1)Kaiser Wilhelm überschreitet nach seiner Abdankung die holländische Grenze am Bahnhof Eysden. (2)Der frühere Deutsche Kaiser mit seinem Gastgeber bei einem Spaziergang im Schloßpark von Amerongen. (3)Das Schloß Het Huis te Amerongen, in dem sich der frühere Deutsche Kaiser mit Erlaubnis der holländischen Regierung nach seinem Thronverzicht aufhält. Das Schloß gehört dem Grafen Godard Aldenburg Bentinck. (355) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Truppen verlassen in Erfüllung der Waffenstillstandsbedingungen Metz. (356 - 357) [11 Abb.]: Vertreter der bundesstaatlichen Volksregierungen bei der Reichskonferenz in Berlin. (1)Heinrich Ströbel, preußischer Ministerpräsident. (2)Dr. Kurt Rosenfeld, preußischer Justizminister. (3)Paul Hirsch, preußischer Minister des Innern. (4)Dr. Friedrich Muckle, bayrischer Gesandter in Berlin. (5)Dr. Georg Gradnauer, sächsicher Justizminister. (6)Karl Hildenbrand, württ. Gesandter in Berlin. (7)Geiß, badischer Ministerpräsident. (8)Dr. Ludwig Haas, badischer Minister des Innern. (9)Ulrich, hessischer Ministerpräsident. (10)Sivkovich, Vertreter von Mecklenburg-Schwerin. (11)Professor Dr. Neumann-Hofer, Vertreter von Lippe-Detmold. (358) [3 Abb.]: (1)General v. Eberhardt, der den Arbeiter- und Soldatenrat in Koblenz absetzen ließ, leitet den Rheinübergang bei Neuwied. (2)Deutsche Kolonnen überschreiten die von Pionieren erbaute Notbrücke über den Rhein bei Neuwied. (3)Übergang von Kolonnen heimkehrender deutscher Truppen über die Rheinbrücke bei Bonn. (359) [Abb.]: Empfang des heimkehrenden württembergischen Dragonerregiments Nr. 26 unter Führung des Majors Jobst vor dem Stuttgarter Rathaus am 30. November 1918 durch den Oberbürgermeister Lautenschlager, den Minister des Innern Crispien und namens des Stellvertretenden Generalkommandos durch den Obersten v. Hügel. (360) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (360) Fremde Fahnen . Ein Stimmungsbild aus den letzten Tagen des Großen Hauptquartiers. (360) [Abb.]: Am Münchener Hauptbahnhof zur Zeit der Demobilmachung. ( - ) [Abb.]: Rast durchziehender österreichisch-ungarischer Truppen in der Pfalz. (361) [Abb.]: Joseph Pilsudski, das polnische Staatsoberhaupt. (362) Die Brennstofffrage. (362) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englischer Soldat in seiner für Nordrußland bestimmten Ausrüstung. (2)Englischer Soldat auf Schneeschuhen befördert seine auf Schlitten verladene Ausrüstung im Norden Rußlands. (363) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Artilleriekolonne auf dem Marsche. (364 - 365) Die Ostseeprovinzen. (364 - 365) [Abb.]: Esten von der Insel Kühno. (366) Die Szene des Waffenstillstands. (366) [2 Abb.]: (1)Alter Settukese. (2)Settukisches Mädchen. (367) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankunft der deutschen Bevollmächtigten zum Abschluß eines Waffenstillstandes in den ersten französischen Linien bei Haudroy auf der Straße von La Capelle nach Rocquigny am 7. November 1918. (2)Die zweite Vollsitzung des Obersten Kriegsrats der Verbandsmächte zur endgültigen Festsetzung der Waffenstillstandsbedingungen in Versailles am 4. November 1918. ([368]) [Abb.]: Der Vorsitzende des Rats der Volksbeauftragten Friedrich Ebert spricht vor dem Reichskanzlerpalais in Berlin zu einer Ansammlung von Soldaten, die ihn zum Präsidenten der Deutschen Republik ausrufen wollten. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/18. Heft 224 (Heft 224) ([369]) [Abb.]: Belgischer Panzerwagen vor dem Rathause in Aachen nach der Besetzung der Stadt. ([369]) [Abb.]: Landung eines deutschen Riesenflugzeuges in Kassel, dem Sitz des deutschen Hauptquartiers. Zum Vergleich daneben ein Flugzeug gewöhnlicher Größe. (370) [4 Abb.]: Bilder von der deutschen Westgrenze. (1)Oben: Der Marktplatz von Eupen an der belgischen Grenze mit zurückgelassenem deutschen Militärgerät. (2)Mitte links: Verlassenes deutsches Geschütz vor einem Denkmal in Köln. (3)rechts: Zurückgelassenes modernes deutsches Fliegerabwehrgeschütz in einer Straße von Eupen. (4)Unten: Gefangene und Internierte erwarten in Herbesthal den Zug, der sie ihre Heimat nach Belgien zurückbefördern soll. (371) [Abb.]: Aus Brunstadt bei Mülhausen. (372) [Abb.]: Durchzug heimkehrender deutscher Krieger durch eine Stadt im Oberelsaß. (373) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vogesenlandschaft an der elsaß-lothringischen Grenze. (2)Das idyllisch gelegene Städtchen Markirch im Winter. (374) [Abb.]: Verschneites Vogesental bei Markirch. (375) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (375) Leermaterial und Sammelgut. (375) [Abb.]: Der Große Donon, der höchste Berg Elsaß-Lothringens. (375) Wie wir davon erfuhren. (376) [Abb.]: Rundgang der Waffenstillstandskommission der Verbandsmächte in Wilhelmshaven. (376) [Abb.]: Einlaufen des englischen Geschwaders mit der Waffenstillstandskommission der Verbandsmächte in Wilhelmshaven am 5. Dezember 1918. ([377]) Die Ereignisse im Großen Hauptquartier vor der Abdankung Kaiser Wilhelms. (378) [Abb.]: Die Abdankungsurkunde des früheren deutschen Kronprinzen. (378) Eisen, Kohle und Kali als Werkzeuge für den Wiederaufbau der deutschen Volkswirtschaft. (379) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Führer der Spartakusgruppe und frühere Reichstagsabgeordnete Karl Liebknecht spricht zu seinen Anhängern von einem Denkmal der Berliner Siegesallee aus. (2)Der Demonstrationsumzug, der von Berliner Rüstungsarbeitern infolge der vom Spartakusbund veranlaßten Verkündigung des Generalstreiks unternommen wurde, auf der Straße Unter den Linden. (3)Zwei von den Anhängern der Spartakusgruppe unter dem "historischen Eckfenster" an der Straße Unter den Linden in Berlin eroberte Maschinengewehre werden auf einem Lastautomobil in Stellung gebracht. (379) [Abb.]: Feldmarschalleutnant v. Boog, Oberbefehlshaber der bewaffneten Macht Deutsch-Österreichs. (380) [2 Tab.]: (1)Roheisenerzeugung. (2)Kohlenproduktion. (380) [Abb.]: Die Judenmetzeleien in Lemberg. Im Hintergrund die Synagoge. ([381]) Unschädlichmachen angeschwemmter Minen auf Helgoland. (382) [Abb.]: Transport einer angeschwemmten englischen Mine über den Strand von Helgoland. (382) Vergesellschaftung der Produktionsmittel. (382) [2 Abb.]: Angeschwemmte englische Minen auf Helgoland. (1)Entfernen der Schießbaumwolle aus einer angeschwemmten englischen Mine. (2)Der Zünder einer auf Helgoland angeschwemmten englischen Mine wird unschädlich gemacht. (383) [Abb.]: Deutsche Torpedoboote als Minensuchschiffe mit der deutschen Handelsflagge, bereit zur Abfahrt, um die Nord- und Ostsee von Minen zu säubern. (384) [Abb.]: Die heimkehrenden Gardetruppen ziehen durch die Siegesallee in Berlin ein und werden von der Bevölkerung mit Jubel begrüßt. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 225 (Heft 225) ([385]) [Abb.]: Begrüßungsplakat der Stadt München für die heimkehrenden Truppen. ([385]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Begrüßung der einziehenden Gardetruppen am Brandenburger Tor in Berlin am 10. Dezember 1918. (2)Die Menschenmassen am Brandenburger Tor in Berlin beim Einzug der heimkehrenden Gardetruppen am 10. Dezember 1918. (386) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Fahnen des 2. Grenadier- und des Füsilier-Bataillons des 4. Garde-Grenadier-Regiments "Königin Elisabeth" beim Einzug der "Elisabether" in Berlin am 13. Dezember 1918. (2)Feierlicher Empfang der von der Front heimkehrenden Leipziger Garnisontruppen am 15. Dezember 1918. (387) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das Hauptquartier der Verbandsmächte in Trier, in dem die Vertreter der internationalen Waffenstillstandskommission ihren Wohnsitz aufschlugen. (2)Das Hotel zur Post in Trier, in dem die Verhandlungen über die Verlängerung des Waffenstillstandes stattfanden. (3)Trier, von Westen gesehen. (388) [Abb.]: Die feierliche Vereidigung der heimkehrenden deutschen Jägerdivision und der Gardekavallerieschützendivision unter Generalleutnant v. Lequis vor den Volksbeauftragten Ebert, Haase, Scheidemann und Dittmann im Steglitzer Rathaus am 9. Dezember 1918. ([389]) [Abb.]: Bodenbach an der böhmisch-sächsischen Grenze. (390) [Abb.]: Blick auf die deutsche Industriestadt Warnsdorf in Böhmen. (391) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (391) Das Ende der deutschen Flotte. (391) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Rathaus von Reichenberg, der bisherigen Hauptstadt von Deutsch-Böhmen. (2)Blick auf Karlsbad in Böhmen. (391) [Abb.]: Deutsche U-Boote werden nach Harwich gebracht. (392) Der Rückzug der Armee Mackensens. (392) [Abb.]: Die hauptsächlichen Typen der infolge des Waffenstillstands zur See abgelieferten deutschen Kriegschiffe. ([393]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Karl Liebknecht(X), der Führer der Spartakusleute, bringt am 16. Dezember 1918 von der Balustrade des preußischen Abgeordnetenhauses in Berlin, in dem die Reichskonferenz der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte tagte, ein Hoch auf die Spartakustruppe aus. (2)Demonstrierende Menge vor dem preußischen Abgeordnetenhause in Berlin während der Tagung der Reichskonferenz der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte. (394) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Agitator spricht zu jugendlichen Arbeitern und Arbeiterinnen, die vor dem preußischen Abgeordnetenhause in Berlin eine Demonstration veranstalteten. (2)Die Reichskonferenz der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte Deutschlands am 16. Dezember 1918 im preußischen Abgeordnetenhause in Berlin. (395) [Abb.]: Rückmarsch der Armee Mackensens durch Südungarn. (396 - 397) Wie entsteht ein Flugzeug? (396 - 397) [Abb.]: August Euler, der frühere erfolgreiche Flugzeugbauer, wurde als Unterstaatssekretär mit der Leitung des neugeschaffenen Reichsluftamtes betraut. (398) Ein Heimkehrender an die Kriegskameraden. (398) [6 Abb.]: (1)In einer Flugzeugfabrik: Verspannungsarbeiten an Gerippen von Tragflächen. (2)In einer Flugzeugfabrik: Prüfung des Höhensteuers auf seine Tragfähigkeit durch Belastung mit Sand. (3)In einer Propellerfabrik: Letztes Prüfen der fertigen Propeller vor dem Versand. (4)In einer Motorenfabrik: Prüfstand für Flugzeugmotoren, auf dem die Motoren vor dem Einbauen in die Flugzeuge einer tagelangen Prüfung unterzogen werden. Der Prüfstand ist mit einem Gitter umgeben, das absplitternde Propellerteile auffangen soll. (5)In einer Propellerfabrik: Anfertigung des Propellers aus einzelnen Holzblättern. (6)In einer Montagehalle einer Flugzeugfabrik: Einbau der Motoren in die Flugzeugrümpfe. ([399]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Eingang zu einem Soldatenheim in Berlin. (2)Das Innere des Soldatenheims in dem früheren Konzertkaffee "Eins A" in der Potsdamer Straße in Berlin. (400) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 226 (Heft 226) ([401]) [Abb.]: Ansprache des Reichstagsabgeordneten Ledebour von der Unabhängigen Sozialdemokratischen Partei an die Menschenmenge während der Waffenruhe beim Weihnachtsputsch in Berlin am 24. Dezember 1918. ([401]) [Abb.]: Beerdigung der bei den Weihnachtskämpfen um Schloß und Marstall in Berlin gefallenen Matrosen. (402) [4 Abb.]: Bilder vom Weihnachtsputsch in Berlin. (1)Der Haupteingang des Königlichen Schlosses in Berlin nach der Beschießung. (2)Marineposten vor dem Königlichen Schloßin Berlin nach den beendeten Kämpfen. (3)Der zerschossene Eingang des Königlichen Schlosses mit Blick in den Hof, in dem Maschinengewehre und ein Geschütz stehen. (4)Zerschossenes Zimmer im Südflügel des Königlichen Schlosses in Berlin mit einem Maschinengewehrstand am Fenster. ([403]) [5 Abb.]: (1)Wels, Stadtkommandant von Berlin, der bei dem Weihnachtsputsch in Berlin von den Matrosen gefangen gehalten wurde. (2)Volksbeauftragter Noske. (3)Volksbeauftragter Wissel. (4)Graf v. Brockdorff-Rantzau, Gesandter in Kopenhagen, wurde zum Staatssekretär des Äußern ernannt. (5)Die Riesendemonstration der Mehrheitssozialisten am 29. Dezember 1918 vor dem Reichstagsgebäude und dem Bismarckdenkmal in Berlin. (404) [Abb.]: Regierungstreue Sturmtruppen erstürmen am 24. Dezember 1918 unter Zuhilfenahme von Handgranaten den Eingang des von Matrosen und Spartakusleuten besetzten Königlichen Schlosses in Berlin ([405]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Franz Klein, früherer österreichischer Justizminister, wurde als Vorbereiter und Leiter der Friedensverhandlungen in den deutsch-österreichischen Staatsrat gewählt. (2)Professor Richard v. Moellendorf, Unterstaatssekretär im Reichswirtschaftsamt. (3)Dr. Georg Graf Arco, einer der Miterfinder der drahtlosen Telegraphie, wurde als unabhängiger Sozialdemokrat in das preußische Handelsministerium berufen. (406) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die Opfer der Unruhen in Posen werden in feierlichem Zuge zu Grabe getragen. (2)Die Kommandanten der polnischen Bürgerwehr von Posen mit dem Stadtkommandanten Maciaszek (X) bei einem Umzug durch die Stadt. (3)Maschinengewehr auf dem Balkon eines Privathauses in Posen. (407) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (407) Soldatenräte. (407) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kraftfahrerkolonne in Finnland. (408) [Abb.]: Abschiedsparade der letzten deutschen Truppen vor dem General Graf v. der Goltz auf dem Domplatz in Helsingfors. ([uncounted]) [Abb.]: Abzug deutscher Truppen aus Kurland. ([409]) Die Politik der Ukraine. (410) [Abb.]: Am Sonntagmorgen beim Tee in Linianka, einem Kosakendorf in der Nähe von Rostow. (410) [6 Abb.]: Bilder aus Charkow in der Ukraine. (1)Armenier und Kosak in einer Droschke. (2)Typisches russisches Gespann. (3)Russische Volkstypen. (4)Ein Landmädchen näht einem deutschen Soldaten einen Knopf an. (5)Die Kaiserlich Deutsche Kommandantur. (6)Blick auf die Stadt. ([411]) [Abb.]: Straßenkampf in Kiew: Bewaffnete Panzerautomobile säubern die Straße von Plünderern. (412 - 413) Die Franzosen in Elsaß-Lothringen. (414) [Abb.]: Französische Truppen des Marschalls Pétain ziehen am 25. November 1918 in Straßburg ein. (414) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Tirailleur-Soldaten bemalen deutsche Schilderhäuser in Mannheim mit den französischen Farben. (2)Lothringische Mädchen in Nationaltracht schließen sich den im Parademarsch vorbeiziehenden französischen Truppen beim Einzug in Metz an. (415) Die ersten Franzosentage im besetzten Rheingebiet. (416) [3 Abb.]: (1)Aufziehen einer französischen Wache in Trier vor dem Wahrzeichen der Moselstadt, der berühmten Porta nigra. (2)Französische Kavallerie-Patrouille in den Straßen von Mainz. (3)Französische militärische Kontrolle auf der Mannheimer Rheinbrücke. (416) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 227 (Heft 227) ([417]) [Abb.]: Demonstration der Kommunisten vor dem Ministerium des Äußern in München. ([417]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Poincaré, der Präsident Frankreichs, fährt mit seinem Gast, dem amerikanischen Präsidenten Wilson, durch die Straßen von Paris. (2)Die Ankunft Wilsons im Hafen von Brest. (418) [Abb.]: Von den Franzosen aus dem Elsaß ausgewiesene Deutsche überschreiten auf ihrer Flucht mit ihrer Habe die Rheinbrücke von Straßburg nach Kehl. (419) [Abb.]: Abzug der deutschen Truppen aus der Ukraine: Abmarsch aus Odessa. ([420 - 421]) [4 Abb.]: Die Engländer im Baltikum gegen die Bolschewisten. (1)Englische Matrosen mit Madsen-Maschinengewehren an der Spitze estnischer Truppen. (2)Estnische Truppen in Reval erwarten Instruktionen für den Gebrauch von Madsen-Maschinengewehren. (3)Im Unwetter an Bord des englischen Kriegschiffes "Caradoc": Vor der Beschießung der baltischen Küste. (4)Ein Geschütz des englischen Kriegschiffes "Caradoc" in Tätigkeit gegen die Bolschewisten in Estland. (423) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (424) Deutsche und englische Kommando verteidigen Riga gegen anrückende russische Bolschewiki. (424) [4 Abb.]: (1)Der Berliner Polizeipräsident Emil Eichhorn, der mit Gewalt seines Postens enthoben werden mußte. Nach seiner Flucht aus Berlin wurde er steckbrieflich verfolgt. (2)Der württembergische Oberst Walter Reinhardt, der neue Kriegsminister, zuletzt Leiter der Demobilmachungs-Abteilung im Preußischen Kriegsministerium. (3)Preußischer Minister Eugen Ernst, der neben seinen bisherigen Funktionen an Stelle des abgesetzten Spartakisten Eichhorn noch die Leitung des Berliner Polizeipräsidiums übernommen hat. (4)Artillerie in den Straßen Berlins. Die Mannschaften tragen ein Schild mit der Aufschrift "Halt! Wer weitergeht, wird erschossen!" und halten jeden Fußgänger und jedes Gefährt an, um die Waffenabgabe zu erzwingen. (424) [Abb.]: Aus den Berliner Revolutionstagen. Zusammenstoß von Demonstrationszügen vor dem Warenhaus Wertheim am Leipziger Platz in Berlin. ( - ) [Abb.]: Sturm der Regierungstruppen auf den von Spartakisten besetzten Schlesischen Bahnhof in Berlin am 13. Januar 1919. ([425]) [Abb.]: (1)Die Straßenpassanten in der Nähe des Mosseschen Hauses in Berlin bringen sich in Sicherheit, als von den Spartakisten Schüsse abgegeben werden. (2)Patrouille von Regierungstruppen mit Gewehr und Handgranaten in der Leipziger Straße in Berlin. (426) Neues Leben blüht aus den Ruinen! (426) [6 Abb.]: Von den Spartakusunruhen in Berlin. (1)Die von den Spartakisten errichteten Barrikaden aus Zeitungspapierrollen vor dem Mossehaus in der Schützenstraße. (2)Ein Maschinengewehr der Regierungstruppen bestreicht von dem erstürmten Vorwärtsgebäude aus die umliegenden Häuser. (3)Die Schießspuren am Mossehaus nach der Vertreibung der Spartakisten. (4)Die Vorderfront des Vorwärtsgebäudes in den Lindenstraße nach der Vertreibung der Spartakisten. (5)Wie es im Innern des Polizeipräsidiums nach der Vertreibung der Spartakisten aussah. (6)Wie die Spartakisten im Innern des Wolffschen Telegraphen-Büros hausten. ([427]) Die Einwirkung des Krieges auf die Erdoberfläche. (428 - 429) [Abb.]: Wiederaufbau im zerstörten Gebiet am Isonzo, wozu das Material aus dem Stellungskrieg ausgiebig mit benutzt wird. (428 - 429) Feldluftschiffer. (428 - 429) [3 Abb.]: Bei den deutschen Feldluftschiffern. (1)Oben: Fahrbare Telephonstation, die mit dem Beobachter im Ballon verbunden ist und die Meldungen nach rückwärts weitergibt. (2)Mitte: Prüfen des Ballonventils. (3)Unten: Besprechung mit dem Ballonbeobachter vor dem Aufstieg. Am Ballonkorb ist die Karte des Geländeabschnittes angebracht. (430) [3 Abb.]: Bei den deutschen Feldluftschiffern. (1)Oben: Der Beobachter im Ballonkorb schießt mit der Leuchtpistole ein Leuchtsignal nach der Erde zu ab. (2)Mitte: Flicken der verletzten Ballonhülle. (3)Unten: Der Ballon mit geöffnetem Entleerungsloch. (431) Enver Pascha. (431) [Abb.]: Enver Pascha spricht an der Bahre des Feldmarschalls v. der Goltz. (432) Sind Blindgänger dem Ackerbau gefährlich? (432) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 228 (Heft 228) ([433]) [Abb.]: Die Verhandlungen zwischen Staatssekretär Erzberger und Marschall Foch wegen Verlängerung des Waffenstillstandes im Salonwagen Fochs auf dem Bahnhof in Trier: Erzberger während seiner Rede. ([433]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor Frhr. v. Hammerstein, der Nachfolger des Generalmajors v. Winterfeldt im Vorsitz der deutschen Waffenstillstandskommission. (2)Die Eröffnung der Friedenskonferenz im Ministerium des Auswärtigen am Quai d'Orsay in Paris. (434) [9 Abb.]: (1)Der schwedische Sozialistenführer Branting, dem in der Sozialistenzusammenkunft, die in Bern tagte, der Vorsitz übertragen wurde. (2)Dr. Karl Liebknecht, der Führer der Spartakisten, wurde nach seiner Verhaftung in Berlin erschossen, als er sich seiner Verurteilung durch die Flucht entziehen konnte. (3)Frau Rosa Luxemburg, die mit Liebknecht die "Rote Fahne" in Berlin herausgab, wurde nach ihrer Verhaftung von der wütenden Menge auf der Straße getötet. (4)Ledebour, unabhängiger Sozialdemokrat, wurde wegen seiner Verbindung mit dem Spartakusbunde in Schutzhaft genommen. (5)Thomas, der frühere französische Munitionsminister. (6)Seitz, einer der Präsidenten der prov. österr. Nationalversammlung. (7)Karl Radek, der in Berlin verhaftete russische Bolschewist. (8)Gompers, der amerikanische Gewerkschaftsführer. (9)Henderson, der frühere Arbeitervertreter in der englischen Regierung. (435) [7 Abb.]: Bilder von der Wahl zur deutschen Nationalversammlung. (1)Wahlplakat für die soziale Republik. (2)Plakate gegen den Bolschewismus. (3)Die Flut der Flugblätter am Wahltag in Berlin. (4)Wahlplakat an einem Berliner Straßenbahnwagen. (5)Mönche vor dem Wahllokal in München. (6)Barmherzige Schwestern vor dem Wahllokal in München. (7)Starke Wahlbeteiligung, auch der Frauen, in Berlin: das Anstehen vor dem Wahllokal. ([436]) [Abb.]: Verbrennung von Regierungsflugblättern und Wahlzetteln durch demonstrierende Spartakisten auf dem Augustusplatz in Leipzig. ([437]) [Abb.]: Nichtuniformierte Wachtposten in Wien. (438) [Abb.]: Vereidigung der Berliner Garde auf die Republik am 15. Januar 1919 durch den Kommandeur der Franzer (des Kaiser-Franz-Garde-Grenadierregiments), Spiro, der die Soldatenräte durch Handschlag verpflichtete, die ihrerseits die Vereidigung der ihnen unterstellten Mannschaften vornahmen. (439) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (439) Das Vordringen der Polen in Posen, Westpreußen und Schlesien. (439) [2 Abb.]: (1)Panzerkraftwagen in den Straßen Berlins zur Sicherung der Wahlen zur Nationalversammlung. (2)Die Wiederherstellung der Ruhe in Berlin. Einzug von Regierungstruppen. (439) [4 Abb.]: (1)Die Prinzeninseln Halki und Antigone im Marmarameer, wo die Verhandlungen zwischen Vertretern der Verbandsmächte und der russischen Bolschewisten stattfinen sollten. (2)Ignaz Padererwski, der bekannte Klavierspieler, wurde zum Präsidenten von Polen ausgerufen. (3)Truppen des deutschen Granzschutzes im Osten überschreiten die Netze auf einer Notbrücke, die an Stelle der von den Polen zerstörten Brücke gebaut wurde. (4)Ankunft einer Infanterieabteilung des deutschen Grenzschutzes im Osten zur Vertreibung der Polen aus der im Netzetal gelgenen Stadt Samotschin. (440) [Abb.]: In einem Wahllokal in Berlin während der Wahlen zur Nationalversammlung. ( - ) [Abb.]: Straßenkampf deutscher Grenzschutztruppen mit polnischen Aufrührern in Bentschen in der Provinz Polen. (441) Ein letzter Eindruck deutscher Macht. (442) [Abb.]: Schweizerisches Militär in Wien zum Schutze eines von der Schweiz kommenen Lebensmitteltransportes für die hungernde Bevölkerung Wiens. In der Mitte: der Kommandant Oberst Frey. Links: sein Unterkommandant Oberleutnant Schmeder. (442) [2 Abb.]: (1)Engländer in Wien. Gruppenbild der Offiziere. Von links nach rechts: 1. Hauptmann Rugman, 2. Leutnant Keeler, 3. ?, 4. Leutnant Parker, 5. Major Dibben, 6. Leutnant Iwench, 7. Leutnant Harwood, 8. Hauptmann Stevenson, 9. Leutnant Dowelen, 10. Hauptmann Williams. (2)Engländer vor dem Wiener Rathaus. (443) Pferdeversteigerung. (443) [Abb.]: Pferdeversteigerung zur Zeit der Demobilmachung in Deutschland. (444 - 445) Von der Ausrüstung der schweizerischen Armee. (444 - 445) [Abb.]: Die Demobilisierung der englischen Soldaten im Kristallpalast in London. Die Soldaten begeben sich in die Sammelhalle (1 und 2), entledigen sich ihrer Waffen (3), die geprüft werden (4), erhalten eine Friedensausstattung und eine Geldsumme (5 bis 9) und sind nach verschiedenen Eintragungen und Abstempelungen demobilisiert. (446) Bolschewismus und Preisgestaltung. (446) [6 Abb.]: Die Herstellung von Stahlhelmen für die schweizerische Armee. (1)Bearbeitung der Stahlhelme an der Ziehpresse. (2)Die fertig geformten Stahlhelme werden einzeln gehämmert. (3)Die erste Formgabe des Blechstückes in der Ziehpresse. (4)Weitere Stufen der Formbildung in der Ziehpresse. (5)Das Glühen und Härten der fertigen Stahlhelme im Ölbade unter Kontrolle eines Beamten. (6)Die Innenpolsterung der Stahlhelme mit Ledergarnituren. ([447]) Beschießung von Paris durch deutsche Ferngeschütze. (448) [Karte]: Plan von Paris mit Bezeichnung der Punkte, an denen die Geschosse der deutschen Langrohrgeschütze eingeschlagen haben. (448) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 229 (Heft 229) ([449]) [Abb.]: Eine Sitzung des Zentralrates der A.- und S.-Räte in Berlin, der als bisheriger Inhaber und Repräsentant der Souveränität im Reiche seine Befugnisse an die Nationalversammlung übergeben hat. Von links: Grzesinski, Struve, Faaß, Pfaff, Horter, Maier, Knoblauch, Heller, Herbert, Zwosta, Cohen (Vorsitzender), Lampl, Leinert (Vorsitzender), Waeger (Schriftführer), Schäfer (Kassierer), Kohl, König. ([449]) [Abb.]: Die nach Weimar bestimmten Zeitungspakete werden in ein Flugzeug der Deutschen Luftreedereigesellschaft befördert, das täglich zwischen Berlin und Weimar verkehrte. (450) [8 Abb.]: Die Eröffnung der Nationalversammlung in Weimar. (1)Berliner Schutzleute üben die Legitimationskontrolle der Abgeordneten aus. (2)Abgeordnete auf dem Wege zur Eröffnungssitzung. (3)Die Volksbeauftragten Scheidemann und Landsberg begeben sich zur Nationalversammlung. (4)Der Fraktionsvorstand der Deutschnationalen Volkspartei (sitzend von links nach rechts): Schulz, Graf Posadowsky, Margarete Behm, Dühringer; (stehend von links nach rechts): Schiele, Biener, Behrens, Vizepräsident Dietrich, Dr. Rösicke, Pfarrer Traub; (5)Vizepräsident Fehrenbach (links), begibt sich zur Eröffnungssitzung. (6)Die weiblichen Zentrumsmitglieder (vordere Reihe von links nach rechts): Helene Weber, Hedwig Drausfeld, Agnes Neuhaus, Maria Zettler; (hintere Reihe): Christine Teusch, Maria Schmitz. (7)Die weiblichen Abgeordneten der Mehrheitssozialisten (sitzend von links nach rechts): Anna Simon, Elfriede Ryneck, Frieda Hauke, Gertrud Lodahl, Else Höfs, Fraktionsvorstandsmitglied Marie Juchacz, Antonie Pfülf, Minna Bollmann; (stehend von links nach rechts): Johanna Reitze, Luise Schröder, Minna Eichler, Ernestine Lutze, Johanna Tesch, Elisabeth Röhl, Wilhelmine Kähler, Frieda Lührs, Anna Blos, Klara Bohm-Schuch, Minna Schilling. (8)Die vor dem Nationaltheater aufgestellte Ehrenkompanie. ([451]) [Abb.]: Eröffnung der Nationalversammlung im Nationaltheater in Weimar am 6. Februar 1919, nachmittags 3 1/4 Uhr. Friedrich Ebert hält als Volksbeauftragter die Eröffnungsrede. ([452 - 453]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Strandschloß in Kolberg, der Sitz des von Kassel nach Kolberg verlegten Großen Hauptquartiers. (2)Die deutsche Oberste Heeresleitung. (454) [Karte]: Karte zu den polnischen Ansprüchen auf deutsches Gebiet mit der im Waffenstillstandsvertrag vereinbarten Demarkationslinie zwischen Deutschen und Polen. (455) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Werbebüro des ersten Landesschützenkorps. Freiwillige lassen sich anwerben. (2)Vor einem Berliner Werbebüro für den Ostmarkenschutz. (455) [Abb.]: Zu den Vorgängen in Bremen. Oberst v. Gerstenberg, Führer der Division Gerstenberg. (456) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (456) Ein letzter Eindruck deutscher Macht. (456) [Abb.]: Ein Werbeoffizier fordert auf den Straßen Berlins zum Eintritt in die Grenzwehr gegen den Feind im Osten auf. ( - ) [Abb.]: Einzug der Division Gerstenberg in Bremen. ([457]) [Abb.]: Flur in der Tausendmann-Kaserne in Wilhelmshaven nach dem Kampf mit Spartakusleuten in der Nacht zum 28. Januar 1919. (458) [3 Abb.]: (1)Freiwillige für Bremen ziehen vor das Rathaus in Hamburg. (2)Zur Besetzung der Kaserne des 20. Fußartillerieregiments in Bahrenfeld-Hamburg. Der Eingang zur Kaserne. (3)Zur Bewaffnung der Zivilbevölkerung in Hamburg. (459) Eröffnung der Nationalversammlung in Weimar. (460 - 461) Englischer Verwundeten- und Gefangenentransport verläßt Swinemünde. (460 - 461) [Abb.]: Der englische 9000-Tonnen-Dampfer "Formosa" verläßt mit einem größeren Transport englischer Verwundeter den Hafen von Swinemünde. (460 - 461) Männer des Tages. (462) [3 Abb.]: (1)Konteradmiral Adolf v. Trotha, Chef des Admiralstabs im Reichsmarineamt. (2)Legationsrat Dr. Töpfer, ein Stettiner Kaufmann, wurde als kaufmännischer Helfer aus dem Wirtschaftsleben für die Durchführung der Reform des deutschen Auslanddienstes zum Unterstaatssekretär im Auswärtigen Amt ernannt. (3)Tost, der neue Vorsitzende des Marineausschusses in Berlin. (462) Die Frau in der Nationalversammlung. (462) [8 Abb.]: (1)Anna Blos, Sozialdemokratische Partei. (2)Klara Bohm-Schuch, Sozialdemokratische Partei. (3)Marie Juchacz, Sozialdemokratische Partei. (4)Frau Elfriede Ryneck. (5)Fräulein Dr. Gertrud Bäumer, Deutsche Demokratische Partei. (6)Margarete Behm, Deutschnationale Volkspartei. (7)Fräulein v. Gierke, Deutschnationale Volkspartei. (8)Frau Luise Zietz, Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei. (463) Wiesbaden zur Franzosenzeit. (463) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Franzosen in Wiesbaden. Aufziehen der Wache vor dem früheren Kgl. Schloß, dem Sitz des französischen Kommandanten von Wiesbaden. (2)Die Franzosen in Wiesbaden. Antreten vor dem Rathaus. (464) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 230 (Heft 230) ([465]) [Abb.]: Die erste Sitzung des neuen deutschen Kabinetts unter dem Vorsitz des Ministerpräsidenten Scheidemann im Schloß zu Weimar. ([465]) [Abb.]: Sklavenarbeit der von Frankreich gegen Recht und Menschlichkeit zurückgehaltenen kriegsgefangenen Deutschen bei der Straßenwiederherstellung unter englischer Aufsicht im zerstörten französischen Gebiet. (466) [2 Abb.]: (1)Barnes, der Vertreter Englands, spricht in der Vollsitzung der Friedenskonferenz in Paris am 14. Februar 1919. (2)Der französische Minister Léon Bourgeois spricht in der Vollführung der Friedenskonferenz in Paris am 14. Februar 1919 über Völkerbundsfragen. (467) [Abb.]: Abtransport kriegsgefangener Russen, Rumänen und Südslawen auf der Donau bei Regensburg. (468 - 469) [Karte]: Karte des Saargebiets. (470) [Abb.]: Verhaftung des Attentäters Emilie Cottin, der auf den französischen Ministerpräsidenten Clemenceau einen Schuß abgab. (470) [4 Abb.]: Der Streik in Glasgow. (1)Transportwagen mit bewaffneter Begleitmannschaft in Glasgow. (2)Militärische Bewachung einer eisenbahnbrücke über den Clyde. (3)Der Prügel in Tätigkeit: Der Streikführer Galagher wird verhaftet. (4)Barrikade in einer Straße von Glasgow. (471) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (471) Die Blockade der Ostsee durch die Verbandsmächte. (471) Friedrich Ebert. (472) [2 Abb.]: Die Streik- und Spartakusbewegung im Ruhrgebiet. (1)Biwak der Regierungstruppen vor dem beschädigten Rathaus in Bottrop nach der Vertreibung der Spartakisten. (2)Verhaftung des Spartakistenführers Fuldzennek in Bottroß, der später im Handgemenge erschossen wurde. (472) [Abb.]: Die englische Blockade in der Ostsee: Das zwischen Saßnitz und Trelleborg verkehrende Fährschiff wird von einem englischen Zerstörer untersucht. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsche Sicherheitswehr verhindert die von streikenden Arbeitern beabsichte Zerstörung von Kohlengrubenanlagen. ([473]) [Karte]: Das neue Deutschland nach Anschluß Deutsch-Österreichs. (474) [Abb.]: Der deutschösterreichische Staatssekretär des Äußern Dr. Otto Bauer im Zuge Wien-Weimar. (474) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wahlsiegfeier der Sozialisten vor dem Parlamentsgebäude in Wien. Von links nach rechts: Abgeordnete Therese Schlesinger, Unterstaatssekretär Dr. Deutsch, Präsident der Nationalversammlung Dr. Seitz, Dr. Fritz Adler, Unterstaatssekretär Glöckel, Abgeordneter Sever und Offiziere der Volkswehr. (2)Kundgebung für den Anschluß Deutsch-Österreichs in Wien am 2. Februar 1919. Staatssekretär Dr. Bauer spricht für den Anschluß an Deutschland. (475) Der Zusammenbruch der ottomanischen Armee in Palästina und die Katastrophe von Damaskus. (475) [Abb.]: Ankunft der deutschen Truppen aus Asien in Haidar Pascha (Konstantinopel) und Empfang durch den Marschall Liman v. Sanders. (476 - 477) Bolschewisten und Spartakisten. (478) [2 Abb.]: (1)Antibolschewistisches Plakat: Trümmer oder Aufbau? (2)Antibolschewistisches Plakat: Deutschlands ideale Zukunft unter der Herrschaft des Bolschewisten. (478) [2 Abb.]: (1)Antibolschewistisches Plakat in den Straßen Berlins: Bolschewismus heißt die Welt im Blut ersäufen. (2)Antibolschewistisches Plakat: Bolschewismus bringt Krieg, Arbeitslosigkeit und Hungersnot. (479) Übergang der letzten deutschen Truppen über die Donau. (479) [Abb.]: Die letzten deutschen Truppen überschreiten die Donau bei Belgrad auf der Schiffbrücke nach Semlin. Gesehen vom serbischen Ufer. Im Hintergrunde die Eisenbahnbrücke. (480) [Abb.]: Begrüßung der heimgekehrten ostafrikanischen Heldenschar am 3. März 1919 am Pariser Platz in Berlin. Die Reiter, von links nach rechts: Gouverneur Dr. Schnee, Major Kraut, Generalleutnant z.D. Wahle, Generalmajor v. Lettow-Vorbeck, Kapitän z.S. Loof, Kommandant der "Königsberg"; neben v. Lettow-Vorbeck stehend: Oberleutnant d. Res. v. Rucktäschell. Auf der Tribüne hält die Begrüßungsrede der Reichskolonialminister Dr. Bell. Links von ihm: Vizeadmiral Rogge, Staatssekretär des Reichsmarineamtes; rechts: Kriegsminister Oberst Reinhardt, Dr. Reicke, Bürgermeister von Berlin, Major Strümpell vom Kommando der Schutztruppen, Dr. Solf, Staatssekretär a.D., Oberleutnant v. Hepke vom Kommando der Schutztruppen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 231 (Heft 231) ([481]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Adolf Müller, bayrischer Gesandter in Bern, (2)Dr. Karl Melchior, Hamburg, (3)Professor Dr. Schücking, Marburg, wurden zusammen mit dem Grafen v. Brockdorff-Rantzau, Reichsminister Dr. Eduard David und Reichsminister Giesberts von der deutschen Regierung als Unterhändler zu den Friedensverhandlungen entsandt. (4)General v. Lettow-Vorbeck mit Gouverneur Dr. Schnee und seiner ostafrikanischen Heldenschar nach ihrer Ankunft in Berlin. ([481]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberes Bild: Inneres eines von den Spartakisten völlig ausgeplünderten Warenhauses in Halle. (2)Mittleres Bild: Waffenkammer im Stadthaus von Hamburg, woselbst die Zivilpersonen Hamburgs ihre Waffen abgeben mußten. (3)Unteres Bild: Den Spartakisten in Halle wieder abgenommene Silbersachen und anderes Diebesgut. (482) [5 Abb.]: Die Märzunruhen in Berlin. (1)Die zur Vertreibung der Spartakisten anrückende Volkswehr mit Tank und Panzerwagen. Die Soldaten sind mit Gewehren, Handgranaten und Flammenwerfern ausgerüstet. (2)Auf dem Alexanderplatz aufgestellter Minenwerfer, mit dem 2 1/2-Zentner-Minen gegen die von den Spartakisten besetzten Häuser abgeschossen wurden. Im Hintergrunde links das völlig ausgeplünderte Warenhaus Tietz. (3)Ein Bild der Verheerung: Haus in der Alten Schützenstraße beim Alexanderplatz, in der heftige Kämpfe stattfanden. (4)Die durch Plünderung von seiten der Spartakisten und Beschießung mittels schwerer Minen stark beschädigten Wohnhaus am Alexanderplatz, an der Ecke der Alexander- und Prenzlauer Straße. (5)Meuterer der Republikanischen Soldatenwehr, die sich zum Teil mit den Spartakisten vereinigte. Um Überfälle auf die Begleitmannschaft zu verhindern, müssen die Gefangenen mit erhobenen Händen marschieren. (483) [Abb.]: Bayrischer Posten als Grenzschutz an der böhmischen Grenze bei der Paßkontrolle. Unmittelbar hinter dem Grenzpfahl mit dem bayrischen Wappen steht die Grenzhütte der Tschechen. (484) [Abb.]: Sprengung einer Spartakistenansammlung auf der Theresienwiese in München. ([485]) [Abb.]: Die Eröffnung der deutschösterreichischen Nationalversammlung am 4. März 1919 im Parlamentsgebäude in Wien. (486) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (487) Über den Bevölkerungsausfall in Deutschland und in Frankreich infolge des Krieges. (487) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die neue Uniform der tschechoslowakischen Offiziere. Tuchaufschläge mit Silberstreifen und Nummern an der Mütze und am Rockkragen. In der Mütze außerdem eine grüne Kokarde mit den in Silber gestickten buchstaben "RCS". (2)Demonstration in Wien für den Anschluß Westungarns an Deutsch-Österreich. (487) Rettung eines Kaiserschützenoberleutnants aus gefährlicher Lage im Adamellogebiet. (488) [Abb.]: Rettung eines Kaiserschützenoberleutnants durch eine Patrouille im Adamellogebiet. (488) [Abb.]: Ankunft der deutschen Orientkämpfer mit dem Dampfer "Patmos" in Hamburg. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 232 (Heft 232) ([489]) [Abb.]: Marschall Foch beim Viererrat. ([489]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zur Auslieferung der deutschen Handelsflotte. Ein deutsches Schiff mit dem von den Verbandsmächten vorgeschriebenen Zeichen, das alte deutsche Schiffe tragen müssen, die für den guten Willen des Verbandes, Deutschland Lebensmittel zukommen zu lassen, ausgeliefert werden müssen. (2)Schwere deutsche Lokomotiven verlassen die Heimat auf der Fahrt zur Übergabe an die Verbandsmächte. (490) [2 Abb.]: Straßenumzug vor der Reichskanzlei in Berlin im Anschluß an eine Massenkundgebung gegen die Zerstückelung Deutschlands am 23. März 1919. (1)Die Spitze des Zuges. (2)Einige der zahlreichen Plakatträger. (491) [3 Abb.]: (1)Polnische Generale und Vertreter der Verbündeten bei der Truppenschau in Posen am 2. März 1919. (2)Polnische Ulaneneskadron vor dem alten Schloß in Posen. (3)Polnische Artillerie vor den Vertretern der Verbündeten. (492) [Abb.]: Einbringen polnischer Gefangener in ein westpreußisches Städtchen durch Truppen des deutschen Grenzschutzes. ([493]) [Abb.]: Der bolschewistische Kriegskommissar und Schöpfer der "Roten Armee" in Rußland, Trotzki, schreitet mit seinem Generalstab in Moskau die Front eines lettischen Regiments, der Kerntruppe der Roten Garde, ab. (494) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (494) Die Menschenverluste im Weltkrieg. (494) [Abb.]: Kampf mit bolschewistischen Banden in Kurland. ([495]) [Abb.]: In Hamburg ausgeladenes amerikanisches Weizenmehl für die tschechoslowakische Republik. (496) Erinnerungsmarken an die Nationalversammlung. (496) [3 Abb.]: Preisgekrönte Entwürfe für die Freimarken zur Erinnerung an die Nationalversammlung. (1)Entwurf von Ernst Böhm, Charlottenburg, zur Ausführung als 15-Pf-Marke vorgesehen. (2)Georg A. Mather, Berlin, zur Ausführung als 25-Pf-Marke vorgesehen. (3)Hugo Frank, Stuttgart, zur Ausführung als 10-Pf-Marke vorgesehen. (496) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 233 (Heft 233) ([497]) [Abb.]: Abreise der deutschen Friedensabgeordneten vom Potsdamer Bahnhof in Berlin nach Paris. X Graf Brockdorff-Rantzau im Gespräch mit Mitgliedern der Abordnung kurz vor der Abfahrt. ([497]) [5 Abb.]: Der Kommunistenaufstand in Würzburg. (1)Die Ausrufung der bayrischen Räterepublik durch den Russen Weibel am 7. April 1919. (2)Der Sächsiche Kriegsminister Neuring, der von einer Horde Kommunisten in die Elbe geworfen und erschossen wurde. (3)Der bayrische Oberst Ritter v. Epp, Führer eines Freikorps zum Schutze der Heimat gegen bolschewistische Umsturzbewegungen. (4)General Haas, Führer der von Bayern zu Hilfe gerufenen württembergischen Freiwilligen-Abteilung, die Augsburg besetzte. (5)Der bayrische Ministerpräsident Johannes Hoffmann, der anläßlich der Unruhen in München mit der Regierung nach Bamberg übersiedelte. (498) [2 Abb.]: (1)Regierungstruppen in Augsburg nach Einnahme der Stadt. (2)Regierungstruppen durchsuchen bei Nacht eine verdächtige Wohnung nach Waffen. (499) [Abb.]: Wider den Bolschewismus. (500 - 501) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (502) Heimkehrende Flüchtlinge werden in Rovreit von österreichischer Mannschaft gespeist. (502) [Abb.]: Vom Durchzug der unter General Haller stehenden polnischen Armee durch Deutschland. Polnische und französische Offiziere auf dem Bahnhof von Sangershausen. (502) Die Schreckensherrschaft der Bolschewisten in den baltischen Landen. (502) [Abb.]: Auf der Wacht gegen die Polen: Ein verdächtiges Haus wird bewacht und durchsucht. (502) [Abb.]: Die neue deutschösterreichische Regierung. Von links nach rechts, stehend: Staatssekretär Wilhelm Miklas, Kultus; Schriftführer Sekretariatsrat Hericky; Dr. Joseph Schumpeter, Finanzen; Unterstaatssekretär Dr. Erwin Waiß, Heerwesen; Ludwig Paul, Verkehrswesen; Ingenieur Johann Zerdick, Industrie; Staatssekretär Dr. Otto Bauer, Äußeres; Schriftleiter Ministerialrat Dr. Fenz; Staatssekretär Dr. Loewenfeld-Ruß, Volksernährung; Sitzend: Staatssekretär Dr. Julius Deutsch, Heerwesen; Staatssekretär Richard v. Bratusch, Justiz; Staatssekretär Otto Glöckel, Unterricht; Staatskanzler Karl Renner, Staatssekretär Ferdinand Hanusch, Sozialverwaltung; Staatssekretär Dr. Wilhelm Ellenbogen, Handel. (503) Die Franzosen in der Pfalz. (503) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Besatzung des siegreichen deutschen Panzerzuges, dessen Eingreifen an der Bolschewistenfront die Einwohner Schaulens vor der Schreckensherrschaft bewahrte. (2)Die Schreckensherrschaft der Bolschewisten: Im estnischen Wesenberg getötete Opfer. (504) [Abb.]: Heimkehrende Südtiroler Flüchtlinge werden in Rovreit von den österreichischen Feldküchen gespeist. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. Heft 234 (Heft 234) ([505]) [Abb.]: Ankunft der deutschen Friedensabordnung in Vaucresson am 29. April 1919, von wo aus sich die deutschen Delegierten im Kraftwagen nach Versailles begaben. ([505]) [Karte]: Die Gebietsabtretungen, die von Deutschland in dem am 7. Mai 1919 überreichten Friedensvertragsentwurf gefordert wurden. (506) [Karte]: Deutsch-Österreich im Vertrags-Entwurf der Entente. (507) [Abb.]: Die Delegierten Deutsch-Österreichs für St. Germain. (507) [Abb.]: Die Übergabe des Friedensvertragsentwurfs der Verbandsmächte an die deutsche Abordnung im Trianon-Palast-Hotel zu Versailles am 7. Mai 1919. (508 - 509) [Abb.]: General Märker (X) bei der Besetzung Leipzigs durch die Regierungstruppen. (510) [7 Abb.]: (1)Die Befreiung Münchens am 1. Mai 1919. Einmarsch der Gardeschützendivision durch die Ludwigstraße. (2)Von der Heerschau der Münchener Arbeiterwehr am 22. April 1919, Bewaffnete Arbeiter ziehen während des Generalstreiks durch die Ludwigstraße. (3)Der Höchstkommandierende der Roten Armee Egelhofer (X) im Umzuge der Arbeiter und Soldatenwehr in München während der Räteherrschaft. (4)Eine Barrikade in den Straßen Münchens. (5)Bewaffnete Münchener Bürger und Arbeiter führen nach der Befreiung der Stadt durch Regierungstruppen gefangene Rotgardisten ab. (6)Vorbeimarsch preußischer Artillerie vor General v. Oven nach der Befreiung Münchens. (7)Das Werdenfelser Freikorps, bestehend aus Bauern und Arbeitern, die zum Teil in ihres Landestracht zur Befreiung Münchens gekommen waren. ([511]) [Abb.]: Der Ministerpräsident Philipp Scheidemann protestiert in der in die Aula der Berliner Universität einberufenen deutschen Nationalversammlung am 12. Mai 1919 gegen die im Friedensvertragsentwurf der Feinde niedergelegten Gewaltforderungen. (512) [Register]: Register zu Band I-IX der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/19. ([I]) A ([I]) B (II) C (V) D (VII) E (VIII) F (IX) G (X) H (XI) I (XI) J (XIII) K (XIV) L (XVI) M (XVIII) N (XX) O (XXI) P (XXII) Q (XXIII) R (XXIV) S (XXV) T (XXVIII) U (XXX) V (XXX) W (XXXI) X, Y (XXXII) Z (XXXII) Nachtrag. (XXXIII) A - O (XXXIII) P (XXXIII) R - Z (XXXIV) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Background In an era of shifting global agendas and expanded emphasis on non-communicable diseases and injuries along with communicable diseases, sound evidence on trends by cause at the national level is essential. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) provides a systematic scientific assessment of published, publicly available, and contributed data on incidence, prevalence, and mortality for a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive list of diseases and injuries. Methods GBD estimates incidence, prevalence, mortality, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) due to 369 diseases and injuries, for two sexes, and for 204 countries and territories. Input data were extracted from censuses, household surveys, civil registration and vital statistics, disease registries, health service use, air pollution monitors, satellite imaging, disease notifications, and other sources. Cause-specific death rates and cause fractions were calculated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model and spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression. Cause-specific deaths were adjusted to match the total all-cause deaths calculated as part of the GBD population, fertility, and mortality estimates. Deaths were multiplied by standard life expectancy at each age to calculate YLLs. A Bayesian meta-regression modelling tool, DisMod-MR 2.1, was used to ensure consistency between incidence, prevalence, remission, excess mortality, and cause-specific mortality for most causes. Prevalence estimates were multiplied by disability weights for mutually exclusive sequelae of diseases and injuries to calculate YLDs. We considered results in the context of the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a composite indicator of income per capita, years of schooling, and fertility rate in females younger than 25 years. Uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated for every metric using the 25th and 975th ordered 1000 draw values of the posterior distribution. Findings Global health has steadily improved over the past 30 years as measured by age-standardised DALY rates. After taking into account population growth and ageing, the absolute number of DALYs has remained stable. Since 2010, the pace of decline in global age-standardised DALY rates has accelerated in age groups younger than 50 years compared with the 1990-2010 time period, with the greatest annualised rate of decline occurring in the 0-9-year age group. Six infectious diseases were among the top ten causes of DALYs in children younger than 10 years in 2019: lower respiratory infections (ranked second), diarrhoeal diseases (third), malaria (fifth), meningitis (sixth), whooping cough (ninth), and sexually transmitted infections (which, in this age group, is fully accounted for by congenital syphilis; ranked tenth). In adolescents aged 10-24 years, three injury causes were among the top causes of DALYs: road injuries (ranked first), self-harm (third), and interpersonal violence (fifth). Five of the causes that were in the top ten for ages 10-24 years were also in the top ten in the 25-49-year age group: road injuries (ranked first), HIV/AIDS (second), low back pain (fourth), headache disorders (fifth), and depressive disorders (sixth). In 2019, ischaemic heart disease and stroke were the top-ranked causes of DALYs in both the 50-74-year and 75-years-and-older age groups. Since 1990, there has been a marked shift towards a greater proportion of burden due to YLDs from non-communicable diseases and injuries. In 2019, there were 11 countries where non-communicable disease and injury YLDs constituted more than half of all disease burden. Decreases in age-standardised DALY rates have accelerated over the past decade in countries at the lower end of the SDI range, while improvements have started to stagnate or even reverse in countries with higher SDI. Interpretation As disability becomes an increasingly large component of disease burden and a larger component of health expenditure, greater research and development investment is needed to identify new, more effective intervention strategies. With a rapidly ageing global population, the demands on health services to deal with disabling outcomes, which increase with age, will require policy makers to anticipate these changes. The mix of universal and more geographically specific influences on health reinforces the need for regular reporting on population health in detail and by underlying cause to help decision makers to identify success stories of disease control to emulate, as well as opportunities to improve. Copyright (C) 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. ; Research reported in this publication was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; the University of Melbourne; Queensland Department of Health, Australia; the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia; Public Health England; the Norwegian Institute of Public Health; St Jude Children's Research Hospital; the Cardiovascular Medical Research and Education Fund; the National Institute on Ageing of the National Institutes of Health (award P30AG047845); and the National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health (award R01MH110163). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funders. The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this Article and they do not necessarily represent the views, decisions, or policies of the institutions with which they are affiliated, the National Health Service (NHS), the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), the UK Department of Health and Social Care, or Public Health England; the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the US Government, or MEASURE Evaluation; or the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). This research used data from the Chile National Health Survey 2003, 2009-10, and 2016-17. The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Health, the survey copyright owner, for allowing them to have the database. All results of the study are those of the authors and in no way committed to the Ministry. The Costa Rican Longevity and Healthy Aging Study project is a longitudinal study by the University of Costa Rica's Centro Centroamericano de Poblacion and Instituto de Investigaciones en Salud, in collaboration with the University of California at Berkeley. The original pre-1945 cohort was funded by the Wellcome Trust (grant 072406), and the 1945-55 Retirement Cohort was funded by the US National Institute on Aging (grant R01AG031716). The principal investigators are Luis Rosero-Bixby and William H Dow and co-principal investigators are Xinia Fernandez and Gilbert Brenes. The accuracy of the authors' statistical analysis and the findings they report are not the responsibility of ECDC. ECDC is not responsible for conclusions or opinions drawn from the data provided. ECDC is not responsible for the correctness of the data and for data management, data merging and data collation after provision of the data. ECDC shall not be held liable for improper or incorrect use of the data. The Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study is an international study carried out in collaboration with WHO/EURO. The international coordinator of the 1997-98, 2001-02, 2005-06, and 2009-10 surveys was Candace Currie and the databank manager for the 1997-98 survey was Bente Wold, whereas for the following surveys Oddrun Samdal was the databank manager. A list of principal investigators in each country can be found on the HBSC website. Data used in this paper come from the 2009-10 Ghana Socioeconomic Panel Study Survey, which is a nationally representative survey of more than 5000 households in Ghana. The survey is a joint effort undertaken by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) at the University of Ghana and the Economic Growth Centre (EGC) at Yale University. It was funded by EGC. ISSER and the EGC are not responsible for the estimations reported by the analysts. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics granted the researchers access to relevant data in accordance with license number SLN2014-3-170, after subjecting data to processing aiming to preserve the confidentiality of individual data in accordance with the General Statistics Law, 2000. The researchers are solely responsible for the conclusions and inferences drawn upon available data. Data for this research was provided by MEASURE Evaluation, funded by USAID. The authors thank the Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey, conducted by the National Research University Higher School of Economics and ZAO Demoscope together with Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the Institute of Sociology, Russia Academy of Sciences for making data available. This paper uses data from the Bhutan 2014 STEPS survey, implemented by the Ministry of Health with the support of WHO; the Kuwait 2006 and 2014 STEPS surveys, implemented by the Ministry of Health with the support of WHO; the Libya 2009 STEPS survey, implemented by the Secretariat of Health and Environment with the support of WHO; the Malawi 2009 STEPS survey, implemented by Ministry of Health with the support of WHO; and the Moldova 2013 STEPS survey, implemented by the Ministry of Health, the National Bureau of Statistics, and the National Center of Public Health with the support of WHO. This paper uses data from Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) Waves 1 (DOI:10.6103/SHARE. w1.700), 2 (10.6103/SHARE.w2.700), 3 (10.6103/SHARE.w3.700), 4 (10.6103/SHARE.w4.700), 5 (10.6103/SHARE.w5.700), 6 (10.6103/SHARE.w6.700), and 7 (10.6103/SHARE.w7.700); see Borsch-Supan and colleagues (2013) for methodological details. The SHARE data collection has been funded by the European Commission through FP5 (QLK6-CT-2001-00360), FP6 (SHARE-I3: RII-CT-2006-062193, COMPARE: CIT5-CT-2005-028857, SHARELIFE: CIT4-CT-2006-028812), FP7 (SHARE-PREP: GA N degrees 211909, SHARE-LEAP: GA N degrees 227822, SHARE M4: GA N degrees 261982) and Horizon 2020 (SHARE-DEV3: GA N degrees 676536, SERISS: GA N degrees 654221) and by DG Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion. Additional funding from the German Ministry of Education and Research, the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science, the US National Institute on Aging (U01_AG09740-13S2, P01_AG005842, P01_AG08291, P30_AG12815, R21_AG025169, Y1-AG-4553-01, IAG_BSR06-11, OGHA_04-064, HHSN271201300071C), and from various national funding sources is gratefully acknowledged. This study has been realised using the data collected by the Swiss Household Panel, which is based at the Swiss Centre of Expertise in the Social Sciences. The project is financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation. The United States Aging, Demographics, and Memory Study is a supplement to the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), which is sponsored by the National Institute of Aging (grant number NIA U01AG009740). It was conducted jointly by Duke University and the University of Michigan. The HRS is sponsored by the National Institute on Aging (grant number NIA U01AG009740) and is conducted by the University of Michigan. This paper uses data from Add Health, a program project designed by J Richard Udry, Peter S Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris, and funded by a grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 17 other agencies. Special acknowledgment is due to Ronald R Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website. No direct support was received from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis. The data reported here have been supplied by the United States Renal Data System. The interpretation and reporting of these data are the responsibility of the authors and in no way should be seen as an official policy or interpretation of the US Government. Collection of data for the Mozambique National Survey on the Causes of Death 2007-08 was made possible by USAID under the terms of cooperative agreement GPO-A-00-08-000_D3-00. This manuscript is based on data collected and shared by the International Vaccine Institute (IVI) from an original study IVI conducted. L G Abreu acknowledges support from Coordenacao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nivel Superior (Brazil; finance code 001) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq, a Brazilian funding agency). I N Ackerman was supported by a Victorian Health and Medical Research Fellowship awarded by the Victorian Government. O O Adetokunboh acknowledges the South African Department of Science and Innovation and the National Research Foundation. A Agrawal acknowledges the Wellcome Trust DBT India Alliance Senior Fellowship. S M Aljunid acknowledges the Department of Health Policy and Management, Faculty of Public Health, Kuwait University and International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia for the approval and support to participate in this research project. M Ausloos, C Herteliu, and A Pana acknowledge partial support by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-ID-PCCF-2016-0084. A Badawi is supported by the Public Health Agency of Canada. D A Bennett was supported by the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre. R Bourne acknowledges the Brien Holden Vision Institute, University of Heidelberg, Sightsavers, Fred Hollows Foundation, and Thea Foundation. G B Britton and I Moreno Velasquez were supported by the Sistema Nacional de Investigacion, SNI-SENACYT, Panama. R Buchbinder was supported by an Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellowship. J J Carrero was supported by the Swedish Research Council (2019-01059). F Carvalho acknowledges UID/MULTI/04378/2019 and UID/QUI/50006/2019 support with funding from FCT/MCTES through national funds. A R Chang was supported by National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases grant K23 DK106515. V M Costa acknowledges the grant SFRH/BHD/110001/2015, received by Portuguese national funds through Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia, IP, under the Norma Transitaria DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006. A Douiri acknowledges support and funding from the National Institute for Health Research Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and the Royal College of Physicians, and support from the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre based at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London. B B Duncan acknowledges grants from the Foundation for the Support of Research of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (IATS and PrInt) and the Brazilian Ministry of Health. H E Erskine is the recipient of an Australian NHMRC Early Career Fellowship grant (APP1137969). A J Ferrari was supported by a NHMRC Early Career Fellowship grant (APP1121516). H E Erskine and A J Ferrari are employed by and A M Mantilla-Herrera and D F Santomauro affiliated with the Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, which receives core funding from the Queensland Department of Health. M L Ferreira holds an NHMRC Research Fellowship. C Flohr was supported by the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre based at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust. M Freitas acknowledges financial support from the EU (European Regional Development Fund [FEDER] funds through COMPETE POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029248) and National Funds (Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia) through project PTDC/NAN-MAT/29248/2017. A L S Guimaraes acknowledges support from CNPq. C Herteliu was partially supported by a grant co-funded by FEDER through Operational Competitiveness Program (project ID P_40_382). P Hoogar acknowledges Centre for Bio Cultural Studies, Directorate of Research, Manipal Academy of Higher Education and Centre for Holistic Development and Research, Kalaghatagi. F N Hugo acknowledges the Visiting Professorship, PRINT Program, CAPES Foundation, Brazil. B-F Hwang was supported by China Medical University (CMU107-Z-04), Taichung, Taiwan. S M S Islam was funded by a National Heart Foundation Senior Research Fellowship and supported by Deakin University. R Q Ivers was supported by a research fellowship from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. M Jakovljevic acknowledges the Serbian part of this GBD-related contribution was co-funded through Grant OI175014 of the Ministry of Education Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. P Jeemon was supported by a Clinical and Public Health intermediate fellowship (grant number IA/CPHI/14/1/501497) from the Wellcome Trust-Department of Biotechnology, India Alliance (2015-20). O John is a recipient of UIPA scholarship from University of New South Wales, Sydney. S V Katikireddi acknowledges funding from a NRS Senior Clinical Fellowship (SCAF/15/02), the Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12017/13, MC_UU_12017/15), and the Scottish Government Chief Scientist Office (SPHSU13, SPHSU15). C Kieling is a CNPq researcher and a UK Academy of Medical Sciences Newton Advanced Fellow. Y J Kim was supported by Research Management Office, Xiamen University Malaysia (XMUMRF/2018-C2/ITCM/00010). K Krishan is supported by UGC Centre of Advanced Study awarded to the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. M Kumar was supported by K43 TW 010716 FIC/NIMH. B Lacey acknowledges support from the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre and the BHF Centre of Research Excellence, Oxford. J V Lazarus was supported by a Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities Miguel Servet grant (Instituto de Salud Carlos III [ISCIII]/ESF, the EU [CP18/00074]). K J Looker thanks the NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Evaluation of Interventions at the University of Bristol, in partnership with Public Health England, for research support. S Lorkowski was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (nutriCARD, grant agreement number 01EA1808A). R A Lyons is supported by Health Data Research UK (HDR-9006), which is funded by the UK Medical Research Council, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council, NIHR (England), Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health and Social Care Directorates, Health and Social Care Research and Development Division (Welsh Government), Public Health Agency (Northern Ireland), British Heart Foundation, and Wellcome Trust. J J McGrath is supported by the Danish National Research Foundation (Niels Bohr Professorship), and the Queensland Health Department (via West Moreton HHS). P T N Memiah acknowledges support from CODESRIA. U O Mueller gratefully acknowledges funding by the German National Cohort Study BMBF grant number 01ER1801D. S Nomura acknowledges the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan (18K10082). A Ortiz was supported by ISCIII PI19/00815, DTS18/00032, ISCIII-RETIC REDinREN RD016/0009 Fondos FEDER, FRIAT, Comunidad de Madrid B2017/BMD-3686 CIFRA2-CM. These funding sources had no role in the writing of the manuscript or the decision to submit it for publication. S B Patten was supported by the Cuthbertson & Fischer Chair in Pediatric Mental Health at the University of Calgary. G C Patton was supported by an aNHMRC Senior Principal Research Fellowship. M R Phillips was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, number 81371502 and 81761128031). A Raggi, D Sattin, and S Schiavolin were supported by grants from the Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico C Besta, Linea 4-Outcome Research: dagli Indicatori alle Raccomandazioni Cliniche). P Rathi and B Unnikrishnan acknowledge Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal. A L P Ribeiro was supported by Brazilian National Research Council, CNPq, and the Minas Gerais State Research Agency, FAPEMIG. D C Ribeiro was supported by The Sir Charles Hercus Health Research Fellowship (#18/111) Health Research Council of New Zealand. D Ribeiro acknowledges financial support from the EU (FEDER funds through the Operational Competitiveness Program; POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029253). P S Sachdev acknowledges funding from the NHMRC of Australia Program Grant. A M Samy was supported by a fellowship from the Egyptian Fulbright Mission Program. M M Santric-Milicevic acknowledges the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (contract number 175087). R Sarmiento-Suarez received institutional support from Applied and Environmental Sciences University (Bogota, Colombia) and ISCIII (Madrid, Spain). A E Schutte received support from the South African National Research Foundation SARChI Initiative (GUN 86895) and Medical Research Council. S T S Skou is currently funded by a grant from Region Zealand (Exercise First) and a grant from the European Research Council under the EU's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement number 801790). J B Soriano is funded by Centro de Investigacion en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias, ISCIII. R Tabares-Seisdedos was supported in part by the national grant PI17/00719 from ISCIII-FEDER. N Taveira was partially supported by the European & Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, the EU (LIFE project, reference RIA2016MC-1615). S Tyrovolas was supported by the Foundation for Education and European Culture, the Sara Borrell postdoctoral programme (reference number CD15/00019 from ISCIII-FEDER). S B Zaman received a scholarship from the Australian Government research training programme in support of his academic career. ; "Peer Reviewed"

Issue 21.2 of the Review for Religious, 1962. ; FRANCIS J. WEBER The Relics of Christ The spiritual value of a relic is directly proportional to the devotion it inspires in those who venerate it. Apart from this spiritual significance, the relic is merely a his-torical curiosity. It may or may not be of archaeological value to the museums of the world. The official attitude of the Church regarding individual relics is one of extreme reserve. In most cases, the Church prudently withholds definitive judgment on even the most demonstrably ancient relics. In fact, while reluctant to proclaim the authenticity of a particular reli.c, the Church has not infrequently withdrawn from public Veneration relics whose claims were found to be dubious or spurious. In recent memory, this has happened in the case of "St. Philomena," center of a devoted cult for more than a cen-tury, though she had never been formally canonized and nothing actually was known of her life. Despite the many miracles attributed to the relics of this supposed second century martyr, unearthed from a catacomb in 1802, mod-ern research shed doubt on the authenticity of the re-mains. It should be noted that the decree of the Sacred Congre-gation of Rites in 1961 dropping the feast of St. Philomena from the liturgical calendar did not touch on the validity of the miracles attributed to her intercession. They may well have been genuine miracles performed by God be-cause of the faith and devotion of those who prayed for them. The oldest and most cherished of Christian. relics nat-urally are those reputed to have been connected with the holy person of Jesus Christ Himself. Those few that are still extant, for the most part, have sufficient historical documentation to merit scholarly attention. It must be borne in mind that the honor and veneration given to these objects is directed primarily to Christ. Hence, in, some cases where documentation establishes only doubtful authenticity, the Church is certainly jus-tified in remaining silent, if it is understood that in so doing the Church is not giving positive approval and if 4, 4. Francis J. Weber, a dPiorcieesste o of ft hLeo As rAchn-- geles, is presently assigned to Catholic University, Wash-ington 17, D.C. VOLUME 21, 1962 79 4. 4. Francis ~. Weber REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 80 greater honor and glory are thereby rendered to Almighty God. Our approach to this obscure and sometimes contro-versial subject is that of the historian, who presents only the facts, leaving conclusions to the reader, The True Cross The Cross on which our Savior died has been tradi-tionally the most precious of all Christian relics. Tiny splinters of the True Cross have been so widely distributed that, in the words of St. Cyril, "the whole inhabited earth is full of relics from the wood of the Cross." St. Helena is credited with discovery of the True Cro:;s in 327 A.D.1 Early testimony of the fathers, among them Ambrose, Jerome, Sozomen, and Theodoret, recounts this marvelous event in copious detail. The Cross was found in an abandoned cistern near Mount Calvary. Identifica-tion as the True Cross, according to St. Ambrose, was easy enough since the titulus was still affixed. To commemo-rate this great occasion, St. Helena orderd a magnificent basilica to be erected over the H61y Sepulchre. She gave it the name of St. Constantius in honor of her son, the Roman emperor. When Helena returned to Rome, the relics were placed in the Sessorian Basilica, Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. A substantial segment, of the. Cross-was left in Jerusalem where it annually attracted thousands of devout pilgrims. It was captured in the seventh century by Khosru II, the Persian conqueror. When the holy relic was returned by Heraclius in 628, the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross was instituted. The Jerusalem relic was divided many times. When certain of these fragments fell into the hands of the Mohammedans, the Crusades were inspired to restore them. An extensive and intensive study of the True Cross was made and published in 1870 by Rohault de Fleury. After examination of all extant fragments claimed to be from the True Cross, he drew up a minute catalogue of them, with precise weights and measurements. His findings proved that if all known pieces of the True Cross were put together, they would consitute less than one-third of the original Cross. This effectively silenced skeptics who had scoffed that the total of supposed fragments was bigger than the Cross itself. De Fleury's calculations2 were based on a cross of pine wood weighing an estimated 75 kilograms. The volume of 1 Louis de Combres, The Finding of the True Cross (London: Trubner, 1907). = Charles Rohault de Fleury, Mdraoire sur les instruments de la Passion (Paris: Lesort, 1870), pp. 97-179. this. cross would have been approximately 178 million cubic millimeters. Known volume of the existing relics does not exceed ,t0 million cubic millimeters. 0 Crux ave, spes unica! The Title of the Cross There are many fanciful legen~ls associated with the dis-covery of the True Cross by St. Helena. The manner of distinguishing the True Cross of Christ .from those of the two thieves is usually related with colorful if not his-torically accurate circumstances. However, St. Ambrose testifies there was no problem in identifying the True Cross as the titulus or title-piece was still intact. Other writers corroborate this account, notably Sts. Cyrils and Jerome. As has been the case with so many holy relics, the titulus was divided into seveial pieces. The Diary of Etheria lo-cates a piece of the titulus in Jerusalem in 380 A.D, Helena undoubtedly brought a part of the title back to Rome with her. Regrettably, there is no further documentation avail-able on the fate of the Jerusalem relic, For some reason, very likely to protect it from invaders, the Roman relic seems to.have been walled up in an arch of Santa Croce by Placidus Valentinian III in the fifth century. In the twelfth century it was accidentally un-earthed by Gherardo Caccianemici, titular cardinal and later Pope Lucius II. The future pontiff placed his seal on the reliquary and replaced it in its hiding place. In 1492 Cardinal Mendoza of Toledo rediscovered the relic which he immediately presented to the then Holy Father, Innocent VIII. A papal bull, Admirabile Sacra-mentum, was issued, after which the titulus was exposed for public veneration in Santa Croce. The title-piece is of wood, about nine by five inches in size, and comprises two-and-one-half lines of faded in-scription. Hebrew, Greek and Latin characters are dis-cernible, all of which axe printed in reverse, a practice common with the Romans of the time of Christ. The Shroud of Turin It is recorded in Chapter 27 of St. Matthew how Joseph. of Arimathea wrapped the body of Jesus in a "dean linen cloth." No further mention of this funeral shroud appears in Christian literature until the time of St. Nino4 (d. ~38), who relates how Peter removed the shroud from the tomb shortly after the Resurrection. The fourteenth century Byzantine historian, Nicephorus Callista, tells how this 8Philip Gonnet, De Sancti Cyrilli Hiersolymitani Catechismt~ (Paris: 1876). ¯ Edward Wuenschel, C.Ss.R.0 Sell-Portrait oI Christ (Esopus, New York: Holy Shroud Guild, 1954). ÷ ÷ ÷ Relics ot Christ VOLUME 21, 1962 81 4. Francis $. Weber REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Holy Shroud, soaked with the blood of Christ and bearing an image of His holy face, found its way to Constantino-. pie: "Pulcheria, Empress of the East, having built a basil-ica. at Blachernes in 436, piously deposited there the fu. neral linens of Our Savior, which had just been rediscov-. ered and which the Empress Eudoxia had sent to her." Eyewitnesses to the presence of the Holy Shroud at Con-stantinople are recorded in the Annals of 631, 640, 749, 1157 and 1171 A.D. During the Fourth Crusade, the Holy Shroud was sur. rendered in recompense to Otho de la Roche, Duke of Athens and Sparta. The Duke in 1204 sent the prized relic to his father in France. Soon after, it came into possession of the Bishop of Besan~on. A fire caused minor damage to the shroud in 1349. Later that same year, it was stolen from its case in Besan~on Cathedral and given to King Philip IV who in turn gave it to Geoffrey, Count of Char., ney and Lord of Lirey. There is documentary evidence ¯ that it was at Lirey in 1360. During the Hundred Years War, the Holy Shroud wa:; handed over by Geoffrey's granddaughter to the House of Savoy for safekeeping. In 1454, Pope Sixtus IV directed the Duke of Savoy, Louis I, to build a shrine for the shroud at his Chambery residence. During the troubled war years of the sixteenth century, the Holy Shroud was moved from town to town in France. It narrowly missed being destroyed a second time by fire in 1532, and in fact its corners were noticeably singed. At the request of the aged Charles Borromeo, the shroud in 1578 was brought to Turin where it has re-mained for the past four hundred years. It is presently preserved in the black marble chapel specially built for it behind the city's beautiful fifteenth century cathedral. Several pronouncements by the Holy See leave litth: doubt regarding the Church's official attitude toward the Turin Shroud. An Office and a Mass were formally ap-proved by Pope Julius II in the bull Romanus Ponti[ex issued in 1506. Sixtus IV had previously stated that in thbl Holy Shroud "men may look upon the true blood and portrait of Jesus Christ Himself." A remarkable discovery was made in .1898, when a pho-tograph of the Turin Shroud revealed the faint, blurred image on the ancient linen to be an actual "negative" produced by vapors from a human body covered witll spices. The negative of the modern photo~a negative of a negative, thus producing a positive--offered a far more pronounced picture of a human face than was previously recognizable. ChemiCally, this "vapograph" was caused by the am-moniacal emanations from the surface of the body after an unusually violent death. It has been proved experimen-tally that these vapors are capable of producing a deep reddish brown stain which would vary in intensity with the distance from a cloth soaked with oil and aloes. Hence the image of Christ's face on the shroud is a natural nega-tive. This modern evidence, together with the identification of human bloodstains, prompted Dr. Paul Vignon to read a brilliant paper before the Acaddmie des Sciences, in which he suggested that any explanation denying the authenticity of the Turin Shroud would be scientifically inaccurate. It might also be mentioned that, the impression on the shroud of the Grown of Thorns is in perfect conformity with the "helmet type" of crown displayed at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. Further, the nail wounds are not in the palms of the hands but in the wrists. It has been re-alized only in our own times that this was a physical neces-sity, for nails in the palms .of the hands would not have been able to sustain the weight of a human body. One of the major opponents and critics of the Turin Shroud was the anti-pope Clement VII, first of the Avig-non Pretenders. His opposition apparently stemmed from a vague charge made by the Bishop of Troyes that the shroud was the work of a local craftsman skilled in the subtle art of simulating antique handiwork. Other shrouds, thirty in all, each purporting to be the genuine article, have turned up through the centuries. Most notable are thosestill preserved at Besan~on, Ca-douin, and Champiegne. These shrouds likewise bear im-pressions alleged to be those of Christ's face and body. However, the preponderance of ,historical evidence seems to leave no doubt that among all the claimants, only the Shroud of Turin has a valid pretension to au-thenticity. The Pillar of the Scourging The column of the Praetorium to which Christ was bound during His scourging was discovered in the For-tress of Antonia in 373 A.D., according to a chronicle penned by St. Ephrem. St. Paulinus of Nola,5 writing after 409, refers to several relics of the Passion, among them "the pillar at which He was scourged." Philip of Brosserius saw the pillar in the Church of the Holy Se-pulchre in 1285. Some time before the end of the four-teenth century it was broken and one part was sent to Constantinople. An interesting Christian" tradition, dating back to .the See Letter 310f Paulinus. ÷ ÷ ÷ Relics o] Christ VOLUME 21, 1962 83 ÷ ÷ ÷ F~ancis $. Webe~ REVIEW I:OR REI.I~IOUS 84 fourth century, holds that Christ was actually scourged twice. St. John Chrysostom tells us this second flagellation took place at the house of Caiaphas after the mock trial. This tradition finds prominent mention in early chroni-cles. The pillar used for the second scourging was reserved in the Church of Mount Sion, the Cenacle, where St. Jerome reported he saw it. During the Persian invasion, it too seems to have been broken into several pieces. The portion left at the Cenacle was lost in 1537. The other part was returned to a church subsequently erected on the sit~ of the house of Caiaphas. Here it was venerated until the fourteenth century, when it completely disappeared. In 1222 A.D., Giovanni Cardinal Colonna, papal envoy to the Orient, returned to Rome with a fragment of the Pillar of the Scourging, apparently given him by the Sara-cens. He enshrined it in his titular church of St. Praxedes, where it may be seen today. The Roman pillar is of mar-ble, about two feet four inches high. It is.probably one of the parts of the Praetorian column. Its counterpart in Jerusalem is of a different material and may have formed the lower part of the pillar. The Holy Stairs Among the many treasures brought back from the Holy Land by St. Helena was the marble staircase from the palace of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem. It is still extant,e The stone steps number twenty-eight and are said. to have been sanctified by the feet of Christ himself when He as-cended this stairway at the Praetorium. The stairway, reconstructed in Rome, originally formed part of the old Lateran Palace, leading into a chapel dedi-cated to St. Sylvester. When the Lateran Palace was torn down by Pope Sixtus V in 1589, the stairs were moved to their present location. Today the Scala Sancta constitutes the entranceway to the Holy of Holies~ an old private papal chapelY In its present site, the Scala Sancta is flanked by additional stair-wells on either side. Traditionally the Holy Stairs are ascended only on one's knees. The last pope to ascend the stairway in this fashion was Plus IX on the eve of his exile from Rome in 1870. Pope St. Pius X decreed a plenary indulgence for those who devoutly ascend the Scala Sancta on their knees as testimony of their love for Christ. Replicas of the Scala Sancta have been erected at Lourdes and other centers of pilgrimage. e Herbert Thursfon, The Holy Year o] Jubilee (Westminster: New-man, 1949). ~ Philippe Lauer, Le trdsor de Sancta Sanctorum (Paris: Leroux, t~o~). The Soldier's Lance Mention is made of the soldier's lance in Chapter 19 of St. John. In his account of the Savior's death, St. John re-lates that "one of the soldiers opened His side with a spear . " The first extra-Biblical.~mention of~,this relic seems to be by Anthony of P~efiZ~, who wrot~'~a~;he saw the Crown of Thorns and "the lance with which He was struck in the side," in the Basilica of Mount Sion.s A miniature of the renowned Syriac manuscript, illu-minated by Rabulas.in 586, assigns the name Longinus to the soldier whose lance pierced the crucified Christ. Gas-siodorus and Gregory of Tours speak of a spear venerated at Jerusalem, which was thought to be identical with that mentioned in Scripture. After the fall of Jerusalem in 615 A.D., several of the major relics of the Passion fell into the hands of the Per-sians. The Chronicon Paschale relates that a piece of the soldier's lance came into the possession of Nicetas, who enclosed it in an icon and presented it to Santa Sophia in Constantinople. In 1241 the Holy Lance was given to King St. Louis for Sainte Chapelle in Paris. No trace of this part of the lance has been found since it was lost during the French Revolu-tion, some time after its removal to the Bibliothkque Na-tionale. The second and larger part of the shaft of the soldier's iance was reported seen by Arculpus in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem about 670 A.D. Later it was taken to Constantinople, where Sir John Mandeville writes about it. It was sent to Pope Innocent VIII in 1492 in return for favors shown to the captured Zizin, brother of Sultan Bajazet. At request of the French hierarchy, during the pontifi-cate of Benedict XIV an investigation was conducted to ascertain the .relation, if any, between the two relics, one at Paris, the other at Rome. A papal brief, issued after the inquiry, concluded that both relics were originally parts of the same shaft. Several other supposedly genuine Ho!y Lances are pre-served in various treasuries of Europe, but none of the others offers a valid claim to authenticity. Even the story told by William of Malmesbury about the Holy Lance given to King Athelstan of England is historically in-accurate. Since the tragic loss of ihe Paris relic, only the Roman lance remains. It is exposed each year for veneration dur-ing Holy Week by the Archpriest of St. Peter's Basilica. 8 Francois Martin, Reliques de la Passion (Paris: Lethielleux, 1897). 4- 4- 4- Relics of Christ VOLUME 21, 1962 85 + + + F~ancis ~. Webe~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 86 Veronica's Veil According to the historian Eusebius in his commentary on the Legend of Abgar and according to remarks con-tained in the apocryphal work Mors Pilati, several au-thentic portraits of Jesus Christ were made at various times during His lifetime. The oldest and most authenticated of these images has been known to Romans for centuries as the Vera Icon or Veil of Veronica. So highly has this image been held in Roman esteem, that a Mass celebrating it was composed and inserted into at least one of the early Augsburg Missals.9 There is no reference in Scripture to a woman offering her veil to Christ during His Sacred Passion. But it is highly plausible that there was such a compassionate soul among those who followed Christ on His way to Mount Calvary. The incident itself is undoubtedly worthy of some credibility, since it has found its expression since very early times in the Christian devotion of the Stations of the Cross. Apparently the holy woman in question, known in pious legend only as Veronica, found her way to Rome, where she presented her Vera Icon---True Picture--to Pope Clement I. The veil, ostensibly bearing the image of the suffering Jesus miraculously pressed into it, was vener-ated in several places until the pontificate of John VII who had it enclosed in an ornate reliquary. During the ensuing centuries, the Holy See has exhibited particular solicitude for this precious relic. It had been reserved to the Pope's own chapel, St. Peter's Basilica, where it is ex, posed briefly during Holy Week for veneration by the faithful. The Holy Grail A whole cycle of romantic legends has been woven about the theme of the Holy Grail,1° but the legendary quests, inspiring though they may be, add nothing to the few slim historical facts available. Of the two notable "pretenders" to genuine Grailship, one alone merits se-rious consideration. And while tl~e chalice displayed at Valencia is not generally accepted as genuine by histo-rians, its proponents present a tolerable case in its behalf. An account by Bishop Siuri of Cordoba relates that the chalice used by Christ at the Last Supper was brought to~ Rome by St. Peter soon after the death of Mary. It was used frequently at Papal Masses until the pontificate of Sixtus II. During the persecutions of Valerian, St. Lawrence sent the chalice to his native Huesca in the northern part of o Sainte Veronique, apostre de l'Aquitaine (Toulouse: 1877). a0 Nutt, Studies o[ the Holy Grail (London: 1888). the Spanish peninsula where the Holy Grail remained until 713 when it was removed to San Juan de la Pena for protective custody during the Moslem invasion. A deed of exchange, dated September 26, 1399, testifies that King Martin acquired the Holy Grail for his private chapel in the Palace of the Aljaferia. About 1424 .the chalice was moved to Valencia by King Alfonso V. The chalice has remained at Valencia since the fifteenth cen-tury except for a brief period during the Spanish Civil War when part of the cathedral was burned by the Com-munists. It was restored to its chapel in the Metropolitan Cathedral at Valencia by the Franco government in 1937. Artistically, the Holy Grail is Corinthian in styling,ix made of agate or Oriental carnelian. The handles on ei-ther side are common appurtenances for drinking vessels of its period. The costly pearls, rubies, and emeralds were added much later. The Crown of Thorns St. Paulinus of Nola, writing early in the fifth century, is the first of the chroniclers to mention specifically "the thorns with which Our Lord was crowned." Other early writers allude apparently to this relic of the Passion, but their comments are vague and inconclusive. Writing about 570, Cassiodorus speaks of "the thorny crown, which was set upon the head of our Redeemer in order that all the thorns of the world might be gathered together and broken." The pilgrimage of the monk Ber-nard establishes that the Crown Of Thorns was still at Mount Sion in 870. According to fairly recent studies, the whole crown was transferred to Byzantium about 1063, although many ot the thorns must have been removed at an earlier date. The Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Baldwin II, offered the Crown of Thorns to St. Louis in 1238. After lengthy ne-gotiations with the Venetians, the r(lic was taken to Paris and placed in the newly built Sainte Chapelle where it remained an object of national devotion until the French Revolution. For security, the crown was placed in the BibliothOque Nationale during the bloody days of the upheaval. In 1806, it was restored to Notre Dame Cathedral. It was en-shrined in its present rock crystal reliquary in 1896. All that is left to be seen today is the circlet of rushes, devoid of any thorns. What remained of the original sixty or seventy thorns were apparently removed by St. Louis and deposited in separate reliquaries. The king and his successors distributed the thorns until nothing remained at Paris but the circlet. The Holy Chalice o/the Last Supper (Valencia: 1958). 4. 4. + Relics o] Christ VOLUME 21, 1962 Francis J. Weber REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 88 Reportedly there are more than 700 "holy thorns" scat-tered around the world. But only those traceable to St. Louis, to one of the emperors, or to St. Helena are genu-ine. Such authentic thorns aCe at Cluny, St. Praxedes in Rome, Santa Croce, and at Aachen, to mention but a few. The Nails There seems to be little agreement among Biblical scholars on the number of nails used to fasten our Blessed Lord to His Cross. Religious art of the early Middle Ages almost unanimously depicts the crucified Savior with four nails~ In the thirteenth century, however, it became in-creasingly common to represent the feet of Christ as placed one over the other and pierced with a single nail. Either of these methods is compatible with the informa-tion we have about the punishment of crucifixion as practiced by the Romans. The earliest authors, among them St. Ambrose, speak only of two nails.12 And it is a point of interest that the two oldest known representations of the Crucifixion, the carved door of Santa Sabina in Rome and the Ivory Panel in the British Museum, show no signs of nails in the feet. The most commonly accepted opinion is that there were three nails that actually touched the body of Christ. This is borne out by the evidence of the Shroud of Turin. In addition, there were probably another three nails used for the titulus, the seat block, and the foot rest. St. Ambrose and St. Jerome speak of the discovery of the nails in Jerusalem by Constantine's mother, St. Hel-ena, in the third century. Sozomen notes in passing that St. Helena had no trouble identifying the nails. One of the nails was fashioned into an imperial diadem for the emperor. This Iron Crown of Lombardy is now at Manza. Another nail was made into a bit for the imperial horse. This relic is believed to be the same as the one at Carpentas. A third nail was venerated for many years in Jerusalem before being moved to Rome's Santa Croce by Pope Gregory the Great. Several European treasuries claim to possess one or more of the true nails, but their, authenticity is clouded with the passage of time. Most of the confusion regarding the thirty or more known spurious nails can be traced to the well-intentioned Charles Borromeo who had reproduc-tions made of the nails and gave them out as memorials of the Passion. Conclusion These, then, are the more commonly accepted relics as-sociated with the holy person of Jesus Christ, our Savior. u De Combres, op. cir. If they have served to increase devotion to Almighty God, they have fulfilled their noble purpose. A saintly priest was once heard to exclaim: "Our Savior's greatest bequest to His children was not a treasury filled with mere material relics, but a golden tabernacle in which He Himself resides to be our fo6d~f6r all ~tei'nit~.!: 4. Relics ot Christ VOLIJME 21, ~962 89 EDWARD J. STOKES, S.J. Examination of Conscience for Local Superiors ÷ Edward J. Stokes, S.J., is Professor o[ Canon Law at St. Mary of the Lake Seminary, Munde-lein, Illinois. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 90 In the summer of 1961 Father Edward J. Stokes, s.J.0 was asked to conduct the annual retreat for a group of local superiors. One of the projects he asked them to do during the retreat was to compose on the basis of their own experience an examination of conscience to be used by local superiors at the time of the monthly recollection, the annual retreat, or at any other suitable time. The ques-tions submitted by this group of local superiors were syn-thethized by Father Stokes who then submitted them to the REvmw. The questions were further revised by Father John E. Becket, S.J., of the editorial staff of the REw~w; the final version of them is given in the following pages. Readers, whether superiors or subjects, who have ideas for the improvement of this examination of conscience either by way of addition, deletion, or emendation are urged to submit their views to the Rzwvw. If enough of such improvements are received, a newly revised version of the examination of conscience for local superiors will be published in a later issue of the R~viEw. Personal Religious Li[e 1. Do I strive to come closer to Christ by leading the life of union and interior peace with Him? Do I do everything in, with, and for Christ? 2. Am I afraid of sanctity because of the demands that it will make on me? 3. Have I forgotten that if I live better, I will pray bet-ter, and that if I pray better, I will live better? 4. Am I firmly convinced of our Lord's words: If you love me, my Father will love you and we will come to you and make our abode with you? 5. Am I convinced that this office of superior, when ful-filled to the best of my ability, is a source of sanctification for me? 6. To be a superior means to carry a cross. How often do I thank our Lord for the privilege of suffering with Him? 7. Am I a superior truly aware of my ownnothingness? 8. When I suffer discouragement, is it because I have not succeeded in doing God's will or because I have not succeeded in pleasing men? ~-,, . ~ °~' ~ 9. Am I deeply convinced that if I have done my best to fulfill God's will, I have succeeded? 10. Do I accept as personal any recognition, privilege, or service accorded me by reason of my office as superior? 11. How often do I make a Holy Hour in petition for the solution of a problem or to obtain a special grace for my fellow religious or myself? Ever a Holy Hour of thanks-giving? 12. Do I make the Sacred Heart of Jesus the King and Center of our religious house and Mary its Queen? 13. Do I take St. Joseph as the advocate and the pro-tector of the interior life of each one dwelling in our house? Personal Recollection and Prayer 14. Am I convinced that recollection is an absolute ne-cessity for any progress in the life of prayer? 15. Is my spirit of recollection such that it provides an atmosphere conducive to prayer? 16. How do I prepare the points of meditation in the evening? 17. What special meditation has drawn me closer to Christ?_ 18. Do I sometimes excuse myself from my prayers by telling myself that this or that duty must take first place? 19. Have I given full time. to my prayers or have I hur-ried through them in order to get to my other work? 20. Does the demand for great activity cause distractions in my prayers or perhaps lead me to neglect prayer; or does it rather make me realize my dependence on God? 21. Have I said common vocal prayers reverently and not annoyed others by my haste? 22. Am I observant of recollection immediately after breakfast? 23. Do I make a special effort to keep recollected on the days when it seems especially impossible? 24. Do I ever revert to God's presence in me throughout the day, to adore Him, thank Him, love Him, speak to Him about the needs of soul and body, my own, and those of my fellow religious? Confession 25. Do I make it a point to confess my added responsi-bility by reason of my office when I confess criticism of su-periors or priests? ÷ ÷ ÷ local Superiors VOLUME 21, 1962 91 4, 4, E. ]. Stokes, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 92 26. Do I make it a point to confess my added respons.i-bility as a superior when I confess failure to exercise ju:~- tice or charity in dealing with my.fell0w religioug? 27. Do I take advantage of my weekly confessions to re-ceive spiritdal direction? 28. Have my confessions been hurried due to an in-efficient planning of my time? Particular Examen 29. Is my particular examen specific? 30. Do I make a tie-in of retreat resolutions, the particu-lar examen, and weekly confession? 31. Do I make a daily examination of the motives that govern my external life? 32. Do I make my particular examen a vital part of my day as a religious? Mortification 33. Do I realize that my chief mortification is to tie found in the justice and the charity of my dealings with others? 34. Am I willing to perform one interior and one exte-rior act of mortification each day in order to obtain the blessing of our Lord on my community? Charity 35. Is love for others the outstanding virtue in my life? 36. Have I deliberately practised acting towards Christ in each person I meet? 37. Do I appreciate the importance of my personal charity to this community as a cell of the Mystical Body? Faith 38. Are the mysteries of Christianity the basis of my re-ligious life? 39. Have I made the connection between these mys-teries and the Rule, or have I let concern with the Rule obscure my reliance on broader Christian principles? Hope 40. Am I aware of the need for Christ's help in sanctify-ing myself by governing others? 41. Do I realize that Christ is able to utilize my faults in sanctifying others? Principles of Government 42. Do I realize that the most exalted duty of a su-perior is care for the spiritual life of his subjects? 43. Do I seek to serve God by serving my fellow re-ligious always and everywhere? 44. Do I pray regularly for the spiritual well-being and growth of those in my house? 45. Do I try to help each religious to develop a deep inferior life by my words and by my example? 46. Do I give my fellow religious an example of the love of regularity? . 47. Do I try to help my fellow religious develop a ready and loving acceptance of God's holy will by the example of my own acceptance of it in all my difficulties, trials, and failures as well as in my joys and success? 48. Do I realize and am I firmly convinced that seeing, accepting, and willing all that God wills for me in every circumstance of my life is the essence of sanctity; and do I teach my fellow religious this? 49. Am I trying to establish in my fellow 'religious a sense of the Mystical Body so that they are able to com-municate spiritually one with another? 50. Do I look for Christ in the problem religious? in the impudent child in the classroom? Do I see Him looking at me through the eyes of all my charges, seeking my love and devotion? 51. How often have I passed a fellow religious in the hall without noticing and greeting him? 52. In making use of the aspiration, "Praise be to Jesus Christ" during the periods of recollection, do I really try to see Christ present in that person?' 53. Did I personally visit at least one sick person of the parish or community, or delegate a religious to do so? 54. Have I in any way, by actions or words, shown a mere toleration for lay persons associated with our work? Or have I accepted them as allies in our work? Community Exercises 55. Do I faithfully observe the daily order? 56. Do I realize that as superior I set the tone and the spirit of the house, in recollection, cheerfulness, peace, hospitality? 57. Do I let human respect interfere with the duty I have as superior to insist on charity and the observance of the rules in my community? 58. Do I miss or am I late for spiritual exercises unless for a grave reason? 59. What community exercises have I missed in the past month? My reasons? Did I make them up at another time, or did I let them go through neglect or carelessness? 60. What can be done to make the chapter of faults more effective? 61. Do I create a family spirit? 62. Is my recreation self-centered? Do I do what I want and not talk or .do too much of the talking? Local Superiors VOLUME 21, 1962 95 ]. Stokes, FOR R~:LIGIOUS 94 63. Do I endeavor to make community recreation an exercise of wholesome family spirit? 64. Is my house truly a religious house or does it have the impersonality of a modern railroad station? Personal Qualities 65. Am I even-tempered? 66. Do I show true joy in my work? 67. Have I betrayed immaturity and lack of courage by disproportionate manifestations of disappointment and discouragement? 68. Do I allow my feelings to regulate my actions? 69. Do I have a good sense of humor? 70. How much self-pity does my countenance mirror when things go wrong? 71. Am I approachable? 72. Do I try, as far as possible, to treat all my fellow re-ligious in the same way--not showing any partiality or favoritism? Have I excluded any or passed them over iu the sharing of responsibility or favors? Are the same few always near me? 73. Do I treat as sacred anything that a fellow religious tells me in confidence? 74. How many times in the past month have I been im-patient with my fellow religious? 75. How do I act or react when I know that one of my fellow religious has offended me? Do I~take it in a Christ:- like way or do I hold-a grudge? Do I consider violations of rule as offenses against me? 76. Do I as superior always show exterior peace, calm, and happiness? I must do this if I am going to be the un-derstanding, religious superior that I should be. 77. In the presence of outsiders do I always show great loyalty to each and every member of my community? 78, Am I as reserved as I should be while visiting in the parlor? 79. Am I kind to all lay people, regardless of how much they can, orhave helped financially or otherwise--look-ing to the good of their souls first and foremost? Government 80. Do I run a disorganized house so that my subjects tend to say: "We never know what we are going to do next"? 81. Do I get all the facts before I make a decision? 82. Do I hesitate in making the decisions that I must as superior? Do I harm my fellow religious by my habit of procrastination? 83. Am I under someone's influence in the decisions that I make, an older religious or a former superior? 84. Do I contradict my orders, thus making it difficult to know what is my will? 85. Am I available to my fellow religious? 86. Am I open to suggestions? 87. Do I delegate responsibility and do I trust those to whom I have delegated it? If a duty is not being done as I would, do I give it to someone else or take over myself rather than try to help? Do I show interest without in-terfering? 88. Do I give authority as well as responsibility to re-ligious when I give them a job? 89. Am I a politician in dealing with my fellow religious instead of a Christlike superior? 90. Am I unnecessarily secretive in trivial matters, keep-ing the community guessing? Do I not see that this will cause bad feelings? 91. Do I talk uncharitably or show displeasure to one of my subjects about another subject in the house? 92. Should I not close my eyes to many insignificant petty things? Should I not use tact and by my example bring it about that these failings and imperfections will vanish--al'though perhaps not totally? 93. How have I controlled the conversation at table? Was I alert always to see to it that it never became un-charitable or critical, especially regarding students? 94. Do I initiate conversation regarding worthwhile reading? 95. Do I give the required instruction time to the young religious? Do I conscientiously prepare these instructions? 96. Do I complain about fnoney? Am I overly anxious regarding finances? 97. What is my attitude toward the suggestions, deci-sions, or orders of extern superiors in the institution in which our community works? Fellow Religious 98. Do I as superior treat my subjedts as mature, dedi-cated persons? 99. Do I trust my fellow religious and have confidence in them and show them that I do by the way I treat them? 100. Do I correct all when only one needs the correc-tion? Do I not see that this causes much criticism and irritated discussion? 101. Do all the members of the community feel that they belong and are an important part of the whole? 102. Do I give my fellow religious encouragement and show them gratitude for the good work that they are doing? A pat on the back does not cost much but it means a great deal especially to those inclined to get discouraged at times. 103. Have I within the last month made it a point to 4. Local Superiors VOLUME 21, 1962 95 .÷ ÷ ÷ E. ]. Stokes, .S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 96 compliment or praise or show attention, at least in some small way, to each religious in my charge? 104. Has each of my subjects received some word of praise (not flattery) from me recently? 105. Do I encourage group discussions so that all the community can express themselves? Do I see that such discussions are well-prepared and stimulating? 106. Do I see to it that the rest of the community share,,i in the rich contributions that some of its members can give, those, for example, who have had special oppor-tunities for studies? 107. Do I seek to serve God by serving my fellow re-ligious always and everywhere? 108. Do I show concern for the trials and crosses of my fellow religious? 109. How often do I check and consider the welfare of ¯ each of my subjects--spiritual and physical? 110. Is understanding the essence of my charity? Do I try to put myself in the subject's place and realize his emotions, attitudes, and difficulties--or is my charity based solely on my own attitude and outlook on life? He might not always want done to him what I would want done to me. I must try to understand his viewpoint. 111. Is each religious an individual to me? 112. Do my fellow religious.feel wanted and valued by me? 113. Do my fellow religious find the quality of thought-fulness in me? 114. Do I make it a habit to direct my attention to each religious individually at least once during the day? 115. Have I tried to satisfy each one's basic need to be accepted, the need for belonging? 116. Have I made use of each one's talents (all of them), or do I level them down to an equal share from each? Do I, then, expect only three talents from one who has and can give ten talents? 117. Do I take too much ~or granted the conscientious and well-balanced religious who does not demand my at-tention? 118. Do I give each individual religious my undivided attention regardless of who he is and how often he may come to me in a given day? 119. Do I make a sincere effort to speak to each re-ligious some time each day? 120. Do I give a sufficient amount of time to those who need to talk over with me the question of students who may be a problem to them? This could be a problem of behavior or some method that would help teaching. If a teacher is weak in discipline, this is a good means of gently getting across the fact that the child is not always at fault. 121. How well uo I "listen" when religious come for permissions, advice, and such? With preoccupation? With patience? With haste or annoyance? And this especially at difficult times? Or am I gracious, patient, helpful, Christlike? Have I shown impatience with those who come to me with trifles? Which of them? Do I r~ally listen when a religious is telling me something---or am I finish-ing up this job or starting another? 122. Have I treated each religious the same behind his back as I have to his face? 123. Do I control my hurt when one of the religious tells lies about me to religious of our own house? 124. Can my subjects sway my will by flattery? 125. Do I afford my subjects the opportunity of sug-gesting spiritual reading books? 126. What have I done to encourage professional read-ing on the part of my subjects? Do I give them an ex-ample in this regard? Do I ever check,up on them on this point? 127. Do I seek to prepare my fellow religious for fu-ture responsible positions in the community? ÷ Local Superiors VOLUME 21, 1962 97 KATIE ROCK Restoration, with a Difference 4. + 4. Katie Rock lives at 200 Oak Street, Falls Church. Vir-ginia. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 98 Washington, D.C. is a city of contrasts. There are beau-tiful green expanses and there are dark, depressing alleys. There are massive monuments and tremendous buildingsl and there are rows and rows of shabby, run-down homes. Happily, there is city-wide slum-clearance consciousness; and already in some parts of town the monotonous rows are being converted into magnificent Town Houses with every modern feature. Restoration is taking place for many reasons, but unfortunately the power and profit motives seem the big reason. It is therefore refreshing to know that some are bringing their talents and inspiration to the restoration simply because they want to have part in "restoring all things to Christ." An assignment enhanced by my own curiosity took me to Foggy Bottom, the latest dilapidated section to be-come the site of intensive re-making. Situated only one.~ half mile from the White House, it is bounded roughly by Georgetown, George Washington University, the new State Department Building, and the Potomac River. This was my first visit to Foggy Bottom since it became "fash-ionable," and I was so fascinated as I walked down the narrow streets that I stopped to browse a bit. Gradually tiny broken-down row houses are being transformed into confortable city homes. Interesting colors, small but per.; fect gardens, unique combinations of contemporary and forsaken styling are attractive and appealing. Among the private homes there are apartment hotels arising. ¯ It was fun to speculate about the insides of these color., ful homes as I walked along the old brick sidewalks. Oc.; casionally a brass plate revealed an M.D. was occupant, or a navy captain, or a professor. A baby carriage in a tiny yard indicated there is new life in Foggy Bottom, too; When I arrived at my destination, the corner of H and 25th Streets, I stopped in wonder and admiration. Be-fore me was a turreted three-story structure of brick, painted a soft yellow with black trim which offsets awe-somely the octagon-shaped tower, dormer, and windows. There is a terrace in front, a landscaped yard, and I peeped onto a sheltered patio. A lacy black iron fence surrounds the property and a brass plate announces that this is the home of Melita god~ck,~A.I.A, g: Associates. I was welcomed inside by Melita, who introduced me to her assistant, Bernice, and after' being made to feel at home, I settled down to hear the story of a wonderful new venture into the new frontiers of our faith. Who is Melita? The decor and art work and religious atmosphere of this first floor indicate an unusual life. Melita was born in Milan, Italy, and educated at Vienna Polytechnic. She is a convert to Catholicism. Although she is an artist and sculptress, her professional experience and livelihood have mainly been centered On architec-ture. Twelve years were spent with other firms. Included in her work with those firms were high schools in Arling-ton, Virginia, and Rockville, Maryland, commercial buildings and a shopping center, a drive-in restaurant, hospitals.and the huge Medical Center of the National Institute of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and many government buildings ranging from a missile base to renovations of Post Offices. Since establishing her private firm about three years ago, Melita has designed the Queen Anne's Lane Town Houses in Foggy Bottom valued at :~1,000,000 (and which won for her a Goid Medallion award), many residences, the Consolata Missions Semi-nary in Buffalo, New York, the Ayles~ord Retreat Center in Chicago, and remodeling of churches in southern Mary-land. For the Government, among other projects, she modified a hangar at Andrews Air Force Base. There is another facet to Melita's background. Dur-ing the 1940's she worked for four years in the Harlem Friendship House, engaged in interracial work, apolo-getics, and the practice of the spiritual and corporal works of mercy. During this time she had rich experi-ences. She undertook a formal course in philosophy un-der Jacques Maritain. She learned the principles of social justice from the best of its exponents, Father John La- Farge, S.J., Baroness Catherine de Hueck Doherty, the Sheeds, and others. During these years, she developed a great love for liturgical music through the influence of other wonderful visitors to Friendship House, one of whom was Professor Dietrich von Hildebrand. More and more, as years went by, Melita!s ability in. architecture and her various artistic talents became an integrated venture. And the motivating force in her life was her religion. Her love of designing, composing, creat-ing, on the one hand, and her love of God and her fellow-man on the other were beginning to congeal into one idea. + + + Restoration VOLUME 21, 1962 99 ÷ ÷ Katie Rock REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS I00 In 1956, Melita took several months off from work to take a trip around the world, studying and observing the architecture of many lands and plans of other countries to meet the changes of modern life. Her first stop was Australia where she visited her brother, an engineer there. Then she visited the Philippines, Thailand, and India, observing certain unique and desirable aspects of Far Eastern architecture. From India she proceeded to the Holy Land, and this part of her journey provided a re-treat, as she put the world out of mind and became ab-sorbed in the life of our Lord. Her travels continued in Turkey, on to Italy where she lingered in Rome, then to Spain and France. In Germany she studied problems in-volved in regional planning for mining. Because of a serious interest in necessity for inter-diocesan planning, Melita was deeply interested in the episcopal planning bureau in Belgium, by which city churches and rural churches and schools are planned according to needs of city, suburban, or rural life. Here in Belgium, Melita observed the tremendous effect of "Young Christian Workers" in Catholic activity. The last stop was England, then home to sift and appraise the ideas and inspiration from her round-the-world journey. In 1958, Melita began her own firm, specializing in providing for her clients complete architectural, engi-neering, and planning service combined with interior decorating. The firm has the services of excellent consul-tants in engineering and financing. When the firm was first Organized, .Melita and Bernice lived and worked in the Potomac Plaza Apartments. One day a For Sale sign went up on a deserted, dilapidated dwelling across the street from the apartment. Curiosity and vision sent Me-lita on an inspection tour. The unusual lines and the lovely view of the Potomac from the third floor tower captured Melita's heart. And the creaky stairs, plaster-bare walls and cobwebs provided a challenge to Melita's pro-fessional ability. The house today seems to say it was joy as well as work that restored it to its immense liveability and unusual beauty. So much for Melita, the architect, for she is more than an artist and an architect. Melita has vision and percep-tion and appreciation for beauty not touched by human hands. Designing is not only a business with her but a God-given talent in which she expresses the love of God in her soul. Creative art, Melita told me, is the remedy man needs in this age of technology, assembly lines, and automation. These things, cold and impersonal, produce ragged nerves and tensions and strike at man's very soul, leaving him unmindful of the purpose for which his Crea-tor put him on earth. Into all forms of art--painting, poetry, music, and so forth---goes one's own personality, reflecting a personal relationship with the Heavenly Father. The closer to God man is, ~the truer his work, and the more he will choose a good and proper use of ma-terials. In the arts a man may find peace and contentment for he may use his.creativ.e ability' to transform his inner energy in a satisfying manner,~, ~, Happily, Melita sees her obligation to use her creative ability to promote a Christian society, a Christian com-munity life. Melita is taking the giant step of using her profession solely for the glory of God and for love of her neighbor with no profit except the profit of peace in her own heart. Others have done this; for example, Dr. Albert Schweitzer and Dr. Tom Dooley and Geo.rge Washington Carver. Her heart and will having been entrusted to God some time ago, Melita began sifting ideas about putting her philosophy into practice. Then ideas had to be translated into blueprints, and these blueprints needed and received approval from her auxiliary Bishop, Most Reverend Philip M. Hannan, chancellor of the archdiocese. Then came discussions with many wise and prudent friends: spiritual directors, teachers, fellow artists, other archi-tects, and even mothers of children who are awakening to the needs of our frustrated society. Far from relying solely on her own ideas, Melita sought and listened to ~he counsel of all. The result was a plan to begin a secular institute of the design professions to be called Regina Institute. A secular institute is an association of lay people living in the world but bound by the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, performing duties suitable for their talents for the love of God. Though popular and plentiful in Europe, secular institutes are just emerging in our coun-try. Their specific purposes vary widely. In Madonna House, for instance, workers live among the poor, teach-ing crafts and catechism, nursing the sick and feeding the hungry. In the Company of St. 'Paul, members teach, work in the Government, and so forth. This is a quiet life~ there is nothing in their dress to indicate they are an organization dedicated to Christ. Members simply strive to live as "Christs" among those needy in goods or in spirit. Regina Institute is taking another direction. First of all, Melita is concerned with the arts in the service of the Church's liturgy. She would like to assist in setting stand-ards for the quality of sacred art just as Benedictines have set a standard for sacred music. Second, she is endeavor-ing to bring the Incarnation into society by bringing Christian attitudes into the building professions and in-dustry and into city planning. The Christian philosophy of man and the social teachings of the Church are being Restoration VOLUME 21, 1962 ]0! Katie Ro~k REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 102 applied, thus supporting such contemporary projects as open occupancy, adequate housing, and so forth. Third, Melita and associates try to teach all of us the visual arts and their spiritual and cultural values. My visit showed me a great deal about the practice of these ideals and the life of this infant group. Melita and Bernice filled in a picture of a day in Regina House, tak-ing me on a tour of the house as they talked about their Rule. Recently Gwen moved in with Melita and Bernice. For the present they are living according to the Rule of the Third Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. Melita has served as novice mistress of the St. Therese Chapter in Washington for eleven years. The Rule seeks to instill in its followers the spirit of constant prayer and love. Early each morning the group leaves for St. Stephen's Church nearby for a halfihour.of.meditation before 7:30 Mass. Breakfast follows, then they recite in ~ommon Prime, Terce and Sext from the Little 01~ce. (On.nice days they do so on the patio which they call their "clois-ter.") At 9:00 work begins. Lunch is at 12:30, followed by None and Vespers, then free time. At 2:00 they go back to work until dinner. At 7:30 comes Compline, Matins, and Lauds, and after that there is recreation-- long walks in nice weather, singing or reading at other times. One day of each.month is spent in retreat. There are three floors in l~egina House. The first con-tains the dining area and kitchen opening onto the patio, Bernice's office, and a music area. Melita plays the piano, and there is also a stereo arid many fine records, including Gregorian chant and classical music. On the second floor, we entered a work and study spa.ce. I was fascinated with the dozens of books and their range of subjects, from the culture of the Far East to the philosophy of Frank Lloyd Wright. There are books in German and French and Spanish, books on philosophy, Catholic Action, and the liturgy, books on ancient architecture and books on mod-ern design. Attractive chairs and a lovely view are invit-ing. Melita's bedroom, also on this floor, shows all her separate interests united in her one endeavor. There are beautiful religious objects, side by side with a drawing board (she is currently working on a dental laboratory) and there were several sketches in process, both water colors and oils. On the third floor are more drawing boards. This floor also serves as a workshop for other projects. Bernice finds time to make beautiful cards by a linoleum process fea-turing Melita's impressionistic designs. Bernice has a talent for dress designing and sewing; also she does lovely ceramic tile work. I noticed several clay models of build-ings as well as wooden models; Melita explained these help her visualize her ideas. Certainly the first purpose'of this institute is sanctifi-cation of its members. Theystrive for a four-fold contact with Christ: Christ the Life, through prayer.and the sacra-ments; Christ the Truth, through study and meditation; Christ the Way, through i~bedience; and Christ the Worker, through creative human effort for love of God. Melita invites young people inclined towards the design arts, who would like to dedicate their service to God, to talk to her. Regina House is large enough to house several women. If men apply, perhaps a home close by will be found for them, while work and prayer will be centered in Regina House. The necessity for meals and housekeep-ing means the Institute must attract also "artists" of the kitchen and "masters" of the broom. In fact, Melita is ready to consider anyone who is willing to share her ideals and approach, and invites those interested to con-tact her at 801 25th St. N.W., Washington 7, D.C. So sold was I by my visit that I was ready to apply-- but Melita just won't take a mother of eight growing children. Reluctantly I said "good-bye" and went out the big black door and the lacy iron gate. I looked back with new appreciation at Regina House which today so sur-passes in beauty and liveability its original design. From the ordinary it has become majestic. I left, believing that Melita's plan for it also far surpasses the ordinary Chris-tian way of living and that its tower truly points to Heaven and its eternal history is just beginning. ÷ ÷ ÷ Restoration VOLUME 21, 1962 103 WALTER DE BONT, O.P. Identity Crisis and the Male Novice Walter de Bont, O.P., is a member of the faculty o! the Catholic University in Nijmegen, Hol-land. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 104 Beginners' Failings Father Lacordaire,1 the day after his entry into the novitiate, confided to the master of novices: "Father, I can't stay here; these young men are childish and quite silly. They think everything is funny," "It would be a shame," the priest answered, "if the former preacher of Notre Dame of Paris should, by a hasty departure, give the world the impression that his entrance into religion had not been thoroughly consid-ered. Wait a while, then." Three weeks later the master of novices asked him, "When are you leaving?" "But I do not wish to go, so long as you are willing to keep me." "But what of your young companions who are so silly?" "Father," said Lacordaire, a little embarrassed, "I am the silliest of them all." In all the novitiates of the world since the beginning of monasticism there h~tve been young men, and some not so young, who were "a little silly." No matter how more or less normal they were a few weeks.previously, before they had left "the world," here they become affected by a whole series of strange phenomena which spiritual authors call "beginners' failings" (see especially St. John of the Cross, Dark Night, 1, 1-7). Using the material furnished by the experiment described below, the following section will give a rapid and pseudonymous portrait of certain "types" who betray the curious behavior encountered among be-ginners. *This article is translated with permission from the original article, "La crise d'identit~ du novice," which appeared in Suppld-ment de la Vie Spirituelle, 1961, pp. 295-325. The translation is by the Reverend John E. Becket, S.J. Passing Vagaries Brother Clement suddenly develops a phobia for drafts; underground currents beneath his bed keep him from sleeping; he wonders whether the spinach from the garden has enough iron to supply his needs; the light bulb on his work table endangers his eyes; and so on. No one has de-scribed more humorously than St. Teresa of Avila this kind of hypochondriac novice who seems "to have entered the cloister solely to labor at staving off death." She her-self, for that matter, knew this temptation of seeking "not to lose one's repose here below and still to enjoy God in heaven." John is a real gourmet--in search of spiritual delicacies. All his efforts are aimed at getting the satisfaction of a very sensible devotion from' prayer; In his :better moments he feels inundated with grace and spends hours in the chapel. When consolation no longer comes to him, he is desolate and lamentsin the blackest sorrow. At such times he passes the time of meditation breaking in books. Guy fears to embark on the road to perfection, excusing himself as one who was not meant to accomplish great things. He even thanks God for not making him too in-telligent. Comparing himseff with others, he has already lost all courage. Some suffer from quite peculiar sexual problems. At the very moment of prayer, confession, or communion, sexual feelings and reactions surge up. Cassian has already spoken of a brother "who enjoyed constant purity of heart and body, having merited it by reason of his circumspection and humility, and who was never afflicted with nocturnal emissions. But whenever he prepared for communion, he was sullied by an impure flow in his sleep. For a long time fear kept him from participating in the sacred mys-teries" (ConIerences, 22, 6). And then there are the pilgrims of ,the absolute with pure and perfect ideals. They are so punctual in their ex-ercises that you can set your watch by them; but they easily forget that the rule is merely a means to love God and their neighbor better. Burning with enthusiasm, they seem to have sanctity within their grasp. Lacking patience, they try to force the ascent toward God with Draconian measures. The novitiate is the decisive year in which holi-ness must be achieved. For them profession is a final set-tlement and not a decisive beginning. Or else there are the grim ascetics. In his enthusiasm for purity, Henry Suso did not scratch, nor even touch, any part of his body. Throughout the day he abstained from all drink. In the evening at the sprinkling with holy water, he opened his dry lips and gaped toward the 'sprinkler, hoping that a tiny drop of water would fall on his arid 4. + + Identity Crisis VOLUME 21, 1962 ]05 4. W. de Bont, OJL REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 106 tongue. At the age of forty, luckily, when "his whole na-ture was so devastated that nothing was left for him but to die or leave off his austerities," he opted for life and threw his whole arsenal of instruments of penance into the lake. For most of these novitiate "follies" are only temporary. Sooner or later good sense reasserts its rights, and the spiritual life of the subject becomes more balanced. St. Teresa had already clearly sensed that this bizarre conduct of the novice-beginner was somewhat forced and not genuine: Anything which gets the better of us to such an extent that we think our reason is not free must be considered suspicious, for in that way we shall never gain freedom of spirit, one of the marks of which is that we can find God in all things even while we are thinking of them. Anything other than this is spiritual bondage, and, apart from the harm which it does to the body, it constrains the soul and retards its growth (Book of the Foun-dations, Chapter 6, from The Complete Works ot Saint Teresa oI Jesus, translated and edited by E. Allison Peers, Volume III, p. 32 [London and New York: Sheed and Ward, 1946]). If "our reason is not [completely] free," then we are not fully on the plane of moral defects, but partially on that of psychic determinisms. And it is precisely the psychic aspect of these, phenomena that we propose to study in this article which has no other aim than to throw some light by the help of modern depth psychology on this strange being whom the masters of the spiritual life have been ob-serving for centuries, the beginner par excellence, the novice, and on his imperfections. The perspective of this article must, then, be clearly emphasized. This is not a work of spiritual theology. The theologian contemplates the events of the novitiate with the eyes of faith; he sees there the hand of God and the conflict between grace and sin. The perspective of this article is much more modest; it is, to put it simply, psychological. Without in any way denying the workings of grace, we shall systematically ab-stract from them; for the designs of God and the ways of grace are not apprehended by the purely human ways of kno~ving which alone are at the disposal of the psychol-ogist. While leaving aside the supernatural aspect of the growth of the novice, we are bound to point out that this aspect tias been amply clarified by the masters of spiritual theology from Cassian and St. Benedict to St. John of the Cross and contemporary authors. Working Hypothesis and Methodology To initiate the psychological study of the novice and of his "imperfections," we took as "subjects" twenty-eight male novices belonging to two quite different communi-ties. We asked for volunteers only, but in each novitiate everyone volunteered. The age of our subjects varied from eighteen to twenty-two years. The level of their previous instruction was for the most part uniform, and they were about equally divided between those, from rural and those from urban backgrounds. The experiment was made dur-ing the fourth month of the/novitiate. i~ A double series of tools was used, since our aim was to clarify certain problems of the spiritual life. of the sub-jects by a study of their personality in the course of evolu-tion. a) For the study of personality, projection tests were used, especially the Rorschach and the Thematic Apper-ception Test (T.A.T.), since these two tests are universally recognized as highly useful for this purpose. The admin-istration of the Rorschach was preceded by the drawing of a human figure, so that the subject might implicitly per-ceive that a creative effort was expected of him. b) For the study of their spiritual life, the novices were asked to write a four-page essay entitled "The Ideal and the Difficulties of My Spiritual Life." c) To complete our information from the character-ological as well as the spiritual side, we conducted inter-views of about an hour with each subject, his master of novices, and the assistant to the master of novices. It was striking, especially in going over the Rorschach protocols, to see the number of signs of anxiety, of ten-sion, and of disintegration. Equally striking, however, were the efforts at synthesis. Given the age. and the situa-tion of our subjects, this called to mind the psychological situation described by Erik Erikson under the name of "identity crisis" (see Erik Erikson, "The Problem of Ego Identity" in Identity and the Lqe Cycle, volume one of "Psychological Issues" [New York: International Univer-sities Press, 1959]). As a matter of fact, the novice is a young adult, around eighteen to twenty years of age. As others become doctors, engineers, and fathers of families, he, at the end of his adolescence, chose in a more or less definitive way the role he wanted to play in adult society: that of religious or priest. This role is the result and syn-thesis of his entire previous development. In this connec-tion, Erikson uses the word "identity" because in this role the young man ought to be able to accomplish the best he is capable of while at the same time promoting the aims of society. The novitiate is his first serious testing of this role; he is vested in the religious habit and he follows the rules of his community as they are adapted for re-cruits. What does this identity of pries.t-religious become in the novitiate? Is the young man able to realize it here in the way in which he dreamed of doing? Does the com-munity he has chosen respect this identity? If these ques-tions receive a more or less negative answer, .a crisis oc- VOLUME 21, 1962 curs, an identity crisis because it is the novice's identity that is brought into question. As with every crisis it is manifested by certain symptoms; and one may assume that the imperfections of beginners are precisely the signs of this crisis on the religious plane. Our hypothesis then is this: The novitiate induces in the young religious a crisis about his identity, about the role he wishes to play in life, a role which is the end prod-uct of all his previous development; this crisis comes from the fact that this role is threatened by the novitiate; and the imperfections of beginners are the symptoms of this crisis. In order to understand this hypothesis better, a more ample presentation must be made of Erikson's notion of identity. This will be done in several of the following sec~ tions. ÷ ÷ ÷ W. de Bwnt, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 108 Identity, Synthesis of the Personality During adolescence all the impulses of earlier life re-appear accompanied by a strong genital drive. It is the characteristic work of the male adolescent to subordinate this chaos of impulses under genitality and find them their proper object, a girl. But this adjustment of one's infan-tile heritage to one's new acquisitions does not confine itself solely to the level of impulsive life; it equally con-cerns the other functions of the personality, the ego and the superego and their identifications. For the young man. must subordinate his previous identifications to a new kind of identification, an ultimate identity learned in so-cial contacts and competitive apprenticeship with his equals. These new identifications no longer have the ca-priciousness of infancy or the experimental fervor o youth; with extreme urgency they impel the young indio. vidual toward choices and decisions which progressively conduct him to a final definition of himself, to an irrev-ocable configuration of rol~s, and then to lifelong com-mitments. The normal adolescent performs this reintegration him. self, using spontaneously chosen adults and older adbles-cents as his models. But the age at which this synthesis is completed varies considerably. The more complicated a civilization is, the longer it takes its members to integrate their personality and find their place in society. At the bee ginning of our era people were married at Sixteen, a thing that rarely happens today. Suso entered the novitiate ar thirteen, whereas nowadays even canon law considers thi.~ too early. Moreover it would seem that workers or farm people come to adulthood before members of the profes. sional classes who have more to integrate and spend a longer time in training. Finally, the presence of acute conflicts can make this integration even more difficult and slow. At the worst, they may even render such integration impossible and the subject becomes neurotic or psychotic. Identity, a Psychosocial Reality This ultimate identity of which we have been speaking is unique for each individual because no two ,develop in identically the same way. '~Id~e'~,er, it is fa~'~O~ being individualistic. A person becomes himself only in a given society and in order to live in that society according to that identity. Ideally, identity implies that one is most oneself when one is most in relation with others and that our personal values and ideals coincide for the most part with those of the environment which is accepted by the person and in which he feels himself accepted. It is of ex-treme importance for the formation of the identity of the young man that society respond to him and that he receive a function and a status which integrates him into the community. In order to take his place in society the young man must acquire the skillful use of his principal ability and fulfill it in some activity. He should enjoy the exercise of this activity, .the companionship which it furnishes, and its traditions. Finally he must receive a setof teachings which allow him to see the meaning of life: religion, philosophy, or some ideology. Speaking psychosocially, the'h, identity is the role, integrated into the character, which the indi-vidual wishes to play in society and for which he expects the approbation of society in order to give meaning to his life. After the psychosexual delay of the period of latency there must, in consequence, be another delay, adolescence, so that the already sexually adult young man may, by freely experiencing different roles, find himself a place in some section of society, a place which in its definiteness seems made uniquely for him. The Genesis o[ Identity Identity must not be confused with identification. The simple addition of infantile identifications (the child act-ing like his parents, his brothers, his uncles, his teachers, his friends.) never results in a functioning personality. These identifications are too disparate and too contra-dictory; they are, moreover, often far from being socially acceptable or realistic, since the child's imagination dis-torts the image of his. parents or other models to suit his own needs. The final identity which emerges in the course of adolescence and which at the end of its development is largely fixed, is rather a new configuration which includes all previous usable identifications while transcending them all. They are transformed to make a whole which is unique and reasonably coherent. This new configuration ought to be achieved in such a way that in it the physical 4. VOLUME 21, 1962 ]~9 ÷ ÷ W. d~ Bont, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS constitution of the young man, his affective needs, his best liked capacities, his effective defense mechanisms, and his successful sublimations find their rightful use. The formation of personal identity, then, has its roots in the most distant past of the individual, a past often lost in the clouds of the unconscious. It begins with the first introjections and projections of the baby whose relative integration depends on a mutually satisfying relationship between the child and his mother. For it is she who must give him that basic trust in himself and in others which is at the foundation of any process of becoming social. Then follow the different identifications of childhood which will be the more successful according as.their proto-types show themselves to be both loving and firm. The last step of the formation of the ultimate identity begins when the usefulness of identifications is over. It consists of the repudiation of some infantile identifications and an absorptive assimilation of others of them into a new configuration, which in its turn depends on the proc-ess by which a society (or the subgroups of a society) "identify" the young man by recognizing him as someone who ought to have turned out as he did and who is ac-cepted as he is. Society in its turn feels "recognized" by the individual who demands to be accepted, or profoundly and aggressively rejected by the individual who seems un-interested in any social integration. Identity manifests itself, then, in the role which the young man is going to play in society. Identity Crisis When the young man, emerging from.adolescence with his newly acquired identity, does not find in society the place he needs in order to continue to be what he has been and to develop still more, he runs the risk of a crisis. His ambitions may be too vast, society too different from his ideal; certain aspects of his identity may be poorly de-veloped in relation to what is demanded by the customs of his milieu from the viewpoint of sex, occupation, or in the area of academic or athletic competition. This constitutes a failure, at least a partial and provisional one. The at-tempt to enter into a relationship with society will piti-lessly reveal any weakness up to now latent in his identity. There results a state of confusion with the following symp-toms: a feeling of isolation, a breakdown of the feeling of personal continuity, shame, inability to enjoy any ac-tivity, a sense of enduring life rather than of actively living it, a distorted perspective of time, and finally, an extreme mistrust of others as if society were in opposition to what the subject wants to be. But no matter how many neurotic or psychotic symp-toms may be discovered, an identity crisis is not a sickness. Rather, it is a normal crisis, that is, a normal phase of sharp conflict characterized by an apparent wavering in the strength of the ego, but also by great possibilities for growth. Neurotic and psychotic crises are characterized by a tendency to perpetuate themselves because o~ a loss of defensive energy and ~i deep social isolation.~ A'grOWth crisis, on the contrary, is relatively more easy to overcome and is characterized by an abundance of utilizab!e energy. This energy, doubtless, causes the reawakening of dormant anxieties and engenders new conflicts; but it supports the ego in the functions it has newly acqtiired or developed during the search for new opportunities or for, new rela-tions which society is more than ever ready to offer. What appeared as the .onset of a neurosis is often only a quite acute crisis which dissipates itself and helps more than it harms the formation of the subject's identity. Some cases, however, reach a less fortunate outcome: derangement, suicide, or a confirmed case of nerves. We have already briefly mentioned the characteristic symptoms of the identity crisis, now it will be worthwhile to give a more ample description of them by contrasting them with the dimensions of an ultimate identity success-fully achieved. The Dimensions of Identity and Its Crisis At each stage of man's psychosocial, development cer-tain criteria allow us to see whether the individual has passed through this phase successfully or whether he has failed. So it is with the baby's crisis of trust (in the oral stage of development); with the crisis of autonomy at the age of two (during the anal phase); with the crisis of in-itiative around the age of five years (the age of the Oedipus complex); with the assimilation of work during the time of schooling; the crises brought about by marriage and the birth of children; and the problems posed by maturity and old age. What interests us here are the criteria which let us evaluate the identity crisis in the passage from puberty to adulthood. Erikson gives eight criteria which show whether the young man has succeeded in building up for himself in accordance with his possibilities an ultimate identity which is both balanced and accepted by his environment, or whether he remains at grips with an outgrown identity which is deficient and replete with conflicts. As has just been said, each growth crisis reawakens sleeping anxieties, the relics of old battles in former crises which were buried but not done away with. In the identity crisis certain con-flicts of preceding stages of psychosocial development are reawakened. This reawakening evidently does not bring these conflicts forward under the shape which they had when the subject was still a baby or a small child, but in a Identity Crisis VOLUME 21, 1962 ÷ ÷ W. d~ Bont, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS way that is colored by his current development. The first four dimensions of the identity crisis mentioned by Erik. son are reawakenings of former crises which, as we have mentioned, have to do with trust in o~hers and in oneself, personal autonomy from others, the ability to take the ini.~ tiatives by which one becomes "someone," and the ability to do one's work well. But the young man is not formed by his past alone; he is also stretching towards the future; The last three dimensions of the identity crisis are then foretastes of the problems which he will have to resolve later on in his life when he marries, when he becomes a fafher, or when he .reckons up the balance of his whoh: life. ¯ Here then are the eight criteria or dimensions of the identity crisis: a) Presence. or absence of a perspective in life. The young man in the grips of an identity crisis manifests a confused attitude toward time which may be more or less grave according to the case. He sees no prospects for him-self in life. Since his identity is not well defined and he is fully confused with regard to his place in society, his con-fidence in the future is completely overturned. He is in despair, even if this shows up as a headlong precipitancy with which he tries to reach his goal, like the student who, for an elementary examination in biology, studies only the most advanced articles. This is a derivative revival of the impatience found in the child who has not yet realized that all human activity realizes itself only gradually in obedience to the progressive nature of time rather than all at once as if by magic. When the young man resolves his crisis and begins 'to become himself, when he synthesizes the different aspects of his character and finds his place in society, this co:a-fused attitude toward the temporal element of his life is changed into a rich diversity of prospects; at the same time he becomes open to the temporal dimension as indispen-sable for every building up of his personality. Moreover, through the temporal dimension of the ideology which it offers him, society can help the young man to rediscover the feeling that his past and his future have a meaning. Most religions, philosophies, or political doctrines teach that there is a meaning and a direction to life. Even though such an ideology may not be altogether realistic and may represent a certain simplification of the order of things, still, in such a situation its pedagogical usefulness is real. b) Self-certainty or self-consciousness. The young man going through an identity crisis is characterized next by insecurity, by a doubting of himself accompanied by shame at what he is or has been. What reappear are the social characteristics of the anal stage. Once he has regained at a higher level the balance which he had achieved before, the new sense of his own meaning gives him the necessary assurance to face life and to assume his chosen role in society. Here again, in the recovery of assurance, social surroundings can be a powerful aid by the uniformity of conduct, arid ,sometimes of~:clbthing, which they impose, often without even demanding them by an explicit code. With the help of this uniformity, the young man, though in a state of confusion, may tempo-rarily hide his shame and his doubts until his identity is sufficiently reestablished. c) Free experimentation with roles or its absence. The healthy young man's entrance into adult society is char-acterized by the provisional adoption of a great variety of roles and initiatives, each of which is tested by a process of trial and error in order to .decide which is better for him so that he may make a final choice which will determine the principal content of his adult life. This is a prolonga-tion of the child play of the Oedipal age in which the child sought to overcome anxiety by his identifications; the child of four who plays at driving a bus attains, in this way, at least in his imagination, equality with the adults he fears, especially his parents (the castration complex of classical psychoanalysis). But in certain cases, especially if adoles-cence is unduly prolonged, the opposite of this free ex-pe. rimentation with roles is found. To characterize this other extreme, Erikson speaks of negative identity, that is, "an identity perversely based on all those identifications and roles which, at critical stages of development, had been presented to the individual as most undesirable or dangerous, and yet also as most real" ("The Problem of Ego Identity," op. cit., p. 131). The 'young man whose mother is always saying, "If you act that wa~ you will turn out like your uncle [a drunkard]" can end up precisely that; he identifies himself with what is forbidden because it is more real for him than the positive ideal which' his mother never spoke of with such eloquence. According to some recent research (that of Adelaide Johnson and her staff) juvenile delinquency (in the area of aggressivity)and perversion (in the sexual area) are frequently the result of such largely negative education. But there are still other ways to renounce a free experimentation with roles; for example, the renouncement of personal identity in an ex-treme conformism which tries to root out everything which goes against even the excessive demands of the en-vironment. Here again the different segments of society offer the young man initiations or confirmations which are apt to encourage the spirit o[ initiative while channeling it and allaying the reawakening of Oedipal guilt. "They strive, within an atmosphere of mythical timelessness, to com- . 4- 4- 4- VOLUME 21, 1962 113 ÷ ÷ ÷ W. ~e Bo~t, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS bine some. form of sacrifice or submission with an energetic guidance toward sanctioned and circumscribed ways of action--a combination which assures the development in the novice of an optimum of compliance with a maximum sense of fellowship and free choice" ("The Problem of Ego Identity," op. cit., p. 144). d) Anticipation of achievement or work paralysis. The next characteristic of the adolescent who is initiating him-self into society is the anticipation of success. He feels able to accomplish something, to fulfill his function in the. community in such a way that the other members will re-pay him by their esteem. This is a prolongation of the ap-plication to school work during the period of latency. When things go poorly, the subject, instead of feeling him-self able to assume his role, is paralysed in the work he is doing either because his ambitions are too vast or because his environment has no place for his special capacities or does not give him the recognition he hopes for. Or he risks everything to gain everything and throws himself." prematurely into an intellectual or social activity which is extravagant and rigid and which may in the end com. pletely destroy his personal happiness, if not his physical existence: At the root of ~ill these forms of work pathology we find, according to Erikson, a reawakening of Oedipal competition and of the rivalry with his brothers or sisters. The different segments of society help those who are the process of learning and of trying out their social role by offering them .a certain provisional status, that of ap-prentice or student--with all that these imply of duties, competition, freedom, and also of potential integration into the hierarchy of jobs and of classes, as in associations for young adults (for example, political parties have their sections for youth which act ~s an initiation into adult life). e) Identity or confusion. The most general character-istic of the young man who has not yet achieved interior and social balance is confusion. This is the global result of all the imbalances set up by the reawakening of old conflicts and of all the confused attitudes which come from the fact that the ~oung man is still unable to take his place in the community of adults. A multiplicity of contradic-tory roles results. Two souls come to exist in one body, as the hermit and the power mad man did in Francisco Jimfinez de Cisneros (Le Cardinal d'Espagne), or ~2z~chiely and Tenebroso-Cavernoso in Father Joseph, the grey emi-nence, "combining in his own person the oddly assorted characters of Metternich and Savonarola" (Aldous Huxley, Grey Eminence [New York and London: Harper, 1941], p. 128). Nevertheless, when the conflict has been crystal-lized, that is, become irreversible, we no longer speak of an identity crisis or of confusion, but of neurosis (sympto- matic or characterological) and of psychosis in which the 'T' has become someone else in the complete collapse of the sense of oneself, as in the case of the novice who, having divested himself in choir, appeared on the altar before the community piously assembled for a ho.ly hour and said, "I am the Immaculate C6nceptiofi."'~ The opposite of this confusion, which emerges in a more or less definitive way at the end of a successful ado-lescente, is identity. It is the feeling of having integrated into one's person all the valuable elements of one's child-hood heritage in order to give oneself with all one's forces .to love, to work, and to the social commitments, of adult life. We need not develop this sinc~ it has already been treated in previous sections of this article. f) Sexual identity or bisexual.conIusion. We come now to the ch~aracteristics of the identity crisis which are not derived from old, preadolescent' conflicts reawakened by physical maturation, but which are rather the precursors of conflicts which will find their climax and their.resolu-tion later in the ages of preadulthood, adulthood, or ma-turity, The proper task of the preadult period is intimacy, es-pecially sexual intimacy, with a partner. According to Erikson the "utopia of genitality" ought to include: mu-tual orgasm with a loved partner of the opposite sex with whom one is willing and able to share mutual responsibil-ity and with whom one is willing and able to adjust the cycles of work, procreation, and recreation in such a way as to assure their offspring a similar satisfactory develop-ment. As for the celibate, "a human being should be po-tentially able to accomplish mutuality of genital orgasm, but he should also be so constituted as to bear frustration in the matter without undue regression wherever consider-ations of reality and loyalty call for it" (Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society [New York: Norton, 1950], p. 230). Whoever fails at this stage becomes an isolated personality. In the identity crisis the precursors of these extremes are seen. The one who will later succeed in entering into a true intimacy with another is the one who succeeds in integrating into his personality the true characteristics of his sex, who sees himself both consciously and uncon-sciously as pertaining to his sex, and not more or less to the other sex. In those periods when the personality is less structured, and especially in irreversible pathological cases, there is a clear incapacity to assume the role proper to one's sex, a confusion of masculine and feminine traits which exceeds the relative confusion which' is normal at the beginning of adolescence. Intimacy presupposes, therefore, a sense of one's iden-tity, a capacity to be oneself on the sexual level as on other levels: "The condition of a true twoness is that one must ÷ ÷ VOLUME 21, 1962 115' 4. 4. 4. W. de Bont, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS first become onself" (Erik Erikson, "Growth and Crises of ~he 'Healthy Personality' " in Personality in Nature, So-ciety, and Cultizre, C. Kluckhohn and H. Murray, eds. [New York: Knopf, 1956], p. 222). Anyone who has .not achieved his own identity can not have intimate relations with another. He will take refuge in a sterile isolation for fear of losing himself completely; or else he will turn him-self over to another body and soul borrowing the identity of the other to fill up his own void, in this way vainly seeking to resolve an identification which was not success- [ul in childhood. Different societies have very different means of helping through these difficulties the young man who is already physiologically, though not socially, adult: by demanding complete sexual continence; or by permitting sexual ac-tivities which do not lead to definitive social engagements; or by stimulating sexual play without intercourse (pet-ting). The purpose of this prop is to stimulate and to strengthen the ego and its identity. g) Authority: orientation or conIusion. The adulthood of a truly healthy man ought to be characterized by pro-. creativeness; this means assuming responsibility for' the. next generation by parenthood or by other forms of al-truism and creativity. A failure along this line means that' one is absorbed in his own problems instead of placing his energy at the service of others. This is a victory for narcissism: "Individuals who do not develop generativity often begin to indulge themselves as if they were their own one and only child" (Erikson, "Growth and Crisis of the 'H~althy Personality,' " op. cir., p. 223). What forecasts this approaching procreativeness in the young man is the ability to be either a leader or a follower according to circumstances. The attitude of the subject {n everything that conc(rns authority (exercising it or obey., ing it) is realistic. Any future failure of procreativity be-trays itself in the inability to lead or to follow when one of these two relationships is required. It is especially in sub-groups of his.companionsthat society gives the adolescent the opportunity to try out this strength in the area of aw thority. h) Ideological orientation or conIusion o] ideals. When he has arrived at maturity, the normal man has the sense of having completed his task as far as possible. He accepts responsibility for what he has made of his life and of his personal abilities. Having helped others to become them-selves, he can now pass on this responsibility to the next generation and withdraw from the scene. The man, on the contrary, who has not realized his potentialities for the service of others will experience despair and disgust with himself. He would like to begin his life over but realises that it is too late. His life is a failure whether he admits it to himself or hides it by projecting the blame onto others. This was the case with Father Joseph, that "grey emi-nence" whose double identity was mentioned above. At the end of his life, he felt the bitterness and frustration of a man who has seen God, but who, through his own fault, has lost Him in the attempt t6i'ser~ two mastersJ~loser to us, we have the story of, Sister Luke' and of all those who leave their communities around the age of forty. These two possible attitudes which can emerge at the crisis of maturity are foreshadowed with the'young man by an ideological orientation, "a choice among many val-ues of those which demand our allegiance"; or on the con-trary, by a chaos of ideals without connection or sy.nthe-sis. Society helps the young man here by proposing a variety of ideologies each of which may be useful to him in proportion to its internal consistency. The above paragraphs are a brief presentation of the eight criteria which, according to Erikson, show whether and how the young man succeeds in constructing an iden-tity of his own. If in one or other of the eight areas listed he does not succeed in extricating himself from the confu-sion engendered by this indispensable maturation of his personal identity, he risks becoming the victim of a more or less profound psychic derangement, which may assume the shape of one of the classical forms so thoroughly stud-ied by clinical psychology: symptomatic neurosis, charac-ter neurosis, delinquency, psychosis, and so on. In spite of the interest there might be in studying these personality troubles as functions of the eight dimensions enunciated by Erikson, it is more to our purpose to apply the light of what has been said about the identity crisis of the young man to a study of the problem of the novice, of his quest for identity, and of the crises which this quest may involve. Identity Crisis in the Novitiate The young man who arrives at the door of the novitiate already possesses a certain identity which is more or less well-founded. It shows itself in the choice he has made: to become a celibate instead of marrying; instead of becom-ing a doctor, engineer, or grocer, he aspires to a function in the Church. Moreover, he has chosen this particular community rather than some other. All these factors (cel-ibacy, priesthood, community) are so many aspects of the role which he wishes to play in life. Vaguely he sees him-self in the future as such and such a person, with a more or less specific function, whether it be that of preacher, pro-fessor, pastor, or diplomat attached to a nunciature. This role is the end product of the candidate's total past life, the synthesis of his previous psychic development, But after four months of ttie novitiate (the stage at which the novices who were the subject of our experiment had arrived), the ÷ ÷ ÷ Identity Crisis VOLUME 21, 1962 W. d~ Bont~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS great majority o[ novices are plunged into a more or less pronounced Crisis o[ identity. Signs oI the Crisis In the tests a considerable number of confusion symp-toms were.found, many more than in a group of students of the same age and background who were beginning their studies at a university. We cannot enter here into the more minute d~tails of these symptoms because of their too tech-nical nature; nevertheless, the following should at least be mentioned: a) The universal presence of a considerable anxiety. Anxiety is always an experience of the disintegration of the sell when old conflicts renew their attack. b) Equally striking was the great number of poor in-terpretations in the Rorschach, although they ought not to appear in a normal protocol. Even by using the Ameri-can scoring system of.Klopfer who tends to diminish their number, twenty-two out of twenty-eight novices gave them. This indicates a certain loss of contact with reality which is experienced as too hard, a retreat into phantasy which accompanies the identity crisis. c) Almost all the novices suffered from bisexual con-fusion with a reemergence of feminine traits. This was not manifested in overt sexual responses (except in two cases),, for the novitiate for the most part suppresses overt manifestations of sexuality. But it was visible, for example, in the defective sexual identifications given to the human figures on the Rorschach.cards and those of the T.A.T. (sixteen novices out of twenty-eight). d) Besides, seventeen out of twenty-eight subjects had a deficient image of their own body, according to their drawing of a human figure. This should not be surprising, for the image (more or less unconscious) we have of our own body is a visualisation of our identity. It is very sen-sitive to the influences of the environment; for example, to the interpretative power of clothing. The substitution of the religious garb, a skirt, for lay dress (masculine) has, from this point of view, a profound effect on one's sense of one's identity. "We identify ourselves with others by means of clothes. We become like them. By imitating their clothes we change our postural image of the body by taking over the postural image of others. Clothes can thu:; become a means of changing our body-image completely" (Paul Schilder, The Image and Appearance ol the Human Body [New York: International Universities Press, 1950], p. 204). The great number of deficient images of the body means that our subjects were in a siate of transition between their former identity (the "old man") and their new one. At the level of conscious behavior the crisis betrays it- self in all kinds of sentimental, per~ectionistic, depressive or even mildly paranoid traits. Brother Claude feels sad-dened by the November weather; another is not at ease working with the lay brothers in the garden; Robert thinks that his companions have something~against him when his prayer is not going well; Josephofeels depressed because he may not go out; and the imagination of John-Paul takes refuge in the past. As' for authority, almost all had a poorly balanced attitude, falling either into an exaggerated sub-missiveness or into revolt, or ifito indiscreet exercise of their own authority. Examples of these will be given later. The majority of the novices, then, manifested the two dimensions of the identity crisis which are at the heart of the religious life, for they relate to the vows of chastity and obedience: bisexual confusion and confusion with re-gard to authority. Catalysts of the Crisis The causes of the identity crisis can be summarized in this way: There is crisis, confusion, and disintegration be-cause the novitiate calls into question the initial identity with which the young man came to the novitiate. a) The young man already had a certain role in life before his entrance into the novitiate; he was president of his class, a member of Catholic Action, a well-known foot-ball player. He had a status in his environment, and be-cause of it he enjoyed the esteem of others. Entrance into the novitiate puts an end to all this. He changes his envir-onment and he must remake his reputation. Former modes of satisfaction no longer exist. A whole network of rela-tionships is broken; and it was precisely within this net-work that he found his own place, that he had realized, provisionally but really, his identity. All this he has to do over again. The impossibility of living out his identity in the old way almost inevitably causes a disintegration. The aspirations of the subject and almost their entire psychic substructure remain in suspension until they can be replaced by others or be reaffirmed. Before his novitiate Claude was in love with a some-what maternal girl who was a great help to him in his dif-ficulties. She forced him to become open, although in his own words he had tried to kill his sensitivity. She made an opening in his armor; he could communicate his ideal instead of pursuing it all alone. Separation from her at his entrance into the novitiate was difficult for him. His mem-ories of tenderness keep him alternating between melan-choly and aggressiveness. Arthur, the son of a farmer, is a young man whose strong ambition was enough to assure his success in stud-ies at the rural high school he attended, though from time to time he got on the nerves of his companions. In the ÷ ÷ VOLUME 21, 1962 ll9 novitiate he is more or less forgotten, for the smarter city boys leave him in the shadows. They take in with ease and naturalness everything that he had to fight hard for with an unremitting labor which had in turn cut him off from his modest origins. He can no longer play the role into which he had thrown all his energy. He has lost his place in society. He becomes depressed, grows still more ambi-tious in doing the Work of the novitiate, and becomes over sensitive to the least remarks of others. As for John-Paul, the role he wishes to play in life can be adequately summed up as that of an important priest, very esteemed by his people. Already at college he had to be first in the class to get admiration; and later, feeling himself crowded too closely by the other students, he plunged himself into extracurricular activities for the same reason. But the novitiate, the first step toward the realization of his identity as a priest, becomes a place of frustration and crisis. There he is far from college where he played a role of the highest rank and equally far from a friend whose affection gave him a sense of personal value. Here no one knows him. Hence his homesickness. During meditation he thinks of his friend, of past times, especially of those scenes in which he played an eminent role; or else he thinks of the future, he sees himself in the pulpit as a preacher. Evidently John-Paul is hypersensitive to the impression which he makes on the other novices; for example, in his reading at table. He takes great care with his hair, gives it a real coiffure, and contemplates himself in the mirror. b) Entry into the novitiate not only deprives the sub-ject of a part of his previous identity, but the community also wishes to change the candidate who comes to it in order to make him into a man who bears the community'.~ image and likeness; in other words, a religious with the spirit of his order. It is far from accepting the candidate as he is. The community has quite fixed ideas about what its members ought to become. Certain aspects of the nov-ice's previous identity, therefore, are necessarily destined for elimination while others must be developed to a more considerable degree. This is a changing of habits with its intellectual accompaniment--indoctrination. The conditions necessary for all indoctrination are (see Erikson, Young Man Luther [New York: Norton, 1958], p. 134): Isolation from the exterior world: family, friends, the old environment. Restriction of the sources of sensory stimulation and an immense value-increase in the power of words. The elimination of all private life, emphasis being placed on common life. Common devotion to the leaders who constitute and represent the community. The novitiate is a closed society; no influence is toler-ated there which would compromise the work of reforma-tion and indoctrination. Consequently no girls, no going out, no radio and television,.rio~,p6cket moridy~V~i~y~ ~ew visits. As for papers and magazines, only the more pious and serious ones will be allowed, In order to occupy the mind of the novice now emptied of worldly concerns, it is filled with spiritual teaching. So that he may be put on. the right road, the candidate is submitted to a daily pro-gram that is rigorous and unchanging and thateventually forms his mind as drops of water wear away stone. He is required to judge his own failings in the twice-daily ex-aminations of conscience. He may have no other company than that of the people who embody or partake of the desired ideal: the master of novices, his assistant, the other novices; there is no other model with whom he may iden-tify. The novitiate is, then, a dosed society in which the voice of indoctrination reverberates like an echo in an empty cave. For a change so profound must be brought about in the young man that once he has set out into the world upon his apostolic mission his' new identity must be the one which prevails over all previous attachments. He must himself become a representative and an incarnation of the spirit of his institute. That the "old man" feels uneasy in this hothouse should not be surprising. For example: Brother Yves states that: the isolation from people causes me some trouble, for I feel the need to be fully accepted as I am and also to be understood . My greatest fear about religious life and particularly about common life is that I may cease to be myself in order to fall into line. I fear a conformity in which all would be superficial and artificial, in which nothing would be assimilated, made per-sonal. I do not desire conformity, uniformity, stoic equanimity in my life. Here we discover an interesting difference between the two novitiates we have studied. In one, spiritual forma-tion is much more intense than in the other. The novices give reports of their spiritual progress to the master of novices, who follows and directs them very closely. The other master of novices, on the contrary, is a proponent of less exacting methods. In the "tight" novitiate, certain of the young men regressed to a point that was not reached by comparable novices in the more relaxed novitiate. Their crisis was more violent, for inevitably the less ac-ceptable aspects of their old identity were attacked with greater force. c) A third cause of the identity crisis in the novitiate ¯ comes from the fact that the previous ideas of the young man about the community of his choice are rarely real- 4. 4. 4. Identity Crisis VOLUME 21, 1962 121 ÷ ÷ ÷ 1¥. 4~ Bo~t, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 17.2 istic. Most often they are based on an idealized image of certain members of the community whom he knew before he entered either personally or through reading. He may imagine that every Franciscan is a Poverello, every Jesuit a Teilhard da Chardin, and every Dominican a Sertil-langes. He wishes to become like them. But he finds out very quickly that most of the members of the religious community are far from being the incarnation of this ideal, and then the novice frequently wonders whether his place is in the institute he has chosen, since it is of so little help to growth in his present identity. When Brother Irenaeus triumphantly ascertains that certain of the old fatheks do not practice what is demanded of the novices, his pride and his mistrust are the means by which he pro-tects his own high ideal. Francis, on the other hand, criti-cizes his fellow novices: they should be more perfect. He can't understand why they should be looking out the win-dow, why they should quarrel, or why they slip apples into their pockets after dinner to eat them in .their rooms. All this is personally disgusting to him. "If they entered religion to act like that . " And he is sorry that "medi-ocrity is not only found in the world, but also in the cloister." His excessive criticism is a means of defending himself against the temptation to do what they are doing, a temp-tation which is inadmissible because of a too rigid con-science. d) Finally, most communities have a great number of ministries to perform. It is often the decision of superiors which determines what role will later be assigned to the novice; whether he will be a missionary, a professor of apologetics, a parish priest, a teacher of the young, or the treasurer of the house. For one who has set his heart on the role of missionary, for example, obedience may create from the novitiate on a climate of uncertainty, a doubt about the possibility of realizing his role in life, his iden-tity. For we must not forget that one's identity is a synthe-sis of all one's previous development and hence it is not changed as one changes clothes. The novice ought, never-theless, to leave himself open to the possibility that the vow of obedience may make altogether a different thing of his life than what he thought. So it is that John-Paul wonders whether his superiors will let him go to the mis-sion where "the pagans, once converted to the faith of the gospel, will know better than the people of this coun-try the value of a priest." For he seeks everywhere the love and security he has up till now not found, and it was this quest which impelled him toward the priesthood. These four inevitable factors provoke an identity crisis in the novice which can go just "short of psychotic dis-sociation" (Erikson, Young Man Luther, op. cit., p. 134). This is a kind of fragmentation of the ego, a breakdown of the personality synthesis in a clash with the new en-vironment. The breach which the impact of this environ-ment makes in the synthesis is always located at its weakest point; that is, in certain conflicts Of the past Which Were poorly dealt with. In this serise,, the novitiate,brlngg .OUt the worst in oneself; the combined pressure of competition, adaptation to the level of the environment and the very rigid mode of life causes even the smallest weakness in the identity of the novice to burst fortl~. Beginners' Faults as Dimensions of the Crisis We can now parallel" the faults of beginners with Erik-son's eight dimensions of the identity crisis; for, according to our thesis, these faults are their equivalents in the re-ligious domain. As a matter of fact, it is not only the sogial life of the candidate which is troubled, but his spiritual life; all the more so since this constitutes the principal content of the life of the group and its members. We re-peat, we are studying the spiritual life here only under its psychological aspect and not at all under its theological aspect. a) Loss of perspective, the first of the dimensions of the identity crisis, betrays itself on the spiritual plane by a lack of patience, by a failure to apprehend that religious development has both its heights and its depths as does any other human evolution. This quest for the immediate is evident in spiritual gluttony and in its counterpart, dis-taste for spiritual realities when they do not procure a sensible satisfaction. It is equally to be found in those who wish. to push precipitously ahead. In his spiritual life Brother Mark seeks the love and consolation he did not receive enough of when he was little. In high school he created an environment for him-self which answered more or less adequately to his needs. But the change of environment deprives him of this sup-port and obliges him.to seek it elsewhere, in God. He seeks "the divine presence, a mysterious presence which I try to locate in myself without success. Each of my members dis-covers new sensations at this moment.". But when the quest does not succeed, "I feel a kind of di~sgust without reason or apparent motive. At such times Jesus does not seem to satisfy me; I thirst for something else too vague to be men-tioned or clearly defined." For Andrew, the need to rush ahead and a false apostolic zeal arose when common life and the demands of the no-vitiate for a change in his habits simultaneously reinforced a precocious superego and the unacceptable impulseg he was trying to harness] The unrealistic demands proper to these last two "imperfections" cause this novice not to feel at home with his less demanding comrades and his father ÷ ÷ ÷ Identity Crisis VOLUME 21~ 1962 ÷ W. de Bont, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS master who are themselves far from accepting with benev-olence this excess of zeal. To novices who have such difficulties the religious com-munity provides a helpful balancing factor in the per-spective of the future it opens to them. They are told of the various stages of the spiritual life; in the religious life there is a step-by-step education over several years (no-vitiate, philosophical and theological studies, ordina-tion.). There is a daily program set up in detail and firmly enforced. Finally, the candidate is promised cer-tain success in this world or in the next if he perseveres. b) Lack of assurance manifests itself in all those im-perfections which seek to hide certain defects by an im-moderate reaction: excessive shame for faults, a too literal adherence to the rules, indiscrete mortifications. Two ex-amples have already been given (B~'others Irenaeus and Francis). The novitiate offers the novices a provisional protection against their initial clumsiness in the unifor-mity it imposes in observances, clothing, spirituality. With this protection the novice is able to regain little by little the confidence in himself which was upset by the causes listed above. c) Pusillanimity in the spiritual life can be considered a failure to experiment with various roles; and certain forms of jealousy (of the progress of others) and of hypo-chondria (in connection with fasting, for example) can be considered as derivatives of Oedipal conduct. So it was that Henry, who was not able to identify with his dead father in order to attain, at least in his imagination, a superiority over his brothers which would give him a spe-cial title to the love of fiis mother, wished to carry on his apostolate in such a way that "after my departure people will forget completely that I was ever around, and that it was I who handled mattersY Fearing competition he does not dare to push himself forward. By always doing exacdy as the others, by effacing himself, he denies that he is dif-ferent, jealous, guilty of favoritism. In this case, the novitiate tries above all to encourage him to attempt one role, that of the apprentice religious. The novitiate is nothing else but an initiation into this role, begun with the taking of the habit as an exterior sign of the status which will be had henceforth in the com-munity and continued every day in the life of the novice. d) Paralysis about work clearly reveals itself in the dif-ficulties which the novice has from time to time in his spirit.ual exercises, meditation, examination of conscience, recitation of the Breviary. For Henry, for example, exami-nations of conscience remain at the surface of his person-ality. He fears lest his jealousy and anxiety come to the surface. Religious educators do everything in the noviti- ate to allow positive fulfillment, by teaching the novice suitable methods for achieving success in this domain. e) Lack of identity or confusion of roles manifests itself in a vague feeling of not b.eing at home in the novitiate, by nostalgia for the past, by the impo.ssibility of finding a place and a role in the communi~y: Examples Were" given above. The novitiate seeks to remedy this by encouraging the recruit to identify with his community by proposing to him in an exclusive way the spirit of the congregation or the order. f) Bisexual confusion manifests itself by all sorts of dif-ficulties with sex: the sexualization of religious life, for example, in sexual impulses at the moment of communion or confession; in particular friendships unddr the cloak of a spiritual relationship; in scruples about ~bad thoughts." Brother Guy, for example, transfers to Christ and St. John his tender feelings about a friend whom he has left in the world: You must have embraced very tenderly, as gently as do two beloved people spontaneously when one has acquired the other's special admiration; when one wishes to protest more deeply his profound joy in and friendly respect for the other. I would have liked to spend with the two of you those long evenings beneath the stars, as I had the happiness to spend them with James, speaking no doubt of Your ambitions, become those of Jol~n s~nce You loved him so tenderly, and he loved You. This transfer is meant to fill the void left by the impos-sibility of continuing an earthly friendship. What the novice should learn here, with the help of his spiritual director, is to renounce the exercise of his sex-ual faculty while at the same time .developing his manli-ness. This is impossible unless this renunciation is in-spired by valid and for the most part conscious motives ("for the kingdom.of God'i)and as little as possible af-fected by fear, shame, distaste, or guilt. g) The lack of reasonable attitudes with respect to au-thority is expressed by a crowd of symptoms: an extrava-gant docility, revolt against authority, a kind of freezing up in relations with superiors; too great a zeal to convert others where the aim is much more to resolve one's own problems than to help one's neighbor. 'Michael, for ex-ample, is so docile as to worry the master of novices some-what. He wants to be told what to do; he never resists; he has the spirit of. sacrifice; anything may be asked of him. If he is nettled, he gives a start and then merely smiles. His spiritual ideal is~ complete abandonment to God. He wishes to forget himself in order to be concerned only for God and His interests. Michael is a young man Whose mother thwarted him in his desire :for masculine inde-pendence. At the conscious level he submitted but uncon-sciously he rebelled against her. In the novitiate obedience 4. 4. Identity Crisis 1~5 4- REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is a most important matter and there are very few possi-bilities for aggressivity (for example, sports) left open to him. His problem, then, is accentuated. It may be under-stood, then, that for him God and the master of novices are conceived after the image of his mother. Peter's sense of his priestly mission still has "some end other than a supernatural one." The reason for this is that by a slightly megalomaniac identification with pater-nal authority, of which he makes himself the prophet, he is protecting himself against a feeling of persecution. The image he has of his father is split into two, and his feelings are equally divided. Everything good about his father is projected into God, everything bad into the devil. Accord-ingly, to save the world by his apostolate means in fact to preserve the connection with the good parent (God) and to eliminate the bad (the devil). Since the novitiate is a completely masculine society and at the 'same time by it.~ nature demands obedience, it further accentuates the con. flicts about sexuality and authority which underlie thi:~ apostolic identity (according to psychoan.alytic theory, the paranoid personality is rooted in homosexualized relation-ships with the father, the representative of authority in the family); but at the same time it makes the experience o[ the apostolate impossible for the time being. One may not go out during .the novitiate, and so the balance of forces in Peter is upset. The master of novices will have the difficult task of teaching the novices the just mean between the docility of a sheep and revolt at the barricades, as in the case of the novice who barricaded his door when the superior knocked to get him to rise (he always got up late). To give the novices certain opportunities for leadership frora the novitiate on may contribute to the development of the orientation which is desirable in this domain. h) Finally, a confusion of ideals is the most obvious thing about the novices who do not yet know whether they want to stay or leave the novitiate to return to the world or who hesitate to choose among several communities, Brother Mark has grave doubts about his perseverance because he is torn between a "worldly" past made entic-ing by the admiration he commanded at school and tile frustrations of his present conventual life caused by the lack of tenderness and esteem received from others. Spir-itual training here seeks to take away all ambivalence by presenting the novice with the ideology of his order and excluding all other ideologies (newspapers are ban-ishedl). A certain simplification results from this which sometimes becomes a caricature; one novice will think he is living the "pure gospel" because he walks .around in sandals as the apostles did; another will think he has found the perfect balance between contemplation and action because in his community Compline is sung in common before sleep. When the new identity of the nov-ice is sufficiently established, this simplification will no longer be necessary. Psychologically speaking, the faults of beginners are merely attempts to maintain'. Or to reestablish 15rovision-ally the psychic equilibrium which has been upset by the impact of the environment, an impact which has struck the novice at the weakest points of his former identity. As Father Mailloux has said, they are not "typically pathological reactions per se, but rather.irrational modes of expression, upon which the psychic apparatus will normally fall back whenever an individual is unable to cope with a stressful situation in some rational man-ner" (Rev. Noel Mailloux, O.P., "Sanctity and the Prob-lem of Neurosis," Pastoral Psychology, 10 [February, 1959], 40). For in successful cases the novice readjusts; he incorporates the identity elements offered him by the religious environment into the best which his identity al-ready has and gets rid of the less acceptable elements. Having provoked the crisis, a well-directed novitiate helps also to heal it. And once the adaptation is made and the novice has regained his place, this time in the community of his choice, his beginner's faults disappear like hay fever when the season has passed. In less successful cases, there is a failure. Concord be-tween' the identity of the novice and the demands or the support of the environment remains impossible: The reasons may come from two quarters: a lack of flexibility in the subject consequent upon an identity too charged with conflict as with the brother of the barricades cited above who left his community a little later,, or on the part of the community which is unable to Offer the novice the place which he seeks for his gifts and his particular abilities as in that sufficiently large novitiaite where .eighty percent of the novices left because of a master of novices still living spiritually in the nineteenth' century. The shock was the greater for them as their previous educa-tion was the more liberal. Conclusion We have studied in this article the psychological side of this night of the senses which the novitiate arouses by its very nature. By uprooting the candidate from his for-mer environment, it deprives him of the support which his identity enjoyed before in order to invite him to a higher spiritual balance. Our perspective, it is true, has been a restricted one; we have described only what the novitiate may have in common with any identity crisis studied by the psychologist. On this plane, the crisis of the novice resembles that of a young man who prepares 4. ÷ Identity Crisis VOLUME 21, 1962 W. de Bo~t, 0~. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]28 himself for army service at West Point, or who leaves hi.q small-town home to go to a large, university--although course the crisis has a different content according as concerns military formation, the situation of a student, or religious training---celibacy and examinations of con-science do not figure largely in a military perspective. For methodological reasons we have left aside that which con~ .stitutes the very essence of the life of the novitiate: the introduction to the life of consecration to God to which by His grace He has invited the novice. It is this properly spiritual aspect which masters of novices are best ac-quainted with, and they can guide themselves in this by a solidly established spiritual theology. Our only inten-tion has been to draw their attention to the psychological side of this introduction to sanctity, a side which it 'is better not to be totally ignorant of. The "follies" of nov-ices should not be seen as faults which are exclusively in the moral order, as pride, for example, considered as the capita) sin. There is question rather of provisional, and unsuccessful efforts to adapt oneself to a new situation; hence they are normal phenomena which always arise under one form or another when a man must remake the synthesis of his personality. Nevertheless, they are real difficulties and not imaginary, often very painful for the subject who undergoes them and annoying for those around him. The wisdom of an alert master of novices will assuage much of this human pain, and this the more so as he knows better the identity of the novice in ques. tion, with its strong points and its weak. This present article is limited to describing the iden-tity crisis of the novice. It does not pretend to furnish the elements of a possible prognostication. If almost all nov, ices undergo this crisis in some degree or other, how, among so many of the "imperfect," can those who will persevere be singled out from those who will leave or merely mark time for the rest of their lives? This is an important question, for the novitiate terminates with a profession which, even though it be temporary, repre-sents a real and very profound commitment. Certain re-marks of St. John of the Cross (Dark Night, 1, 9) coukl provide us with a point of departure for such a consid- ¯ eration; but this task must be reserved to a later article. PAUL W. O'BRIEN, S.J. Introducing the Young Sister to Prayer One of the problems facing the young sister is learning to pray. She h~is probably been pra

Issue 60.3 of the Review for Religious, 2001. ; Explorations Religious Life Heritages Faithful ~Witness MAY JUNE 2001 VOLUME 60 NUMBER 3 Review for Re, ligious,helps people respond and he faithful to God's universal call to holiness by ~naking available t_o them the spiritual legacies tbat flow from the cbarisms of Catholic consecrated life. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bimonthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: review@slu.edu ¯ Web site: g~r,v.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP Mount St. Mary's Seminary; Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2001 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this ~ssue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to t.he Editor, Review for Religious. for religious LIVING OUR CATHOLIC LEGACIES Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Clare Boehmer ASC Philip C. Fischer SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann F~ppe Tracy Gramm Judy Sharp James and Joan Felling AdrianGaudin SC Sr. Raymond Marie Gerard FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla sJ Patricia Wittherg SC MAY JUNE 2001 VOLUME 60 NUMBER 3 contents explorations 230 "Women Religious, Women Deacons? Phyllis Zagano explores why a woman, secular or religious, would seek ordination as a deacon and what questions this poses f6r the corporate life of a religious institute. 245 Confidentiality: Are Religious Superiors Always Bound? Vimal Tirimanna CSSR explores whether there are limits to the professional confidentiality to be kept by ministers and religious superiors and the need for appropriate norms and sanctions. 254 The Computer's Edge: Some Social and Ethical Concerns Linda Herndon OSB introduces some of the s~cial and ethical issues in the computer world, raising some questions, and proposing some practical responses, to stimulate further discussion. 262 269 religious life Authenticity and Contact with Youth Robert P. Maloney CM calls for an asceticism of authenticity that engages and challenges young people in their passion for Christ. Obedience: Vow and Virtue in Our Contemporary World Kathy Dunne RC looks at the vow of obedience as it is born of love, forms us as lovers, and bears the fruit of love. Review for Religious 277 286 heritages ¯ Mechthild of Magdeburg's Spiritual Pilgrimage William C. Zehringer traces the complex pilgrimage story of the medieval mystic Mechthild of Magdeburg. The Poverello's Legacy Bonaventure Stefun OFMCap gives many Franciscan exemplars of poverty as lived through the centuries, all united by Francis's key notion of attachment to Jesus. 295 308 faithful witness Here I Am You Called Me? Marie Beha OSC delves into the meaning of presence, considering especially how we might respond more fully to God and to others. Leap Over the Wall: Why Did I Not? Mary Anne Huddleston IHM offers her personal witness to the commitment value of consecrated life. departments 228 Prisms 314 Canonical Counsel: Requirements for Temporary Profession 320 Book Reviews May-June 2001 prisms To opposing tendencies vie within us from the very beginning of life. Human beings are described as always struggling to stay within the comfort life of the womb and yet pushing to find a con-tinuing newness of life outside the womb. We rejoice in the known, the familiar, what has always been, the traditional. We can be enlivened also by the unknown, what is new and untried, the innovative. A healthy passage between these two human tendencies is caught up in the activity called exploration. Our growth as chil-dren came through exploration; we grow as adults only if we continue regularly to experience the exploratory passage, a passage that joins the past to the future. When John Paul II made his appeal for a new evan-gelization, it was an exploratory call. It was not imme-diately evident to all of us Catholics how far this call extended. We are beginning to realize that a new evan-gelization takes in not just ways of proclaiming the gospel that are effective for our time but also ways of celebrating that proclamation. The latest revisioning of the sacramentary and lectionary is a part of this continuing renewal of our efforts in celebrating the Eucharist as the central mystery of our faith. We con-tinue to explore the passage between the liturgical rites as we have known them and a new formulation of these rites that may more effectively help today's people understand their meaning in relation to contemporary patterns of thought and expectation. A liturgical spirituality rightly has pride of place. But so-called "popular" devotions are important too. In the Roman Catholic Latin rite, expression found in liturgical prayer usually remains formal, with feelings restricted and subjective emotions set aside--whatever the vernacular translation. The more personal and emo- Review for Reli#ous tive piety that was characteristic of Catholic devotional life in the 19th and 20th centuries--expressed in popular language and images--necessarily had to recede in importance after Vatican Council II. The explorations central to our faith expression in baptism, Eucharist, and reconciliation focused all of our worship-ing energy. Marian devotions, Sacred Heart devotions, Eucharistic holy hours, and Stations of the Cross suffered a time of eclipse. Granted that the central place of the Eucharistic celebration and the other sacraments has been properly positioned for us Catholics, we are now enabled to express our persistent hunger and need to nourish our Catholic life also in nonliturgical or, perhaps more positively, more personal and popular ways. As an integral part of our actively entering into our new evangelization, we need to explore devotions that do not seem to be relics of the past, but rather are "new" prayerful ways of celebrating our faith that express the yearnings of our hearts today. What form will these explorations take? We cannot say since devotional life is so much shaped by the social and cultural milieu in which we live. Devotions need contemporary imaging, vocal expressions, and musical or quasi-musical rhythms that appeal to today's people. For example, does the May procession and crown-ing of Mary as queen--a memory many Catholics treasure-- emphasize rather the distancing of Mary from our daily experience rather than her closeness? What may have been "devotional" at a particular time may not be a fitting expression and imaging today. Does a 40-hour Eucharistic devotion fit the rhythm of our social milieu or would a 7 p.m.zto-12 midnight or a 24-hour, all-night vigil speak better? We need to explore how these "old" devotions can be truly a part of our new evangelization; our exploration is an effort to stretch personal and group memories into personal and group hopes and expressions. We may look to the renewal of some of our older devotions such as the devotion to the Sacred Heart (identified of old with the month of June) or we may seek to honor and find our own life-inspiration by devotions expressed for one of our newly canon-ized saints who combines charity with a j3rophetic thirst for justice. Regardless, we are responding to the call for a new evangelization. Exploration is necessary for a faith that is alive and well. No, bet-ter said, exploration is necessary for us believers who want to grow in our maturity in Christ. David L. Fleming SJ May-~une 2001 explorations PHYLLIS ZAGANO Women Religious, Women Deacons? In recent years, discussion about Catholic women's ordi-nation has centered on the priesthood, and the diaconate " has been seen primarily as a step toward priesthood. The official opposition to the ordination of women as priests is well and widely known. But the official position on the ordination of women to the diaconate is that it is "under study." Conflict about the impossibility of women becoming pries(s has obscured the possibility of their becoming deacons even though, after the revival of the per.manent diaconate in the West, the concept of permanent women deacons found significant support.~ Today wtrldwide requests by individuals and groups to have'women ordained to serve the people of God strengthen the notion that the church could restore the female diaconate.2 Such possi-bility, if not probability, provides the opportunity for apostolic institutes and individual religious t6 question whether ordination would be appropriate for them cor-porately, or individually, or both. Phyllis Zagano is founding cochair of the Roman Catholic Studies Group of.the American Academy of Religion and author most recently of.Holy Saturday: An ,qrgument for the Restoration of the Female Diaconafe in tbe Catholic Church (Crossroad). She can be reached c/o Crossroad Publishing Company; 481 Eighth Avenue, #1550; New York, N.Y. 10011; and at pzagano@rcn.com. Review for Religious Why would a woman, secular or religious, wish to be ordained? There is significant resistance among women to becoming involved in a system widely viewed as patriarchal, especially in what is arguably a subservient role. Some say there is no need for ordi-nation, since everything a deacon does can be done with special permission by a lay person. Some focus on other issues. Others say the diaconate is not enough. The answers that affirm a woman's request for diaconal ordi-nation are as individual as each person's vocation to live a life of prayer and service. The unfolding of a single lifelong quest for God has many different layers, and vocations often grow in unex-pected directions. The deacon's vocation is to a life as "minister of the word, of the liturgy, and of charity.''3 Numbers of women's institutes find one or another of these calls, perhaps all, in their founding documents. In fact, women religious are always involved in works of charity, as they can be most broadly described, and their service is similar if not identical to that of deacons. Hence, why should women religious not be formally present and repre-sented in the liturgy? It is women religious who most clearly and most publicly enflesh the gospel. Why should they not proclaim it at Mass and explain, it in a homily? Realistically speaking, women religious are increasingly involved in diaconal work and works, and the charism of orders could only strengthen their commitments and their service. The church itself, both informally and formally, has called forth women to expressly diaconal work and works, that is, work and works that could be more fully served by women deacons. As Doris Gottemoeller RSM pointed out a few years ago, women religious are increasingly parochialized~ to the point that hundreds are parish administrators and are also increasingly involved in professional institutional chaplaincy. Further, official Vatican documents repeat-edly call for inclusion of women in official roles in the church.4 As more women are more involved (even t~ull-time) in diaconal ministries, the need to ordain them becomes clearer, in order to better serve the people of God. For example, there are obvious drawbacks when a woman religious working as a pastoral associate or chaplain does not have the ordinary authority to celebrate bap-tisms solemnly, or witness marriages, or preach, or fully lead litur-gical prayer, all of which ordained deacons do when they have standard faculties.5 If women religious are already serving in clerical roles, why not May-June 2001 Zagano ¯ Women Religious, Women Deacons? add diaconal ordination to their religious charisms? Perhaps obvi-ously the answer is that the nature of lay religious life is different from the nature of clerical religigus life. For an apostolic insti-tute to ordain members, or to incorporate new members already ordained, would imply a change in its nature. Since the church in the West might at any time return to its tradition of a permanent female diaconate, these considerations are real. Even if only hypo-thetically for now, women religious might individually and cor-porately consider the possibilities and consequences of ordination. Six questions asked by the ordaining prelate in the liturgy of ordination combine to form the perfect discernment tool with regard to religious life and the diaconate. The considerations given below do not and could not cover the combinations and permu-tations in every individual case. But they can open the door to additional individual or group discernment on this important pos-sibility. Can a woman religious answer yes to these six questions? More importantly, should she? 1. Are you willing to be ordained for the church's ministry by the laying on of hands and the gift of the Holy Spirit? The woman who might be ordained would be ordained to ministry--of the word, the liturgy, and of charity. A woman reli-gious, therefore, would have the nature of her public Commitment permanently changed. The ordination to ministry would not nec-essarily replace her celibate commitment to a life of prayer and service within her apostolic religious institute, but it would change it. Here she is asked to be available not only for the works of char-ity for which deacons are known, but for "the church's mi.nistry"-- the church's pastoral ministry--of baptizing, marrying, preaching, and burying the dead. This question asks if the deacon candidate will accept the pro-fessional obligations of ministry. The church's pastoral ministry already includes many apostolic women religious; they are pas-toral associates, performing almost every work an associate pastor might. In ~iddition, women religious run the parish soup kitchen and family center, oversee catechetics and the RCIA program. The gradual shift during the last century by institutes of apostolic reli-gious from teaching or nursing in their own institutions to other historically usual works of the deacon, often within the diocesan structure, underscores the whole church's calling women to wider ministries. Women, and especially women religious, are indeed doing the work of ordained deacons. But they are not ordained. As Review for Religious I have argued elsewhere, it is not desirable for the church to con-fuse vows with ordination,6 and so I would argue here that those who are already involved in "the church's ministry" might consider the strengthening of their pastoral charisms through ordination. For the sake of discussion, we can assume that the majority of women religious who would seek diaconal ordination would also choose to remain members of their own religious institutes. Their vocational discernment would need to separate the charism of celibacy in consecrated life from the charism of ordained diaconal life, which does not require celibacy, and from the charism of celibate ordained life. While the vocation to celibate life in community is not identical to the vocation to ordained life, the two vocations are not mutually exclusive. That is, consecrated celibacy and ecclesial ministry are not mutually exclusiye, but each requires separate consideration and support. As Sandra Schneiders has recently pointed out, a "coherent theological framework within which prayer, sacramental life, and ministry make sense in themselves and in relation to each other is cru-cial to the relationship with Jesus Christ that alone justifies com-mitment in consecrated, celibacy that is at the heart of religious life.''7 By contrast, professional ministerial commitment is open to all, celibate or married, "~ho find themselves called to identify with the ministry of Christ: The charism of celibacy can be seen as analogous but not identical to the deacon's call to be minister of the word, the liturgy, and of charity. Again, the call to diaconal ministry does not nec-essarily include celibacy. While the charism of consecrated celibacy might be more broadly experienced by the church if the majority of ordained women religious remained in their institutes, as such this charism should not be confused with the separate and distinct call to diaconal orders. The call to the diaconate is specifically and primarily "f6r the church's ministry," not for an apostolic min-istry arising from celibate commitment within a religious .insti- I would argue that those who are already involved in "the church's ministry" might consider the s~rengthening of their pastoral charisms through ordination. May-June 2001 Zagano ¯ Women Religious, Women Deacons? tute, even though the two calls may coexist in one person and in one institute. The operative points in this question are whether and how the woman religious would participate in the church's ministry while remaining a member of her institute. Those are matters of discernment to be taken up by her,.her superior, and--if she is the first of her institute to ask to be ordained--by the chapter of her institute. 2. Are you resolved to discharge the office of deacon with humility and love in order to assist the bishop and the priests and to serve the people of Christ? There is an ancient document in which a bishop sets forth the qualities necessary for women to be ordained deacons. His major concern is that they be able to get along with the priests.9 Church history, then and now, is replete with examples of ten-sions between priests and deacons. Humility is not humiliation, but many contemporary deacons suffer the latter in their relations with priests, who in many cases just do not know what to do with them and are often threatened by their presence. These insecuri-ties will not be cured by adding ordained women to the mix, but they might be overcome through hard work and loving consider-ation on both sides. There is no question that priests need assis-tance in the pastoral care of souls, and many have learned how to effectively and professionally accept the assistance both of women, secular and religious, and of deacons; the new challenge would be to accept the assistance of women deacons. But the diaconate is not the priesthood, and an objection to the church's potential returning of women to the ranks of ordained deacons (without creating women priests) is that the women dea-cons would still be serving in subordinate positions to men. In many cases, of course, this is true. Yet significant numbers of men serve in the same subordinate positions to other men. Also, many deacons serve in leadership positions in rural dioceses and mis-sion territories. The many women serving in similar situations would be able.to expand their ministries if they were ordained. One source of tension between priests and deacons might dis-appear if the majority of women ordained were to remain as mem-bers of their religious institutes. Currendy most permanent deacons are married. Very few of the unmarried deacons are religious, pointing to a clear distinction between the vocations even though they are combined in the lives of some individuals. There are Review for Religious 25,345 deacons in 129 countries around the world, of whom 514, or two percent, are religious,l° In contrast, there are 404,208 priests in the world, of whom 140,687, or thirty-five percent, are reli-gious, l' These statistics seem to indicate that the distinction between celibate secular and religious life among the ordained is clear, but the vocations are not mutually exclusive. Whether thirty-three percent (the percentage of religious among today's deacons and priests) of the women ordained to the diaconate would become or remain members of religious insti-tutes is, of course, unknown. It is not likely that women candidates for the dia-conate would come mostly from women religious. Rather, many older married women and widows might seek to ratify and intensify through diaconal ordina-tion their commitments to their current volunteer or professional service of the people of God as catechists, lectors, Eucharistic ministers,.and chaplains or pastoral associates. Similarly, young Catholic women now in master-of-divin-ity programs in Protestant and Catholic .seminaries might seek diaconal ordination. Current statistics on lay catechists and other church workers suggest that seventy per-cent of women deacons would be married or single seculars and thi'rty percentof women deacons would be members of religious institutes. The challenge to all the women who envision possible ordi-nation to the diaconate is to recognize with h.umility and love that, practically speaking, they would be assisting the priests, but that their reason for being ordained is to serve the people of God. 3. Are you resolved to hold the mystery of the faith with a clear conscience, as the Apostle urges, and to proclaim this faith in word and action as it is taught by the gospel and the church's tradition? A significant number of the women presently engaged in min-isterial studies are in programs at denominational or interde-nominational Protestant seminaries. There are many reasons for this. Such seminaries are generally in cities, often near or even attached to major" universities, and therefore accessible. These seminaries are often well endowed, and they have substantial schol- It is not likely that women candidates for the diaconate would come mostly from women religious. May-June 2001 Zagano ¯ Women Religious, Women Deacons? arship programs available to women. And master-of-divinity pro-grams at American Catholic seminaries, and specifically at dioce-san seminaries, are not generally available to women. VChile many Catholic seminaries have a second-track "institute" that allows those who are not candidates for priesthood to study with the same faculty, the training offered is not identical and formation possibilities are often minimal. The extraordinary success of the programmatic exceptions to these general statements proves the thirst of many for professional training and ministry formation by and for Catholics. But, in fact, many Catholic women have studied and continue to study at Protestant seminaries; they are or soon will be ministering in dia-conal roles throughout the country. Not all are fully convinced of all church teachings, and their Protestant training has not pro-vided support for such acceptance. It remains to be seen whether they could be resolved to hold with a clear conscience "the mys-tery of the faith., and the church's tradition." The controversial issues that secular women students and min-isters presently consider, sometimes outside the boundaries of ordinary church teaching, might not be so prevalent among reli-gious, or at least among women religious who might be ordained to the diaconate. Even so, there are current ways of discussing certain topics, principally homosexuality, abortion, contraception, and priestly ordination for women, that could render women can-didate~ ineligible for diaconal ordination. Further, there are mis-conceptions and misperceptions about certain church dogmas, from Eucharist to original sin, that would similarly end an indi-vidual candidacy on its merits rather than on the question of gen-der. If these variant positions are indelibly held, for whatever reason, then the woman in question might still be able to minis-ter as a lay catechist--as many currently do--without diaconal ordination. In fact, some might considerdiaconal ordination a hindrance to ministry rather than an enhancement. There is a trend toward this way of thinking among some women in the church. The issue is not necess~arily bound up with any of the neuralgic questions listed above; it is, rather, managing to live a ministerial life without entering the hierarchy or, bluntly, the "male" system. The individual woman not in diaconal orders is in no way bound to the bishop and need not fear his pro-nouncements except insofar as she is employed by him or by one of his parishes or agencies. Even so, many parishes and agencies Review for Religious retain employees whose full consent with all church teaching is neither required nor requested, except perhaps officially. Any effort by an individual bishop to formally require such consent is viewed as draconian at best, and so short-staffed bishops in good economic times can tend to let well enough alone, and not enter too deeply into parish and agency employee matters. The woman, secular or religious, who would seek diaconal orders would have to answer some difficult questions in her own heart and mind about Magisterial teaching, not the least of which would be the theological anthropology, history, sacramental the-ology, and ecclesiology that would allow her to be ordained a deacon while refusing her priestly orders. Hence there is every possibility that individual women can-didates for ordination might have problems when asked if they "hold the mystery of the faith with a clear conscience, as the Apostle urges, and [will] proclaim this faith in word and action as it is taught by the gospel and the church's tradition." 4. Are you resolved to maintain and deepen a spirit of prayer appropriate to your way of life and, in keeping with what is required of you, to celebrate faithfully the liturgy of the hours for the church and for the whole world? This is an interesting consideration for apostolic women reli-gious. The celebration of the liturgy of the hours generally required of all clerics includes the office of readings, morning prayer, one daytime prayer, evening prayer, and night prayer. Though this fourth question includes some interesting phrases, "appropriate to your way of life" and "in keeping with what is required of you," one can .assume that up to an hour of each day is expected to be devoted to the liturgy of the hours, in addition to the time given to the liturgy of the Eucharist and any private meditation, scripture study, and spiritual reading. This is a significant commitment of time. Contemplative and monastic orders celebrate the full liturgy either publicly (spending considerably more than an hour) or both privately and publicly, but many apostolic women religious are no longer accustomed to praying even a portion of the liturgy of the hours, even privately. Along with their living more in nontradi-tional settings, formal prayer in choir has diminished. These changes in institutional religious life at first created a growth medium for different types of communal prayer, often developed by individuals 6r by individual communities. Continued changes May-ffune 2001 Zagano ¯ Wonten Religious, Wotnen Deacons? in communal life, however, have often led to the dropping even of these individualized prayer services from daily to perhaps monthly gatherings, usually with members of 'an intentional prayer group rather than with the "same roof' community. Each permutat!on moves apostolic religious farther from the tradition of praying the liturgy of the hours "for the church and for the whole world," both publicly and privately. A woman religious who would accept the obligations of the liturgy of the hours might find herself limited by time and space from participating in the life-giving communal prayer that nour-ished her desire to seek ordination in the first place. It wouid be as difficult to choose one or the other as it would be to choose both. Where the development of differing types of communal prayer for and among women religious has in many cases created opportunities for growth, it has also intensified the male-female divide, where most of the men (as clerics) and most of th~ women (as apostolic religious) have habits of prayer that are distinct from each other. (In North America, as is true worldwide, there are about twice as many apostolic women religious as priests, secular or religious.12) One would think, therefore, that the obligation to pray the liturgy of the hours might present a challenge to women. But, while all clerics are obliged to celebrate the liturgy of the hours, diocesan directors of diaconate programs state that few deacons do. This is the import of the phrases "appropriate to your way of life" and "in keeping with what is required of you." Typical married working deacons are sincerely encouraged to pray at least thd "hinges" of the day: morning and evening prayer, and night prayer too. Many, if not most, cannot pray the office of readings. Some cannot attend daily Mass. Some do not engage daily in extended personal prayer or scripture reading. While this information is anecdotal at best, it seems little would be actually added to the schedule of a woman religious, whose personal and communal practices probably already exceed those of the typical deacon. So this question could clearly be answered in the affirmative by the. woman religious who sought ordination to the diaconate. 5. Are you resolved to shape your way of life always according to the example of Christ, whose bo.dy and blood you will give to the people? The question is deceptively simple for women religious, whose lives are a constant endeavor to conform their whole' beings to Review for Religious Christ. That they have been engaged in such a struggle for their entire adult lives creates in some cases a distance between them and most secular candidates for the permanent diaconate or the priest-hood. While the emphasis in religious formation is on formation, and in seminary training on training, deacon candidates do receive a certain amount of formation. But religious formation-- focusing as it does, or at least has done, on prayer, life in community, and participation in institutional ministries--creates a qualitative dif-ference that is sometimes strikingly obvious. Many personal qualities stressed in the formation of women religious can translate positively to ordained diaconal service, just as in the case of the ordained service of men religious. A specific attitude of prayer, and selfless ded-ication to mission, are sometimes difficult to obtain later in life, especially by married candidates for orders who have the complica-tions of their secular lives to deal with: spouses, children, grandchil-dren, mortgages, careers, and political life. Of course, the differences can be seen both positively and nega-tively. Since the secular laity con-stitute ninety-nine percent of the church, one might argue that, rather than from among women religious, deacons ought be taken from among mature lay people. One might theorize that some of today's criticisms of celibate sec-ular (male) priests would be leveled at celibate secular (female) deacons. Criticisms of religious priests, which could be equally leveled at religious deacons, often revolve around the apparent and sometimes real financial and personal security of priests and religious. Secular lay persons often complain of a sort of "macu-lar degeneration" in the worldview of religious, ~ blindness to cer-tain exigencies of secular life, a chasm of nonunderstanding. While religious, as countercultural witnesses to the gospel, must be inde-pendent of political exigencies, they must recognize and constandy guard against such blindness. The very fact that women religious are personally and financially free to give prophetic witness to unpopular causes runs the risk of overpowering the poor, whom they most wish to serve. Criticism comes easily, and, since no one Many personal qualities stressed in the formation of women religious can translate positively to ordained diaconal service. ~lay-June 2001 Zagano ¯ Women Religious, Women Deacons? knows precisely what it means to be a woman deacon, these shoals and narrows must be viewed as opportunities. The delicate nature of ministry is enclosed in this question: Can the candidate for the diaconate shape a "way of life always according to the example of Christ"? It would be a radical chal-lenge for a woman religious to continue to live her religious pro-fession completely and freely while adding the responsibility of living out the charism of orders. Would she better continue to serve as a lay religious in commitment to the gospel, or would she better combine that commitment with the charism of ordained service? Beyond, would she better incorporate in her religious life and ministry the charism of ordained diaconal service, for which there is little precedent? In fact, the spiritual!ty of the diaconate is not well developed. For the deacon, what does it Mean to shape a way of life according to the example of Christ? What does it mean to shape a way of life according to the example of Christ for the woman who would be a deacon, and who would be considered in rank with other mostly married male deacons? These are questions that will.really only be answered by the first few women deacons. Practically speaking, it may only be women religious who are available to make the rad-ically prophetic choice to be ordained and serve as deacons in what are mostly uncharted waters. 6. Do you promise respect and obedience to me and my successors? Ordained women religious would remain bound to their supe-riors; ordained secular women would become bound to their dioce-san bishop. When asked of secular candidates, this question would bind a woman to her bishop for all matters: assignments, faculties, man-ner of dress, and so forth, and through him to the universal law of the church. The ordination of secular women to the diaconate would create a class of women whose ministry would be specifically at the disposal of the diocesan bishop. However, when a religious is ordained to the diaconate, this last question refers only to the religious superior and is generally rephrased to reflect the obedience of vowed religious. Only the religious superior gives permission to a member to be ordained; only the religious superior decides what work the religious cleric will take up. No bishop may unilaterally assign a religious to a work, and the local ordinary has authority and jurisdiction only Review for Religqous over what is done in his name, for example, the celebration of liturgies and sacraments (baptisms, marriages, and so forth) and actual work within the diocesan structure. Practically speaking, there may be no advantage to orders for the woman religious outside the diocesan ~tructure, because any-thing she might do that requires clerical status (with the possible exception of preaching homilies at Eucharistic liturgies) would be done in the name of the bishop and with his permission. So the determination here would be whether her religious superior would find ordination necessary for the individual religious's assigned work. That said, there are women reli-gious in the diocesan structure, and the needs of the people of God whom they serve as pastoral associates, tri-bunal judges, chancellors, and chap-lains would be better addressed by a more permanent.authorization, rather than by temporary or ad hoc lay juriso diction.13 The deeper question regarding the ordination of wtmen religious centers on authority and jurisdiction within the religious institute. Institutes of consecrated life are either diocesan or pontifical. Neither is exempt from obedience to ordinaries in matters pertaining to their episcopal authority, but superiors and chapters of institutes retain their power over their members, even if some or all of their members are clerics (canon 596). Canon Law provides for only two types of religious institutes: clerical and lay (canon 588). While, stricdy speaking, clerical insti-tutes must be headed by clerics, men's institutes that include lay brothers have obtained rescripts, or special permissions, to include brothers in their governments. These rescripts indicated that a clerical member of the institute be designated to carry out acts of jurisdiction requiring orders, and it is not clear the need would arise if the only clerical members were deacons. Since the Second Vatican Council, lay institutes have been able to allow members to be ordained without changing the nature of the institutes from lay to clerical.'4 After the 1994 Synod on Consecrated Life, Pope John Paul II established a special com-mission to study jurisdiction questions within mixed (clerical-and- The deeper question regarding the ordination of women religious centers on authority and jurisdiction within the religious institute. Zagano ¯ Women Religious, Women Deacons? lay) institutes, but the provision for lay institutes to remain lay while allowing some of their members to be ordained already exists. So there is no need to assume that the woman religious deacon would automatically cause her institute to give up its essen-tially lay status by allowing her ordination.'s The considerations implied by this final question about respect for and obedience to the ordaining prelate include whether insti-tutes might admit women who were previously ordained. Canon law provides for these exigencies in the case of men previously ordained who wish to enter religious orders, and there is no reason to think, theoretically at least, that ordained secular women could not become members of apostolic institutes of women religious. In discerning her vocation to orders, however, a woman religious would have to discern whether she would choose ordi-nation over membership, should her institute in chapter decline to include ordained members or should her superior decline to give her permission to be ordained. This presents a radical challenge of both vocation and obedience, and underscores the authority of superiors and chapters. These painful possibilities of growth are facts of life. Some women religious might be required to choose between ordination and their religious institutes, but not necessarily between ordi-nation and religious life. Women religious who chose orders over membership might well form new religious institutes, either wholly clerical or clerical-and-lay, creating a new expression of religious life. The larger consideration for women religious corporately is their insertion in the lay state. While canon law says that by its very nature religious life is neither clerical nor lay, women religious can rightly claim "outsider" status to the hierarchical system, even though their public pronouncements and political involvements are identically restricted. It is both significant and interesting that most women's institutes are more clearly led by the Leadership Conference of Women Religious than by the National Conference of Catholic Bishops. This is not new: monastics have always sought to be independent of local ordinaries. Whether ordained women religious would shift the balance of an institute remains t6 be seen, but their ordination would clearly depend, among other things, upon the needs of their institute and of the church at large. In this matter the specific charism incorporated in lay religious insti-tutes would need to be guarded, and an institute's decision against Review for Religious their members' becoming ordained would probably depend chiefly upon such a safeguard. Women religious, especially in the United States, are poised in a particular moment of freedom to raise their voices in defense of the poor and the marginalized. Though they comprise an aging population--the median age is approximately sixty-nine--women religious might, in prophetic witness to the gospel, decide that as lay religious they have nothing left to lose and clerical status might change that.~6 But, then again, it might not. The church needs the service of women and of all who would seriously take up the challenge of the gospel. One might say, "Would that all God's people were prophets!" Let us acknowledge that some women religious might better serve as clerics, and others not. Either choice is prophetic. Notes ~ The 1971 report of a committee of the Catholic Theological Society of America, "The Office of Deacon as a Lifetime State," recommended ordaining women deacons and was printed in American Ecclesiastical Review (March 1971), Crux (19 March 1971), Worship (April 1971), and Catholic Mind (May 1971). See also Clergy Review 56 (1971): 891-893. Additional contemporary discussion on the topic can be found in Agnes Cunningham SSCM, "Women and the Diaconate," American Ecclesiastical Review 165 (1971): 158-166; Peter HiJnermann, "Note: Conclusions Regarding the Female Diaconate," Theological Studies 36 (1975): 325- 333; A.M. Tortras, "Women Priests or Women Deacons?" Theology Digest 29, no. 3 (Fall 1981), translation of "~Mujeres Presbftero o Mujeres Di~cono? Apuntes para una Ordenaci6n de la Mujer," Estudios Eclesifisticos 55, no. 214 (1980): 355-368. ' I have presented an argument from theological anthropology, sacra-mental theology, history, ecclesiology, and law in Phyllis Zagano, Holy Saturday: An Argument for the Restoration of the Female Diaconate in the Catholic Church (Crossroad/Herder, 2000). 3 Roman Ritual, Ordination of Deacons. 4 Doris Gottemoeller RSM, "The Priesthood: Implications in Consecrated Life for Women," in A Concert of Charisms: Ordained Ministry in Religious Life, ed. Paul K. Hennessy CFC (New York: Paulist Press, 1997), pp. 127-138. s The Archdiocese of Anchorage, Alaska, first received a renewable rescript to allow lay persons to solemnly baptize and to witness mar-riages in 1990. A few women religious who are administrators of rural parishes and two other lay person.s have been so authorized on a case-by-case basis. 6 Zagano, Holy Saturday, pp. 142-145. 7 Sandra M. Schneiders IHM, Finding the Treasure: Locating Catholic May-June 2001 Zagano ¯ Women-Religious, Women Deacons? Religious Life in a New Ecdesial and Cultural Context (New York: Paulist Press, 2000), p. 149. 8 Schneiders rightly points out that the specific charism of celibacy for religious is distinct from the unmarried state of the secular cleric. 9 Apostolic Canons of the Church, canon 21. See Josephine Mayer, Monumenta de viduis diaconissis virginibusque tractantia (Bonn: P. Hanstein, 1938), which includes a significant collection of early documents about women deacons. 10 "The Permanent Diaconate Today," A Research Report by the Bis}~ops' Committee on the Diaconate of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops and by the Center for Applied Research on the Apostolate (June 2000), p. 2. " 2000 Catholic Almanac (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, 2000), p. 345, citing Statistical Yearbook of the Church, 1997. 12 There are 819,279 sisters and 404,208 priests. Statistics do not dif-ferentiate between women religious who are "sisters" in apostolic insti-tutes and those who were formerly called "nuns" in cloistered orders. 2000 Catholic Almanac, p. 345. 13 A committee of the Leadership Conference of Women Religious, drawing on the LCWR "Benchmarks" study, is analyzing lay jurisdiction. See Jeanean D. Merkel, ed., Creating a Home: Benchmarks for Church Leadership Roles for Women (Silver Spring, Md.: Leadership Conference of Women Religious, 1996). 14 Canon Law Society of America, The Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate (Washington, D.C.: Canon Law Society of America, 1995), pp. 47-48, citing Vatican Council II, Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of Religious Life (Perfectae caritatis), §10. See also Paul Vl, Sacrum diaconatus ordinem, §32, which provides for religious institutes to have some permanent deacons among their members. ~s Territorial monasteries of women present a special case because their prioresses and abbesses have historically had quasi-episcopal author-ity. For the sake of the argument here, we consider only apostolic insti-tutes of women. t6 As of 30 December 1999, the median age of women religious in the United States was 68.49, up from 67.87 in the previous year, according to a study commissioned by the National Religious Retirement Office, Washington, D.C. Review for Religious VIMAL TIRIMANNA Confidentiality: Are Religious Superiors Always Bound? In the Catholic tradition the superiors or animators of reli- .~. gious congregations and communities are expected to respect confidentiality, especially with regard to delicate personal, infor-mation regarding members, to which they have relatively easy access. In church discipline, howdver, there is no official sanction or limit attached to this conventional norm. On the one hand, if a superior violates such confidentiality and thus damages the good name of the confiding member, there are no clear prescriptions in the church's universal law about how the superior is to be dealt with. On the other hand, it is not officially established how a supe-rior ought to act when a member violates the confidentiality and unjustly damages the good name of the superior. Is it only the superior who.is bound by confidentiality? Or, when a member vio-lates confidentiality and damages:the superior's good name (or anyone else's), is the superior still bound by confidentiality? In this essay I attempt to answer these questions, using tradi-tional Catholic moral principles. First I illustrate the point at stake with a real incident well known among religious in Sri Lanka. Then I briefly analyze this kind of confidentiality in terms of its close associate, the professional secret. I examine why conflden- Vimal Tirimanna CSSR is provincial of his congregations's Sri Lankan province and president of the Conference of Major Superiors of Sri Lanka. His address is: 80, Amfritiya Road; Kandy; Sri Lanka. May-.]une 2001 Tirimanna ¯ Confidentiality tiality is essential in certain professions and ministries. Finally I examine whether such professional secrecy always binds the pro-fessional, the minister, the religious superior. A Real Case In 1998 two temporarily professed seminarians (one for four years, one for three) belonging to a clerical religious congrega-tion wrote to their major superior for his approval of their going out to do secular work for a couple of years and thereby testing their vocations. Since the formators and the superiors were already having some serious doubts about these two seminarians' suit-ability for consecrated life, the major superior, with his council's consent, readily approved the request. In the same year another seminarian (temporarily professed for two years) applied for dis-pensation within a week of renewing his vows, saying he Wanted to help his family financially by getting a.secular job. After much hesitation and dialogue, the major superior together with his coun-cil granted the dispensation. At the beginning of the year 2000, all three of these seminar-ians-- with the help of a former, major superior of the same con-gregation (who had been living outside his community illegitimately ever since he left office) and a disgruntled priest member of the same congregation (who had been illegitimately ~bsent for almost two years)--applied to join a diocese in Australia. All three were accepted for the diocese without any consultation of their major superior. The major superior wrote to the Congregation for Catholic Education in Rome, inquiring whether such circumventing of him by the bishop was licit. The Roman congregation asked the bishop for an explanation, and the bishop brought this to the notice of the three seminarians. In the mean-time the disgruntled priest member, living in the same diocese, got hold of the three seminarians and together they wrote a letter to Rome maligning the good name of the present major superior, their intention being to belittle his credibility in the eyes of the Roman dicastery and thus influence the latter's decision. The major superior's predecessor also wrote a letter, to the bishop in Australia, holding the present major superior responsible for the "ruin" of the congregation in Sri Lanka, especially for the dwindling number of members, and charging that it was the same superior's ruth-lessness that drove the three seminarians away from the congre- Review for Religious gation. He sent copies of the letter to several bishops and major superiors in Sri Lanka, obviously with the intention of eroding fur-ther the credibility of the major superior. Note here that the major superior, together with his council, had already initiated a canon-ical process against the disgruntled priest who was illegitimately absent in Australia and against the ex-major superior, also illegiti-mately absent from his religious community. Could this be their, way of settling scores with the major superior? On his part, the Australian bishop sent a copy of this let-ter of the ex-major superior to the above-mentioned Roman dicastery to justify his action of not consulting the major supe-rior before he accepted the three semi-narians to his diocese. After weighing all the matters at stake, the Congregation for Catholic Education instructed the Australian bishop, to consult the Sri Lankan major superior, saying that, acc.ording to the accepted official prac-tice, he ought to have consulted him before taking those three seminarians into his diocese. Apparently the Roman congrega-tion's stipulation to consult the major superior at least at that late stage was the only way of settling the issue in a spirit of Christian charity. But what about the damage this entire episode caused to the major superior? His good name was unjustly tarnished, and he had no way of defending himself, which was surely a legitimate right of his. As the major superior, he could not simply divulge certain vital information regarding the three seminarians and two priests-- which would have given the other side of the story and defended him. He was bound by confidentiality. Ironically, confidentiality, which normally serves to protect the good name of the persons involved, has in this case served to silence the major superior and prevent him from defending his own good name. In the light of this real-life situation, one may ask: In religious life, should con-fidentiality serve all the members of a congregation except supe-riors? Should superiors be the victims of confidentiality? Are there circumstances when the superiors would not be bound to confi-dentiality? In religious life, should confidentiality serve all the members of a congregation except superiors ? May-ffune 2001 Tirimanna ¯ Confidentiality What Is Confidentiality? The term confi'dentiality normally has to do with keeping secrets. Something becomes confidential when a private matter is imparted in secret with the trust that it will not be revealed to anyone else.l According to the moral philosopher Sissela Bok, confidentiality refers to the I~oundaries surrounding shared secrets and to the process, of guarding these boundaries. While confi-dentiality protects much that is not in fact secret, personal secrets lie at its core.2 In confidentiality, then, what is at stake is the fidelity, keeping faith with those who have confided their secrets on condition that they not be revealed) Understood in this sense, confidentiality covers a wide range of ordinary day-to-day human dealings, in which two parties or more are bound, at least by tacit agreement, not to reveal what has been confided. Some promi-nent examples have to do with what is called professional secrecy. In his classic work written more than fifty years ago, Robert Regan defined it as follows: The term professional secrecy denotes a specific moral duty inherent in certain offices or functions of a confidential nature exercised in society. It connotes in its simplest form a relationship between one person constituted in some sort of need and another person expert and skilled in caring for such needs and with official or quasi-official authorization to do so. Professional secrecy may be defined as a special moral obligation, binding in both commutative and legal justice, incumbent upon the members of certain confidential pro-fessions, of maintaining a discreet silence with reference to the confidential communications received by them in the course of duty.4 The professional secret, then, springs from the contractual nature of the relationship between the professional and the client. Doctors, lawyers, and priests are traditionally expected to main-tain confidentiality; they are expected not to reveal to third parties the confidential information they receive in their professional capacity from their clients. The well-known Hippocratic oath of doctors and the confessional seal of Catholic priests indicate that such confidentiality has had a long history with regard to some professions. It would be a mistake, however, to believe that pro~ fessional secrecy is expected only from those professions. Many others members of society--such as counselors, government min-isters, bankers, and accountants--are expected to honor this obli-gation of secrecy, though they may not be bound by any official Review for Religious oath or law. Religious superiors would fall into this latter category, and so, in the rest of this essay, one may see religious superiors as "professionals" and members of religious congregations as "clients." On the one hand, the duty of confidentiality enables the pro-fessionals to gain more information in order to offer help to their clients, and, on the other hand, it enables the clients to open them-selves more freely to the professionals in order to receive the help they need. Patients often share with their physicians information so private that they would not consider sharing it even with their closest friends and relatives. Such information is obviously essen-tial for correct diagnosis and appropriate therapy. Confidentiality, professional secrecy, enables patients to reveal such information to physicians. Thus, professional secrecy, while strengthening the professionals' claim to their professional status, is first and fore-most for their clients' benefit.5 Take, for example, a battered wife who has shot her husband in self-defense.6 She might deny that she has shot him at all because, not knowing that killing in self-defense is lawful, she falsely believes herself guilty of murder. In order to give her a fair trial, it is extremely important for her lawyer to get all the relevant information that led to the .shooting so that he can build a case of self-defense in her favor. But, to reveal such information, the client normally needs at least tacit assurance of confidentiality from the lawyer. It is exactly this tacit assurance of confidentiality that professional secrecy normally gives to clients seeking professional assistance. Note here that under normal circumstances, if what has been confided is revealed, the one who confided will again be victimized. The whole purpose of confidentiality is to protect such victims. What we are dealing with in this essay, however, is the peculiar case of confidentiality making a victim of the professional when the one who confided the private information takes undue advantage of the silence that confidentiality demands of the professional. In the relationship we are considering in this essay, namely, that between superiors and members, the "victims" (or clients, mem-bers, receivers of authorized "professional" leadership) become the assailants, using loose talk, letter writing, and other weapons of calumny or slander to attack the professionals. Although reli-gious superiors may have sufficient information at their disposal to defend themselves, they are bound by the obligation of confiden-tiality and thus become victims--as in the real-life illustration we sketched above. May-ffune 2001 L-249-:--- --- 2-5.0A Tirimanna ." Confidentiality May the Confidentiality Assured by the Professional Secrecy Ever Be Violated? From the discussion we have had so far, it should be clear that the obligation to keep professional secrets is mainly justifiable on the grouhds that it assures clients a clear guarantee that the infor-mation confided in professional secrecy would never be revealed and that such a guarantee evokes a sense of trust and credibility in the clients so that they feel free to share information that would help them in seeking professional assistance. Leroy Wakers holds that the main moral justifications for professional confidentiality fall into just two main categories: The major moral justifications for confidentiality fall into two broad categories: consequentialist and nonconsequen-tialist . Consequendalists generally justify the social prac-tice of preserving confidentiality in certain contexts by. arguing that the efficient functioning of the physician-patient or lawyer-client relationship would be impeded without it. Nonconsequentialists (or deontologists) usually justify con-fid~ ndality by relating it either to the duty of promise-keep-ing, if an implied or explicit promise has been made, or to the duty to respect the autonomy of persons, who in this case would otherwise lose control over important information about themselves.7 Having thus very briefly examined the moral justifications of the obligation to keep the professional secrets, we now move on to whether there can ever be circumstances in which such an obli-gation ceases. In other words, are there circumstances that permit or even necessitate the revelation of a professional secret? Should a physician tell an HW-positive patient's spouse or lover about the illness so that he or she can avoid risky sexual behavior? Regan draws attention to a principle, which he attributes to ¯ theologians, that may be useful in questions of this kind: "The professional person is obliged to keep the client's secre~ as long as the client retains the right to his secret.''8 In using this guiding principle, the crucial question one has to raise whenever a doubt arises is: Has the client 'the right to keep this matter secret? If the client retains that right, then the professional person must keep the secret. However, if the client for one reason or another has for-feited his or her right to secrecy, then the professional person is not bound to secrecy "and normally must take advantage of the free-dom and reveal the secr,et.''9 According to Regan, the causes that will permit or necessitate the revelation of another's secret, includ- Review for Religious ing professional secrets, are generally reducible to three categories: the consent of the client, publication of the fact or knowledge of it from another source, and the necessity of preventing harm from befalling either the community or individuals2° In this essay, what interests us is the last category: What kinds of harm to the com-munity or individuals is it necessary to try to prevent? Regan lists four main ones: .the necessity of preventing harm from befalling the community; the necessity of preventing harm from befalling clients themselves; the necessity of preventing harm from befalling an innocent third party; and the neces-sity of preventing harm from befalling oneself (the professional person). Of these four cases, what is rel-evant directly to us in this essay is the fourth case, namely, preventing harm from befalling oneself---in our case, the religious superior himself or herself. Sissela Bok seems to agree with Regan's first thre~ cases listed above. For her, harm to clients themselves, harm to other specific individuals, and harm to unknown persons or groups of persons in society are the three main limits to the obligation of keeping professional secrecy.11 She says: The premises supporting confidentiality are strong, but they cannot support practices of secrecy--whether by individual clients, institutions, or professionals themselves--that under-mine and contradict the very respec.t for persons and for human bonds that confidentiality was meant to protect.12 It is clear that keeping a professional secret is obligatory almost always. This obligation, however, has limits. In other words, while there is a strict obligation to guard the confidentiality of clients, there are circumstances in which professional secrets may be revealed. Surely one such circumstance is the case .where the pro-fessionals (religious superiors) are unjustly victimized by their clients (members of their religious congregations). Within church life there are many areas in which confiden-tiality is called for. However, except in the case of the confessional seal, church discipline does not seem to have indicated the impor- Are there circumstances that permit or even necessitate the revelation of a professional secret ? May-ffune 2001 Tirimanna ¯ Confidentiality tance of confidentiality by enunciating specific norms with clear-cut sanctions. In the case of the pontifical secret, for example, when people are consulted in connection with choosing a bishop, in the case of counselingi and in this essay's case about religious superiors, it is not sufficient merely to declare the Feed for con-fidentiality. Today it has become important to enunciate what such confidentiality means and why it is necessary, what its norms are, and what its sanctions and limits are. Or else, as we saw in this essay, some parties (in our case, the religious superiors) can unjustly become victims of this very much needed confidentiality. That the religious superiors are morally bound to respect confidential-ity with regard the members of their congregations is beyond dis-pute. The question I have highlighted is this: Do religious superiors have to maintain professional confidentiality absolutely, or are there circumstances when they have the moral "duty not to adhere to such confidentiality, particularly when it damages their good name? To me it seems there are occasions when they are not bound and that such occasions need to be recognized officially by the church in the form of clearly stipulated norms with appropri-ate. sanctions and limits attached to them. Such norms would surely enhance the common good of a given religious congregation whereas their continued absence is likely not only to cripple or paralyze religious superiors or animators, but also to negatively affect the work and welfare of the congregation as a whole. Notes ~ See Shaun McCarty ST, "Confidentiality Issues in Spiritual Direction," Review for Religious 56, no. 4 (July-August 1997): 370. 2 Sissela Bok, Secrets: On the Ethics of Concealment and Revelation (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), p. 119. 3 Bok, Secrets, p. 156. 4 Robert E. Regan OSA, Professional Secrecy in the Light of Moral Principles: With an Application to Several Important Professions (Washington, D.C.: Augustinian Press, 1943), p. 47. s See Bok, Secrets, pp. 116, 122. 6 This example is taken from Alan Donagan, "Confidentiality in the Adversary System," in Ethical Issues in Professional Life, ed. Joan C. Callahan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 253. 7 Leroy Waiters, '.'Confidentiality," in A New Dictionary of Christian Ethics, ed. James E Childress and John Macquarrie (London: SMC Press), 1986), p. 112. 8 Regan, Professional Secrecy, p. 9~. Review for Religious 9' Regan, Professional Secrecy, pp. 97-98. 10 Regan, Professional Secrecy, p. 101. 1~ See Bok, Secrecy, pp. 124-131. ~2 Bok, Secrecy, p. 135. See also Karl H. Peshke, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican H, rev. ed., Vol. 2 (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1992), pp. 379-380. Acceptance I know you well, my sins. Like an outworn glove creased and molded to my hand I know you. Fiber-woven we have grown together through the years, and I have come to know your intertwining even in the warp and woof of each shuttled day until you and I are indefinable. I know you wall, my friends, ¯ though not always was it so; and even now I do not wish too much accommodation. But life together holds some gratitude (albeit given grudgingly). Without you being who you are I would not be who I am. Marie LeClerc Laux SSND May-.~une 2001 LINDA HERNDON The Computer's Edge: Some Social and Ethical Concerns ComunmitpiUest etorsd ahya.v Ce obmecpoumteer sa amrea iunssetady t oin w mriotes tl erettleigrsio, utos kceoemp-track of community finances, to hold databases of information about community members and benefactors, to order library mate-rials, and to do some community business. The World Wide Web and email correspondence provide many helpful connections. Many religious have been involved in discussions about which type of computers to buy, what word-processing software to use, whether community members should all have the same type of computer and software, and other similar issues. Beyond these computer applications and issues, there are other computer matters that matter too, and our religious communities may be less alert to them. I suggest that, to begin with, we should be' talking seriously about some social and ethical issues in the computer world, such as equity of access, gender issues, privacy concerns, and the ways computer use can affect our relationships with others. On these issues I will make some remarks, raise some questions, and propose some possible practical responses, in the hope that religious communities will start similar discussions on these and other questions and find answers pertinent to their own situation. Although computers become less expensive with each passing year, they are not cheap. At present, in the first world, computers Linda Herndon OSB, of Mount St. Scholastica in Atchison, Kansas, writes from 409 N. Eau Claire Avenue, #I 10; Madison, Wisconsin 53705. Review for Religious are not necessities in the same way that telephones and cars are, but those of us who use computers regularly would find our work and our communication more difficult without them. Having com- ' puters available in our communities sets us apart from the poor. A recent study by the Fleet Boston Financial Foundation reports that in five northeastern cities fewer than half of the respondents with incomes under $40,000 a year have computers in their homes, and only 32 percent are connected to the Internet.t In 1999 a front-page article in USA Today said, "The Internet revolution is largely bypassing the poor, minorities, and those who live in rural communities and inner cities.''2 The article went on to say that Internet access was becoming both an economic and a civil-rights issue. More and more studies and articles report this. As regards the elderly, the article .said that only "15 percent of peo-ple 55 and over are on line." Although this number has surely increased by now, there is still reason for concern about older people's lack of computer knowledge and access, for with time more and more information is available only on line and not in traditional print formats. Lack of equal access to computers and the Internet, often referred to as the "Digital Divide," poses difficult questions with no simple answers, Are we in religious communities even aware that this situation exists and is a problem? How can we justify set-ting ourselves apart from significant portions of society by our possession and use of computer technology? Do we allow our employees Use of community computers? If we do, do we provide the training they need to use this often intimidating technology? Do we provide adequate computing facilities, including Internet access, for the schools and institutions that we sponsor? There are things we can do to alleviate this access problem. We can donate our older, but usable, comp~lters to community-action organizations that concern themselves with people who do not ordinarily have access to this technology. We can encourage businesses to do likewise. The Washington Post explored such possibilities in a 21 December 2000 article, "Who wants your old computer?" 3 Another way our rel!gious communities can assist organiza-tions that are working to overcome this problem of computer inac-cessibility is by sharing with them our skills in grant writing. We can become more informed about the inequity of access to both computers and the Internet, and we can stir others to address this May-June 2001 Herndon ¯ The Computer'sEdge major social and educational concern. Each .community needs to look at its charism, community resources, and ministries to decide how to address the "Digital Divide." Along with such physical access to computers and the Internet, is our community's Website accessible to all?4 Although court cases have determined that Websites do not need to meet the guide-lines set forth in the Americans with Disabilities Act,s it seems that, in ~he interest of hospitality, we will want our community Websit~ to be accessible to all who try to visit.6 Is our.Website accessible to the blind or to those who are limited to a text-only browser? Websites with the latest "bells and whistles," such as Javascript, multiple frames, sound, and even animation, may make a site inaccessible to those who are running older browsers, are visually impaired, or are accessing the site over a slow modem. As communities of women and men religious, we need to explore the type of image we wish to portray to those who visit us in cyberspace. These decisions will need to be conveyed to those who design and maintain our community Websites. Such deci-sions, if they include not having the latest innovations, may not be understood by our Website creator and may provide occasion for ongoing dialogue with and education of the Web-page designer, community decision makers, and the community as a whole. A study conducted by the American Association of University Women released in October 1998 showed that "technology is now the new 'boys' club' in our nation's public schools.''7 Their 2000 report, "Tech-Savvy: Educating Girls in the New Computer Age," found similar results.8 The current computer climate does not tend to attract girls. Girls dislike the violence present in many computer games and are looking for "high-skill, not high-kill." The entry position of girls into computi.ng is often the 2001 equiv-alent of typing and word processing. These observations, coupled with the steady decline 6f the number of women going into com-puter science and related areas for the past fifteen years, are cause for great concern. The potential contribution that women have to offer in the area of technology will be lost as long as these trends continue. The "gender gap" in technology use raises several questions for us to consider, especially those of us who are members of com-munities of women religious. Do we encourage members to con-sider technology as an important and significant area of study? Do we encourage the girls and women with whom we have con- Review for Religious tact to study computer science and other areas of technology? Do we offer women any training programs in computer skills? Do we sponsor for girls special classes or workshops in technology? These are a few ways that we can help society benefit from the gifts and skills of women in the area of technology. Is it possible for those of us with extra buildings and superfluous space to use some space for computer learning labs specially designed for girls and women? Do we help and support those who are look-ing for foundation, funds for projects that empower girls and women in the use and study of technology? In an attempt to reverse these trends, Anita Borg recently created the Institute for Women and Technology9 as a way to "increase the impact of women on technologyand to increase the positive impact of technology on the world's women.''1° Another group, Women in Technology International, seeks to empower women through technology.~1 If even a small fraction of our religious commu-nities would help support these or similar ini-tiatives where we are--elementary schools, secondary schools, universities, wherever--what a difference we could make for young girls and women. We can encourage and lobby manufacturers of computer games .to explore other, less-violent options. What a great gift this would be to today's youth and to future generations! Lack of privacy is becoming a major concern in our society. Databases containing social-security numbers, driver's license data, health information, banking and credit information, residence and real-estate information, political-party affiliation, and more are available to all kinds of individuals, agencies, and businesses what-ever their purpose. As making purchases on' the Internet by credit card becomes common practice, the need for secure channels grows. Not all transmission of sensitive and personal information is secure; and this poses significant danger to privacy. And there is the question of the privacy of email. Email is not protected by the laws that protect the privacy of mail delivered by the United States Postal Service. Some companies and busi-nesses regularly, and legally, screen the email of their employees. Email is not secure and can be viewed at any of the computers through which it passes' on the way to its destination. At every We can encourage and lobby manufacturers of computer games to explore other, less-violent options. Herndon ¯ The Computer's Edge. "stop" along its path, a copy of the email is.downloaded before it is sent on its way. Since backuPs of these intermediate computers are made regularly, copies of our email are stored for some days, weeks, or even months. Most people are not even aware that copies of their email exist at various unknovcn computer locations. Unauthorized access by others to an individual's email is not likely to occur, but the possibilities do exist. There are many complex questions in the area of privacy. Are we aware of the problem of the lack of privacy that massive databases and the Internet present? Are we aware of what we can do to increase our own and others' personal privacy? Are we advo-cates for email privacy, .especially in the workplace? Do we educate ourselves and our community members about privacy and security concerns in the use of the Internet? Often new users of the Internet, especially older people, are not aware of the need for precaution. We can encourage our com-munity members not to give out unnecessary information about themselves, whether on the Internet, on questionnaires, or over the telephone. The more we can keep the various pieces of informa-tion about ourselves (such as name, address, phone number, social-security number) private, the harder it is for those using multiple databases to put together ~11 the pieces for a "picture" of us. Social-security numbers are probably the single best source of information about people.2 For convenience, many agencies and institutions use s0cial-security numbers for identification num-bers. Unless required by law (as in some financial matters), no one can require that your social-security number be used for your identification number. In Kansas, where I reside, people getting a driver's license may be asked for their social-security number for use on the driver's license, but they can request another number and it will be given. I suggest that, as women and men religious, we speak out against using social-security numbers for identifica-tion. Often people's phone number, date of birth, and so forth are routinely requested on warranty applications and the like. This information is usually not necessary and need not be given out to "strangers" for a database somewhere. After educating ourselves and our community members about these privacy matters, we will be better able to educate others as well. Does our use of the computer and the Internet affect the way we relate to others within and outside our religious community? A recent study found that "the nation's obsession with the Internet Review for Religious is causing many Americans to spend less time with friends and family" and that, the more time people spend on the Internet, the less time they will spend with real human beings.13 If members of religious communities are typical of the people studied, what ai-e the implications of flaese findings for us? There is no doubt that the Internet and email can be used to keep the membership informed and in touch with leadership and its decisions and also with others in the community. But do Internet browsing~ chat rooms, and email take members away from community time and from relating with others with whom they live? Is it safer to relate to another community member at a distance, even someone we have never met face to face, than to relate to our sisters or brothers close by? A related concern is addiction to computers. Compulsive behavior can be exhibited in game-playing, chat rooms, and surfing the Web. Do these things take religious away from their min-istry and their relating with others in normal ways? If so, there is a problem that needs to be dealt with. Seeking pornographic sites would, of course, be a problem in itself. There may be no way to legislate computer use, but religious communities can take some steps to prevent or alleviate various problems. If communal living is a priority, perhaps members should not ha~e "their own" computers. Of course, computers are pro-vided in offices, and also for ministries as needed or desirable, but these probably should not be in private rooms. Communities can have a "general access" computer or computers. Simply having them out in the open could help towards moderate use and a gen-eral sense of community. No doubt computers are here to stay. I have suggested look-ing at a number of social and ethical issues concerning computer use that'go beyond what computers to buy and which software programs are best. I believe that we women and men religious have something significant to offer in the area of computing tech-nology. It seems natural for us to become a voice regarding the social and ethical issues that computers and the Internet raise24 It will take time, much discussion, and a serious search to find answers for ourselves and our religious communities. If we com-mit ourselves to go beyond the obvious, we can bring about a Compulsive behavior can be exhibited in game-playing, chat rooms, and surfing the Web. May-June 2001 Herndon * Tbe Computer's Edge more humane and heal.thy world of computing for ourselves, our religious communities, and the wider world that our lives touch. Since these issues are multifaceted and I have just begun to scratch the surface of them, I have created a Website with links to online resources at: http://www.mountosb.org/social-issues.html. This Website contains links to issues that I have not addressed in this article. Among them are those related to health concerns (including repetitive-stress syndrome) and to environmental con-cerns (called "green computing"). These resources provide fur-ther educational information and can help you and your community develop your own way of handling various issues. This Web page will be updated with new information and links as they become known. I invite you to contribute to making this page a useful resource for all communities of women and men religious as they continue to face or raise issues of social and ethical concern in and around the world of computers. Notes ~ The report is summarized in "News, Resources, and Trends: An Online Newsletter from Syllabus Press," a listserv email of 17 January 2001. 2 D. Lieberman, "Internet gap widening. Study: Revolution bypass-ing poor, minorities," USA Today (9-I 1 July 1999), p. 1. 3 Available at: http://washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A37762 -2000Dec21 .html 4 "Towards Equal Web Access for All," by Jim Isaak (14 January 2001): http://www.computer.org/itpro/Nov_Dec.htm s "Does the ADA Apply to the Web?" by Michael Mason (25 September 2000): http://www.wtonline.com/vol 15_nol 3/federal/1815 - 1 .html 6 For complete guidelines see the Website for the Web Accessibility Initiative: http://www.w3.org/WAI 7j. Kornblum (14 October 1998), "Study: Tech gender gap widening," CNET News.Corn, available at: http://www.news.com/News/Item/0,4,27550,O0 .html?st.ne.ni.lh 8 "Why Girls Don't Compute," by Kendra Mayfield, Wired News (29 December 2000): http://www.wirEd.com/news/culture/0,1284, 35654,00.html 9 For more information see the Women in Technology home page at: http://www.iwt.org ~0 A. Borg (March 1999). "Expanding the Pipeline: Models for Innovation Bring Women to the Table." Computing Research News, p. 2. ~ The home page for Women in Technology International is: http://www.witi.com/index-c.shtml Review for Religious ¯ ,2 This site; "Some Freqtiently Asked Questions on SSNs," maintained by Computer Scientists for Social Responsibility, is an excellent source of more information: http://www.cpsr.org/cpsr/privacy/ssn/ssn.faq.html ,3 "Study indicates Internet use changes social patterns," by John Markoff (16 February 2000): http://wwwlkcstar.com/item/pages/home.pat,local /37743 d 15.216,.html 14 One order's attempt to deal with these questions is the report of the Benedictine Internet Commission, a group of Benedictine women and men from around the United States. Their final report, issued on 15 January 1998, is available at: http://www.osb.org/bic/report.html Only to This Don't try to look as though you had no problems. Who doesn't ? Don't try to act as though you had it all together. Who does ? Don't think that you cannot be defeated. You can be crushed. Only to this must you witness. That in your problems God is there. That in falling apart you are held together. That in being crushed you are already being raised up again. As the crushed grape yields fine wine, and the crushed olive yields rich oil, so does your body yield, and does its yield give life. Paul N. Duckro May-June 2001 ROBERT P. MALONEY Authenticity and Contact with Youth religious life I love this little verse from Isaiah:"Each morning he wakes me to hear, to listen like a disciple. The Lord Yahweh has opened my ear" (50:4-5). God is always try-ing to communicate with us. The Scriptures' powerful words and life's dramatic events seek contnually to rouse us from our distractedness, but often, as Isaiah laments, "hearing we do not hear." The whole New Testament, very mindful of Isaiah's words, is a trumpet call to conversion. The good news begins with a herald's cry in the desert: "Change your way of life. Prepare the way of the Lord." And when John the Baptist presents Jesus as the central figure on the New Testament stage, Jesus' message is simple and clear: "This is the time of fulfillment. The reign of God is at hand! Reform your lives and believe in the good news!" (Mk 1:15). Religioiis, first in their baptism and later in their vocational option, commit themselves to the conversion process of which the gospels speak. But this call to be a new creation is continual. It comes at every stage in our development. It says: Change your way of life now. As Karl Rahner once wrote, "none of us can enter the king- Robert P. Maloney CM, superior gene~,al of the Congre-gation of the Mission, writes again from Via dei Capasso, 30; 00164 Roma, Italy. Review for Religious dom of God as we are." To narrow down this broad topic drasti-cally, I describe in this article one way of constant conversion, that proposed by Vincent de Paul. I analyze it briefly in terms derived from Be/nard Lonergan and then draw a few practical conclusions. Hunger for Truth as Constant Conversion Vincent de Paul wrote to his friend Franqois du Coudray on 6 November 1634: "Simplicity is the virtue I love most" (SV I, 284).1 Almost twenty years later he said to the Daughters of Charity, "I call it my gospel" (SV Ix, 606). Just a year before he died, he told the members of the Congregation of the Mission that everyone loves those who are authentic, whose words match what is in their hearts and whose actions match their words (SV XII, 171). Vincent proposed this "way" to the many groups he founded. It is clearly the virtue he loved most. Today we give simplicity many names: genuineness, sincerity, transparency, integrity, authenticity, hunger or thirst or passion for the truth. I suggest that simplicity is a path of continual con-version. This conversion manifests itself in: ¯ listening for the truth, searching for it humbly as a wayfarer rather than thinking to possess it as an owner; ° speaking the truth (a difficult disci-pline, especially when one's own convenience is at stake or when the truth is embarrassing); ¯ witnessing to the truth, or the personal authenticity whereby one's life matches one's words; ¯ practicing the truth through works of justice and charity; ¯ striving for sin-gle- minded truth, or purity of ihtention; ° living truthfully as a servant of the poor, having modest possessions and sharing what one has; ° expressing the truth clearly, using attractive, transpar-ent language, especially in teaching or preaching. The Asceticism of Authenticity Simplicity or authenticity is impossible without asceticism. The path of simplicity requires a long-sustained exercis~ of atten-tiveness, understanding, reasonableness, and responsibility. Authenticity, in other words, rests on a positive response to what Bernard Lonergan calls "four transcendental precepts": (I) be attentive, (2) seek to understand, (3) be reasonable, (4) be respon-sible. Attentive people observe precisely what is going on. Understanding people search out the meaning of what they see May-June 2001 Malone2/ ¯ Authenticity and Contact with Youth Drifting is the contemporary form of lukewarmness, of being "neither cold nor hot." and hear. Reasonable people formulate possible changes for the better. And responsible people weigh in the balance their short-and long-term advantages and disadvantages, and then choose. On the path that lies between inauthenticity and authentic-ity, there are two great dangers. The first danger to authenticity is bias. All of us have individual biases. They are self-deceptions that we create to protect ourselves or make us feel ¯ more secure. Others often see them in us much more quickly than we do: prejudices, labeling of others as liberals or conservatives, comfortable but unexamined choices, unchangeable patterns of behavior. One of the commonest individual biases I know in com-munity life is intolerance of differing pastoral approaches. Group bias is more subtle. We do not eas-ily identify it, because we share it with those around us. But it is very dangerous. It gives rise to unjust laws, persecutions, wars, abuse of others because of their race, sex, ethnic ori-gin, or religion. In clerical circles there still are strong group prejudices against women. These are especially striking in many European countries, in Africa, and in Asia, but they are found almost everywhere. Common bias is the most difficult of all to discern. It exists not just in individuals and particular groups; just about everyone suf-fers from it. It comes from looking at life in ways that no one reflects about and almost no one perceives as quite unacceptable. For centuries most people, Chris6ans included, regarded slavery as licit. Most of us live and die with common biases, without ever recognizing them. Prophetic voices attempt from time to time to shock us out of them. I am sorry that I cannot point out today's common biases, because, being afflicted with thgm, I am blind to them myself. But I am sure that someday people will shake their heads about us and our blithe assumptions, and ask, "How could they have thought that?" Whht are my biases? The second great danger is drifting. People who have entered the vowed life seldom deliberately choose to be inauthentic. In the contemporary world the great danger is that they might not deliberately choose anything at all. Drifting is the contemporary Review for Religious form of lukewarmness, of being "neither cold nor hot" (Rv 3:15). Drifters find themselves .incapable of moving resolutely toward authenticity. They skip across surfaces, never listening attentively, not searching out life's meaning, unalert for the right path or unwilling to choose it firmly. Do I drift? Levels of Conversion The quest for authenticity and the overcoming of our biases involves conversion on three levels. 1. Intellectual conversion. Staying aliveintellectually is crucial. I am not referring here to abstract, theoretical, high-flying intel-lectual voyages. No, I mean that we nourish our minds; that we read and reflect critically; that, when we ponder the word of God, we apply the four transcendental principles. Be attentive: hear what it is saying. Search out its meaning: understand it in the light of good commentators. Be reasonable: formulate what it may be asking of us. Be responsible: decide and act on the word. The focus of intellectual conversion is the true. 2. Moral conversion. The key to moral conversion is a change in the criterion for our choices, from personal satisfaction to val-ues. It is crucial in life that we decide what our key values are-- something drifters never do--and that we make them the basis of our judgments. The focus of moral conversion is the good. 3. Religious conversion. In religious conversion we are grasped by an ultimate concern. We surrender ourselves to God. Genuine religious conversion is pure grace. It is,not that we grasp God; God grasps us. The focus of i-eligious conversion is the holy. In each of these stages, we make choices and tfltimately our choices make us. We become what we choose. When we choose the true, we become true. When we choose the good, we become good. When we choose to allow the holy to possess us, we become holy. Am I in the process of being intellectually, morally, and reli-giously converted? Toward Being a New Creation Sixty-four percent of the world's population is under twenty-five years of age. These young people are the hope of the future. They are the future. Authenticity is immensely attractive to them. 2Ylay-June 2001 ¯ " Maloney ¯ Authenticity and Contact with Youth They yearn for the truth, hungering for it and rejecting what they consider its bogus forms. Let me suggest some specific ways in Which religious as indi-viduals and as communities can become more authentic. I am convinced that these will be of immense help in our efforts to reach out to the young. These are my dreams for all of us: ¯ My dream: that we become families that pray mightily and beautifully. I start with an aspe.ct of religious conversion. Do people say of our communities, "They really know how to pray"? People surely know many religious communities for their works. When posing this question to the Vincentian family, I put it this way: "The name Vincent de Paul is synonymous with works of practical charity. But do people also see us as a group that is deeply committed to prayer? Do the young people who come among us feel attracted by experiencing how we pray? Vincent himself was an extraordinary pray-er. His contemporaries readily recognized him as a contem-plative in action. He placed great emphasis on mentai prayer, on attuning ourselves to the rhythm of the church's liturgical life, and on celebrating it beautifully." My hope is that religious can support one another in medi-tating daily and fruitfully and that their common liturgical prayer will be "something beautiful for God" and attractive to the young. Do young people feel at home praying with us? Does our prayer ring true to them? ¯ My dream: that we create formation programs for the young. I hope that we can be masters and guides in the spiritual jour-ney. It is most important that we ourselves be rooted authenti-cally and experientially in the mystery of God's love if we wish to help young people share deeply in that same mystery. The mis-sion of the church is, after all, to announce this mystery joyfully. Formation is crucial for helping young people know and feel the good news that God is alive, that he lives within us, that he wbrks among us, and that he has a special love for the poor. Good formation demands hard work, creativity, the preparation of attrac-tive materials, and the dissemination of these materials far and wide to thousands and millions of young people who hunger for the truth. In the schools, parishes, and social centers where many reli-gious serve, have we created effective formation programs for Re~iew for Religqous young people? Have we developed a pedagogy of the experience of God? Can we communicate to the young our passion for truth and accompany them in their longing to be true? ¯ My dream: that we form youth groups and offer young people the opportunity to join in the service of the poor. ¯ Is there any sector of society that Pope John Paul II has focused on more clearly than youth? Today everyone talks about the new millennium. Young people are the third millennium. It belongs to them. If the Church is to be fully alive in this millennium, it will be because it is energized by young people who believe deeply. The young are the future evangelizers of the world and servants of the poor. Most religious active today will scarcely cross the threshold of the third millennium. If statistics hold true, I will not survive its sec-ond decade. But today's young people will be alive and full of energy long after that. And so I suggest that there is no apostolic goal more important for the church today than to reach. out to young people and offer them a strong Christian formation. We have a wonderful gift to offer them. We must bring it to them joyfully and generously. The presence of two million young peo-ple at World Youth Day in Rome last August was striking. Are we actively engaged in form-ing youth groups? Is the truth of our religious charism so important to us that we are eager to share it with them? ¯ My dream: that we offer the young the opportunity to serve in other countries. We live in the global community. Today events everywhere in the world affect us quickly. If the yen is weak, the New York stock market dives. If there is violent trouble in Central America, the number of undocumented people in Los Angeles increases. I urge religious to help young people to see the .plight of the poor throughout the world. Almost four centuries ago, when it was alto-gether common for young and old to die within five miles of their birthplace, Vincent de Paul established lay groups and two inter-national communities of priests, brothers, and sisters that spread quickly from France to Poland, Italy, Alge.ria, Madagascar, Ireland, Scotland, the Hebrides, and the Orkneys. There is no apostolic goal more important for the church today than to reach out to young people and offer them a strong Christian formation. May-June 2001 Maloney * Authenticity and Contact with Youth Do we offer young people the opportunity for commitments of two, three, four, five years in foreign missions? Do we encour-age them to be true to their inner desires in palpable ways, to be free to extend themselves, to take risks, to make temporary com-mitments and even permanent ones? Does the truth of our mis-sionary vocation so burn in our hearts that it carries over to others, brightening, w.arming, building a fire in them as well? In the mid 19th century, Henry David Thoreau went off into the woods and lived fo~: two yea~s more or less as a hermit a~ Walden Pond. It was a time of conversion for him, an intense period in which he sought meaning in his life. One day last sum-mer I visited Walden Pond, walked around its perimeter, and took a swim. In the evening I picked up Thoreau's famous book and read the words that he wrote when he returned to society after two years of searching: I learned this, at least, by my experiment: that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a suc-cess unexpected in common hours. He will put some things behind, will pass aia invisible boundary; . . . and he will live with the liberty of a higher order of beings. In proportion as he simplifies his life, the laws of the universe will appear less complex, and solitude will not be solitude, nor poverty poverty, nor weakness weakness. If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them. How can we help young people dream dreams of the king-dom of God and build the foundations that will make those dreams come true? How can we communicate to greater numbers Of them a passion for the truth, a passion for the person of Jesus, a pas-sion for justice, a passion for the poor? Passion in its root sense includes suffering--can we help young people to be willing even to suffer for the truth they believe in? Note 1 SV refers to the fourteen-volume French edition of St. Vincent de Paul's works, edited by Pierre Coste (Paris: Gabalda, 1920-1925). Review for Religious KATHY DUNNE Obedience: Vow and Virtue in Our Contemporary World Ibt was a breezy, hot summer day in 1958. I was sitting on the ack steps of our suburban Long Island home with my friend Linda. We were both about six or seven years old. My morn had just made cupcakes, but told us we could not have any until after ¯ dinner that evening. Linda and I were discussing the merits of "snitching" a cupcake when my mom was not looking. I held that it would be stealing because they did not belong to us. Since this would be a mortal sin in our° theological framework, I did not think this was such a good idea. I did not want to die that night and go to hell! Linda, more practical-minded, said she thought it would only be a sin of disobedience since my mom said we could not have one until later. That would only be a venial sin! Since my mom stayed in the kitchen, we did not have a chance to take the cupcake. As I reflect on that event, I see that our notion of obedience was rudimentary. We lacked maturity, of. course, and our moral framework was that of young children. After many years of growth in discipleship and in my religious vocation, I found myself with a deeper understanding of the vow of obedience. Obedience means more than acquiescing to external authority; it is a more mature, discerning stance that includes inner authority within the context of community, the church, and the world. Kathy Dunne RC is a spiritual director and works with her commu-nity's affiliates. She wrote "The Still Point" for our issue of January- February 1999. Her address is Cenacle Retreat House; P.O. Box 8115; Metairie, Louisiafia 70011. May-June 2001 Dunne ¯ Obedience: Vow and Virtue This article looks at obedience as an evangelical counsel, lived as vow andvirtue. It approaches obedience from three perspec-tives: the scriptural, especially as seen in Jesus' relationship with the One he called Abba; that of religious life today; and that of con-temporary spirituality, that is, living the Spirit of the Gospels in one's life. Obedience, which comes from the Latin audire, means to lis-ten or to hear. In The New Catholic Dictionary of Spirituality, obe-dience is defined as "receiv!ng and responding appropriately to a message--or Word--from God.''l Jesus Christ, in his fidelity to his Abba (his Father), is the model par excellence of this obedience. Jesus lived in a deep relationship with his Father, modeling for us what intimacy means. Jesus' life of deep prayer, listening, and response to his Abba lies at the heart of obedience. The Scriptures tell us that by his obedience Christ was able to "reconcile all things to himself." In a world fractured by sin and division, Jesus shows us how to be at one with God, with each other, and with the whole cosmos. We are called to obedience in the deepest recesses of our being. We are invited back to primal unity and original innocence. By reconciling all things and all people in Christ Jesus, God invites us back to what life was like before original sin. This original unity models love, inclusivity, respect, reverence, mutuality, and care of the ea~'th and all living things. It is nonabusive and "does not rejoice in the wrong but rejoices in the truth" (1 Co 13:6); there "is ntither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free person, male nor female, for all are one in Christ Jesus" (Ga 3:28). Original Sin Original sin, the sin of fundamental disobedience, echoes Lucifer's "I will not serve." It prevents us from accepting and liv-ing the truth of who we are given to be. It blinds us from seeing with the eyes of Christ. Unable to see clearly, we live in a fog or mist of confusion, contradiction, and rationalization. We are often unaware of the needs of those around us. We justify our thoughts, attitudes, and behavior in the name of expediency. We participate, often without realizing it, in the escalating violence and destruc-tion that affect all persons and all creation. We do this by our presence and by our silence. This happens in personal and in struc-tural acts of sin. By our acts of commission and omission, we are Review for Religious involved both in petty acts of selfishness and in the much larger realms of evil, including prejudice, racism, and sexism. We are called, as Christians and particularly as religious, to stand against this fundamental disobedience. We are called to be in harmony and in relationship with all of creation, with one another, and with Christ in God. Obedience is not easy, nor is it an escape from discerning what God asks of us each day. As Dietrich Bonhoeffer said, "There is no cheap grace." Neither is there cheap obedience. Obedience does not give license to opt out of personal or communal responsibility. Rather, obedience is being in fundamental relationship with Jesus Christ as he was with his Father. For many of us that relationship is also mediated through the church and the profession of religious vows. But, primarily and before any type of mediated relationship, we are called to be disciples. Discipleship is the call to be learners, to stand before God with, in, and through Jesus Christ as persons who desire to do God's will and beg for the grace of actually doing it in all the circumstances of life. Obedience is being in fundamental relationship with Jesus Christ as he was with his Father. Seeking the Will of God There are various ways of seeing the will of God. Some see it to be preset or preplanned, a blueprint thatlone just has to dis-cover in order to be obedient. Others consider it as unfolding in the events of daily life. Some experience God's will as some com-bination of the two. Perhaps another way to see its essential nature is to look at Jesus and his relationship with the One he called Abba. John's Gospel in particular stresses this relationship: "I always do what pleases him"; "I have come not to do my own will but the will of him who sent me"; "I am in the Father and the Father is in me" (John 6 and 14:10). Jesus' obedience hinges on this relationship with his Abba. It is not a driven or mechanical relationship. It is a matter of love and deep passion that God's dream for our world will come to fruition. This type of union flourished with Adam and Eve, as God walked in the garden with them in the cool of the evening. When Adam May-ffune 2001 Dunne ¯ Obedience: Vow and Virtue and Eve ate of the fruit of the tree of good and evil, their eyes were opened. They lost their primal innocence. The Evil One said they would become like gods. Instead, they lost their innocence and were removed from the gard.en (Gn 3:1-19). Jesus, in the words of the Easter Proclamation, "restores lost innocence." The innocence and candor of little children are often spoken of as a kind of na'ivet~. As we experience more of life, we lose that innocence and na~'vetd. Disillusion and disappointment contribute to this loss. As we grow in the spiritual life, studying and reflecting on experience, we may come to what Paul Ricoeur calls 'the second na~'vetd, a kind of innocence that is far from na~'ve. Jesus grew in "wisdom and age and grace"; he taught us by his living, his dying, and his rising what obedient living and loving are about. He models for us the innocence that can be restored in us by obe-dience, by being in relationship with God, from whom all things come and to whom all things return.2 Christ's obedience was part of his relationship of love with his Abba. Deep love of God includes deep interior freedom. Such freedom is not a license to follow our inclinations and impulses into unregulated attitudes and behaviors. Rather, such interior freedom seeks to discover what God is asking in each situation or event of our life. There is no plan that anticipates exactly what to do in any eventuality, but there are general guidelines. The teach-ing of the church, refined by centuries of gospel living and of seek-ing and finding what works best as circumstances change, provides a major guideline. The Scriptures provide another. Individual con-science, our culture, and the mores of our country and society also provide guidance. But none of these is enough by itself. The way God leads us within and sometimes beyond these guidelines must be discerned. Some people are ~alled to be prophets and to challenge the status quo. Some, called to be prophets of justice, challenge church " and society teachings on the roles of women, of minorities, of the poor and dispossessed of our world. Others are contemplatives and mystics, women and men who remind us that, without deep and sustained prayer born of a desire to respond to a loving.God, all our work is for nothing. All must listen to the "still small voice" (1 K 19:12) within in order to be obedient to the call which God gives each of us for building up the reign of God. Paul tells us that there is one Spirit but many gifts for the building up of the kingdom. Some are called to be teachers, some Review for Religious prophets, some administrators; some to speak in tongues and some to interpret the tongues (1 Co 12:4-10). Paul tells us that now we know in part and see in part, but then we shall see face to face. He tells us that all other gifts will disappear, that prophecies will be no more, but that faith, hope, and love remain and that the greatest of these is love (1 Co 13:8-13). Call to Love This call to love, to a growing union and familiarity with God and the things of God, is central to the vow and virtue of obedi-ence. Obedience does not mean going "against the grain" in a mechanical way. Rather, it is a delicate dance in which our choices--our ways of being, thinking, and doing--are gradually transformed. We are gentled, so to speak, discovering the strength that comes from God and not from self. Disciples move from exte-rior conformity to inner listening, listening for what Jesus, the Beloved, would have us do. The hours of prayer that we spend overflow into our life, and the events of our life also lead us to God. We become familiar with God's heart and desire God's mercy and justice for all people everywhere and always. Our heart expands to embrace all and thus grows in compassion. The vow can become virtue. Our growing interior freedom lets go of all that is not God, desiring only God and that which God desires. As disciples we let go of compulsions and addictions, sometimes with the help of support groups, ther-apy, spiritual direction, and study, but always with prayer. Over many years we let go of habits, even preferences for doing things a certain way. Fundamental desires are transformed. We now desire the truth and integrity of heart that come from the interior action of the Holy Spirit. We become obedient out of a growing desire to mirror God's trinitarian love in our life. How do we get to where God's nature becomes ours, where it is second nature for us to make decisions--and actually to live-- as God dreams for us? First, baptism gives us the basic operating system of the Christian life. Through years of praying and study-ing the Scriptures, we come to know Jesus Christ ever more deeply. The church's teaching in all areas, particularly justice and mercy, guides our learning and our praying. We grow in our willingness to be open to all of that teaching--and not just what is convenient or feels good. May-June 2001 Dunne ¯ Obedience: Vow and Virtue In addition, we learn as religious the Rule and constitutions of our particular institute. We move from the externals of the vow of obedience to an inner disposition. We begin to find our own way within the congregation and the church. Our particular talents and learned skills come to light and eventually to fruition. We ¯ learn to use these gifts generously and, when we can, to encourage others to grow in discipleship. Over time the vow gradually becomes virtue. No one can map this out for another in exact detail. What a guide can do is listen with us for the signs of how God is at work and suggest ways to cooperate more fully with God. As we let go of less-than-produc-tive ways of being and doing, we gradually find that, much as Jesus did, we grow in age, grace, and wisdom. Ingrained habits give way to the desires and habits of God. We come to desire love, the unity of all persons and all things in God. As disciples we find ourselves fulfilling our living and loving desires in the concrete actions of daily life~ We find that we must live the gospel radically if we are to be faithful. All that life asks must be integrated in an incarna-tional way with the demands and challenges of the gospel, or we live in vain. Living Obediently How do disciples live this challenge? We pray and we act. We act and we pray. There is really no other way. We do not live iso-lated on our own island. A survival-of-the-fittest mentality does not rule our life. Rather, we cooperate with each day's graces and meet each day's challenges. A living obedience to the demands made each day and a willingness to embrace all that life asks call us to greater fidelity. Just as Jesus' love and mission were not only for the Jewish people of 1 st-century Palestine,' the call to obedience is not limited to "my family, . my community," and "my country." As Jesus' mission was for all people and for all time, so obedience embraces all and thus becomes universal. We are called to be compa?sionate with all people who suf-fer, who are poor, excluded, and marginalized. This demands a range of vision impossible without profound grace. We are so con-ditioned to "get ours" or do things our own way that it takes the wide-angle lens of the gospel and of the church's social teaching, accompanied by much prayer and meditation on these documents, to move beyond our myopic viewpoint. We are called by obedience Review for Religious to embrace all and to include all, not just in an intellectual way but in our loving, our praying, and our acting. We have to think globally even as we act locally. The way we do this is unique to each of us and must be dis-cerned. But act we must, or our religion is in vain. But our activ-ity must not be a mere "clanging cymbal" (1 Co 13:1). We must be, like John the Baptist, "a voice crying in the wilderness" (Mt 3:3) or, like Paul, one who proclaims the gospel "in season and out of sea-son" (2 Tm 4:2). We will not be popular, and we may indeed be martyred--if not by stoning or crucifixion, at least by rejection and hurtful words. Nonetheless, we are called to be like Jesus Christ, who "was crucified for our sakes" (1 Co 15:3). If Jesus Christ suffered and died for what he believed and proclaimed, so shall we. We are like the one we Wofess to follow. Obedient love demands such life and response from us. We know that death is not the end of the story. Jesus was raised to new life. We too will rise, not only on the last day, but each time we die to ourselves and surrender ourselves to our good God. The Scriptures tell us that God will not be outdone in gen-erosity. A generous and obedient heart leads us deeper into God's own heart and calls us forth to minister and to love as Jesus did. As we continue .to die to ourselves each day, we are raised up. As we grow in the vow and virtue of obedience, we see our wdrld with God's eyes and with God's heart. But, because we are human beings and not God, we act accordingly. We make mis-takes. We learn, however, to forgive others and ourselves because God has first forgiven us. We forgive and are gentle because that is the very nature of love and the heart of obedience. Able to laugh at ourselves, we do not take ourselves too seriously. This is, after all, God's world and God's creation. The Potter asks only for our cooperation, that we let go of control. Like Jesus, we are in rela-tionship with our Abba/Amma, our Father/Mother God. We are in an interdependent relationship with God, sharing mutually the fruit of otir love and our labor:3 God is as dependent on us as we are on God in this relationship. As we grow in the ways of God, we become ever more fully ourselves. We rejoice because we are one with the God we love and with all whom God loves. Through the vow and the virtue, we are obedient in heart and spirit. We rejoice in the truth. We live simply and we live radically because we live with Christ, through him and for him who is before all else that is. We are his, and he May-June 2001 Dunne ¯ Obedience: Vow and Virtu~ is ours. We are in relationship and in love. We are obedient. Notes L Richard M. Fragomeni, "Obedience," The New Catholic Dktionary of Spirituality, ed. Michael Downey (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1993), p. 709. 2 See St: Boflaventure, "Contemplating the Divine Unity through Its Primary Name Which Is Being," in Bonaventure: The Soul's Journey into God, The Tree of Life, The Life of St. Francis, trans. Ewert Cousins, Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, 1978), pp. 94-101. 3 See David Fleming SJ, Draw Me into Your Friendship: A Literal Translation and a Contemporary Reading of the Spiritual Exercises (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1996), "Contemplation to Attain the Love of God," §§230-234. Suggested Readings Foley, John B., SJ. "Stepping into the River: Reflections on the Vows." Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits 26, no. 4 (September 1994). Langan, John P., sJ, "The Good of Obedience in a Culture of Autonomy," Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits 32, no. 1 (January 2000). Rolheiser, Ronald, OMI. Holy Longing: The Search for a Christian Spirituality. New York: Doubleday, 1999. Schneiders, Sandra, IHM. New Wineskins: Re-imagining Religious Life Today. Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1986. --. Finding the Treasure: Locating Catholic Religious Life in a New Ecclesial and Cultural Context. Mahwah: Paulist Press, 2000. Wittberg, Patricia, SC. "Community and Obedience: Musings on Two Ambiguities." Review for Religious 59, no. 5 (September-October 2000): 526-536. NEW ON OUR WEBSITE Complete text of A Spirituality for ContemPorary Life: The Jesuit Heritage Today edited by David Fleming SJ and containing articles by J.J. Muetler s J, Walter Burghardt S J, David Fleming s J, Monika K. Hellwig, Jon Sobrino S J, Elizabeth Johnson CSJ, and John W. Padberg sJ ° ¯ An ARCHIVES section containing indices, abstracts, and summaries of our iournal articles from January-Februau 1995 to the current issue VISIT US AT: http://www.reviewforreligious.org Review for Religious WILLIAM C." ZEHRINGER Mechthild of Magdeburg's Spiritual Pilgrimage '~md where is this inaccessible light, or how can I approach the inaccessible light? Or who shall lead me and take me into it that I may see you in it?" So wrote St. Anselm in his Proslogion at the end of the 11th cen-tury. A lifelong searcher for that divine light was Mechthild of Magdeburg (ca. 1212-ca. 1282), one of the greatest women mystics of the Middle Ages. The ardu-ous and triumphantly successful spiritual pilgrimage of that remarkable woman is recorded in her enduring book, Das Fliessende Licht der Gottheit (The Flowing Light of the Godhead), the first mystical work to have been composed in the author's native language, and a book which "defies genre conventions.''~ So, it might be added, does her life in religion. Mechthild is unique among the female mystics of her time and place, both for the changes that took place in the form of her vocation throughout a long life and for the distances that she traveled before finding, at the last, her soul's rest. "My body," wrote Mechthild early in her Flowing Light, "is in great torment, my soul is in sublime bliss; for William C. Zehringer, a medievalist and free-lance author, received his doctorate from Temple University. His publi-cations include a college writing textbook; this article is adapted from a chapter of a book in progress. His address is 364 E. Second Street; Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania 17815. May-June 2001 heritages Zehringer * Mecbtbild's Spiritual Pilgrimage she has both gazed upon and embraced her Lover in her arms."2 These words summarize her turbulent life, for she long endured both ill health and afflictions from her adversaries, while also expe-rienci. ng deep consolations within her soul. As Emilie zum Brunn and Georgette Epiney-Burgard say, "The return of the soul to its original being in G6d--that is what motivates her desire."3 The revelations and sublime insights of The Flowing Light, which she worked on until the end of her life, won her, in her later years, a devoted following among the wisest of her contempo-raries. These included Meister Eckhart and the h01y nuns ofthe convent of Helfta.4.What.was the source of her appeal to these far-seeing men and women? Perhaps one may attribute it, and the hardy endurance of her single mystical.work through centuries of studied neglect, to the potent force of her convictions and the power of her expression in her'native language. Mechthild's book is remarkable in the way the clarity of her vision emerges from the diverse forms of expression she employs, from prayer to exhortation. Carol Lee Flinders has said, "The over-all coherence of the work derives not so much from formal qualities as from a consistency in preoccupation of the kind that knits together a collection of lyric poetry.''5 This all-consuming preoc-cupation is best told in her own impassioned words: "Then she soars further to a blissful place," and, "when infinite God brings the unfathomable soul to the heights, she loses sight of the earth in her astonishment and is not aware of ever having been on earth" (41).6 These and other startling paradoxes which the saint finds in her soul as she approaches the Sacred Presence are a proof of her lifelong (and ultimately successful) attempt to spiritualize her deep and abiding suffering. But they are also her wayof explaining the experiences which she took pains to have recorded, for the edifi-cation of her fellow Christians. The movifig story of her spiritual pilgrimage is above all a lesson in the way all searchers for.the Source of light and love must chart their courses. As Pierre Teilhard de Chardin so memorably wrote, "Union ir~creases only through an increase in consciousness, that is to say, in vision. And that, doubtless, is why the history of the living world can be sum-marized as the elaboration of ever more perfect eyes within a cos-mos in which there is always something more to be seen.''7 These words apply well to Mechthild's life. And a stirring picture of the price of such vision may be found in "The Lament of the Loving Soul" (Flowing Light, Book 2, ~hap. 25): "Oh, you infinite glory Review for Religious in the power of your nobility! How painfully I long for you when you want to spare me" (92). If one searched The Flowing Light for momentous earthly events, one would bE disappointed, but, read as a narrative of Mechthild's interior journey, the book describes vividly her cease-less hunger for heaven's heights,s It was often the depths of the human spirit that this sen-sitive soul traversed. Mechthild knew darkness and periods of dryness. Albert Camus, that pellu-cid and unresting agnostic searcher, has declared: ~"There is no sun without shadow, and it is essential to know the night.''9 But passages such as the one quoted above also bear witness to another cause of Mechthild's suf-fering: the unjust criticism that was hurled at her by clerical authori.ty when she denounced the vices that flourished in the church of her time. As Michael Novak wisely observed, "the experiences whence language about God springs--freedom, honesty, community, and courage--abut on pol-itics. They will not be contained.''1° In Mechthild's life they were not contained, any more than they were in the lives of Hildegard of Bingen, Birgitta of Sweden, or Catherine of Siena. Here is her heartfelt summary of her interior and exterior afflictions (Book 3, chap. 5, "How the Soul Laments that It Cannot Hear Mass or the Daily Offices"): "Ah,' dear One, how intimately you speak to me. And yet I never dare think upon these words in joy. For I constantly notice with anguish the stench of that dead mongrel, my body; and I, Lord, when I consider the matter, have no idea how things shall turn out for me in the end. What is more, just beholding you I lose all awareness of suffering" (112). The words that I have italicized are as characteristic of Mechthild's spiritual life as are the laments that precede them. How could they not be? For all true mystics believe that an essen-tial task of souls who ha(,e answered the call to holiness is to show a sorely burdened humankind how to avoid the paths that lead to One would gravely misrepresent Mechthild of Magdeburg by dwelling only on the slanting shadows of her thought and ignoring the record of the supernatural joys she experienced. May-June 2001 Zebringer ¯ Mecbtbild's Spiritual Pilgrimage despair.~1 And they most surely accomplish this by relating their own ascent past slippery edge,s,tz One would gravely misrepresent Mechthild of Magdeburg by dwelling only on the slanting shadows of her thought and ignoring the record of the supernatural joys she experienced. There is more light than darkness to be found in The Flowing Light of the Godhead. Mechthild's active compassion and love for the suffering poor as a beguine in Magdeburg is al~other aspect of her spiritual voca-tion. She carried the interior joys of her heart to a world that needed them as surely as ours does. Father Odo Egres called her an angel of mercy who "gave love and consolation to those who in their misery looked for a ray of hope."'3 Her life, then, was not given ?ver completely to serene med-itation on the divine mysteries. The practice of prophetic speech that led to charges of heresy and hard missiles of condemnation was one to which she felt compelled by God's command. In Book 4, chapter 24, she calls her fellow pilgrims to carry out the duties of their state of life so that they find at the end that "God crowns three kinds of people with his fatherly hands: virgins, widows, and married people" (168). Not surwisingly, than, does Caroline Walker Bynum find that "Mechthild of Magdeburg sees herself as a teacher, counselor,'and mediator." 14 But there is another dimension to that part of her life when she lived as a mystic in the world. Mechthild is also a fine poet of the spiritual life and of mystical marriage with her Lord. Bea.uty and pictorial splendor are characteristics of her later work. Lucy Menzies, a 1953 editor of Mechthild's book, says, "Thehuman passion of the younger years gradually gives place to the mature spiritual poise of the late period, when like an eagle 'she soars up to gaze into the face of God.'''is That is a valid judgment, for the knowledge that she was advancing toward her lifelong goal, union with Divine Love and Truth, came steadily to the saint as she con-tinued to labor and pray. Perhaps that is why there is a joining, in her earlier visions, of what seem at first to be opposed ideas (as in the words quoted above: "Dear One, how intimately you speak to me. And yet I never dare think upoh these'words in joy"). These most likely represent, at one and the same time, Mechthild's unsettled response to the overpowering presence of her Savior, her consciousness of sin,.and her aching desire for bliss. Peter Dronke speaks perceptively of"Mechthild's anguished evo-cations of the 'fatal' quality of her love. For all its torments, she Review for Religious cannot help her longing--it is her destiny to sing of love through pain, like the nightingale." 16 And yet, in some of the later por-tions of The Flowing Light, there are harmonious images that sup-port an assured and serene conclusion. In Book 5, chapter 22, "The Seven Things of Judgment," Mechthild proclaims that "the greatest delight in doing comes from keeping one's integrity in all that one does" (196). A beautiful and unique feature of her book is the intense response of the Lord to her plaintive pleas for a surcease from suffering. Divine speech (as in Book 2, chapter 25) is expressed in ¯ cumulative phrases that pierce the heart: Your secret sighs shall reach me. Your heart's anguish can compel me. Your sweet pursuit shall so exhaust me That I shall yearn to cool myself In your limpid soul, To which I have b

Issue 53.1 of the Review for Religious, January/February 1994. ; Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JANUARY-FEBRUaRY 199Zl. - V6LUME ~; ¯ NUMBER 1~o Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis Universi~ by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-535-3048 ¯ Fax: 314-535~0601 Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ° St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ P.O. Box 29260 ¯ Washington, DC 20017. POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ° Duluth, MN 55806. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1994 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library, clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. review for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Joann Wolski Conn PhD Mary Margaret Johanning SSND Iris Ann Ledden SSND Edmundo Rodriguez SJ Sefin Sammon FMS Suzanne Zuercher OSB Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JANUARY-FEBRUARYI994 ¯ VOLUME53 '* NUMBER I contents feature Between the Times: Religious Life and the Postmodern Experience of God Elizabeth A. Johnson CSJ relates the stress within religious life to the loss of traditional God images and the search now for the hidden face of the living God. 29 43 58 toward the synod The Consecrated Life in Church and World Bishop Jan P. Schotte CICM explains the synod of bishops, with brief descriptions of previous ones and the 1994 synodal process. Charism, Charisms, and Faddism A. Paul Dominic SJ brings clarity to the Lineamenta treatment of the charism of religious life and the charisms of its many con-crete forms in various congregations. Hopes for the Synod and Beyond Joel Giallanza CSC focuses his attention on the identity and mis-sion of apostolic religious congregations and their relationship to the hierarchy. 64 73 82 mission and ministry Images of Hope in an Inner-City Parish George M. Anderson SJ shows God working in unlikely places, making use of humble and broken people to advance the values for which Jesus died and rose. A Bracelet of Elephant'sHair Jo O'Donovan RSM shares her sabbatical experience of an "outer" and "inner" Africa. The Modern Development of Messianic Prophecy Allen S. Maller presents for our ecumenical consideration a deeply felt Jewish view of Messianic meaning and fulfillment. 2 Review for Religious experiencing the spirit 89 Living in the Womb of God Marion Zeltmann PCPA reflects upon her experience of enclosure and prayer as a Poor Clare. 95 Do I Really Believe that Death Leads to Life? Francis Blouin FIC suggests some practical ways of responding to the current dyings manifest in religious life. 102 A Rite for Those Departing Religious Formation Peter A. Lyons suggests positive and wholesome ways in which individuals departing from religious life and ~he community mem-bers who remain might deal ritually with this reality. 107 120 130 religious life issues Integrating Human Needs in Religious Formation Howard J. Gray SJ suggests ways of viewing human needs as "longings," radical desires to be integrated in the art of religious ministry. Chapters Present and Future Catherine M. Harmer MMS reviews the history of chapters in reli-gious life and raises questions about their future functioning. Religious Life, a Continuum Francis Assisi Kennedy OSF examines, historical beginnings of reli-gious congregations for patterns surprisingly serviceable today. departments 4 Prisms 142 Canonical Counsel: The Conciliar Decree Perfectae Caritatis 149 Book Reviews Jan~mry-February 1994 3 prisms 1994--a year still to be lived, a year yet to pass into history. For most people there is a healthy anticipation of "good things" when new begin-nings are made. Perhaps such "anticipation" should be called, rather, a precious grace which interconnects us with God, the eternal optimist. New evangelization is the most consistently optimistic theme of John Paul II's papacy. While his encyclicals and apostolic exhortations are many and weighty (witness the most recent Splendor of Truth), I suspect that his repeated call to a new evangelization will be the most significant and lasting grace for the church. The call is a beginning similar to the beginning of a year; it is not as if evange-lization is any newer than the parade of days which form any year's calendar. The newness in large part comes from the attitude with which we enter into evangelization, just as it comes from the way we enter into another year. The oft-quoted phrase about this call to evangelization being "new in its vigor, new in its methods, and new in its expression" is grounded in the attitude which we bring to our Christian responsibility as evangelizers. Attitude alone is not enough, but unless the grace of optimism warms our efforts as believers in Good News to share it and explain it and to offer people a challenge, little evange-lization is the result. Do members of religious congregations need to see a more intimate connection between the new evangeliza-tion and their own efforts at renewal? Since all forms of Christian life come from our having the gospels in our blood, it would seem obvious that an evangelization effort promotes effective renewal. The gospels not only have 4 R~,iew for Religio~s inspired the different forms of religious life, but also have helped shape its various expressions and methods. Men and women moved by the Spirit of Christ have gifted the church with at least three prismatic "colors" of Christ-following that look monastic or mendicant or apostolic. The question remains for us today who have been illumined by these various Christ-prisms how our gospel-inspired attitude can reveal the graced mystery of this life-form in terms of new depths of meaning and new ways of expres-sion- in the very heritage we claim. The darkness we feel comes not from Jesus, the light-source whom we follow, but from our own self-chosen, squint-eyed angle of vision having so little to do with grace or gospel. So often our efforts at renewal seem more a vain search for one "tree of life" instead of for the God who gives all created gifts for our creatively discerned use. Optimism marks the effort of anyone who begins something. An evangelical optimism seems almost lacking both in internal reli-gious congregation renewal attempts and in hierarchical control efforts. As we begin this year of the synod on consecrated life, our prayer for ourselves and our church begs again for that grace dear to our God imaged as the prodigal parent who expects the son (and daughter) to be coming up the road--the grace of opti-mism. As we begin this new volume, Review for Religious warmly welcomes Regina Siegfried, a member of the Sister Adorers of the Blood of Christ, Ruma province, as associate editor. She serves currently as assistant professor of historical studies and spiritual-ity at Aquinas Institute in St. Louis. Former editor of Spirituality Today, she is well known for her books Selected Poetry of Jessica Powers, edited with Bishop Robert Morneau, and In the Company of Preachers, edited with Edward Ruane OP. Review for Religious accepts graciously the loss of Michael Harter SJ as associate editor. In his new role assignment as direc-tor of novices for the Jesuit Missouri provirice, he can assure young candidates' solid formation through their familiarity with articles from Review for Religious. So in losing an editor, I am sure that we are gaining a number of new subscribers. Just as he leaves this media field, his prayer book, Hearts on Fire: Praying with Jesuits, has been published by the Institute of Jesuit Sources in St. Louis and is already in its second printing. We wish him well and know that we will miss him. David L. Fleming SJ January-February 1994 5 feature ELIZABETH A. JOHNSON Between the Times: Religious Life and the Postmodern Experience of God As the third millennium of the Western, Christian calen-dar approaches, all manner of assessments are being made about what will fade into history and what will newly flourish in the year 2001 and afterwards. It does not take a new millennium, however, to see that religious life in the United States is passing through an epochal change, the outcome of which in terms of fade or flourish is an open question. The research project "The Future of Religious Orders in the United States," conducted by David Nygren and Miriam Ukeritis under the sponsorship of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops, the Conference of Major Superiors of Men, and the Leadership Council of Women Religious, sets out fully aware of this moment in history2 The original proposal for this study underscores the rad-icality of the journey now underway. Religious orders, it notes, are in the midst of a process of transformation, defined in categories from the social sciences to mean: The operation of changing (as by mapping or through strategies) one configuration or expression into another in accordance with a rule, a purpose or mission. Elizabeth Johnson csJ is associate professor of theology at Fordham University. This article will be part of a companion book to The Future of Religious Orders in the United States: Transformation and Commitment, (Praeger Publishers, 1993) by David J. Nygren and Miriam D. Ukeritis. Her address is Department of Theology; Fordham University; Bronx, New York 10458-5165. 6 Review for Religious Such change, furthermore, involves: qualitative, discontinuous shifts in organizational members' shared understandings of the organization, accompanied by changes in the organization's mission, strategy, and formal and informal structures. The most basic questions of group and individual identity, involving who religious are, how they are to live, what they are to do, and why, are all at stake. Religious orders in this country, the proposal continues, are in the midst of a transformative process so profound that it will lead to the demise of some, the revitalizing of others, and the birth of new forms of the evangelical life as yet unimagined. The aim of this research project is to identify factors within religious orders themselves that will contribute to a suc-cessful outcome of this major metamorphosis. Recent historical studies have unveiled a heartening picture of how the evangelical following of Jesus in the church, traditionally called "religious life," has been incarnated in a great diversity of forms. From monastic to mendicant to apostolic communities, to mention but a few of the more widespread models, new forms of this living movement have consistently emerged from the insights of individuals and groups responding to the Spirit in the crucible of cultural change. A compelling interpretation of the present sit-uation holds that in the United States, at least, the present crisis of religious orders signals yet another breakthrough in the many-faceted evolution of forms of the evangelical life. If this be true, this is the first time in the history of the church that members of religious orders in a time of transition have been so self-con-sciously aware of their situation and so equipped with the tools of modern research that they can reflect on and even direct the pro-cess of change. The purpose of this essay is to provide a theological context for the data that follows. It is important to note that this essay was commissioned, designed, and largely written before the research project was completed. Therefore it should not be read as an interpretation of the project's findings. Rather, it is intended as an independently conceived reflective piece on this moment in the history of religious life. To .contextualize the report that follows, this essay first surveys the state of the question in contemporary literature on religious life and then identifies a basic shift occur-ring that affects all the rest and that holds great portent for the future, namely, a change in the experience of God.2 January-February 1994 7 Johnson ¯ Between the Times The living tradition of the change of forms of religious life is still alive; the great cycle of death and rebirth is turning once again. State of the Question Starting in the late 1970s, a number of excellent works have contributed to discussion of the meaning of religious life and have expressed the emerging self-understanding of religious them-selves. Written by or available to members of religious orders in North America, the list includes works on the history, sociology, and theology of the life as lived by both women and men in general,3 as well as works that focus on the experiences of women4 or men5 in particular. The imagery and language of these writings reflect the enormous tension in the state of the question, both as lived and reflected upon. There is a prevalence of "re" words: revitalize, refound, rein-terpret, reimagine, reweave, redefine, rebirth. Metaphors point to new creative acts: pouring new wine into new wine-skins; reweaving the threadbare cloth; standing at the crossroads and discerning the way ahead; planting new seeds; mid-wiring a birth; bringing order out of chaos. The focus is consistently on the future: shaping the coming age, strate-gizing for growth, negotiating the challenge of change, claiming identity, being converted. Individual differences of approach in this literature recede when compared with the convergences that these writings dis-play. Virtually all of the authors are seized by the conviction that in the Western democracies the missionary and apostolic mod-els of religious life, prevalent for the last two hundred years, are dying. Relatively speaking and in some cases literally, "there is no one behind us." But this does not mean that religious life itself is dying, for no one form has ever been definitively lasting as the predominant form for every era. What it may well mean, however, is that the living tradition of the change of forms of religious life is still alive; the great cycle of death and rebirth is turning once again,6 The present malaise and decline, if lived through with discernment, fidelity, and courage, can lead to new, yet-to-be-determined forms commensurate with the cultural realities of the third millennium. 8 Review for Religious This being the case, the literature is replete with enlighten-ing analyses of ecclesial and cultural factors at work in the present changes. It also indicates that a strong consensus is taking shape regarding the way forward. A prophetic stance suffused with con-templation is being glimpsed as the crucial spiritual force that seeks expression in coming forms of religious life. Both the anal-ysis and this key proposal are surveyed here as interesting in their own right and as factors that themselves point further to a foun-dational experience of God. Changes in Church and Society The literature agrees that the most important ecclesial factor underlying the shift in religious life's self-understanding contin-ues to be Vatican II's two-pronged theological articulation of the church's identity and mission. Ad intra (internally) the church is first and foremost the people of God, with every member conse-crated by baptism and empowered to life in Christ. The conse-quent universal call to holiness undercuts the traditional notion that religious life is an elite state of perfection whose members are spiritually set above ordinary lay people. Rather, religious live out their call to holiness as a sacrament or sign to the whole church of its Spirit-filled vocation. Ad extra (externally) the church is to turn pastorally toward the world as God's good creation, marred by sin but redeemed by Christ and worthy of attention. The mission of the church in the world undermines the tradi-tional dualism between the sacred and the secular, along with the concomitant idea that religious should be set apart from the world. Rather, they are to live in relation to the world, not over against but ~vith and for, in criticism and compassion. The conciliar shift from a juridical to a more-biblically-based pastoral identity and mission, still being contested and negotiated in the church at large, undergirds the changes in self-understanding, lifestyle, and ministry that now affect traditional forms of religious life. Since the council, additional ecclesial factors have appeared that continue to impinge upon religious life in the United States. The ongoing efforts by religious orders to reinterpret founding charisms is occurring in the context of postconciliar reinterpre-rations of the Catholic biblical, theological, and liturgical tradi-tions themselves. The infusion of insight from these sources is resulting in new and influential understandings, such as the rad- .January-Febrnary 1994 9 Johnson ¯ Between the Times ¯ ical equality of all in baptismal grace. Furthermore, the postcon-ciliar explosion of lay ministries, both ecclesially sponsored and lay initiated, is multiplying the possibilities open to those who wish to serve in the church beyond the confines of traditional religious life. At the same time it creates a situation of shared, collabora-tive ministry between religious and the laity. In these same years, the original immigrant church in this country has reached mainstream status with the majority of its members moving into the middle class. More options for service and advancement have opened up in the civil sector, lessening the church's attraction as the primary field for a dedicated life. In addition, the economic and educational mores of middle-class life coupled with the availability of birth control has resulted in the reduced size of Catholic families, thus shrinking the pool from which candidates for religious life were traditionally drawn. Meanwhile, a new wave of immigration from Latin America and Asia is presently changing the face of the church; one-third of Catholics in the United States are now Hispanic, half of whom are younger than eighteen years of age. Despite outstanding service on the part of some religious of European descent, however, dif-ferences of culture, race, class, and age, if not overt, prejudice, seem to prev.ent the majority of religious orders from making an effective case for their way of life to members of new immigrant groups. Eras do not repeat themselves. All of these ecclesial factors are playing out in the wider con-text of the church .becoming a world church, less European in character and belonging to all cultures; a church of the diaspora, less supported by a homogeneous culture and more a little flock in a pluralist world; and a church in interreligious dialogue, open to the wisdom of other great religious traditions. Social, economic, and political forces at work in the culture of the United States are also contributing to changes in religious life) These forces are many and complex, but several consistently surface in the literature: democracy, which yields a more partic-ipative rather than authoritative style of governance; global aware-ness, which subverts provincialism; growing consciousness of economic and social injustice at home and abroad, which demands action to relieve poverty and promote justice; pervasive violence, which highlights the need for teaching and modeling peaceful resolution of conflicts; materialism, which calls for a countercul-tural witness to simplicity of life and the value of the human over 10 Review for Religious the product; excessive individualism, which cries out for the anti-dote of a genuine community of free and responsible persons; ethnocentrism, racism, and insensitivity to other cultures, which needs the word of the gospel about the fundamental human dig-nity of every person; and feminism, which advocates the equal inclusion of women in that human dignity. The search in the United States for a new, more humane society among ourselves, between all nations, and between human beings and the natural world of this planet contextualizes and begins to inspire the search for new, vital forms of religious life. In a striking way, ecclesial and cul-tural factors have converged in the rise of Christian feminism and its influ-ence in women's religious orders. It is indisputable that women's insights into how to live the evangelical life have never yet been allowed full scope in the course of church history, even now. Perhaps it was the play of prov-idence that unleashed the conciliar reforms at the very moment that the women's movement was gathering force once again in the United States. It is indisputable that women's insights into how to live the evangelical life have never yet been allowed full scope in the course of church history, even now. In any event, while renewing their lives in the light of the gospel and their founding charisms and while strengthening their witness in the world, especially among those depriv.ed of human dignity, women religious became aware of themselves as women in a patri-archal church and society. They .began to notice the systemic absence and silence of women in church pol!cy-making bodies and ministries, its obvious connection with gender, and the result-ing pressures on the way they lived their lives. Contextualized by the women's movement in church and society, they began to find their own voice and to claim, even for themselves, the respect befitting a human person. Women's experience was affirmed as a legitimate if untapped source of knowledge about religious life and its ministry, prayer, community, and governance, and this found expression in their reflection, dialogue, and new constitu-tions. The result of this awakening was a release of energy that bore and continues to bear promise for the future of religious January-February 1994 11 Johnson ¯ Between the Times life. But it also brings conflict as men church authorities refuse to reverence or dialogue with the insights coming from women's experience, insisting rather on conformity to their own under-standing and law. At this point the alienation of legions of women in the church is a matter of public record. Women religious, too, know this darkness. But among women religious in the United States at the end of the twentieth century, the conviction per-dures that the goals of Christian feminism are fully in accord with the gospel. They continue to grapple with issues of identity and mission with the understanding that through their struggle the Spirit of God is offering a transforming grace to the whole church, although, terrifyingly, grace may always be refused.8 In and through all of this analysis of ecclesial and cultural factors that affect religious life today, authors have been seeking clues as to how this life will be able to flourish in the future. The search appears to be narrowing. Glimpse of a New Form: Prophetic, Contemplative Life In books and essays about religious life and in documents generated by religious orders and the national conferences, a new combination of ancient dements is beginning to define the essen-tial character of religious life. The emerging understanding of this life is primarily that of persons and communities called to prophetic ministry embedded in a contemplative relationship to God. Prophecy and mysticism, prophetic witness and contem-plation, will shape the evangelical life of love of God and neigh-bor in its coming age. The two national conferences of men and of women religious place this insight at the head of the list of ten transformative ele-ments they identify for religious life in the future: 1. Prophetic Witness: Being converted by the example of Jesus and the values of the gospel, religious in the year 2010 will serve a prophetic role in church and society. Living this prophetic wimess will include critiquing social and ecclesial values and structures, calling for systemic change and being converted by the marginalized with whom we serve. 2. Contemplative, Attitude Toward Life: Religious in 2010 will have a contemplative attitude toward all creation and be motivated by the presence of the sacred? 12 Review forReligious In a similar way the visioning groups studied in the Futures Project as well as those identified by the research as outstanding leaders consistently and vigorously endorsed the prophetic/con-templative stance. Far from being an esoteric perspective, this stance brings to light what is most basic in Christian faith and what the church itself needs to emphasize in order to thrive in the future. As Karl Rahner foresaw, the spirituality of the future will arise from rela-tion with the living God at the very heart of the world and con-sequently "will be a spirituality of the Sermon on the Mount and of the evangelical counsels, continually involved in renewing its protest against the idols of wealth, pleasure, and power.''t° This is the calling of the church as a whole, and religious life crystallizes and witnesses to this. The two constituent elements, prophecy and contemplation, can be distinguished mentally and examined separately, but in reality they form one living shape, one wholistic form, one gestalt of life. Asking which comes first is a chicken-and-egg kind of question, with no intelligible answer in sight.1~ Contemplation is a way of seeing that leads to union. It arises from an experience of connection with the sacred at the very core of life. Mediated, as always, by created things such as words, images, and actions, this relationship unfolds as persons and com-munities allow these mediations to lead them into the living pres-ence of the holy. Insofar as the created mediations themselves are transcended in contemplation, this experience counteracts the human effort to control the divine and instead delivers the spirit into the bright darkness of God. From one perspective, the con-nection with the sacred is a result of the inflow of the love of God inflaming and awakening the heart. From another, it entails the discipline of becoming fully conscious, journeying to one's deepest self and to the outer limits of the cosmos in order to touch the divine. In the process, the contemplative "knows" God not in an extrinsic, conceptual way but from within, experien-tially. At the very heart of existence one is in touch with holy mystery, a relation for which the I-Thou relationship among human beings is only a remote analogy. As a result, a certain intuition arises by which one begins to know and love the world as God does. This attitude is totally inclusive of all creation. Everything created is precious and sacred within the cosmic ambience of life and is cause for delight and January-February 1994 13 Johnson ¯ Between the Times thanks. But the evident brokenness of the world and damage done persons and other creatures are cause for grief, compassion, and protest. In some unspeakable situations,, the utter depravity of evil occasions the most profound, wordless hope against hope, without any supports, in the risk that God is faithful in judgment and grace. The contemplative attitude is thus not otherworldly but pro-foundly turned toward this world in celebration and resistance, knowing that the Creator is also the Redeemer. The prophetic lifestyle and action that express this way of seeing are not the result of simple humanism (although the world could use a lot more of this too) but of real belief in God. In solidarity with divine purpose for the world, prophetic persons and communities desire to restore right relationships and so to set right what causes pain and suffering. While this has always been the case, the hermeneutic of prophecy in our day with its sophisticated knowl-edge of systems realizes that the wounds of the heart also afflict culture. Thus prophetic witness includes critique not just of per-sonal acts but also of social, economic, and political structures and values in society. Knowing, too, that we are a sinful church always in need of repentance and reform, this witness is borne toward the values and structures of the community itself. The prophetic stance is marked by a number of characteris-tics. These include attentive listening to the creative Spirit of God, connecting with the suffering in a situation and evaluating its causes, naming what is unjust, being empowered to articulate an alternative future based on the dream of God for the world, bringing compassion and hope to the brokenness, and resistance and challenge to the status quo that would maintain it. In the process prophetic persons and communities strive to empower people in their struggle to live and survive, in turn being taught and empowered by them to continue to seek the face of God. In the Christian tradition this witness is shaped by the fol-lowing of Jesus, in whom the compassion of God takes flesh in the world. Contemplation and prophecy were indivisibly connected in his historical life. As Edward Schillebeeckx explains, "In the prophet Jesus, mysticism and healing came from one and the same source--his experience of the contrast between the living God and the history of human suffering." ~2 The reign of God that he announced envisages an end to exploitation or suppression; his ministry in word and deed enacted practical anticipations of this 14 Review for Religious salvation to come. His own drink from the cup of suffering in torment and execution and the seal of God's graciousness in the resurrection ground a hope in human history that has empow-ered discipleship ever since. Remembrance of Jesus through the power of the Spirit guides and informs the life of prophecy and ~ontemplation in the church. This vision of a wholistic con-templative, prophetic shape to reli-gious life in the future, glimpsed in the literature, is already a living, growing reality in some cases. It also stands in contrast to the overall shape of religious life in the present, which has become domesticated by too close an identification with the law, structure, and spirituality of the institutional church. In a particularly eloquent argument, Diarmuid O'Murchu, taking a clue from reli-gious life as it is lived in Eastern religions, contends that religious life in the west needs to reclaim its liminal identity, a move of genuine conversion en.tailing profound change in spirit and structure. Re!igious would then be known as persons and communities who are in touch with the sacred, passionately committed to just and loving relationships, fiercely resistant against exploitation of the earth and of persons, and willing to live countercultural lifestyles with and for the marginalized. They would stand in church and society a.s liminal, archetypal, prophetic persons, articulating and empowering the deepest love.13 To arrive at this goal, religious must confront many chal-lenges and questions. A key CMSM paper muses: People in general probably do not think of us as genuine prophets. What must we do, what price must we pay, if we wish to embrace a prophetic stance? How can we be prophetic without becoming triumphalistic? How can we be prophetic without losing a ministry .to the middle class which is the social origin of nearly all of us? How can we learn to read the signs of the times and discern more surely the thrust of prophecy? What steps must we take to arrive at solid social and cultural analysis? How can we relate our The contemplative attitude is thus not otherworldly but profoundly turned toward this world in celebration and resistance, knowing that the Creator is also the Redeemer. ~anuary-February 1994 15 Johnson * Between the Times traditional institutions to the prophetic role? How can we motivate ourselves, with God's grace, to accept a materi-ally poor standard of living? We have more questions than answers, but we believe that we are on the way to a new, more prophetic presence within the U.S. Church.~4 The Futures Project identifies "fidelity to purpose" and "response to absolute human need" as the two most basic ele-ments for the revitalization of religious life. As this brief survey of the literature shows, the search for the sacred in resistance to what afflicts the world is being fingered as the purpose that will shape the new form of this life. The move toward a contemplative-prophetic stance augurs well for the future insofar as it grapples with the religious heart of the matter in the context of the suf-fering of the contemporary world. Experience of God My own reflection on these matters brings me to a founda-tional area not frequently mentioned in the literature, namely, the idea of God that undergirds the evangelical life. The fasci-nation with the mystery of God is endemic to religious life every-where and at all times. The varieties of structures and self-understandings that have emerged in the course of history only serve to underscore this fact. As Sandra Schneiders observes, "Whatever unites all these people is more interior and spiritual than forms of life or types of behavior."15 The common thread that unites them all is a search for relationship with the sacred, leading to a certain kind of absorption with the religious dimen-sion of life. "Those who are called 'religious' in the technical sense of the word," writes John Lozano, "have decided to adopt a way of life whose intrinsic, underlying explanation is religious experience.''16 This way of life intends to give daily, concrete expression to the experience of God, to empower its further devel-opment, and to manifest its fruits publicly. Put another way by Ladislaus Orsy, the only reason for religious life is the experi-ence of God. This being so, it seems vitally important to inquire about the idea of God that is presupposed at any given moment, for this structures the experience of God that sustains the entire endeavor. As the primary symbol of the whole religious system, the idea of God is a lodestar. It represents what a community takes to be the 16 Review for Religious highest good, the profoundest truth, the most appealing beauty. Thus it is not a neutral concept, but functions powerfully to shape the personal and corporate identity of believers. A religion, for example, which would speak about a warlike God and extol the way he smashes his enemies to bits would promote aggressive group behavior. By contrast, speech about a beneficent and lov-ing God who forgives offenses would turn the faith community toward care for the neighbor and mutual forgiveness.'7 By definition, the One whom people call God is the recipient of absolute human trust, God being "that to which your heart clings and entrusts itself" in the memorable phrase of Martin Luther (OSA).~s Consequently, the idea of God implicitly guides all of a person's and community's principles, choices, system of values, enterprises, and relationships. The symbol of God func-tions. Neither abstract in content nor feeble in its effect, it sums up a people's sense of ultimate mystery, the proper order of the world, and the right orientation of human life and devotion. Along with many others, I sense that a seismic shift is occur-ring in the experience and idea of God in our day and culture. Fully aware that not all people who live at the same time are con-temporaries, I nevertheless think that a certain culturally condi-tioned cast of mind is emerging in our era that yields an idea of God markedly different from the classical model. VChat is emerg-ing is a notion that coherently supports and strengthens prophetic and contemplative consciousness. Thus it is not just the move from a juridical to a pastoral relation of the church to the world, nor the dissolving of the sacred-secular dualism, nor increased global and ecological awareness, nor growing consciousness of injustice, nor any of the other ecclesial and social factors that alone or together are causing the changes in religious life. Rather, at the deepest level what is transpiring, I think, is new experience of God. The Postmodern World The contemporary mind-set in the United States shaped by conditions of the late twentieth century is frequently described as postmodern. First coined in artistic, literary, and philosophical circles, this term is used in a bewildering variety of ways to describe the sentiment that humanity must go beyond the mod-ern. Like the wanderer in Kafka's parable who, when asked where January-February 1994 17 Johnson * Between the Times he is riding to, responds, "I don't know,., only away from here, away from here, only by doing so can I reach my destination,''19. postmodernity points beyond the present to what cannot yet be readily envisioned. Philosopher Stephen Toulmin refers to the world "that has not yet discovered how to define itself in terms of what it is, but only in terms of what it hasjust-now-ceased-to-be," namely, the modern world originating from the seventeenth-cen-tury Enlightenment.2° Modern!ty esteemed at least four dynamic forces: the myth of unending progress, the clear and distinct ideas of universal reason, the power of the self-contained individual directed by his soli-tary ego, and the ascendancy of human control over nature. By contrast, postmodernity is conscious of the end of progress, the limits of reason, the sad isolation of the unconnected individual, and the catastrophe that results when nature is disrespected. Not everything originating in the modern era is to be discarded. One would want to keep the emphasis on human dignity and human rights and their expressions in liberty and equality (fraternity in isolation is suspect). But postmodernity is awake to the egregious failures that the modern ethos has wrought. It wants to go Away- From-Here. Perhaps the most felicitous description comes from David Power, who observes that postmodernism is the sensibility that does not try to pretend that the twentieth century has not hap-pened. Sprung from the disruptive, out-of-control evils of this century, postmodern consciousness is aware of the chaotic, con-tingent, threatened character of existence and the fragility of the human project. Two distinct but related positions have developed within this general description. One, the option for deconstruction, seeks to undo the power and securities that produce such evils. In theory and art it pokes holes through the rationalizations of the victors, unveiling their pretensions to righteousness and order. While in its extreme form postmodern deconstruction leads to radical skep-ticism and nihilism, its bracing insights are powerfully instruc-tive as to what should not be. In tandem with this option, a second, more constructive model has emerged. Suspicious of inherited triumphal truths, it seeks out suppressed voices and sto-ries, risking new interpretations of established tradition "from the margins" in order to enable resistance to the forces of destruc-tion. Its aim, unlike nihilism, is a more just and humane universe. 18 Review for Religious It is this latter type of constructive postmodernism, found in intellectual theory, literature, and art as well as in grass-roots movements, that generates a certain kind of spirituality.21 Its char-acteristics are painted here in broad strokes. Postmodern spiri-tuality notes the ambiguous character of progress itself and takes its bearing not from the dream of untrammeled, irreversible progress fueled by a consumerist mentality, but from the suffering of those on the underside of history, keeping in view the gaps and failures of human advance. It seeks wisdom not in the clear and distinct ideas of what is claimed to be universal reason but is in reality the thought of privileged men; rather, it honors the plurality and ambiguity of human con-sciousness, sensitive to the differ-ence that difference makes according to one's social location in gender, race, and class. The com-pass of postmodern spirituality points not to rampant individual-ism and its violent outcroppings but to the importance of community The compass of postmodern spirituality points not to rampant individualism and its violent outcroppings but to the importance of community and tradition, prizing human solidarity and peace. and tradition, prizing human solidarity and peace. It finds life not in human supremacy over the earth but in affective kinship with the extended family of the cosmos. In a word, it prizes not isolation but essential connectedness; not body-mind dualism but the wholistic, embodied person; not patriarchy but inclusive fem-inism; not militarism but expenditure for the enhancement of life; not tribal nationalism but global justice. Our age is witnessing the shift to a postmodern cast of values, in theory if not always in practice. This constitutes a widespread, if not universal, cultural phenomenon in the United States, even among Christian believers. It may well signal the first phase of an axial breakthrough in human consciousness that will shape the next millennium. If so, that is of no little significance for the future of religious life in this country. For the postmodern sensi-bility in its constructive form has a strong affinity with the prophetic-contemplative stance increasingly envisioned as con- January-February 1994 19 Johnson ¯ Between the Times stitutive for the future of religious life. At the very core of that life is the experience of God. And so we come to the heart of the matter by asking how the postmodern matrix shapes the experi-ence and concept of the sacred. Postmodern Experience of God In our era the concept of God developed by rational En-lightenment theology in the context of modernity has become largely unbelievable. Whether drawn from revelation or philo-sophical inference, this by-now-traditional theism views God as the Supreme Being who created all things and who governs all things with inscrutable providence. Perfect in a way that stands in sharp contrast to the finitude of creatures, "he" (the theistic God is always referred to in male terms) is "infinite, self-existent, incor-poreal, eternal, immutable, impassible, simple, perfect, omni-scient, and omnipotent.''22 Although architect and ruler of the world, it is essential to God's deity that he be essentially unre-lated to this world and unaffected by what happens in it. This view therefore excels at stressing ,divine transcendence and its human counterpart of spirit, while divine immanence along with the importance of matter and the body tend to slip from view. This God of classical theism is modeled on the pattern of an earthly absolute monarch, a metaphor so prevalent that most often it is simply taken.for granted. As a king rules over his subjects, so God the Lord has dominion over his creatures, a view which, as Sallie McFague has shown, is intrinsically hierarchical, whether the divine reign be accomplished through dominance or benevo-lence. 23 In theory such theism adheres to the truth that the mys-tery of God is beyond all images and concepts. Yet history shows how in practice modernity tends to objectify God, reducing infi-nite mystery to an independently existing Supreme Being along-side other beings, a solitary, transcendent power who together with the world can be thought to form a larger whole. This is the idea of God that is no longer seriously imagin-able within a postmodern sensibility. Factors that contribute to its lack of cogency include the evils of this century, contemporary science and its view of the universe, liberation and feminist anal-ysis, the political disparagement of dictatorship, and the encounter among world religions. Any one of these alone would put a large question mark next to the modern symbol of the divine. Taken 20 Review for Religious together within the cultural shift to postmodern consciousness, they all but bury it. The result for people of faith is the radical loss of their famil-iar God image, along with the experience of divine presence that it mediated. Along with this also comes the loss of their sense of place in the order of the universe. As Janet Ruffing comments on the domino effect of loss of the tradi-tional God image in religious communi-ties, "All the ways we had construed our place in the sun and the meaningfulness of our commitment have been gradually eroding.''24 But this experience is not restricted to religious life; it is culture-wide and has attracted a host of com-mentators. For Martin Buber, the loss signals the eclipse of God. For Karl Rahner, it involves entry into the spiri-tuality of a bleaker season. For Constance Fitzgerald, it means the classic mystical experience of impasse and dark night. For Sandra Schneiders, this dark night is not only individual but a corporate purification. For Martin Marry, winter serves as metaphor for this season of the heart. For Michael Bucldey, it is entry into emptiness, silence, the cross in accord with the dynamic of apophatic mysticism,zs For me, this shift is poignantly summed up in the titles of the first and last books of my friend and colleague William Hill OP, now seriously ill. He broke into print with Knowing the Unknown God, an exploration of how the Thomistic category of analogy could lead the mind to God even in the contemporary world. God might be unknown, but we were possessed of some knowl-edge through the judgments we make. Now his recent essays have been collected under the rubric In Search of the Absent God. We are not in possession at all. Enmeshed in history and its suffering, we can but seek the hidden face of the living God.26 The absence of God experienced through the breakdown of traditional mediations of structure and theory does not mean, how-ever, that there is no experience of God at all. In a profound dialec-tic, what has been taken away is encountered in the ache of its loss. Divine absence itself becomes a mode of divine presence. The unknowing beckons to a deeper knowing. Th~ darkness mediates a brightness that the eyes cannot see. The wintry horizon hints at Enmeshed in history and its suffering, we can but seek the hidden face of the living God. .~anuary-February 1994 21 Johnson ¯ Between the Times new life buried beneath the snow. The cry from the depths signals an affirmation of Life deeper than pain, as did Jesus' cry from the cross. As Maura Clarke wrote from E1 Salvador, "In the very absence of God here, God has never been more present to me." 27 It all depends on the character of God. If God be trustworthy, then we hope that we are grounded and enveloped by a Living Presence even here, in the night of the senses and of the spirit. While there is no universal enactment of salvation, the sacred comes in the form of promise mediated through everyday, small fragments of healing, beauty, liberation, justice, and love. This does not remove the darkness, but it allows us to keep on walk-ing. The ice melts but will freeze again: in history there are only relative victories. Lament and celebration are both necessary. Here there are no easy assurances, no props. We know God through hope and, in the face of starkness, even hope against hope, nourished by remembrance and the circle of community. For many years now I have found the prophet of this experi-ence to be Dietrich Bonhoeffer. In his vision God is being edged out of the world and onto the cross, and that is the way, the only way, that God can be with us: "only a suffering God can help.''28 His struggle to believe culminates in the maxim "Before God and with God we live without God.'':9 This is an experience of God in which darkness is an event of disclosure, clearing the decks of a false conception of God and opening contact with the incom-prehensible holy mystery of God who goes beyond all images, all grasping, all ~elling. The manageable God of the modern age who was immediately available and could be counted upon to intervene for our benefit is no longer there. But a new experience of God is already breaking through that intensifies our compassion. Constance Fitzgerald has wisely observed that what is going on in and through this experience is "a progressive hermeneutic of~e nature of God.''3° A full theology of God has yet to be writ-ten in a postmodern context, but the typical spii'itual experience of this age is yielding an unmistakable interpretation.3~ If there be a God at all, then this is absolute holy mystery that can never be fathomed. Not literally a male person writ large, the sacred can be pointed to by any created good: male, female, animal, cosmic. This mystery does not dwell in isolation from the world but encompassesit as the Matrix of its being and becoming. God in the world and the world in God--panentheism describes the mutual relation. Thus related, the Holy One of Blessing is a God 22 Review.for Religious of pathos who participates in the suffering of the world in order to transform it from within. Divine power is the strength of love, rather than raw, monarchical omnipotence. Passionate for justice and peace and compassionate over pain, Holy Wisdom typically self-reveals in the fragmentary breakthroughs of well-being that come about through human partnership with divine purpose. Forever God acts to create a fresh, new future: liberation is her signature deed. A God like this calls for an ethic of critical com-passion. We are impelled so to utter the word of God that the world will be changed and renewed by it. Religious people of all stripes are now in the transitional posi-tion of trying to find words and symbols for this personal and collective experience of God. A common language has yet to come to light. Yet the very way the search is being conducted gives some indication of the outcome. An LCWR paper expresses the efforts of women religious in this regard: God is immanent in creation, in the midst of the web of life. As we bond with the oppressed and marginalized, we know God standing on the side of the poor and oppressed, seeing with the eyes of the poor, leading the oppressed by alleviating oppression. In this context, we see God angry, sad, suffering, marginalized; we see God incarnated in peo-ples of color, in women, in the homeless and battered, the victims of violence and oppression of all kinds. And then the inevitable: Religious find themselves in a "Dark Night." The painful and intense moments of disintegration, which carry the hope for what can break through, characterize our living in this in-between.32 To sum up, the idea of God emerging in postmodern spiritual experience is a contemporary hermeneutic of the God whose reign Jesus preached and embodied: the God of life. If the experience of God is the core of religious life, and if it is this God who is being perceived in contemporary religious experience, then here is a key tt)eological factor shaping the future of religious life in the United States. Conclusion The dialectic between divine absence and presence, in the last analysis, is an experience of the Spirit of God: radically tran- ~tanlmry-February 1994 23 Johnson ¯ Between the Times scendent, like the wind blowing where it will; and at the same time radically immanent, dwelling at the heart of the world to vivify and renew all things. Empowered by the Spirit in our age, people of faith who treasure the living memory of Jesus seek the hidden God of life (contemplation) and live out the passion of God for the world in need (prophecy). It is my sense that religious life is riding the crest of this wave in the postmodern culture of the United States. Internally its forms are breaking down; its interpretive support systems are col-lapsing; rifts with the institutional church exacerbate the dark-ness, especially among women; many members are in distress. Most radically of all, forms of religious life that traditionally medi-ated the experience of God now not only do not mediate this experience but positively block it. At the same time, consciousness of the suffering of poor and marginalized peoples grows; action on behalf of justice continues to attract; women reclaim their human dignity and the voice that goes with it; the vivifying power of God is experienced in and through the human power to chal-lenge, cherish, and set free; the divine mystery is named in new ways. Here and there religious persons and communities begin to articulate the prophetic-contemplative identity coherent with these experiences and act in mission accordingly. For religious life in the United States it is now Advent, the most honest season of all. In my judgment, the times do not call for return to the securities of a previous age. In fact, the very effort to keep alive forms of religious life that have for the most part run their historical course may well be counterproductive to the evangelical following of Jesus. Rather,what is needed is vig-ilant patience, profound prayer, and the ability to act boldly toward that future where new forms of evangelical life will develop. Notes ~ See summary by David Nygren and Miriam Ukeritis, "Future of Religious Orders in the United States," Origins 22, no. 15 (24 September 1992): 257-272. Hereafter cited as the Futures Project. Also in Review for Religious 52, no. 1 (January-February 1993): 6-55. 2 1 would like to thank the following colleagues and friends for pro-viding me with materials for this essay: Mary Ann Donovan SC, Patricia Lucas CSJ, Thomas McKenna CM, Janet Ruffing SM, and Clara Santoro CSJ. My deep gratitude also goes to Mary Catherine Hilkert OP, John W. Padberg SJ, David Power OMI, and Sandra Schneiders IHM for read-ing and critiquing the manuscript in outline or finished form. 24 Review for Religious 3 Among the works that have made significant contributions are: Gerald Arbuclde, Out of Chaos: Refounding Religious Congregations (New York: Paulist, 1988). ~. Strategies for Growth in Religious Life (New York: Alba House, 1987). Marcello Azevedo, Vocation for Mission: The Challenge of Religious Life Today (New York: Paulist, 1988). Leonardo Boll, God's Witnesses in the Heart of tbe World (Chicago: Claret Center for Resources in Spirituality, 1981). Lawrence Cada et al., Shaping the Coming Age of Religious Life (New York: Seabury, 1979). Robert Daly et al., eds., Religious Life in the U.S. Church: The New Dialogue (New York: Paulist, 1984). Barbara Fiand, Living the Vision: Religious Vows in an Age of Change (New York: Crossroad, 1990). David A. Fleming, ed., Religious Life at the Crossroads (New York: Paulist, 1985). Mary Jo Leddy, Reweaving Religious Life: Beyond the Liberal Model (Mystic, Connecticut: Twenty-Third Publications, 1990). John Lozano, Discipleship: Towards an Understanding of Religious Life (Chicago: CCRS, 1983). ¯ Life as Parable: Reinterpreting the Religious Life (New York: Paulist, 1986)¯ Johannes Baptist Metz, Followers of Christ (New York: Paulist, 1978). Diarmuid O'Murchu, Religious Life: A Prophetic Vision (Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1991). Sandra Schneiders, New Wineskins: Re-imagining Religious Life Today (New York: Paulist, 1986). Jean Marie Tillard, A Gospel Path: Religious Life (Brussels: Lumen Vitae, 1975)¯ The Way Supplement 65 (summer 1989): "Religious Life in Transition," pp. 1-152. Patricia Wittberg, Creating a Future for Religious Life: A Sociological Perspective (New York: Paulist, 1991). Evelyn Woodward, Poets, Prophets and Pragmatists: A New Challenge To Religious Life (Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1987). 4 Works include: Mary Ann Donovan, Sisterhood as Power: The Past and Passion of, Ecclesial Women (New York: Crossroad, 1989). Nadine Foley, ed., Claiming Our Truth: Reflections on Identity by United States Women Religious (Washington, D.C.: Leadership Conference of Women Religious, 1988). January-February 1994 25 Johnson * Between the Times Marie Augusta Neal, Catholic Sisters in Transition: Front the 1960s to the 1980s (Wilmington, Delaware: Glazier, 1984). --. From Nuns to Sisters: An Expanding Vocation (Mystic, Connecticut: Twenty-Third Publications, 1990). Lora Ann Quifionez and Mary Daniel Turner, The Transformation of American Catholic Sisters (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992). Ann Patrick Ware, ed., Midwives of the Futttre (Kansas City, Missouri: Leaven Press, 1985). s "Hope-Filled Deeds and Critical Thought: The Experience of American Male Religious and Their Need to Reflect on It," paper pre-pared for the Third Inter-American Conference on Religious Life and printed in David A. Fleming, ed., Religious Life at the Crossroads, pp. 20- 50; John W. O'Malley, "Priesthood, Ministry, and Religious Life: Historical and Historiographical Considerations," Theological Studies 49 (1988): 223-257. The dearth of works in this category is due, I think, to the fact that for most men authors until recently, male experience, given its normative status in church and society, is simply presumed. Thus gendered experience has not become a major category of interpre-tation as it has among women. 6 L. Cada et al., Shaping the Coming Age of Religious Life, is the ground-breaking study that brought the notion of cycles to present-day awareness. See the excellent fine-tuning of this thesis b~; Philip Sheldrake, "Revising Historical Perspectives," The \¥ay Supplement 65 (summer 1989): pp. 66- 77. 7 Here I have found the following particularly helpful: Howard Gray, "Shapes for the Fut.ure," pp. 289-295, and Helen Flaherty, "Religious Life in the U.S.--A Guess at the Future," pp. 296-309, in R. Daly, Religious Life in the U.S.; Anne Clifford, "Women Missioned in a Technological Culture," pp. 37-55, in N. Foley, ed., Claiming Our Truth; the address by Robert Schreiter, "The Environment of Religious Life in 2010," to CMSM/LCWR Assembly in Louisville, Kentucky, August 1989; and the videotape "Religious Life: The Constant Is Change," IHM Sisters, Monroe, Michigan, which is an analysis of societal trends by Amata Miller, Margaret Brennan, and Sandra Schneiders. 8 See Anne Carr, Transfo~wting Grace: Christian Tradition and I, Vomen's Experience (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1988). 9 Joint Meeting of the CMSM and the Lcv~rR, Louisville, Kentucky, August 1989. ,0 Karl Rahner, "The Spirituality of the Church of the Future," Theological Investigations, vol. 20, Concern for the Church (New York: Crossroad, 1981), p. 145. ~ One of the best contemporary treatises on contemplation remains William Johnston, The Inner Eye of Love (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978); and on prophecy, Walter Bruggemann, The Prophetic Imagination (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978). 26 Revieva for Religious 12 E. Schillebeeckx, Christ: The Experience of Jesus as Lord (New York: Seabury, 1980), p. 821. ,3 D. O'Murchu, Religious Life: A Prophetic Vision, passim. ,4 "Pilgrims and Prophets," paper drawn up by the Religious Life and Ministry Committee of the CMSM for the Fourth Inter-American Conference on Religious Life and printed in D. A. Fleming, ed., Religious Life at the Crossroads, pp. 51-64; quotation at p. 57. is S. Schneiders, New Wineskins, p. 32. 16 j. Lozano, Life as Parable, p. 9. 17 See Gordon Kaufman, The Theological Imagination: Constructing the Concept of God (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981), pp. 187-189. Kaufmann argues here for the importance of the great symbol of Jesus Christ who, as the image of the invisible God, manifests a God who does not act in a violent way but rather creates a community of love and equality in a peaceable and free way. !8 Martin Luther, "Large Catechism," The Book of Concord (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1959), p. 365. 19 Franz Kafka, "My Destination," Parables and Paradoxes (Berlin: Schocken, 1975), p. 189. I am indebted for this reference to Catherine Keller, "Toward a Postpatriarchal Postmodernity," in David Griffin, ed., Spirituality and Society: Postmodern Visions (Albany: State University of New York, 1988), p. 65. 20 S. Toulmin, The Return to Cosmology: Postmodern Science and the Theology of Nature (Berkeley: University of California, 1982), p. 254. For further descriptions of postmodernity, see Frederic Burnham, ed., Postmodern Theology: Christian Faith in a Pluralist World (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1989); and Paul Lakeland, Theology and Critical Theory (Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), chap. 7, "Catholicism and Postmodernity." 21 The essays in the Griffin collection are enlightening, especially his own "Introduction: Postmodern Spirituality and Society," pp. I-31. 22 H. P. Owen, Concepts of Dei~y (New York: Herder and Herder, 1971), p. 1. 23 Sallie McFague, Models of God: Theology for an Ecological, Nuclear Age (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), pp. 63-69. 24 Janet Ruffing, "Seeing in the Dark: The Present Moment in Religious Life," address to regional meeting of LCWR, Sparkill, New York, September 1991, p. 10. This address, somewhat edited, appears in Review for Religious 51, no. 2 (March-April 1992): 236-248. 2s M. Buber, The Eclipse of God (New York: Harper and Row, 1952); K. Rahner, see note 10; C. Fitzgerald, "Impasse and Dark Night," in Tilden Edwards, ed., Living with Apocalypse: Spiritual Resources for Social Compassion (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 93-116; S. Schneiders, see video-tape, note 7; M. Marry, A Cry of Absence: Reflections for the Winter of the Heart (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1983); Michael Bucldey, "Atheism and Contemplation," Theological Studies 40 (1979): 680-699. January-February 1994 27 Johnson ¯ Between the Times 26 William J. Hill, Knowing the Unknown God (New York: Philosophical Library, 1971), and In Search of the Absent God, Mary Catherine Hilkert, ed. (New York: Crossroad, 1992). 27 Quoted in Mary Catherine Hilkert, "The Experience of Impasse and the Roots of Wisdom," address to Dominican Leadership Conference, October 1991, p. 11. 28 D. Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison (New York: Macmillan, 1953), letter of 16 July 1944, p. 220. 29 Ibid, p. 219. 30 C. Fitzgerald, "Impasse and Dark Night," p. 112. 31 For a profound analysis see Peter Hodgson, God in History: Shapes of Freedom (Abingdon: Nashville, 1989); and Wendy Farley, Tragic Vision and Divine Compassion: A Contemporary Theodicy (Louisville: Westminster, 1990). 32 "Reflections upon the Religious Life of U.S. Women Religious," paper prepared for the Fifth Inter-American Conference on Religious Life, 1985, and printed in N. Foley, ed., Claiming Our Tmtth," pp. 173-181; quotation at p. 177. Cana, Meaning Uncertain Wine flowed until there was no more at a wedding in Galilee; Mary, seeing this, turned to her son, one till then like any other, a brother, a carpenter who measured what he said and did. "They have no more wine," she said. He hesitated, questioned her, stirred up feelings between them. In the end Jesus acquiesced, six stone jars, water into wine, a fine line crossed, spirit revealed. Yet the uncertainty remains, was it not a mother's prompting that disrupted heaven's intent or is love so strong even God can be swayed by its openness? Neil C. Fitzgerald 28 Review for Religious JAN P. SCHOTTE The Consecrated Life in Church and World: Toward the Synod On 30 December 1991 the Holy Father, Pope John Paul II, called for the gathering in autumn 1994 of the Ninth Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops to treat the topic: "The Consecrated Life and Its Role in the Church and in the World." But what exactly is a synod of bishops? What are the various theological elements connected with this institu-tion? What are its pastoral aspects? Practically speaking, how does the synodal process work? And in what way does the treatment of specific topics bring benefit to the whole church? toward the synod A Synod of Bishops Etymologically speaking, the term "synod," derived from the elision of two Greek words, syn meaning "together" and hodos meaning "road" or "way," literally means "together on the way" or "sharing a journey." This idea immediately calls to mind the Vatican II image of the church as the people of God "on the move," always on pilgrimage, led and guided by the Holy Spirit through history to its ultimate fulfillment when the Lord shall Jan P. Schotte CICM serves as the general secretary of the Synod of Bishops. This presentation of his to the May 1993 Meeting of the International Union of Superiors General in Rome was orig-inally published in the UISG Bulletin, no. 92, 1993, pp. 68-78. Bishop Schotte may be addressed at Office of the General Secretary; Piazza Pio XII, 3; 00193 Rome; Italy. January-February 1994 29 Scbotte ¯ The Consecrated Life in the Church come again (see Lumen gentium, §6). The term also calls to mind some biblical associations. For example, in John's Gospel Jesus calls himself the "Way" (see Jn 14:6), and St. Paul makes reference to Christianity as the "Way" (see Ac 22:4). The term's rich theological and biblical associations can be saidto culminate in the concept of the church as communion. As quoted in Cbristifideles laici, "communion speaks of a double, life-giving participation: the incorporation of Christians into the life of Christ, and the communication of that life of charity to the entire body of the faithful, in this world and in the next, union with Christ and in Christ, and union among Christians in the church." Therefore, "communion" should not be looked upon as something static, but an active and dynamic reality which is both a hallmark of the church and the divine force continually enliven-ing her. This mystery of the church's communion is reflected in an unlimited number of ways in the church's life, from its most sub-lime aspect in the sacraments, especially the Eucharist, to the var-ious encounters both personal and communal experienced by Christians everywhere. One instrument for celebrating the communal nature of the church on the local level is through archdiocesan and diocesan synods, which are becoming more frequent an occurrence. In convoking such a synod, a local bishop gathers around himself, as the source and foundation of communion or unity in his partic-ular church, various representatives of the church community-- lay, clerical, and religious--to pray and reflect in common and, using the eternal truths of the faith as set forth in the teachings of the church, to seek pastoral approaches and solutions to living the Christian life as a community and as individuals. The church's communal nature on the particular and univer-sal level also exists in the authority over the church which was established by Christ and subordinated to the task of preaching the gospel (see LG, §20 and §21). Therefore, where the synod of bishops uses the same word as that applied to celebrating the communal nature of the particular church, there is a basic theo-logical difference. The synod of bishops celebrates the mystery of church communion on the hierarchical level, that is, among the bishops. The Second Vatican Council describes this unity in the fol-lowing manner: "Just as, in accordance with the Lord's decree, 30 Review for Religious St. Peter and the rest of the apostles constitute a unique apos-tolic college, so in like fashion the Roman pontiff, Peter's suc-cessor, and the bishops, the successors of the apostles, are related with and united to one another'~ (LG, §22). This fundamental unity of the episcopate is the basis for the teaching on the collegiality of bishops (see LG, §22 and §23), which is like-wise an essential element in understanding the synod of bishops. The highest and fullest expression of this mystery of hierarchical communion is manifested and celebrated in an ecumenical council where the whole .episcopal college is convoked by the Holy Father. On various occasions the doc-uments of the Second Vatican Council refer to the episcopal gathering as a "synod" (see LG, §54; Christus Dominus, §36; etc.). But in this sense the word has the same meaning and theological significance as "council." Where the "synod of bishops" might resemble a "minicoun-cil," there is a fundamental qualitative difference between the two. For example, a synod convenes only a representative por-tion of the world episcopate, and unlike an ecumenical council, the synod of bishops is convened by the Holy Father for consulta-tive and not deliberative purposes. Nevertheless, despite the dif-ferences, "the synod of bishops," according to the Holy Father, "expresses collegiality in a highly ifitense way." The institution of the synod over twen.ty-seven years ago was inspired by the collaboration among the bishops at the Second Vatican Council and its beneficial effects for the whole church. Pope Paul VI on 15 September 1965 in the motu proprio Apostolica sollicitudo, establishing the synod of bishops, used these words: "With the aim of providing for a continuance after the council of the great abundance of benefits that we have been so happy to see flow to the Christian people during the time of the council as a result of our close collaboration with the bishops [and] because The institution of the synod over twenty-seven years ago was inspired by the collaboration among the bishops at the Second Vatican Council and its beneficial effects for the whole church. January-February 1994 31 Schotte ¯ The Consecrated Life in the Church of our esteem and regard for all the Catholic bishops and with the aim of providing them with abundant means for greater and more effective participation in our concern for the universal church, on our own initiative and by our apostolic authority we hereby erect and establish here in Rome a permanent council of bishops for the universal church, to be directly and immediately subject to our power." Much more than a structure inspired by the Second Vatican Council, the synod of bishops has proven itself to be an apt instru-ment for the implementation of conciliar doctrine and the appli-cation of its pastoral directives. At the same time it has also been the forum for the interpretation and further development of the teachings and spirit of the council. An Instrument of Continuous Pastoral Renewal Though each session is called to respond to unique pastoral situations, no synod is ever an isolated event, but has a relation to other synodal gatherings. Because each synod calls together a representative portion of the episcopate with its head the pope, each synod has a relation to the whole church. At the same time, because the synod is a unique response of the episcopal college to the mandate or mission entrusted to it by the Savior, each synod has a relation to the fundamental salvific mission of the church through history as well. A brief look at the various synods which have taken place to date is evidence enough of the importance of these episcopal gatherings for the church and their value in bring-ing about the reforms intended by the council. Pope Paul VI stated the goals for the First Ordinary General Assembly, held in the fall of 1967: "the preservation and the strengthening of the Catholic faith, its integrity, its force, its development, its doctrinal and historical coherence." One result of this meeting was the eventual establishment of the International Commission of Theologians to assist the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and to broaden a discussion on approaches to theological research. The same assembly provided the stimu-lus for the 1983 publication of the revised Code of Canon Law and also made recommendations to the Holy Father on various pastoral questions. Two years later, in 1969, the First Extraordinary General Assembly was convoked to seek and examine ways and means of 32 Review for Religious putting into practice the collegiality of bishops with the pope. This meeting opened the door to greater collegiality in the pas-toral care of the universal church and in episcopal conferences and the relations between individual bishops. In 1971 the Second Ordinary General Assembly treated two subjects: "The Ministerial Priesthood" and "Justice in the World." In the former, treatment was centered on the theological nature of the priesthood with the intention of addressing certain diffi-culties experienced by priests in the course of their ministry. On the subject of justice, the bishops stated the need to relate the gospel to existing worldwide and local circumstances. "Evangelization in the Modern World" occupied the work of the Third Ordinary General Assembly held in 1974. At this assem-bly the bishops reemphasized the essential missionary character of the church and the duty of each member to bear wimess to Christ in the world. The bishops' recommendations and proposals sub-mitted to the pope were used in the formulation of the apostolic exhortation Evangelii nuntiandi. At the Fourth Ordinary General Assembly, which took place three years later, in 1977, the discussion of the bishops centered on "Catechesis in Our Times," with special attention given to the teaching of the faith to children and young people. Shortly after the synod, Pope John Paul II issued the apostolic exhortation Catecbesi tradendae, which utilized a great many of the bishops' insights and proposals. The First Special Assembly of the Synod of Bishops, popularly known as "The Dutch Synod," was convoked in 1980 to examine more thoroughly the teachings of the Second Vatican Council on the mystery of church communion and its practical implications on the universal and local level, and the figure of the bishop and his ministry. In this way the synod sought at that time to address its designated topic, "The Pastoral Situation in Holland." The Fifth Ordinary General Assembly in 1980 reaffirmed the church's teaching on the family, in particular defending marriage and the contents of Humanae vitae. From the discussion and the proposals of the assembly, the pope issued the apostolic exhorta-tion Familiaris consortio. In 1983 the Sixth Ordinary General Assembly, held during a specially called Holy Year commemorating the 1950th year of Redemption, appropriately discussed the need of applying the fruits of Christ's passion, death, and resurrection to the individ- January-February 1994 33 Schotte ¯ The Consecrated Life in the Church These different synodal gatherings which have taken place in the course of the synod's history appear more and more clearly as a continuous process of pastoral renewal. ual and society. The bishops' work during the synod served as the basis for the apostolic exhortation Reconciliatio et paenitentia, which for the first time was designated a "postsynodal" docu-ment. The Second Extraordinary General Assembly in 1985 com-memorated the "Twentieth Anniversary of the Conclusion of the Second Vatican Council" and assessed the state of church renewal according to conciliar teachings. The recently published Catechism of the Catholic Church was the result of a proposal by the bishops at this episcopal assembly. "The Vocation and Mission of the Laity in the Church and in the World" was the topic chosen for the Seventh Ordinary General Assembly in 1987. Through a con-sideration of vocation and mission in the context of church commu-nion, the bishops sought to empha-size the distinctive nature of the lay faithful in the church's life and her work of evangelization in the world. The fifty-four proposals of this assembly were used in the formulation of the postsynodal apostolic exhortation Christifideles laici. In 1990 the Eighth Ordinary General Assembly again took up the subject of priesthood. However, where in 1971 the bishops focused on the theological nature of priesthood and its implica-tions, this assembly's attention was more pastoral in tone, cen-tering. upon priestly formation and the "person" of the priest himself-both religious and diocesan--before and after ordination. The forty-one proposals from this assembly were used by the Holy Father in the formulation of the postsynodal apostolic exhor-tation, Pastores dabo vobis. The Special Assembly for Europe was called in the follow-ing year, 1991, to help discern the kairos of the situation on the European continent created by the historic fall of communism and to consider the role of the church in the various programs of renewal and construction. 34 Review for Religious In preparation are two other special assemblies. In his recent apostolic visitation to Africa last February, the Holy Father announced, in conjunction with the release of the assembly's Instrumenturn laboris, that this special assembly will take place in Rome in 1994, just after Easter. In March the Lineamenta of the special assembly for Lebanon was published, initiating the con-sultation phase of the preparation for that synod. These different synodal gatherings which have taken place in the course of the synod's history appear more and more clearly as a continuous process of pastoral renewal, giving opportunity through prayer and reflection to deepen a sense of the church's mission and to stimulate all the people of God to participate in this mission, each according to his or her state. Perhaps our under-standing of the synod of bishops can be further enhanced by fol-lowing the synod process which has taken place thus far in the preparation for the 1994 synod on "The Consecrated Life and Its Role in the Church and in the World." The 1994 Synodal Process The principles governing the synod of bishops and the synodal process are set forth in three basic documents: the motu proprio Apostolica sollicitudo of Pope Paul VI establishing the synod; Ordo synodi episcoporum celebrandae, or the Constitutions of the Synod of Bishops; and the Code of Canon Law, canons 342 to 348 inclusive. For the purpose of our presentation I will limit myself to those aspects of the process which immediately affect the synod topic, its documentation, and the various preparatory phases leading to the synodal gathering. Before the conclusion of the Eighth Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops, the synod fathers were asked to elect from their number, according to synod regulations, the required fifteen-member council to assist the general secretary in the follow-up work of the assembly and to work on the prepa-ration of the Ninth Ordinary General Assembly. At the same time the synod fathers were invited to make suggestions on a topic to be treated at the next general assembly. There is a certain value to this initial exchange on the topic during the general assembly because the responses are spontaneous and unprepared. In making their suggestions the bishops were asked to keep in mind the following general criteria in selecting a synodal topic: (1) January-February 1994 35 Sctsotte ¯ Tlse Consecrated Life in rise Church that the topic have a universal character, that is, a reference and application to the whole church; (2) that the topic have a con-temporary character and a certain urgency, that is, have the capa-bility of exciting new energies and movement in the church towards growth; (3) that the topic have a pastoral focus and appli-cation as well as a firm doctrinal basis; and (4) that treatment of the topic be feasible, in other words, that it have the potential actually to be accomplished. In retrospect it is interesting to note that even in the initial consultation during the synod itself a con-vergence of ideas was evident regarding the treatment of some aspect of the consecrated life. Shortly after the conclusion of the general assembly, the gen-eral secretariat continued the consultation process by preparing a letter with the above criteria and sending it to the patriarchates, bishops' conferences, heads of offices of the Roman Curia, and the Union of Superiors General--the normal participants in the synod process. This communication requested the submission of three topics in order of preference. The suggestions coming from this consultation were then analyzed and discussed by the members of council of the general secretariat at one of its regularly sched-uled meetings, and a series of formulations of the theme in order of preference was submitted to the Holy Father. Until now the Holy Father has always selected the council's first choice, con-vinced that the consultation process provides a true indication of the desire of the universal church to treat a given subject. Such was the case for the topic of the 1994 synod. The general consultation process revealed a remarkable con-vergence of ideas indicating a preference for the topic of the con-secrated life. Initially some persons made a rather shallow interpretation to explain the choice, insisting that since the laity and the priesthood were treated in the two previous synodal assemblies, it was only logical that the consecrated life should receive attention. The truth of the matter is that in the course of the consultation a great number of reasons were given for calling a synod to treat the topic of the consecrated life. Many argued in the following manner. 1) With the importance of the consecrated life in the church today, there is necessity to reaffirm its true nature in various new social contexts and in the world at large. 2) The flourishing of vocations in some parts of the world 36 Review for Religious and the crisis of vocations in others requires a thorough exami-nation of the consecrated life. 3) After the Second Vatican Council, various efforts have been made to rewrite constitutions, to propose anew the charism of the founder, and so forth, and consecrated life in general has been subject to an overall renewal. Therefore, the time seems right to engage in an evaluative process. 4) The question of the relationship of those in consecrated life to bishops deserves renewed consideration as well as the sub-ject of the greater participation of women and men religious in the overall pastoral plan of a diocese, particularly in light of the unique charism proper to each. Where the document Mutuae relationes has been fruitful and productive on the whole, certain episcopal con-ferences have given indications that there remain some areas still needing attention. 5) The new forms of consecrated life appearing in many parts of the church require evaluation and proper guidance. The nature of religious institutes, secular institutes, and the societies of apos-tolic life needs to be clarified and their role in the church more clearly defined. Many of the new forms of unions and confrater-nities are appearing with the false notion that they are part of the consecrated life according to the evangelical counsels. 6) Some developments and interpretations have caused the common life for religious to be questioned. In some countries there are situations which deserve attention. 7) The prophetic character of consecrated life in certain cir-cumstances needs to be more clearly defined. How is a person in the consecrated life to respond in faithfulness to his or her voca-tion in the face of secularization, the crisis in culture, and the decline in moral values? 8) In some countries religious congregations have abandoned the work proper to them in favor of individual attempts at apos-tolic work. Such a situation raises the concern of religious con-gregations as well as bishops, requiring them to seek the proper pastoral approach to such situations. The above sampling of reasons underlying the choice of topic for the 1994 synod sufficiently indicates its universal appeal, pas-toral relevance, timely character, and feasibility. At the same time, it can be seen that they have a general inter-est for the entire church. In virtue of the church's unity, every part and every member will be affected by the exchange and out- January-Fetrruary 1994 37 Schotte * The Consecrated Life in the Church come. In this sense the synod will not simply treat a topic, but make suggestions to the Holy Father regarding the future. What does the consecrated life have in store for the future? How are those in consecrated life to live out their consecration in the apos-tolic mission of the church? What courageous and bold steps are required to meet the unique challenges made on consecrated life by the present state of affairs in the church and society? Before these questions can be faced by the bishops in syn-odal assembly, the church at large will have time to reflect on them and other aspects of the topic and be invited to make their observations known through the proper channels so that those required to make official responses on the topic to the general secretariat will have current information with which to work. The 1994 Lineamenta The synod process can be divided into four great moments: the Lineamenta, the Instrumentum laboris, the synodal assembly, and the postsynodal document. We logically pause to devote some time to explaining the Lineamenta document, the present stage of preparation for the Ninth Ordinary General Assembly. After the Holy Father's choice of topic, the council of the general secretariat at a regularly scheduled meeting held a roundtable discussion with the secretary of the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life and with representatives from the various groups associated with con-secrated life, that is, women and men religious, members of sec-ular institutes, and members of the international organizations of consecrated life in the church, namely, the Union of Superiors General for Men and the International Union of Women Superiors as well as the International Congress of Secular Institutes. The observations resulting from this meeting were fur-ther discussed and developed in subsequent council meetings, and with the help of theologians an outline and texts of the Lineamenta were drafted and studied, before a definitive text was submitted to the Holy Father. As its Latin name suggests, the Lineamenta is an "outline" or general presentation of the synod topic followed by a series of questions intended to direct the prayer and reflection of the whole church on the subject. The information resulting from this stage will provide the raw material for the synod's Instrumentum laboris 3 8 Review for Religious or "working document," intended to present a composite picture of the present situation and prevailing attitudes in the church on consecrated life and its role in the church and in the world. The Lineamenta document is divided into three major parts, each treating a specific aspect of the topic: (1) "The Nature and Identity of the Consecrated Life"; (2) "The Consecrated Life in the church and in the World of Today"; and (3) "The Role of Consecrated Life." The document's initial pages immediately address the prob-lem of terminology. Strictly speaking, the term "consecrated life" in Canon Law refers to religious con-gregations and secular institutes only. What, then, is to be done with soci-eties of apostolic life? Since canon 731, § 1, states that the societies of apostolic life are "comparable to the institutes of consecrated life," it was agreed that the synod topic would also include their treatment. Therefore, when the term is used in the Lineamenta, it is meant to be all-inclusive. After a brief introduction, Part I begins with an explanation of the essential characteristics of the conse-crated life, namely, vocation, conse-cration, mission, the evangelical counsels, the common life, eschato-logical witness, its essential values, and the commitment to the spiritual life. The section then proceeds to speak of the charismatic nature of the consecrated life, as wit-nessed in its variety of charisms and multiplicity of forms. In this regard attention is given to the charism of the founder or foundress, the various forms of consecrated life, institutes of con-templative life, brothers, secular institutes, societies of a.postolic life, and the new forms of consecrated life emerging today. The second part of the document describes the present situ-ation of the consecrated life in the church and in today's world, seeking on this basis to suggest various subtopics which merit consideration, for example, the direction to be taken by the con-secrated life with the approach of the third millennium, the fruits of renewal, new values and aspects of the consecrated life, nega- The synod process can be divided into four great moments: the Lineamenta, the Instrumentum laboris, the synodal assembly, and the postsynodal document. Jam~ary-February 1994 39 Schotte ¯ The Consecrated Life in the Church tive aspects (even these must be addressed), the necessity of a clear witness in responding to the challenges of modern society, and finally the situation in various countries and cultures (Africa and Asia come especially to mind). This section ends with a call to those in consecrated life to continue the renewal begun after the Second Vatican Council. The third section speaks in practical terms of the role of the consecrated life in the church and society, beginning with a pre-sentation on the ecclesial dimensions of the consecrated life, its relation to the church hierarchy, its coordinating structures in fostering communion, its place on the level of the local church, and its communion with the lay faithful. With this in mind, var-ious topics related to the role of the consecrated life within the universal church community are treated, including the new evan-gelization, authentic apostolic creativity, acceptance of the call to evangelization, remaking the fabric of society, promoting the unity of all the baptized, and the dialogue with followers of other religions. The concluding portion of Part III turns its attention to the church's mission in the world, emphasizing features associ-ated with the consecrated life, for example, its specific witness to God's love through the works of mercy; its attention to young people and their needs; its presence in schools, hospitals, and social programs; its dedication to work on behalf of the poor; its role--past and present--in the transmission and formation of cul-ture; and its part in the church's work of safeguarding the values of nature and conscience in today's world. The closing pages of the Lineamenta then offe~ a brief look at Mary as the model and mother of the consecrated life and a reflec-tion on the consecrated life in terms of a renewed presence of Christ in the world of today. The presentation concludes with a section containing the document's endnotes, followed by a table of contents. Incorporated in the Lineamenta text and appearing at the con-clusion of each section is a series of twenty-five consecutively numbered questions which are meant to focus the prayer and dis-cussion of the universal church on various aspects of the synod topic. At the same time, these questions and numbers are to pro-vide an orderly structure for the responses from various individ-uals and church bodies which will be formulated and submitted in the lively exchange on all levels of the church community dur-ing the consultation period. 40 Review for Religious Official responses are expected to be filed with the general secretariat by those normally involved in the consultation pro-cess, that is, patriarchates, episcopal conferences, offices of the Roman Curia, and the Union of Superiors General for Men. Given the synod topic, the International Union of Women Superiors and the International Congress for Secular Institutes are also to submit responses. All responsible for such responses are to work on the best possible manner of facilitating the reading of the document by individuals and groups associated with them, and of seeking information from them so that the responses may be truly complete and reflect the richness of the exchange on the various levels of the local church community. With the publication of the Lineamenta on 20 November 1992, a significant and important stage in the preparation for this synodal assembly was initiated. I would even go so far as to say a most critical phase, because the richness and depth of the Instrumentum laboris, the reference point and source of discus-sion during the actual synodal assembly, depends on the widespread participation of the whole church and a thorough-ness in answering the series of questions posed in the Lineamenta. For this reason, it is incumbent upon each individual in the church, no matter what his or her state or circumstance, to con-tribute through the accustomed channels in this presynodal prepa-ration period, thereby providing the necessary information which will be eventually used in the official responses to be sent to the general secretariat. From my experience over the years I am becoming more aware and convinced of the very real contribution and impact of synodal assemblies in the life of the church. These beneficial results come about not simply from a month-long meeting, but from the whole synodal process, from the consultation regard-ing the theme, the prayer and reflection period, the actual cele-bration of the synod, and its follow-up. Not only do the reflection and prayer which are a part of the Lineamenta phase assist in setting the agenda in the Instrumentum laboris or "working paper," but the process itself taps and exer-cises the dynamism of church communion in the listening, shar-ing, and stirring up of new energies on various levels of the church community. And after the synodal assembly, where there is a con-centrated effort at intensely living the communion which has come beforehand, the effects make themselves felt years later. January-February 1994 41 Scbotte ¯ The Consecrated Life in the Church The Lineamenta itself makes reference to this fact when it states that the occasion of this synod will provide the opportunity for "all members of the church, particularly the institutes of con-secrated life, to reconsider the subject of their own renewal in light of the challenges and the opportunities of the present moment," based on the church's appeal in these days "for a renewed endeavor towards evangelical life, towards a profound spirituality, and towards a generous presence in the new evange-lization" (§33). This time of synodal preparation, then, is an occa-sion for hope, a hope that this profound examination of the status of renewal and the prospects for future growth of the consecrated life in all its aspects will be a moment of grace and revitalization, and bring great benefits to all those in consecrated life and to the church as a whole. Message from a Coreopsis Lanceolata (Daisies Do Tell) Some of us are past our prime, And one of us has lost a few petals; Another--will never see the sun. Yet we all rejoice That we reflect our Maker And celebrate a loving God Who signs each one of us With his own life's Blood. Joann Stuever, ASC postulant 42 Review for Religious A. PAUL DOMINIC Charism, Charisms, and Faddism d sexagenarian religious superior who keeps abreast of the times asked me if I had read the recent document on reli-gious life produced by the council of the General Secretariat of the Synod of Bishops. I said yes, adding hesitantly: "But it is not very interesting." Without hesitation she agreed completely. The Point of Departure: The Lineamenta Surely the Lineamenta, the preliminary agenda on "The Consecrated Life and Its Role in the Church and in the World" prepared in view of the forthcoming Ninth General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops, is not a particularly charismatic piece of writing. After all, it is not from the pen of a theologian like Rahner, or a biblicist like Elsa Tamez, or a feminist like Ruether, or a third-world figure like Amalorpavadass, or a cardinal like Martini. On the contrary, it is an official document with its strengths and weaknesses, treating the topic "in a complete organic manner, indicating the topic's precise content and its necessary limits''1 and touching upon "only the essential points of doctrine" (§4).2 As such, therefore, it would read somewhat like a protocol without the charismatic cadence or resonance of your fa~,orite author. However, considering that the document is the product of the pastoral office of the church, we would not be wrong if we rec-ognized in it the charismatic teaching included by Paul in his lists A. Paul Dominic SJ can be addressed at Satyodayam; S. Lallaguda; Secunderabad 500 017; India. .~anuary-Felrruary 1994 43 Dominic * Charism, Cbarisms, and Faddism of charisms. And so what it says about religious life as a charism that includes many a charism can serve for our mental nourish-ment and impart to us a spiritual gift (Rm 1:11). It can set us thinking about religious life as a matter of charismatic experi-ence, that is, an experience of living a fundamental charism through as many different charisms as there are societies of"con-secrated" or "apostolic" life. Any serious reflection on this mat-ter will prove to be relevant, for the prevailing confusion in religious life concerns partly the lack of clarity about charism and charisms.3 Religious Life as Charism Religious life, like all life, is best observed in its relationships. On the one hand, it is a part of the church; and, on the other, it is itself the church and so serving, like the church, the rest of the world (§3, §25, and §44). In the first perspective, religious life is one of the many charisms of the church; in the second, it is, as we said earlier, a fundamental charism giving rise to a wide variety of expressions of itself. The religious state of life is a "particular gift in the life of the church" (Lumen gentium, §43). As such it can be properly appre-ciated only when we see it in place, beside many other similar gifts enjoyed by the church. That is why the Lineamenta begins the consideration of charisms (§14-§17) recalling the mystery of the church as the Mystical Body of Christ endowed with many gifts, quoting Paul: "There are many different gifts, but it is always the same Spirit; there are many different ways of serving, but it is always the same Lord. There are many different forms of activ-ity, but in everybody it is the same God who is at work in all" (1 Co 12:4-6). By the parallelism of the verses, the different ways of service or activity are all to be understood as gifts in a variety of forms. Paul goes on to list such gifts in the immediate context (i Co 12:8-10, 28) and also in other letters (Rm 12:6-8 and Ep 4:11). A look at all the lists can give us an idea of the wide range of gifts enjoyed by the growing church. Though it would be anachronistic to look for the mention of religious life among the listed gifts of the Spirit bestowed on the church, note that celibacy is proposed as a special gift (1 Co 7:7). In the course of time the church came to recognize many more gifts in its ongoing life, gifts like asceticism, monasticism, vir- 44 Review for Religious ginity, choice of poverty, and social virtues, to speak only of those that have an obvious reference to religious life.4 As the church grew in self-awareness, it came to discover many elements that we now associate with religious life as its specific gifts; and so today we can speak about "the charism of the consecrated life" (§14), that is to say, the consecrated life itself viewed as a gift or charism. However various and heterogeneous the different charisms may be in the manner of their working, they are one and homo-geneous in intent and purpose. They are all meant to build up the Body of Christ. The Body of Christ is built up when the mem-bers are well nourished and so live to the full, reaching unity in faith and knowledge of the Son of God and forming the perfect Person fully mature with the fullness of Christ himself (Ep 4:13). This fullness of Christ is the same as the life permeated by the Spirit ever filling us or even overwhelming us with all her gifts and charisms. Such a life energized by the working of the Spirit is spiritual and holy. M1 the charisms of the Spirit nourish the life of the church, making it ever more holy with the life of Christ himself. Situating religious life thus in the sphere of the church's life of holiness and recognizing in it a universal reality in the church's makeup, the Lineamenta concludes: "With this in mind one speaks of 'the charism of the consecrated life'" (§14). Here is surely an echo of the approach to religious life taken by Lumen gentium, §39-§47. Such an affirmation of religious life, however, is slightly marred by the way the Lineamenta, following of course Vatican expresses it. After describing the way of holiness of religious life marked by vows that establish a special bond to God, Lumen gen-tium concludes: "Thus, although the religious state., does not belong" to the hierarchical structure of the church, nevertheless it belongs inseparably to her life and holiness" (see L §1; see also §14 and §36). One can discover a patronizing voice here, rightly or wrongly. Anyway, what a difference it would make if the state-ment were to read towards the end: "nevertheless, like the hier-archy, the religious state too belongs inseparably to her life and holiness." Does not Vatican II after all state in the chapter on universal holiness, "In the various types and duties of life, one and the same holiness is cultivated by all who are moved by the Spirit of God" (LG §41), and further go on to describe the way of holiness of the different classes of persons and finally end with a clear reference to the life of the religious (LG §41 and §42)? January-February 1994 45 Dominic ¯ Charism, Cbarisms, and Faddism There is a good reason why we can parallel religious life and hierarchy in this way. Of all the charisms enumerated by Paul-- who, incidentally, developed the terminology of charisms--the pastoral office of the hierarchy is the only one that concerns a state of life. This idea gets all the greater force because the pas-toral letters signal a development in the idea of charism which continued to prevail in postapostolic times. Paul's reminder to Timothy, "You have in you a spiritual gift which was given to you when the prophets spoke and the body of elders laid their hands on you" (i Tm 4:14), a reminder repeated again in 2 Timothy 1:6, certainly refers to Timothy's charism as one of grace of state or office. If we add to this way of looking at the hierarchical charism the reference to the charism of married life in 1 Corinthians 7:7, where there is a simultaneous reference to the charism of celibacy too, we can discern a line of thinking in which the various particular vocations in Christian life can be considered charisms establishing people in different states of life. So we can now speak in particular of the charism of religious life as the grace of the religious state of life; contributing to the holiness of the church in a particular way. In this context it is enlightening and inspiring to recall an old nomenclature of the religious state of life, namely, the state of perfection, proclaiming visibly the prophetic office of Christ wit-nessing to the kingdo~n here and hereafter. What is basic about states of perfection is the perfection to be acquired by way of the evangelical counsels in a community set-up. The function of any particular way of religious life, contemplative or active, lies. in this: that religious, by their very striving after holiness, call upon all Christians to do the same in their own way. So remarking, Bernard H~iring quotes papal authority in support: "The church would not fully respond to the mind of her Divine Bridegroom, men would not fix their eyes on her as on the 'the signal unto the nations'., if they did not find in her men who reflected the splendor of the gospel more through the example of their life than by means of words.''s All this is not so old-fashioned. A few years ago America carried an article describing religious as those who, unlike the laity, make religion their very career with its own particular structures that not only favor and promote it but also witness to it.6 The charism of religious is to be identified with striving for perfection, as the Lineamenta often repeats (§3, §5, §8, and §16). 46 Review for Religious To speak of the state of perfection is perhaps not a post-Vatican practice. However, in avoiding the falsity of perception possible in the expression, one need not altogether abandon its right use. Rather, we need to rediscover in the correct meaning of the phrase some essentials of religious life. Here is one: "It is not so much we who profess as others (the church, the community) who recognize that we. at least have received an explicit call and have come to a state of commitment to pursue it relentlessly, wholeheartedly; and radically.''7 But even in so reflecting on religious life as a state of perfec-tion, one should beware of a dan-ger. If one were to emphasize the personal pursuit of perfection that religious undertake, one is liable to overemphasize all their many undertakings on the path to perfection, thereby forgetting that any and every charism is a pure and simple gift of God. The story of Peter is apt here, as Bonhoeffer tells it. "Three times Peter heard himself proclaim that Christ is his Lord and God--at the beginning, at the end, and at Caesarea Philippi. Each time it is the same grace of Christ calling Peter to follow, and revealing itself to him in his confession." To reiterate the idea with Bonhoeffer: "This grace was certainly not self-bestowed. It was the grace of Christ himself.''8 Quoting all this, J.M.R. Tillard concludes; "Now, this costly grace., is for Simon Peter and for every religious the charism which makes existence as such a sign of the gospel. This charism comes from the Lord's Spirit . It is truly a gift made by the risen Lord, through his Holy Spirit, to his people. The Lord passes by. his grace seizes certain men and women. Poor sinners, they are nonetheless of those who will say to . . . the world: 'We have found what we were looking for! Come and see!' This is their charism.''9 One may, then, delve into the experience of religious life and discover in its depths not so much a for but a because of. No one enters religious life primarily for some thing or some work, but rather because of the One Who calls. "The for will come later, nec-essarily, but in the radiance and as the evangelical fruit of the No one enters religious life primarily for some thing or some work, but rather because of the One who calls. ~tanuar2/-Febrttary 1994 47 Dominic ¯ Charism, Cbarisms, and Faddism because of," as Tillard says.~° Can anything be clearer than this? Yet in the culture shock that religious were exposed to after Vatican Council II, not a few sought their identity in their works and tasks, in their of religious life. But the more they did so, the more elusive they found it. For their real existence as religious was concentrated in the call of Christ to which they had once com-mitted themselves because of the altogether new experience of being seized by the Lord's power. Their existence, therefore, became, or ought to have become, a new existence, a charismatic existence, a charism. Such a vision of religious life as the charism in itself appears distinctly, though in a less charismatic expression, in the Lineamenta when it speaks of the profession of the gospel as the supreme rule for all institutes, whatever their particular ministries may be (§8; see also Perfectae caritatis, §2). The Charisms of Religious Life Once religious life is understood in terms of one unique exis-tential charism underlying all forms of it, one may be able to appreciate the more familiar experience of the particular charisms that at once characterize and distinguish the various institutes. It is in this way that the Lineamenta would seem to interpret the charismatic nature of religious life as taught in the conciliar and postconciliar documents (§ 14). Logically and theologically, the consideration of the charism that constitutes religious life leads to that of the many charisms of religious life. It is the one charism of religious life that begets many a charism in it. Are not the latter "like branches sprouting out wondrously and abundantly from a tree growing in the field of the Lord"? (LG §43, quoted in L §16). Historically, however, what attracted the attention of people was the variety of charisms and not the one charism beneath and beyond all charisms. So, tracing the beginning of religious life from the very infancy of the church, Perfectae caritatis could point out: "Under the influence of the Holy Spirit, many., pursued a solitary life, or founded religious families . And so it happened by divine plan that a wonderful variety of religious communities grew up" (§ 1, partly quoted in L § 16). The mention of solitary life and religious families obviously refers to the twin charisms of original religious life, namely, 48 Review for Religious eremiticism and cenobitism (§9 and §19c). Cenobitism itself in the course of history developed two other charisms, namely, divine contemplation and human service. These in turn became spe-cialized in their ways of focusing on God and on people. In what-ever century religious live out their days, they adopt or develop distinct varieties of direct service of God and humanity, in imita-tion of Christ. Through them, therefore, Christ comes to be shown "contemplating on the mountain, announcing God's king-dom to the multitude, healing the sick and the maimed, turning sinners to wholesome fruit, blessing children, doing good to all, and always obeying the will of the Father" (LG §46, quoted in L §15). Often enough, charisms are considered, or even identified with, graces meant for the common good. Such a consideration is incomplete because it misses something important, namely, the source of the power of service. Charisms are particular graces imparted to us by which we bear or image or reflect or even become Christ in ourselves in a particular limited way, and so are able to render appropriate service in a specific context in a par-ticular part of the world in the manner of Christ himself. So they highlight in us "a specific aspect of the mystery of Christ" (§ 17). However, the gospel, or for that matter Christ himself, if under-stood with proper nuance, is not apart from the church. So the Lineamenta does well in describing charisms as bearing upon a specific aspect, not only of the mystery of Christ, but also of the church's life, and thus manifesting in the makeup of the Mystical Body the multiform grace of Christ (§15). One should not miss here how charisms are at once incarnational and ecclesial (§46). Charisms and Service Once it is grasped that charisms have to do primarily with a fundamental religious way of being, one cannot go wrong in insist-ing that charisms are out-and-out oriented towards service, "des-tined for service of the kingdom" (§3); for surely charisms have an inalienable reference, not only to the way of being, but also to the way of doing. The Lineamenta spells out the nexus between charism and service forcefully thus: "Each charism . . . brings with it a particular manner of faithfully and intensely living the evangelical counsels. In addition, it implies a particular and con-crete style of spiritual life, a determined form of apostolate, a .~anuary-February 1994 49 Dominic ¯ Charism, Cbarisms, and Faddism specific experience of community life, and a particular involvement in the world" (816 [emphasis added]; see also $8). What, then, are the specific paths of service in the building of the earthly city (§44)? Not forgetting the contribution of the contemplatives to society through their divine service of worship (§2)--the first permanent foundation of women in the United States was Carmelites~l--the Lineamenta illustrates the service of active charisms thus: "Today the consecrated life is present in our society through the multiplicity of apostolic services rendered to others, each according to its diverse charisms, in one magnificent expression of the charity of Christ on behalf of the integral for-mation of persons; in the education of children and young people, in the care of the sick, the suffering, the elderly, and those in want; and in aid to persons with special needs and those marginal-ized by society" (§44a). What do all such services intend except "to make operative the gospel of the beatitudes and the works of mercy" (§44a)? One particular element of service rendered by charisms con-cerns life of communion within the church. Different forms of religious life characterized by their different charisms do not con-stitute exclusive churches within the church, but, forming part of the one church, ought to feel themselves to be the church and so identify themselves with her (~3 and ~35; see also Perfectae car-itatis, §2c). The charisms of the different religious families, with their charismatic and yet ecclesial-minded founders, belong as much to the whole church as to the religious themselves (~16, §26e, and §46). For not only are they meant for the growth of the chhrch, but they also have their origin, regulation, guarantee, and approval in and from the church (§6, §15, and §16). Therefore, far from being closed in upon themselves, religious offer a rich fare for communion, reflecting ideal church commu-nion (§9). There is every reason, then, to identify the religious living together by the term community. Incidentally, the hierarchy as such can only contribute, in terms of sociology, to the culture of societas with role differentiation; but the religious as such plunge themselves into the heart of society with their charisms of ser-vice (§3, ~42, and §44) and break through segmentations in soci-ety and initiate the culture of communitas in our world.~2 In bringing about this new culture of communion in the world church, the religious, as "experts in communion" (§35), have nec- 50 Review for Relig~otts essarily to act locally in the particular church, but with their hearts spanning universally in the global church (§27a). The exercise of religious charisms "assists everyone--clergy and faithful--to open themselves to the universal and missionary dimension of the church, and., makes the particular churches an image of the uni-versal church" (§39). For a con-crete example of communion resulting from the enduring charisms, the Lineamenta points out the flourishing of lay third orders, lay associations, and lay-volunteer groups "whose mem-bers are bound under different titles to the spirituality and apos-tolic work of various institutes" (}41). Where the charisms do not serve the cause of church com-munion, they are likely to become mere means of some service or religious themselves. other without the underlying spirit. The Lineamenta warns of the danger of reducing the pres-ence of institutes to parochial ser-vice "without encouraging and welcoming the richness of the spirituality and their proper charismatic service" (~40). More plainly, in the church Body each part can do only the service it is meant for. As charisms are vivifying and beautifying graces of the differ-ent members of the Body of the church (§46), they complement one another; and so they cannot healthily coexist without mutual encounter and influence. Perhaps, in the pre-Vatican "ghetto" church, religious congregations developed their own ghettos, pos-sibly without even knowing it. But the time has come, especially in the era of ecumenism, for % better understanding of the sense of communion among foundational charisms" (§27b). It is high time, therefore, for religious to realize how a particularly har-monious communion among themselves, sharing one another's charism, "can and should contribute to express better the full-ness and richness of Christ" (§46), not only in his Body the church, but also in his extended body, the world in need of union. The charisms of the different religious families, with their charismatic and yet ecclesial-minded founders, belong as much to the whole church as to the Jan~ry-Febrz~ry 1994 51 Dominic ¯ Charism, Cbarisms, and Faddism As charisms serve the cause of communion in the church, so do they contribute to the unity of the separate congregations them-selves. It is unthinkable that a religious family could maintain its unity of life amid all its committed involvement in the world if it failed to cling to its essential charism for nourishment (§32b). Each particular charism, bringing with it a particular manner of intense eyangelical life, makes the presence of the one Lord pres-ent in space and time (§46) and thus "enriches the legacy of life, history, and spirituality characterizing each family identity, shared in common through the spirit of the founder or foundress" (§16). Keeping Charisms Alive The dynamism of religious life in its variety depends on the vitality of its true charisms. Once charisms turn false, they lose their vitality and spell the ruin of institutes. Present-day insti-tutes can continue their existence faithfully only if they recog-nize, recover, retain, and renew their particular charisms in their past originality and present timeliness (~ 17). What, then, can we say about the renewal of charisms? "In keeping with their proper charism" (§40) and similar phrases recur in the Lineamenta, as in the Code of Canon Law, emphasizing that the charisms are to be preserved with fidelity and continued without alteration, avoiding all subtle deviation from the original spirit (§16). This supposes in religious a healthy appreciation and pride in the early traditions of their congrega-tion, as advocated by Perfectae caritatis. Given the evangelical inspiration of all charisms, one can say more, drawing a compar-ison between keeping to the purity of the gospel and maintaining the primitive charism. As Paul insisted on an anathema for those who dare preach a different gospel (Ga 1:8-9), religious founders and foundresses could do likewise, enjoining their followers to abide by the spirit of their constitutions without any dilution or dissimulation on their part.13 In this spirit, while expressing appre-ciation of the general progress in the awareness of the separate charisms in the different congregations in the postconciliar era, the Lineamenta adds affirmatively: "This consciousness ought to find expression in a spiritual commitment and a working pres-ence which effectively enlivens and makes operative for the good of the church the spirit of the founder orfoundress and the legacy of each institute" (§3 lc). 52 Review for Religious Two modern experiences with regard to charisms are note-worthy. One, the preferential choice for the poor, which has been "a constant feature of charisms in the apostolic life, often inspired by the words and actions of the Lord" (§44c; see also §27d), is becoming more and more a serious concern for religious life, leading communities to share the very life of the poor and the marginalized with all their risks, trials, and problems. Second, reminiscent of the early successes of many a congregation, there is the geographical spread of extant charisms in the younger churches of the third world and in the newly liberated Eastern European countries (§27c), giving rise to new cultural expres-sions of them (§32c). The above-mentioned experiences are two fine examples of how charisms rise to the occasion and serve their purpose today, provided they are ever deepened and constantly developed (Mutuae relationes, §1 i; L ~16) according to the signs of the times (Perfectae caritatis, §2; L §17). The sign today is the oncoming of the third millennium, throwing up opportunities and challenges (§33) and giving rise to the sprouting of new charisms and new forms of evangelical life (§24 and §27c). One aspect of this deepening and developing of surviving charisms lies in the direction of their "being called upon today-- inspired by the spirit of the founder or foundress--to serve as the basis for making new commitments and responses in Christian charity to the new and old expressions of poverty in our world" (§29g) and, more generally, to the changed atmosphere of the world "because of the social and cultural happenings which have rapidly come about in modern society" (§25). This is reminiscent of the call of Mutuae relationes to be innovative enough for bold enter-prising initiatives (§12; L §42). Which persons are inspired enough and thus inspiring enough to make new initiatives and refound their congregations, warding off the subtle temptation to be wise in their own eyes? Only fer-vent people (§29e). Only they can update discerningly for today the expressions of their original charism. But in the absence of such people "a certain leveling in behavior and in the tenor of the spiritual and communal life has brought a certain loss of prac-tical identity in charism and works" (§28b)--as surely happened in India, for instance, when some religious working with the masses wanted no public association whatever with their congre-gation. So the apparently clever and outspoken members certainly ~tammry-February 1994 53 Dominic ¯ Charism, Cbarisms, and Faddism need to be cautioned, against tendential postures, theoretical and practical, regarding charisms that go against their.genuineness (§3 lc). A case in point was that of a Jesuit who spoke of the need to rewrite the Ignatian rules for thinking with the church, to the applause of the gathering of course, with scant awareness of their foundation in the mystical union of the church and Christ that inspired Ignatius's Eharacteristic service of the church. While there have been new, positive, and worthy initiatives-- the switch of women religious in the United States from the ser-vice of the clergy to frontier ministries should be hailed as one such measure though grudged by not a few men even in the highly progressive United States of Americal4--there have also been negative, unworthy, and false initiatives--which brings me to the discussion of faddism. Faddism Faddism, the cultivation of fads, has to do with "a rapid, sud-den, and ephemeral collective adoption of novel behavior which affects only superficial or trivial areas of life.''s It was certainly the fad of hasty paradigm shifting when some persons clamored for implementing changes in religious life at a faster pace than peo-ple could cope with. Even when people were willing to change, it was not without the grief of losing the familiar past or the fear of the unknown future. So whoever rushed their fellow religious into the world of Vatican II without at the same time providing them time to grapple with their fear or to grieve over or even rage about their apparent loss were carried away more by an itch for change (2 Tm 4:3) than by the breath of the Spirit, for whom there are times for everything. It was also a fad whenever an opinion gained ground that this or that particular individual was the resource person for renewal. To venture an example, it would seem that a certain fad of what may be called spiritual consumerism surrounded Anthony de Mello of Sadbana fame, for numbers of people kept looking to him alone for renewal, almost as if he were the director of world-wide renewal. In any case, whenever one individual looms too large in some endeavor, the result tends to be superficial, whereas all renewal worth the name happens deep within people, where the creative Spirit works in the innermost recesses of hearts. Another similax: fad, which coflld be called hybridization, was 54 Review for Religious the adoption of a celebrated model as the sole means of renewal, whether or not it squared with the blueprint of one's own origi-nal charism. If the one-month retreat according to the Spiritual Exercises appeared to be such a fad some twenty years ago, today in certain circles external dialogue--whether with native tradi-tions or modern situations--would seem to hold sway more than inner dialogue within one's own charism. Among all those who were "zealous" about reforms in reli-gious life, precious few resorted to a real praxis. Not only did individuals and small groups indulge in the fad of stylized ideo-logical talk.~6 Even entire provinces, if not whole congregations, could be all talk, adopting popular phrases about the poor, for example, rather than making sincere options for them. How pro-ductive can all this exercise be except for inviting occasional out-right condemnation. A bold village woman responded to a group of young religious whose actions were not as forthcoming as their words, "These are not the kind of shepherds who will save the sheep; they swallow the sheep." What is absent in feverish talk, namely, action, can itself become a fad and go beyond all proportion. The slogan (not the idea itself) "formation for mission in mission" suits such a fad, giving the go-by to minimum privacy and seclusion for necessary growth in maturity and personalization. Showmanship and one-up- manship feed this fad, causing each one's action to be largely unproductive. These things are the very opposite of prophetic action. They may have the imaginativeness of the prophets of old, but not their soundness of inspiration. The craze of using anything and everythin

Issue 68.2 of the Review for Religious, 2009. ; Mission and Ministry Renewing Religious Traditions Reviewing Outward Signs QUARTERLY 68.2 2009 Review for Religious fosters dialogu~e withGod, dialogue with ourselves~: and dialogue with one another about the holiness we try to live according ~ iocharisms of~Catholic religiouslif¢. As Pope Paul Vl said, our way of being Church is todqy the way of dialogue. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034o639X) is published quarterly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-633-4610 ¯ Fax: 314-633-4611 E-Mail: reviewrfr@gmail.com ¯Web site: www.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ° St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ Pontifical College Josephinum 7625 North High Street ¯ Columbus, Ohio 43235 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2009 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any inaterial (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribution, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. ~ gournalof Catholic ~pir~ual~y Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Scripture Scope Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming sJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Eugene Hensell OSB Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Judy Sharp . Paul Coutinho sJ Martin Erspamer OSB Margaret Guider OSF Kathleen HughesRSCJ Louis and Angela Menard Bishop Terry Steib SVD QUARTERLY 68.2 2009 contents prisms 116 Prisms 118 132 144 mission and ministry ~ ~_ Paul's Dynamic Mission Principle,s: A Missioner's Reflection James H. Kroeger MM shares with us ten "mission principles" valid for Paul of Tarsus and for today's Pauls as well--the result of his own reflections as a missionary and a meditative reading of St. Paul. Personal Reflection and/or Group Discussion A Franciscan Approach to Ministry Daniel P. Horan OFM ~eflec~s on Francis of Assisi's life and writings and suggests that the five characteristics that emerge provide a helpful parad!grn for all pastoral ministers in the church. Personal Reflection and/or Group Discussion Discipleship and Walking by Faith Damian C. Ilodigwe, along with Abraham and the apostle Thomas, shows that discipleship needs deep faith daily. Review for Religious 152 168 renewing religious traditions Reparation and the Sacred Heart: A New Intrepretation Virginia M. Herbers ASCJ suggests a new understanding of reparation which speaks to the lived reality of the Body of Christ in a global community as well as to the Christian mission to live a life of service. Being Heard, Being Healed: Learning from the Quaker Tradition James H. Schimelpfening SM shares his refreshing experience of community that came from a series of six seasonal retreats based on the Quaker tradition and the work of Parker Palmer. Personal Reflection and/or Group Discussion 181 192 reviewing outward signs Religious Habits Reconsidered Doris Gottemoeller RSM looks over changes of habit and other changes and raises some thoughtful questions about what is now past, having been passed with a view to the future. On Wearing a Habit, from My Perspective Patricia McCarthy CND shares her experience of responding to God's grace in giving witness to her religious consecration in order to help us all to question our freedom in responding to God's grace in our own call. departments 204 Scr.ipture Scope: The Gospel of St. Paul 208 Canonical Counsel: Response to the Role of Law in the Church 214 Book Reviews 68.2 2009 prisms 116 T celebration of the Pauline Year has stimulated a large number of books on the person and writings of St. Paul. As a theologian I have been most taken by the importance of the Holy Spirit in Paul's Letters. In dogmatic development, it will take a few centuries before the church can articulate a theology of the Trinitarian God, and so Paul's writings about the working of the Spirit are all the more arresting. One of the titles that we give to the Holy Spirit in our Nicene creed is "Giver of life." That title is one of the best summaries for how Paul describes the Spirit in the life of the individual Christian and of the Christian community. In his Letter to Titus, Paul makes a summary statement about how much the Spirit is truly the Giver of life. "[God] saved us through the bath of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit, whom he richly poured out on us through Jesus Christ our savior." Through the image of the Spirit being poured out, all the specifics of this new life find their font. Early on in his First Letter to the Corinthians, Paul asks "Do you not know that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwells in you?" He then goes on to say "for the temple of God, which you are, is holy." But Paul becomes more creative and copious in his description of the Spirit's gifts when he employs the image of the human body. That we all are members of the Body R~vie~ for Religious of Christ receives its most detailed description in this Letter of Paul's. We are all baptized into the one Body in the one Spirit. The Spirit is the Giver of the many different kinds of spiritual gifts, and at the same time "to each individual the manifestation of the Spirit is given for some benefit" (1 Co 12:7). What we might take for granted, Paul assures us, is the Spirit's gift. Paul's example is "No one can say 'Jesus is Lord' except by the Holy Spirit" (1 Co 12:3). Surely our sacramental words, "I absolve you," "this is my Body," "I baptize you," are Spirit-filled and Spirit-given words. But more simply, our expressed desires--"teach me to pray," "Lord, for-give me," "Lord, here I am"--are the continuing daily pouring out of gifts of the Spirit. That the total health of the Body depends on each and every one of us being open to the gifts of the Spirit and so sharing this divine life remains central to Paul's theology of the Spirit's gift-ing both to the individual Christian and to the Christian community. In Paul's Letter to the Romans we receive the rich-est understanding of our prayer as Christians. "The Spirit too comes to the aid of our weakness; for we do not know how to pray as we ought, but the Spirit itself intercedes with inexpressible groanings" (Rm 8:26). Our very effort to pray--sometimes feeling so dry and empty--is always a gift of the Spirit. Perhaps our own sense of futility in praying excites the gifting of the Spirit's groans within us all the more, and within the groanings of the community praying as well. Paul's insight gives us consolation in our daily effort to pray. From these few examples, perhaps we will be stirred to greater gratitude for Paul's own gift of in.sight into the Spirit as the Giver of life as we celebrate.the Pauline Year. David L. Fleming SJ 117 68.2 2009 mission and JAMES H. KROEGER Paul's Dynamic Mission Principles: A Missioner's Reflection ministry The apostle Paul is considered the greatest missionary of all time. He is called the Apostle of the Gentiles since he was mainly responsible for the spread of Christianity into the Gentile world. The church owes much to Paul for its growth; he pioneered its early expansion by his mission labors and his theological reflection. A brief synopsis of Paul's life includes the following approximate chronology: 5-10 (birth at Tarsus), 15-20 (studies in Jerusalem), 36 (conversion), 36-39 (Damascus, Arabia, Jerusalem), 39-43 (Tarsus), 43-44 (Antioch), 44-48 (first missionary journey), 49-50 (Council of Jerusalem; Antioch confrontation with Peter), 49-53 (second missionary journey), James H. Kroeger MM, a missionary in Asia (Philippines and Bangladesh) since 1970, is professor of systematic theology, missiology, and Islamics at the Loyola School of Theology; Ateneo de Manila University; Katipunan Avenue, Loyola Heights; Quezon City 1108; Philippines. jkroeger@admu.edu.ph 53-58 (third missionary journey), 58-60 (prisoner in Caesarea), 60-63 (voyage to Rome, prisoner in Rome), 64-66 (Spain? Rome? elsewhere?), 66-67 (prisoner in Rome), 67/68 (death in Rome). This brief chronology provides the context from which Paul's dynamic mission principles emerge; they are the result of both mission praxis and deep theological reflection. Paul's letters and the Acts of the Aposdes provide much insight into Paul's missionary thinking and methods. Over the centuries many authors have tried to digest Paul's mission thought and praxis, emphasizing the "central ideas" of this aposde. This effort may be admi-rable, but can result in a certain selectivity. Thus, this author is chary of claiming to capture the "essence" of Paul's insights. One cannot compose a "CliffsNotes" or abbreviated version of Paul's thought. His letters were written over a span of ten years; they were based on a lengthy ministry of preaching the gospel message in an extraordinary variety of circumstances and to diverse groups of people. Readers, consider this pie.ce a long-term ad gentes missionary's :personal reflections based on a medita-tive reading of St. Paul. Through an interaction of this writer's personal experience and the profound thought of Paul, ten "mission principles" took form. Emerging from Paul's life and refracted through the experience of a contemporary missioner, these insights are, I think, valid for the church's missionary activity today, twenty centuries after Paul's birth. Depth Awareness of Vocation. In Paul's mind there was no iota of doubt about his calling, his vocation; for Paul and all missioners, mis-sion originates in the call of God. Several passages in the 68.2 2009 Kroeger ¯ Paul's Dynamic Mission Principles book of Acts portray this: "The Lord said to [Ananias], 'Go, because this man [Paul] is my chosen instrument to bring my name before Gentiles'" (Ac 9:15). "The God of our ancestors has chosen you . . . because you are to be his witness before all humanity, testifying to what you have seen and heard" (Ac 22:14-15). "I have appeared to you for this reason: to appoint you as my servant and as witness of this vision in which you have seen me" (Ac 26:15). In addition, the majority of Paul's letters begin with a firm assertion of his identity as a chosen instrument of God. "From Paul . . . an apostle who does not owe his authority to men or his appointment to any human being, but who has been appointed by Jesus Christ and by God the Father who raised Jesus from the dead" (Ga 1:1-2). "From Paul, a servant of Christ Jesus who has been called to be an apostle, and specially chosen to preach the Good News" (Rm 1:1). Several other let-ters begin with almost the same words: "From Paul, appointed by God to be an apostle of Christ Jesus" (2 Co 1:1); see also 1 Co 1:1, Ep 1:1, Col 1:1, Ph 1:1, and others. Writing to the Corinthians about Christ's resur-rection, Paul categorically states: "I am the least of the apostles; in fact, since I persecuted the church of God, I hardly deserve the name apostle; but by God's grace that is what I am, and the grace that he gave me has not been fruitless" (1 Co 15:9-10). Radical Commitment to Christ. Paul's experience on the Damascus road was, in fact, only the starting point of a lifelong relationship; mission envisions a totally Christ-centered life. Paul expresses this in various ways: "Life to me, of course, is Christ" (Ph 1:21). "None of us live to ourselves, and none of us die Review for Religious to ourselves. If we live, we live to the Lord, if we die, we die to the Lord; so then, whether we live or whether we die, we are the Lord's" (Rm 14:7-8). "I have been crucified with Christ, and I live now not with my own life, but with the life of Christ who lives in me" (Ga 2:19-20). All of Paul's writings speak of his love for Christ, his identification with Christ. So intimate was his rela-tionship that he could even advise the Corinthians: "Imitate me as I imitate Christ" (1 Co 11:1). Paul tells the Thessalonians that they can follow his example: "You observed the sort of life we lived when we were with you, which was for your instruction; you were led to become imitators of us and of the Lord" (1 Th 1:5-6). Paul, writing to the Philippians, makes a moving com-parison of his previous life to his newfound existence in Christ: "I believe nothing can happen that will out-weigh the supreme advantage of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. For him I have accepted the loss of everything, and I look on everything as so much rubbish if only I can have Christ and be given a place in him" (Ph 3:8-9). Voluntary Acceptance of Suffering Not relying on words alone, the apostle Paul preached the gospel by his life and example. In a par-ticular way, vulnerability and acceptance of the cross authen-ticate mission. In imitation of Christ who gave himself up to death even for sinners (Rm 5:8), Paul considers his suffering for the sake of the gospel to be a participa-tion in Christ's sufferings (2 Co 1:5-7). Paul saw him-self as sharing in Christ's kenosis (Ph 2:6-11). Writing to Timothy he says: "Join with me in suffering for the gospel, relying on the power of God, who saved us and called us with a holy calling" (2 Tm 1:8-9). 121 68.2 2009 Kroeger ¯Paul'$ Dynamic Mission Principles Paul recounts his numerous trials in the service of the gospel; he mentions his imprisonments, beatings, shipwrecks, travels, robberies, hard labor, sleeplessness, hunger, thirst, and nakedness (see 2 Co 11:23-27). Paul also mentions that he had to bear "a thorn in the flesh" (2 Co 12:7). Yet, he notes, "I am quite content with my weaknesses, and with insults, hardships, persecutions, and the agonies I go through for Christ's sake. For it is when I am weak that I am strong" (2 Co 12:10). Of course, this vulnerability is intimately linked with the paradox of the cross: "Continually we carry in our bod-ies the.dying of Jesus, so that in our bodies the life of Jesus may also be revealed" (2 Co 4:10). Like Paul, all missionaries need to say, "May I never boast of anything but the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ" (Ga 6:14). Insightful Mission Methods One can affirm that all Paul's energies were mission-focused, yet one can also point out that he employed dis-tinct methods to achieve his purposes. Mission demands creative, inculturated, ever-renewed approaches to evange-lization. Paul sought various occasions which would facilitate his proclamation; he attempted to connect his preaching with people's daily lives and worldview. Paul's approach at Ephesus (Ac 19) is exemplary; he would preach in a synagogue or a nearby house and attempt to link th~ Jewish faith with Christian revelation (see Ac 13:5 & 14, 14:1, 17:1). Acts 17:22-31 narrates Paul's famous speech in the Areopagus, the central assembly place in Athens, the cultural capital of the Greek islands. Paul mentions their altar to an unknown god; he refers to the philoso-pher- poet Epimenides (vv. 23 & 28). Although many mocked Paul, his intelligent method won some followers Revie~v for Religious for Christ. Paul, the "practical" missioner, moved from the familiar to the unfamiliar, from the unknown to the known. Pope John Paul II has exhorted missionaries to move into new mission frontiers, "the modern equiva-lents of the Areopagus" (Redemptoris missio, §37). Paul's missionary sensitivities are manifested in his conviction that adaptation (inculturation, in today's parlance) is essential when mission meets a new situa-tion (Ac 15). He vigorously opposed the imposition of Jewish legal traditions, cultural observations, or external religious practices on Gentile Christians; these could hinder the spread of the gospel into the Gentile world. Paul even withstood James in Jerusalem (Ac 15) and Peter in Antioch (Ga 2:11-14). Paul articulates his "inculturated" method of becom-ing "all things to everyone" (1 Co 9:19-23). He adapts himself to the Jews, to those outside the law, and to the weak. His vision is crystal clear: "I have made myself the slave of everyone so as to win as many as I could. ¯. I made myself all things to everyone in order to save some at any cost; and I still do this, for the sake of the gospel, to have a share in its blessings." Urgent Gospel Proclamation ~. Paul did not understand "preaching" as giving a spir-itual reflection in a liturgical assembly. Integral procla-mation means heralding an urgent message from God that profoundly affects the destiny of all humankind. Mission has lost none of its urgency in the contem-porary world. Paul's words possess an authentic ring-- even in our ears today: "For, if I preach the gospel, that gives me no ground for boasting. For necessity is laid upon me. Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel!" (1 Co 9:16). For all Christians, evangelization must be a 123 68.2 2009 Kroeger ¯ Paul's Dynamic Mission Principles "daily preoccupation" (2 Co 11:28). As Pope Paul VI noted, "the presentation of the gospel message is not an optional contribution for the church. It is a duty incumbent on her by the command of the Lord Jesus" (Evangelii nuntiandi, §5). This Pauline "mission principle" is actually a call for an examination of conscience on the part of the church. Have many local churches placed too much emphasis on administrative efficiency, pastoral management, eco-nomic accountability, liturgical practice, canonical and catechetical orthodoxy--all to the detriment of dynamic programs of renewed evangelization? Have inward (ad intra) concerns vitiated the church's outward (ad extra) mission commitments? Paul's words contain a challenge to all churches and religious communities: "All the way along, from Jerusalem to Illyricum, I have preached Christ's Good News to the utmost of my capacity" (Rrn 15:19). Paul wrote these encouraging words to Timothy: "Make the preaching of the Good News your life's work, in thoroughgoing service" (2 Tm 4:5). 124 Deep Love of the Church In examining Paul's apostolic methods, it is enlight-ening to probe his view of the church. Paul primarily understands the church as a local community of baptized followers of Jesus Christ; he was not opposed to a uni-versal church, but in his day the local congregation was central to his experience. Mission and love of the people who constitute the church go hand in hand. This principle echoes the thought of an elderly Maryknoll missioner who never tired of repeating: Mission is people. Paul had great love and concern for the ecclesial com-munities he founded with painstaking effort. His writ-ings frequently and spontaneously express his affection: Review for Religious "It is only natural that I should feel like this towards you all, since you have shared the privileges which have been mine: both my chains and my work defending and estab-lishing the gospel. You have a permanent place in my heart, and God knows how much I miss you all, loving you as Christ Jesus loves you" (Ph 1:7-8). When the churches Paul established with patient apostolic ministry were in trouble, he shared their pain; he speaks of his "daily anxiety" for them (2 Co 11:28). He wonders aloud: "I am afraid that my work for you may have been wasted" (Ga 4:11). "My children, I must go through the pain of giv-ing birth to you all over again, until Christ is formed in you" (Ga 4:19). Although the Corinthian community had many internal problems (divi-sions, immorality, idolatry, etc.; see 1 Co 1:10-13, 5:1-5, 10:14- 22), Paul, the affectionate missionary, loved them dearly: "You yourselves are our letter, written on our hearts, to be known and read by all" (2 Co 3:2). "Keep a place for us in your hearts . As I have already told' you, you are in our hearts--together we live or together we die. I have the very greatest confidence in you, and I am so proud of you that in all our trouble I am filled with consolation and my joy is overflowing" (2 Co 7:2-4). His writings frequently "and spontaneously express his affection. Close Collaboration with Coworkers The apostle Paul, though a strong personality, was a team worker in the task of evangelization. He under-stood that all apostolic ministry is enhanced through collab-orative efforts. Some few examples show that Paul saw 68.2 2009 Kroeger * Paul's Dynamic Mission Principles great advantages in working together with other apos-tles. On his first missionary j6urney, Paul was accom-panied by Barnabas and Mark (Ac 13-14). Timothy and Silvanus were his trusted coworkers in Corinth and else-where (2 Co 1:19). Titus was his appointed deputy in dealing with difficulties in the Corinthian community (2 Co 8:23), Among other coworkers and fellow aposdes were Luke, Erastus, Aristarchus, and Tychicus. Paul considered teamwork and collaborative minis-try important for a variety of reasons. Apostles working in partnership presented a visible image of the church as community; it gave the people an example of common witness. A variety of apostles working for a common goal presented a more balanced picture of the church than Paul alone could have given. In addition, the gifts of vai'ious individuals were put at the service of gospel proclamation. Paul frequendy expressed his admiration and appre-ciation of his collaborators; he called Timothy his "coworker" (Rm 16:21) and tenderly describes him as "my dear and faithful son" (1 Co 4:17) whose "worth you know, how like a son with a father he has served with me in the work of the gospel" (Ph 2:22). Paul referred to Titus as "my brother" (2 Co 2:13) and "my partner and coworker" (2 Co 8:23). Even if disputes occasionally arose, Paul sought to promote communion in mission. Paul offers contemporary ministers a model of cooperative ministry. Commitment to Social Transformation Paul preached a gospel of freedom and liberation along with his manifest concern and love for the poor and the suffering. The gospel message of human dignity and equality, if embraced, leads to social transformation. Revie~v for Religious Paul firmly believed in the transforming power of the gospel message, and he proposed to his communities the model of Jesus Christ: "Remember how generous the Lord Jesus was: he was rich, but he became poor for your sake, to make you rich out of his poverty" (2 Co 8:9). And, for gospel credibility, Paul himself imitated Christ. Though he possessed citizenship in the Roman Empire, to show his social concern and commitment he chose the lot of ordinary working-class people and labored with his own hands for his livelihood (1 Th 2:9, 1 Co 4:12). Paul challenged many of the social, racial, religious, cultural, and economic barriers of his times. One brief example illustrates Paul's social message. In ancient times, there were three great blessings pronounced in the Jewish synagogue: "Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, . . . who hast not made me a Gentile, . . . who hast not made me a slave,., who hast not made me a woman!" Paul certainly had these barriers in mind when he expressed the new unity of those baptized in Christ: "There are no more distinctions between Jew and Greek, slave and free, male and female, but all of you are one in Christ Jesus" (Ga 3:28). All, without dis-tinction, are to gather around the Eucharistic table, that great center of unity. Numerous additional examples of Paul's social con-sciousness readily come to mind. He struggled to alleviate the suffering of the Christian communities in Jerusalem and Judea during a severe famine (1 Co 16:1-4). Paul laid down ~a clear apostolic principle: "The only thing insisted on was that we should remember to help the poor, as indeed I was anxious to do" (Ga 2:10). Paul converted the runaway slave Onesimus and then demanded that he be accepted "no longer as a slave but something much bet-il, 27 68.2 2009 Kroeger * Paul's Dynamic Mission Principles ter than a slave, a beloved brother" (Phm 16). In a word, Paul preached authentic liberation: "When Christ freed us, he meant us to remain free" (Ga 5:1). 128 Effective, Exemplary Lifestyle The apostle Paul was always careful that .his per-sonal life would encourage and facilitate the spread of the gospel and never become counterproductive. The witness of a Cbristian life is the first and oj~en most effective proclamation of the gospel. When Paul speaks of imitation in his letters (he is not being arrogant), he believes that Christians can encourage one another through their Chrisdike words and deeds. An exemplary lifestyle is a very effective mode of proclamation. "Be imitators of me, as I am of Christ" (1 Co 11:1). Paul commends the Thessalonians because "you were led to become imita-tors of us and of the Lord" (1 Th 1:6). Paul, the exem-plary missioner, is seeking to draw people to Christ, not to himself, through his encouragement to imitate model Christians: "I have sent you Timothy. he will remind you of the way that I live in Christ" (1 Co 4:16). Several of the foregoing sections of this presenta-tion refer to key elements that coalesce to form Paul's life-witness as an apostle: Christocentric spirituality, voluntary vulnerability, innovative mission approaches, evangelical urgency, collaborative ministry, social engagement. To these elements one could add additional virtues, as Paul himself does in his lists of spiritual gifts (see 1 Co 12 & 13, Ga 5:22). In a theology of mission today, the holistic approach to mission that Paul's life shows would be termed "inte-gral evangelization." Paul consistendy strove to run the race successfully and fight the battle successfully (see 1 Co 9:24-27). He kept his eyes fixed on Christ; he told Revie~v for Religious the Philippians: "I am still running, trying to capture the prize for which Christ Jesus captured me" (Ph 3:12). Total Reliance on God's Providence Paul had full confidence in God's everlasting love and fidelity; the guarantee of God's salvific love is Jesus Christ. Paul asks: "If God is for us, who can be against us? He who did not spare his own Son but handed him over for us all, how will he not also give us everything else along with him?" (Rm 8:31-32). Mission always remains "God's project" and evangelizers seek to be God's faith-filled, humble instruments. Paul cooper-ated with God's grace so willingly and generously because he was firmly convinced that he was doing God's work. He asserts that he is only a servant of the gospel: "I did the planting, Apollos did the watering, but God made things grow. Neither the planter nor the waterer matters: only God, who makes things grow" (1 Co 3:6-7). Paul lived his apostolic life with great confidence and full trust in God, whom we can call "Abba" (Rm 8:15, Ga 4:6-7). His life wasfilled with many sufferings, hardships, and challenges; he even faced Spirit-given "roadblocks" in his missionary journeys (Ac 16:6-10). Fully convinced that his life and mission were dependent totally on God and the Spirit's guidance, Paul labored unceasingly, always ascribing any missionary success to God. "By the grace of God I am what I am . I worked harder than any of them--though it was not I, but the Paul labored unceasingly, always ascribing any missionary success to God. 129 68.2 2009 Kroeger * Paul's Dynamic Mission Principles grace of God that is with me" (1 .Co 15:10). Paul asserts: "The love of Christ urges us on" (2 Co 5:14), "I can do all things in him who strengthens me" (Ph 4:13), "The Spirit comes to help us in our weakness" (Rm 8:26). Paul was a man of faith. The dynamic aposde Paul is undoubtedly the great-est missionary of all time. Based on his mission experi-ence and profound theological insights, this presentation has proposed ten "mission principles," valid for Paul of Tarsus and for today's Pauls as well. Paul burned' with the flame of God's love that was enkindled in his heart at his conversion; that flame pervaded his whole existence, even to the final hour of his martyrdom in Rome. It is good for us to notice that, even in the face of all the afflictions and sufferings he endured, Paul was a fulfilled, joyful, Spirit-guided missioner. Paul over-flowed with the Good News, and spread God's saving love everywhere. His awareness of God's transforming grace given to him in abundant measure enabled him to joyfully proclaim Jesus as Lord (see 1 Co 15:10). Paul, exemplifying a genuinely missionary attitude, was filled with deep joy, not because of personal grati-fication or external success, but because he saw many communities accept the person of Jesus. He wrote to the Philippians: "My brothers and dear friends, do not give way but remain faithful in the Lord. I miss you very much, dear friends; you are my joy and my crown" (Ph 4:1). To the Thessalonians Paul wrote: "What do you think is our pride and our joy? You are; and you will be the crown of which we shall be proudest in the presence of our Lord Jesus when he comes; you are our pride and our joy" (1 Th 2:19-20). The Corinthians received this message from Paul: "I have the very great-est confidence in you, and I~ am so proud of you that in Review for Religious all our trouble I am filled with consolation and my joy is overflowing" (2 Co 7:4). Paul's exhortations need to be heard by the mission-ary church today: "Rejoice in the Lord always; again I say rejoice" (Ph 4:4). "Rejoice always, pray without ceasing, give thanks in all circumstances" (1 Th 5:16- 18). "My brothers, rejoice in the Lord" (Ph 3:1). "Shine in the world like bright stars, because you are offering it the word of life" (Ph 2:15-16). Pastors, missionaries, catechists, religious, all ministers of the church, imitate Paul, the joyful evangelizer. Selected Resources Alien, R. Missionary Methods: St. Paul's or Ours? Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1962. Grassi, J. The Secret of Paul the Apostle. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1978. Grassi, J. A World to Win. Maryknoll: Maryknoll Publications, 1965. Matera, E Strategies for Preaching Paul. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2001. Murphy-O'Connor, J. Jesus and Paul: Parallel Lives. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2007. Smyth, B. Pauk Mystic and Missionary. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1980. Srampickal, T. "The Secret of Paul's Missionary Success," Third Millennium 10 (2007): 41-66. Witherup, R. I01 Questions and Answers on Paul. New York: Paulist Press, 2003. Personal Reflection and/or Group Discussion What principle(s) of Paul, identified by Kroeger, most caught your attention for use in your own mission? If you were to list your own mission principles, how would they compare with Paul's? 131 68.2 2009 DANIEL P. HORAN A Franciscan Approach to Ministry 1321 During his final days St. Francis of Assisi reflected on how he had lived his life and spent God's time. To preserve his recollections of the birth of his new religious order and leave a record of his hopes for the future, he dictated his Testament to some of the fri-ars who were caring for him. In it he recalls his conver-sion to follow Christ and shares what it means to be a Franciscan: to live the gospel. Today Francis continues to inspire people in all parts of the world and every faith tradition. His Testament is the last of a series of writings by Francis that reveals his vision of ministry. Beyond what people often call "Franciscan spirituality" stands his vision of ministry in the church. It is a manner of living in the world, being in relationship with God, and serving our sisters and brothers. The year 2009 marks the eight-hundredth anniver-sary of the order's founding. As we celebrate this mile- Daniel P. Horan OFM has written on Franciscan theology, philosophy, and spirituality. His address is Holy Name College; 1650 St. Camillus Drive; Silver Spring, Maryland 20903. horandp@gmail.com Review for Religious stone, it is good to consider Francis's example and reflect on his vision, which serves as inspiration and guidance. In this article I will highlight five themes that emerge from Francis's writings to form a ministerial ethos that is particularly Franciscan. One does not need to be a Franciscan, a Poor Clare, or a secular Franciscan to adopt a Franciscan approach. Any pastoral minister can benefit from the insights of one of the greatest saints and reformers in Christian history. Everything Done in Humble Service When Francis started his work for God, having renounced his worldly possessions and aspirations, he did penance and followed the gospel as he felt led by God.~ Soon others sought to imitate his efforts and fol-low him in what Franciscan scholar Thadd~e Matura calls the "Franciscan project." This project, while ini-tially not the goal of Francis himself, quickly grew to include thousands of friars and hundreds of sisters,z What made them follow in the footsteps of this medi-eval man and renounce property and adhere to a life of obedience and chaste celibacy? One element of the Franciscan project that emerged early was radical adherence to subordinate positions in society. Francis's early followers saw the humility of a man who left behind the life of a wealthy merchant to live among lepers and outcasts. In his Earlier Rule, Francis had instructed them where among the social strata they should strive to live. He says, "Let no one be called 'prior,' but let everyone in general be called a lesser brother. Let one wash the feet of the other." Francis continued by enjoining his brothers to be "lesser ones" always "subject to all.''3 This spirit of humility is the foundation for all the 133 68.2 2009 Horan ¯ ~ Franciscan ~pproach to Ministry characteristics of a Franciscan ministry. Francis was less concerned about what someone did in the world than about how someone did it. Here we see his admiration for Christ's humility as central to his spirituality: to be Francis was less cbncerned about what someonedid in the world than how someone did: a Franciscan is to live the gospel by following in the footprints of Jesus Christ. Michael Blastic summarizes this well: "As Jesus turned toward those around him, so Francis and Clare in contemplation and com-passion incarnate the praxis of Jesus as they follow him in their world by turning to those around them.''4 From his incarnation and birth to his death on the cross, Jesus' life served as Francis's model for humble service. Perhaps the most succinct articulation of Francis's image of humble service is found in Admonition XIX. Here Francis says: Blessed is the servant who does not consider himself any better when he is praised and exalted by people than when he is considered worthless, simple, and looked down upon, for what a person is before God, that he is and no more. Woe to that religious who has been placed in a high position by others and [who] does not want to come down by his own will. Blessed is that servant who is not placed in a high position by his own will and always desires to be under the feet of others,s 134 Humility is a virtue of ministry, being of service to and among people, that Francis often wrote about. Besides being a reoccurring theme in his Admonitions, humility becomes a constitutive characteristic of the Franciscan way of life when it appears three times in his Review for Religious Later Rule. In chapter 3 we read, "I counsel, admonish, and exhort my brothers in the Lord Jesus Christ not to quarrel or argue or judge others when they go about in the world; but let them be rrieek, peaceful, modest, gende, and humble, speaking courteously to everyone, as is becoming." Two chapters later in the same document, Francis exhorts his followers to always work humbly as servants of God and disciples of poverty. Toward the end of the Rule, Francis again reminds his followers that even amid persecution, hardship, and infirmity they are to have humility and patience while loving those who persecute them.6 Francis echoes the theme of humility at every opportunity because in this way Christ served his brothers and sisters and in this way he desired to serve. Thaddte Matura makes a keen observation about the importance of humility in Francis's way of life and in the movement he gave rise to. Matura believes that Francis was.well aware of the temptation, perhaps within him-self, for pastoral ministers to consider themselves better or above those whom they served.7 It is possible that his concern about friars judging others and seeking special privileges was rooted in his own experience as the son of a wealthy merchant, a well-off young man who was disgusted by lepers and people of lower social status. Regardless of Francis's initial motivation, we are the inheritors of a vision that inspires ministers to always put others before themselves.8 In a world that is fraught with self-centeredness and material accumulation, where even devoted ministers are tempted to seek personal reward, a humble approach to ministry remains prophetic. Relationship Takes Priority Francis's way of being-in-the-world followed the example of Jesus Christ. Michael Blastic insightfully 68.2 2009 Horan ¯ A Franciscan Approach to Ministry connects the divine humility that Francis recognized in the incarnation with God's outward movement toward humanity.9 It was in humility that God incarnate, Jesus Christ, entered into relationships with the people around him. All four Gospels tell of Jesus' encounters with many people: the marginalized, outcast, wealthy, powerful, average, violent, peaceful, and so on. Because he lived a perfectly humble existence among his sisters and brothers, Jesus could meet people as they were, rec-ognizing the inherent dignity of each human person. For Francis, this became a major component of his way of life and remains a Franciscan characteristic today. Vv'hile most of the preserved writings of Francis are letters, prayers, and admonitions or guidelines addressed to large numbers, we have one letter that was written to a particular minister. His identity remains anonymous, frustratingly so for many, but the anonymiW allows us to stand in his place and receive personally from Francis his wisdom concerning ministry, a touching wisdom straight from his heart. Francis is concerned about this friar's attitude and disposition, and he says: I wish to know in this way if you love the Lord and me, his servant and yours: that there is not any brother in the world who has sinned--however much he could have sinned--who, after he has looked into your eyes, would ever depart without your mercy, if he is looking for mercy.~° Mercy trumps justice. Relationship remains the pri-mary way for people to understand all their encoun-ters. Vghile this observation may appear obvious, the reason is that we are already familiar--if only subtly and indirecdy--with the Franciscan way of seeing ministry. This was not always the case. The Franciscan historian Joseph Chinnici describes the early Franciscan move- Review for Religious ment as a radically new form of "penitential human-ism." He applies this term to the Franciscan movement's effort to bring people together peacefully amid "social discord and violence." This approach to ministry puts relationship and com-munity above per-sonal journeys of faith and conversion. One's own conversion, if it is a Franciscan one, should lead toward others and away from one's own self.~ It ~ is for precisely this reason that Francis insisted that the friars be mendicants, not monks, and live with the whole world as their cloister, not limiting it to a monastery's four walls. Franciscan ministries are not simply good methods, skillful implementations of model practices. Rather, they are a project that seeks to unite those who are separated by the violence of social, political, and ecclesial dissent.12 To stress relationship as the primary approach to minis-try, Francis often used familial terms. In his Earlier Rule, he says, "Let each one love and care for his brother as a mother loves and cares for her son."13 In Francis's spirituality, such a familial understanding of relation-ship extended even beyon.d human relationships to include all of God's creation. In his most famous work, The Canticle of the Creatures, he addresses all elements as brother or sister. In an age of heightened ecological awareness, our relationship with the earth and the rest of creation can influence our ministry positively. We are called to minister to all with a deepened sense of our One's own conversion, if it is a Franciscan one, should lead toward others and away from one's own self. 137 68.2 2009 Horan ¯ ~l Franciscan ~pproacb to Minisl~ interdependence and relatedness as children of God and brothers and sisters of all God's creation. Avoid Attachment There is great wisdom in a mendicant model of life. In a life of detachment from personal property, pasto-ral ministers become less preoccupied with their status, their control, their "things." If a particular ministry does not "belong" to a particular minister, one becomes a curator, a caretaker, one who takes good care of some-thing of value not one's own. This contrasts with the oligarchic approach, a small group's limited vision often preventing a ministry's expansion or creativity. Francis was quite convinced that appropriation of anything, including one's work as a minister, would lead to other problems. His Earlier Rule is filled with admonitions and warnings about the danger of attachment. In chap-ter 7 he says, "Wherever the brothers may be, either in hermitages or other places, let them be careful not to make any place their own or contend with anyone for it." He goes on to say, "Guard yourselves against the anxieties of this world and the cares of this life," and summarizes by saying: "Let all the brothers strive to follow the humility and poverty of our Lord Jesus Christ, and let them remember that we should have nothing else in the whole world except as the Apostle says: "Having food and clothing, we are content with these" (1 Tm 6:8).14 While today most ministers, including professed Franciscan women and men, would find it difficult to live in this world strictly observing the instruction above, the key to Francis's insight is found in the word "strive." We understand this as a more perfect vision of an imperfect manner of living in this world. It is the Review for Religious model that pastoral ministers should have in their work, striving in humility and poverty to not appropriate the work as their own. Thy Will Be Done Naturally, the divestment of property and ownership of even one's ministry leads to the question: Then to whom does it belong? For Francis the answer is simple: M1 good things come from and belong to God. It is in the perfect prayer of Christians that we find the source and purpose of our ministerial endeavors, "Thy will be done." When our efforts in ministry become more about our will, our ambition, or our desires, then we have left the realm of ministry and entered some level of self-centeredness. Closely linked to Francis's view of attachment is his understanding that all ministry is the work of God for God. This understanding affirms and renews people's vocation to service. It directs the gaze of ministers from themselves back to God as the source of their inspiration to follow their ministerial vocation. Francis often wrote about God's will in connection with his own ministry and that of the Friars Minor. In his Letter to the Entire Order, Francis reminds his broth-ers of their vocation and its connection to God's will. He writes: "Give praise to him because he is good; exalt him by your deeds; for this reason he has sent you into the whole world: that you may bear witness to his voice in word and deed and bring everyone to know that there is no one who is all-powerful except him.'ns Matura highlights this thought of Francis when he says, "Anything good that we have or do, no matter how personal it is, comes to us from God, and we are only administrators of that good, as it were.'n6 In addition to the proper attribution of our gifts and vocation to 139 68.2 2009 Horan ¯ A Franciscan Approach to Ministry God, this thought frees us of the weighty burdens of self-sufficiency and responsibility. Unhampered by the pressure ministers frequendy put on themselves, we are free to be God's instruments, working in partnership with Christ and others. In this way we leave the world of "lone rangers" and enter the community of Christians working toward the kingdom. I'40 Pray without Ceasing A Franciscan approach to ministry must always flow from a life of prayer. Those who adopt this approach are not just people who pray, but people whose words and actions are also prayer. This lived prayer is con-stant openness to conversion, allowing God to enter and transform lives from worldly concern and triviality to authentic gospel living--in Christ's footsteps, as God's instruments of peace today. In a brief letter to St. Anthony of Padua, Francis responded to his request for permission to teach the-ology. This was a new initiative, for up to this time Franciscans had largely avoided academic ministry. Francis was cautious of higher education because of the tendency of the educated to think better of themselves, look down on others, and move away from the charac-teristics of ministry we have examined above. Francis knew of Anthony's gifts, however, and knew that many friars had asked for his instruction in theology. Francis told Anthony, "I am pleased that you teach .sacred the-ology to the brothers providing that, as is contained in the Rule, you 'do not extinguish the Spirit of prayer and devotion' during study of this kind.''17 Even a ministry as basic as training other friars for pastoral ministry was viewed as secondary to prayer and devotion. Francis writes in his Earlier Rule that those who Review for Religious come after him are to love the Lord God, who has given everyone everything, with their whole heart, soul, mind, strength, understanding, powers, effort, affection, feel-ing, desire, and wish. This is not to be an occasional experience or portion of time apart from the rest of life, but the modus operandi of ministry. Later in the same text Francis writes: Wherever we are, in every place, at every hour, at every time of the day, every day and continually, let all of us truly and humbly believe and hold in our heart and love, honor, adore, serve, praise and bless, glorify and exalt, magnify and give thanks to the Most High and Supreme Eternal God, Trinity and Unity.'s This is another echo of the Franciscan understanding that one's entire life should be given back to God as prayer. Such a life naturally nourishes a vocation to service and ministry. When one's actions are directed back to God with humil-ity, with relationship as the priority, without encumber-ing attachments, and with recognition of everything as God's work, then life is transformed into prayer. Ministry then is not a person's self-motivated effort or effectiveness, but the outpouring of God's gifts received prayerfully and gratefully and sharbd with others. Eight hundred years after the first Franciscan began to do ministry in the small town of Assisi, we find our-selves inspired by Francis's example to continue the mission of God's work in our world. Regardless of our particular manifestation of God's work, all pastoral min-isters can find renewed life and purpose by reflecting A Franciscan approach to ministry must always flow from a 'life of prayer. 141 68.2 2009 Horan * .4 Franciscan AIqn'oacb to Ministry on a Franciscan approach to ministry. Humility keeps us approachable and ready to give loving service. The priority we give to relationship brings us to places where we can best foster loving unity among our sisters and brothers and grateful respect for all of creation. Detachment helps to seek the right things, without being distracted by worldly concerns. Recalling that God is the source of all our gifts and our personal voca-tion puts our work into perspective, while bolstering our purpose to work hand in hand with God. Finally, more than just say prayers, we strive to live lives that are prayers, lives that help bring God's love to our world. Notes i Francis of Assisi, "The Testament," verses 1 and 14, in Francis of Assisi: Early Documents, vol. 1, ed. Regis J. Armstrong, J.A. Wayne Hellmann, and William Short (New York: New City Press, 1999), pp. 124 & 125. Further citations of this first volume will be noted as FAED followed by page numbers. 2 Thaddde Matura, "Francis of Assisi and His Posterity Today," in Gospel Living: Francis of Assisi Yesterday and Today, ed. Elise Saggau (St. Bonaventure, N.Y.: Franciscan Institute, 1994), pp. 263-267. Matura compares Francis to Jesus while explaining similarities of the Franciscan orders and the church. While Francis is held as the founder and model for the three Franciscan orders (much as Jesus is for the church), he is not credited with intentionally founding a new movement in the proper sense (see p. 264). ~ Francis of Assisi, "The Earlier Rule," 6:3-4 and 7:2, in FAED, p. 68. 4 Michael Blastic, "Contemplation and Compassion: A Franciscan Ministerial Spirituality," in Spirit and Life, vol. 7, ed. Anthony Carrozzo, Vincent Cushing, and Kenneth Himes (St. Bonaventure, N.Y.: Franciscan Institute, 1997), p. 172. s Francis, "Admonition 19: A Humble Servant of God," in FAED, p. 135. 6 Francis, "The Later Rule," 3:10-11 (emphasis added), 5:4, and 10:7-10, in FAED, pp. 102-105. r Thadd~e Matura, Francis of Assisi: The Message in His Writings, Review for Religious trans. Paul Barrett (St. Bonaventure, N.Y.: Franciscan Institute, 1997), p. 167. s St. Bonaventure, the Franciscan saint and doctor of the church, later wrote about the importance of humility in the evangelical life, beginning his treatise Disputed Questions on Evangelical Perfection with that topic. See Works of St. Bonaventure, vol. 13, trans. Thomas Reist and Robert Karris (St. Bonaventure, N.Y.: Franciscan Institute, 2008). 9 Blastic, "Contemplation and Compassion," p. 153. 10Francis, "A Letter to a Minister," verse 9, in FAED, p. 97. 11 Joseph Chinnici, "Penitential Humanism: Rereading the Sources to Develop a Franciscan Urban Spirituality," in Franciscans in Urban Ministry, ed. Roberta McKelvie (St. Bonaventure, N.Y.: Franciscan Institute, 2002), pp. 119-122. ~2 See Chinnici, "Penitential Humanism," p. 123. 13 Francis, "Earlier Rule," 9:1 I, in FAED, p. 71. ~4' Francis, "Earlier Rule," 7:13, 8:2, and 9:1, in F~IED, pp. 69-70. is Francis, "A Letter to the Entire Order," verses 8-9, in FAED, p. 117. 16 Matura, Francis ofAssisi, p. 132. 17 Francis, "A Letter to Brother Anthony of Padua," verse 2, in FAED, p. 107. 18 Francis, "Earlier Rule," 23:8 and 23:11, in FAED, pp. 84 & 85. Personal Reflection and/or Group Discussion 1. What model or approach do I currently use in my pastoral ministry? 2. In what ways do Francis's insights speak to me today? 3. What characteristics of a Franciscan approach to ministry do I live particularly well? Where could I strive to improve? 68.2 2009 DAMIAN C. ILODIGWE Discipleship and Walking by Faith God never deceives us. When we entrust our life to him and allow him to direct us, he ensures that all goes well. We may not know where he is lead-ing us. We only see the present, and nothing beyond it. Indeed, even the present is sometimes not clear, and in any case it reaches beyond itself into the future. The present invites to us to keep moving despite perplexity. Here our faith is our strength. Faith propels us forward. So long as we know that God is with us, we can afford to take the next step. We need not be apprehensive. We can be certain that we shall reach our destination even if we have to move slowly and sometimes with some frustradon. Without faith we do not see that God is leading us. If we step out into the unknown future at his bidding, it is likely that we will persevere to the end (see Heb 11). Damian C. Ilodigwe last wrote for us in early 2008. He is a priest and lecturer in philosophy at Ss. Peter and Paul Major Seminary; P.M.B. 5171; Secretariat P.O.; Ibadan, Nigeria. dammychuks2000@ yahoo.com Review for Religious We should trust God at each step, even when we do not know what lies ahead. He shows us his plan piecemeal. An aspect of faith is trust. We can think here of chil-dren and mothers. Usually young children are wholly dependent on their mother. She gives instruction, and the child wonders about it. But this wondering does not prevent the child from carrying out the mother's bidding. He may ask questions, of course, but unless he is simply seeking some clarification he will not get very far. He will not be permitted to ignore or resist what his mother asks him to do. Usually children know, for their own good, when they had better obey. Usually they carry out their mother's instruction even when they do not fully understand. What is true of the relation between children and their mother is true of our relationship with God. Like little children, we need to give God our utter trust (Lk 11:5-13; 18:1-8). Because our faith tells us that God acts in our best interest, we can afford to follow his bidding no matter the inconveniences we feel to be associated with it. A childlike simplicity in our relationship with God is an index of vibrant faith and of maturity in this relationship (Lk 12:22-31). The' Case of Abraham In the life of Abraham we find an example of this childlike faith. He is ready to do the Lord's bidding even when this involves a great deal of sacrifice. Many instances in his life illustrate his utter commitment to God. Consider the divine request to leave his country for another land: "Leave your country, your family, and your father's house, for the land I will show you. I will make you a great nation; I will bless you and make your name so famous that it will be used as a blessing. I will 68.2 2009 llodig'we ¯ Discipleship and Walking by Faith In the life of abraham we find an exa ple ff bless those who bless you; I will curse those who slight you; all the tribes on earth shall bless themselves by you" (Gn 12:1-2). How could God ask Abraham to do a thing like this?1 The demand appears extravagant and even ridiculous. Is it reasonable to leave his native place, where all his friends are? He is established here. He has security here. To leave means leaving good memories and property behind and beginning all over again. As the saying goes, a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. It is foolish to abandon what has proved itself over the years without a good clear reason. That rea-son would be that the change will certainly make things better. But, for Abraham, the future is a clouded certainty. All that is certain is that he should leave and that he will be shown another land. Regarding the particulars of the promised land, he knows nothing. He is told, though, that from him will come a great nation. That promise appears less attractive than it might because of its general vagueness. Yet at another level it provides a certain motivation because it comes from God, from Abraham's faith in God. It is only faith that can quickly overcome the disenchantment pr0~oked by lack of information about this promised land. Abraham is certainly a man of faith. For, in spite of the obvious per-plexities associated with this directive, he. takes the bull by the horns. He understands that it is the Lord speak-ing and that he knows what he is doing. Consequently he sets out as the Lord has told him to do. Scripture tells us that Abraham is seventy-five years old when he Review for Religious leaves Haran. He takes his wife, Sarai, and the people they.have acquired in Haran. Their journey takes them to Canaan (Gn 12:4-5). Abram's age of seventy-five is significant, emphasizing the great inconvenience of this movement. He is not a young man eager to be off on his own. So in a sense it is a blind journey. God guides him. As is always the case, the Lord does not ask us to do something and then leave us to our own design. He does not leave us on our own. He provides for us one step at a time. The entire picture can never be available to us all at once. As Abram journeys, he comes to Shechem's Oak of Moreh, in Canaan. The Lord appears to him and says he will give this land to his descendants. Abram builds an altar there. He proceeds to the hill country east of Bethel and then to the Negeb (Gn 12:7-9). Although Abram has stepped out into the unknown, he is never alone. He knows in faith that the Lord is with him through all the stages of his journey. And so he is our father in faith (Heb 11:8). He is wholly sub-missive to God, and God does not fail him. Abraham becomes the father' of a multitude of nations. The Challenges of Discipleship and Our Contemporary Situation At this juncture we may ask what we can learn from Abraham's experience. We can learn much regarding the challenges of discipleship. Our life, too, is a journey, a journey of faith towards God's kingdom. God calls each of us out of our various backgrounds to pursue a special life journey, a pilgrimage to a distant destination. The fundamental truth about this is that God is with us all the time, even when we do not take cognizance of him. His presence empowers us to be what he wants us to be. '147 68.2 2009 Ilodig~ve ¯ Discipleship and Walking by Faith Without evidence we are likely to feel discdnnected, His providence sustains us and guides every.aspect of our life. We need to let this truth have an impact on the way we live our life each day. We need to entrust ourselves completely to that providence. "For those who --~ love God, all things work together unto good." We may not understand just how they fit together now or will fit together in the end, but we cannot doubt that they do fit together. God's love, acting as a redemptive principle, inte-grates every aspect of our experience, bringing every-thing into God's ultimate plan for us all. The practical implication of this truth, then, is that we must learn to walk by faith rather than by sight.2 There is a world of difference' between walking by faith and walking by sight. When we walk by mere sight, we are all the time looking for visible, tangible, measur-able evidence of what we should do or should have done. For many purposes and many aspects of reality, there is such evidence, but for other purposes there is none. We may feel that without that kind of evidence there is no reality. If so, we are likely to feel disconnected. We are likely to feel we are living within limited horizons, likely to have a vague feeling that we are missing something. Not enjoying that feeling, we give oursel~es a warrant to deny there is any reality behind our vague feeling. We decide not to let ourselves be affected by what we claim is unreality. We refuse to be open to it. On the other hand, our admittedly limited knowl-edge even of the physical world should persuade us to see and affirm that the fullness of reality is far broader 148] Review for Religious than, say, the empirical data we have of the astrophysi-cal universe or the jungles of Brazil. We may lack the resources to fully penetrate such real worlds, and the world of faith as well, but we do not have reason to deny their reality and the impact they can and should have upon us.3 We need not deny spiritual reality even though we lack tangible and visible data that serve as empirical evi-dence. Spirituality's reality is accessible to faith. Faith transcends the evidence of the empirical sciences. When we walk by faith, we find ourselves in some sense at home in all of reality. The experience of Abram challenges us. Because he walked by faith, he was able to see far beyond the lim-ited reality of his time and place. Ready to journey with the Lord, he stepped out into the unknown that in some way he could actually see. In time he realized much of the promise he had. received. Abram's faith was his sav-ing grace. In our dealing with the Lord, some tension remains between the way of faith and the way of mere sight. . Sometimes we may walk ahead of the Lord or far behind him, and thus miss some of what we would have received from him. When our faith is stronger, we are better able to synchronize our mind and heart with God. We see better what he sees; we dream better the dream that he dreams for us; we see a road even when our ordinary sight sees no road. In short, our world of possibilities becomes larger; we live our lives more abundantly. Thomas's Encounter with the Risen Lord Consider Thomas. He did not believe when the other apostles told him they had seen the Lord. He insisted that unless he touched Jesus' wounds he would 149 68.2 2009 llodigwe ¯ Discipleship and Walking by Faith 1501 not believe (Jn 20:24-25). His predicament is under-standable. He cannot transcend the inclination to walk by sight. He demands empirical evidence in a matter that requires faith. The reality of the risen Lord is not accessible to, cannot be contained in, the limited world of empirical evidence. This becomes clear to Thomas when the Lord grants his demand for evidence. "Put your finger here, and look at my hands; then stretch out your hand and put it in my side. Stop your doubting and believe." Thomas says, "My Lord and my God!" Jesus says to him, "Have you believed because you have seen me? Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have come to believe!" On 20:26-29). Thomas wants empirical evidence in order to believe, and he is granted the rare privilege of touching and seeing. But the Lord does not fail to make clear that this privilege is not really necessary. Indeed, it is argu-able that it is not the empirical evidence that generates Thomas's confession. Thomas could have touched the Lord and still not believed. There is another factor, the factor of grace. One cannot come into the presence of the risen Lord without being positively affected. That is what seems to have happened in Thomas's case. It is clear that what really matters is faith, not sight: "Happy are those who believe without seeing me." Without empirical evidence they believe, and this is what makes them blessed. The experience of the risen Lord is paradoxically a reward for their faith. It is their faith, not empirical evidence, that opens them to the reality of the risen Lord. Faith is a gift. through and through. God's gift, the presence of God, is received and perceived through faith. If we turn again to the experience of Abraham, we note that he avoids the tension between the way Review for Religious of faith and the way of sight. He does not ask for evi-dence as Thomas does. He is ready to step out into the unknown simply because he believes it is the Lord speaking. Faith sustains him on his travel. Faith brings him to the promised land. But before this ever comes to pass in time, faith has already enabled him to realize the promised land spiritually. The claim of faith is certainly one we cannot afford to ignore in our everyday struggle. We need to keep in mind the distinction between the way of faith and the way of sight. So as to realize our full destiny in the Lord, we must cultivate the habit of walking by faith rather than by sight, bringing faith into every aspect of our existence. It will enrich our vision of life and increase our ability to deal appropriately with all that occurs in our day-to-day living. In carefully fostered faith, the unthinkable becomes thinkable, the impossible becomes possible, and our entire life will be lighted by the glory of God. Notes I Even more extravagant is the later demand that he sacrifice Isaac, the child of promise. Here, too, Abraham's response marks him as a model of faith. See Genesis 22. z See Ralph C. Martin, Called to Holiness (Mumbai: St Pauls, 2001), pp. 101-117. 3 Faith and reason complement each other. Indeed, as Pope John Paul I! famously remarked, "Faith and Reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth" (Fides et ratio, §7). 151 68.2 2009 VIRGINIA M. HERBERS Reparation and the Sacred Heart: A New Interpretation renewing religious traditions The conciliar decree Perfectae caritatis was pro-mulgated in 1965 to guide renewal "in order that the great value of a life consecrated by the profession of the counsels and its necessary mission today may yield greater good to the church" (PC §1). Thirty years later John Paul II affirmed that "the consecrated life has not only proved a help and support for the church in the past, but is also a precious and necessary gift for the present and future of the people of God" (Vita consecrata, §3). In fidelity to the council's call and in response to the pope's call for authentic interpretation of founding charisms, the Apostles of the Sacred Heart of Jesus have in recent years striven to understand Virginia M. Herbers ASCJ is vocation director of the Aposdes of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and director of Queen of Apostles Spirituality Center; 800 Montebello Camp Road; Imperial, Missouri 63052. svhascj@yahoo.com Revie~ for Religious authentically the role and relevance of reparation within the Sacred Heart devotion. This effort has led me to believe that, just as religious consecration still has significance in the world today, so too does reparation. I affirm Karl Rahner's claim in 1966 that devotion to the Sacred Heart is not a dated, old-fashioned piety, but rather is quite relevant today. He later insisted that this devotion is indispensable "since the future of the church was decided by the love of the heart of Jesus in dying and depends on the final decision of Our own hearts."' I think Rahner is correct. I would add that consecrated life itself can be understood as a lived interpretation of Sacred Heart devotion, and that the religious profession of the Apostles of the Sacred Heart demonstrates the proper understanding of repa-ration in the Sacred Heart devotion. This community's charism illuminates a unique aspect of God's love, pro-viding for the entire church a renewed understanding of our baptismal vocation (see PC §1). To appreciate this charism of reparation, a brief look at the religious vows and the Sacred Heart devotion will provide helpful background. Let us take them in turn. The Evangelical Counsels Vita consecrata asserts that religious vows are not an initiative of the individual religious, but a response of the individual to God's call: "The experience of this gracious love of God is so deep and so powerful that the person called senses the need to respond by unconditionally dedi-cating his or her life to God" (VC §17). The profession of poverty, chastity, and obedience is the consecrated person's response of love to the One who loves her infinitely. Hearing the call and responding to God's love is not unique to those in religious life; it is implicit in 68.2 2009 Herbers * Reparation and the Sacred Heart baptismal consecration. Profession of the evangelical counsels does not set religious apart from the body of the faithful as holier, closer to God, or more perfect. It is not a consecration differing in essence from baptismal consecration. Rather, it is rooted in baptism. It is an intensification of baptismal consecration for mission; it is a specification of the baptismal call.2 As such, it is a sign to all the baptized of what and who we are called to become as followers of Christ and members of his Body. "Religious life 'clearly, strikingly, astonishingly' ¯ . . leads the church to see what the whole church is called to by baptism, to see it clearly and strikingly in a public and communal embodiment that helps people toward realization.''3 Profession of the evangelical counsels is thus a rec-ognition by religious of the fullness of God's love for all, and a response to that love with the gift of their entire lives. Through the vows of chastity, poverty, and obe-dience, religious center their lives on the "God-quest" and proclaim that "I commit my whole self, everything and forever, to the undying love that has claimed me for the transformation of the world." Profession of vows is thus "a unitary and unifying act, a solemn, formal, and public act, by which a person takes her whole life into her hands and freely disposes of it in self-gift to Christ and his Body within the congregation."4 Sacred Heart Devotion Devotion to the Sacred Heart has traditionally been understood as an icon of God's love for humanity, devel-oping direcdy from incarnational theology,s Humanity recognizes God's love in the love of the God-man, Jesus Christ, as shown specifically in his heart. The incarna-tion allows human beings to experience God's love in Review for Religious tangible human ways. The heart of Jesus reveals the heart of God, embodied and enfieshed. This capac-ity has implications for all who follow Christ, for "the only Son of God, in becoming incarnate, takes on a human heart [and] we are called to share in this love and to receive through the Holy Spirit this extraordinary capacity to love.''6 Devotion to the Sacred Heart, then, is not devo-tion to an abstract symbol, but devotion to the per-son of Jesus and his love for each human being. The incarnation gives humanity access to what was formerly inacces-sible, God's very self, during Jesus' earthly life and now in his Mystical Body, the church. In the heart of Jesus, God calls us to "become what we receive"7 and to incarnate God's love ourselves as members of Christ's Mystical Body. What, then, does the heart of Jesus teach us about the incarnate love of God? Devotion to the Sacred Heart encompasses four characteristics of God's love: (1) Christ's heart shows us that the incarnate love of God is a continuing, dynamic reality, not an abstract theory or historical event; the heart of God is enfleshed in the body of Jesus and continues to beat in his Body, the church. (2) Christ's heart is a heart wherein two natures--human and divine-~coexist in perfect harmony. (3) Christ's heart is on fire with love for all humanity, both in general and in particular. (4) Christ's heart is an Devotion to the Sacred Heart has traditionally been understood as an icon of God's love for humanity. 68.2 2009 Herbers ¯ Reparation and the Sacred Heart open, broken heart--opened by the soldier's lance after the sacrifice of his human life, and broken by human sin, weakness, and error. The Religious Vows: Returning Love for Love Given the understanding that religious vows are a response to love and a sign for all the faithful of our common call to share in Christ's mission, and given the understanding that Sacred Heart devotion is (a) an ongoing dynamic expression of God's incarnate love, (b) exemplified in the love of Jesus' heart, which is in perfect union with the Father and the Spirit, (c) con-tinually on fire with love for us, and (d) still wounded by humanity's rejection of divine love even while revealing through the open wound the ultimate gift of his life, we now turn to the modern relevance of the religious vows as a distinct and poignant means of living Sacred Heart devotion. The consecrated religious professes vows as a return of love for Love, as a response from her heart to the outpouring~of God's love upon her. The very act of con-secrated profession can be interpreted as a profound act of Sacred Heart devotion, as attested by John Paul II: "Through the consecration of the religious vows, you desire, through the love of total giving, to fill your souls and your bodies with the spirit of sacrifice . In this way the likeness of that love which in the heart of Christ is both redemptive and spousal is imprinted on the religious profession" (Redemptionis donum, §8). Acknowledging and accepting the love of God and responding "in kind" are not enough, however. The Sacred Heart of God incarnate is not a mere image to be worshiped or just a pious practice to be encouraged. The encyclical on Sacred Heart devotion, Haurietis Review for Religious aquas, quotes Thomas Aquinas on this point: "Religious worship is not paid to images, considered in themselves, as things; but according as they are representations lead-ing to God incarnate. The approach which is made to the image as such does not stop there, but continues towards that which is represented.''8 In a similar way, professing vows in the church as a response to God's love commits religious to loving service of the church and, not stopping there, to loving service of the incar-nate Word of God. Our acceptance of God's love in baptism transforms us; in religious profession this baptismal transformation shapes our likeness to Christ, compelling us to return his love by following his example of ministering self-lessly to all those in need. Pope Benedict XVI expresses this directly: "When we practice this devotion, not only do we recognize God's love with gratitude but we con-tinue to open ourselves to this love so that our lives are ever more closely patterned upon it . The experience of God's love should be lived by men and women as a 'calling' to which they must respond. Fixing our gaze on the Lord. helps us to become more attentive to the suffering and needs of others.''9 Interior devotion is thus manifested in ministerial outreach. The three vows constitute a unique expression of Sacred Heart devotion, corresponding to specific char-acteristics of incarnate love. The heart of Jesus is a heart both human and divine, the heart of a man and the heart of God. Within one heart, two natures coex-ist in a mysterious unity that leaves each distinct yet undivided. Jesus' human heart beats in rhythm with the heart of God; his human will is perfectly synchronized with the will of God. The desire of the man corresponds completely with the desire of God for the man. 157 68.2 2009 Herbers * Reparation and tbe Sacred Heart In this lies the kernel of religious obedience--to have our hearts beat in time with the heart of God. Consecrated persons who vow obedience strive to desire what God desires, to will what God wills, to attune their hearts to the heart of God. "To want the same thing, and to reject the same thing, was recognizeff by antiq-uity as the authentic content of love: the one becomes similar to the other, and this leads to a community of will and thought,m° Genuine obedience is not confor-mity to an external authority nor submission to a will foreign to our own. The vow of obedience "in its deep-est roots is a dedication to freedom, not to subjection or servitude . True freedom is to be found in union with the will of God."1' The vow of chastity expresses devotion to the heart of Christ by expressing his love for all people. Just as the Sacred Heart is "a heart on fire," so by vowing chastity do religious enkindle the fire of love in their own heart. Sandra Schneiders insists'that the vow of chastity "must be based on a deep religious experience of being loved by God in Jesus and an experienced per-sonaL fulfillment in returning that love." She adds that this vow "leads the person toward personal transforma-tion in love and allows the person to participate mean-ingfully in the emergence of a new, whole, and loving world characterized by equality, responsible intimacy, and mutuality."12 Clelia Merloni, the founder of the Apostles of the Sacred Heart, describes the "fire of love" kindled by the apostle's vow of chastity as holy zeal: "You see, daugh-ters, wherever the fire of divine love is, it cannot remain hidden or idle, but at once it manifests itself as the liv-ing flame of a holy zeal . Remember, daughters, that zeal must be active, untiring, gentle, and prudent: zeal Reuiew for Religio~.s does not inflame the heart without manifesting itself in works."13 By vowing lives of consecrated celibacy, reli-gious perpetually submit to the consuming fire Of God's love, which in turn impels them to share that love with everyone she encounters in an inclusive, not exclusive, way. Professing chastity enables religious to fan into flame a love that embraces all, recognizing in each face the face of God. As Benedict xvI wrote in Deus caritas est (§ 15), "The concept of 'neighbor' is now universal-ized, yet it remains concrete. Despite .being extended to all mankind, it is not reduced to a generic, abstract, and undemanding expression of love, but calls for my own practical commitment in the here and now." The vow of chastity calls us to embrace each while embracing all, to love particularly w~ithout loving restrictively, to love universally and specifically. Pierre Teilhard de Chardifi described the source .and the consequence of this type of loving as fire: "Under the symbol of the Sacred Heart, the divine assumed for me the form, the strength, and the properties of an energy, of a fire . Through its power to become universal, this fire proved able to invade and impregnate with love the whole atmosphere of the world in which I lived.''~4 By professing poverty, religious make yet another return of love for Love, mirroring the woundedness of Christ's heart. John Paul II says that "on Golgotha Jesus' heart was pierced by a lance as a sign of his total self-giving, of that sacrificial and saving love with which he 'loved us to the end'" On 13:1).15 By accepting death at the hands, of humanity, the God-man sacrificed all for love. "From the infinite power proper to God, the heart of Christ did not retain anything except the unarmed power of the love that forgives . In the heart of Christ are encountered divine riches and human poverty."~6 68.2 2009 Herbers ¯ Reparation and the Sacred Heart In the profession of poverty, devotion to the broken heart of Christ is made tangible also through responding to the suffering ofhis heart in the poor of .today's~worl~d. 160 This kenosis, this. self-emptying, is the expression of Love to which the vow of poverty responds. In accept-ing death Christ accepted all and gave all. In professing poverty religious do likewise--accepting all that is given them from the hand of the Father and giving all in a return of love for Love. This is devotion to the open heart of Christ. In the profession of poverty, devotion to the broken heart of Christ is made tangible also through respond-ing to the suffering of his heart in the poor of today's world. For vowed reli-gious, devotion to the Sacred Heart includes recognition that his heart remains broken, suffering as people continue to betray and reject love, to ignore and neglect the hurt-ing, to strike first. The world's physical, emo-tional, psychological, and mental pain con-tinually shows the heart of Jesus suffering in his Body. Clelia Merloni insisted that "The heart of Jesus, disguised as this particular sick person, calls you to a mission of charity, since the sick make up the very body of Jesus.''17 Clelia exhorts her sister apostles to recognize that where there is sickness, pain, or suffering, there is the open, broken heart of Christ. The profession and living of poverty expresses solidarity with all those who are wounded in and by society, and expresses union with Christ's broken heart suffering today. By professing evangelical poverty, con- Review for Religious secrated religious commit themselves "to eliminating structures of oppression and to promoting projects of solidarity for the benefit of the poor" (VC §89). Only as the poor can we hope to alleviate the suffering of the poor.~8 Through their vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi-ence, consecrated religious express their love with the entirety of their lives. This threefold consecration uni-fies all religious communities. Their distinctive charisms are demonstrated by their various ways of expressing this consecration. The founder of my congregation, Clelia Merloni, was entrusted with a particular charism within Sacred Heart devotion--a charism to be apostles of the Sacred Heart. Her apostles were to be characterized by zeal and charity, but more importantly by one aspect of Sacred Heart devotion: reparation. She pleads with her apostles to make their lives relevant to the church's mission in the world: "Our congregation needs subjects who are strong and robust in virtue, not pious statues!''19 Sacred Heart devotion, for Clelia and her apostles, always implies responding to the living heart of Christ through lives of reparation. Zeal and charity are insufficient for those professing vows as Apostles of the Sacred Heart. Only when we are motivated by a spirit of reparation can we be seen clearly as apostles of the Sacred Heart devo-tion. What, then, is the nature, meaning, and relevance of the reparation this congregation fosters? A New Interpretation of Reparation Theologically reparation has often been mistakenly equated with atonement and expiation. Atonement is "an act of divine love that effects a new state of things, the peaceful relationship between God and man. Man is reconciled to God. atonement is effected through the 161 68.2 2009 Herbers * Reparation and the Sacred Heart blood of the cross . man is placed in a new relation to God.''2° Atonement, therefore, is effected once and for all in the death and resurrection of Jesus. Christ's death and resurrection made humanity "at-one" with God, reconciling a broken relationship, correcting and reversing the effects, of human sinfulness, thus mak-ing humanity's "atonement" not only unnecessary but impossible. Expiation is closely related to. atonement in that it is appeasement by sacrifice, specifically the sac-rifice of Jesus' death, which appeased God's justice and "remove[d] the cause of the sinner's alienation from God in. order to restore him to holiness and divine favor.''2' Taken to their logical ends, these notions of atone-ment and expiation .seem to perceive "the love of God given us in Christ Jesus" as either correction of a rela-tionship gone awry or Christ's willing acceptance of the penalty of death due us. In this context, the practice of reparation seems to be about "repairing" broken-ness, "atoning for" sinfulness, and "making up" for wrongdoing as we model our life on Jesus Christ. This is the vision of reparation in Pius XI's 1928 encycli-cal Miserentissimus Redemptor (§18): "Whosoever of the faithful have piously pondered on all these things must needs be inflamed with the charity of Christ in his agony and make a more vehement endeavor to expi-ate their own faults and those of others, to repair the honor of Christ, and to promote the eternal salvation of souls." This "atoning" and "expiative" sense speaks of a need for humanity to repent, convert, and wor-ship, but nowhere does it speak of the invitation given to humanity to love in the face of brokenness, that the heart of God may be loved and not rejected. I propose that, in the context of Sacred Heart devotion, reparation speaks direcdy of this invitation: "The focus of God's Review for Religious ¯ forgiveness in Christ is less on a word that is spoken to assuage guilt and more on a transformation of relation-ships-- with God and with other human beings."22 As seen above, religious consecration is a response of love prompted by the recognition and humble accep-tance of the unconditional, sacrificial love of God. Each of the vows has been shown to uniquely manifest, in the light of devotion to the Sacred Heart, a particular aspect of our loving response. Reparation, as a dis-tinctive response of love, is a particular expression of Sacred Heart devotion. It is a response of love to the broken heart of Christ, as when we see someone we love (and also Someone) hurting, broken, bleeding, and in pain, and want to--need to, are impelled t0--respond in manners worthy of love. William Temple, archbishop of Canterbury during World War II, claimed that the motive for reparation is that we not "go on wounding one who accepts our wounds like that; we are filled with fear, not the old craven fear of punishment, but the fear of wounding the tenderest of all hearts.''23 Reparation does not necessar-ily seek to repair the wrongdoing (for we may not be responsible for it), but seeks to respond to the broken heart of our loved One by offering concrete, tangible acts of love. This authentic healing power of reparation '~"The focus of God's forgiveness in Christ is less on a word that is spoken to assuage guilt .and more on a transformation of relationships-with God andwith othe~r human beings." 163 68.2 2009 Herbers * Reparation and the Sacred Heart 164 was understood by Aquinas: "When one. is in pain, it is natural that the sympathy of a friend should afford con-solation., because, when a man's friends console him, he sees that he is loved by them, and this affords him pleasure. Consequently, since every pleasure assuages sorrow, it follows that sorrow is mitigated by a sympa-thizing friend" (ST I-II.38.3). To extend this idea to how human acts of love serve as loving reparation to Christ, John Paul II said in another place: "In the heart of Christ the human heart comes., to unite filial love for God with love for the neighbor. In this way--and this is the true meaning of the reparation asked for by the heart of the Savior--on the ruins heaped up by hatred and violence can be built the civilization of love so greatly desired, the kingdom of the heart of Christ.''24 For the Apostles of. the Sacred Heart, it is imperative that they understand rightly their mission in the church and their ministry in the world. Their witness of repara-tive love can show all the faithful what their response to the brokenness of our world must be. Reparation, far from being an obsolete relic, is an essential component of Clelia Merloni's charism, and a unique way for her apostles to live their vows of poverty, chastity, and obe-dience. Experiencing Jesus as God's incarnate love, they are called to respond as incarnate love to his open heart still broken in the woundedness of his loved ones. In respond-ing, they are not merely practicing their own personal spirituality; they are engaging in their ministry. As Pius XII said in Haurietis aquas (§112), "In show-ing devotion to the most Sacred Heart of Jesus, the external acts of piety have not the first or most impor-tant place; nor is its essence to be found primarily in the benefits to be obtained." Rather, reparation must be a dynamic response of love, reaching out to the broken- Review for Religious ness of humanity--at any given moment, in any given circumstance. "The practical good that emerges in the event [of reparative love] is seen not only in the inward realm of personal and spiritual values, but in the trans-formation of the material order through which the val-ues are expressed.''25 Living her congregation's motto, "Caritas Christi urget nos!" (2 Co 5:14), consumed by the love of God given her in Christ Jesus, an apostle the Sacred Heart "returns love for Love" by the gift of her life of vowed chastity and reaches out to ev.eryone in selfless service. By her vowed obedience she matches her heartbeat to the heart of God. By their vowed poverty she is free to give her all to the broken hearts around her. She accepts humbly the gifts she receives from the incarnate, inflamed, obedient, and open heart of Jesus and returns them as her gift to his Body, the church. The reparative value of these gifts lies in its heal-ing power for the broken heart of Christ in the church and in the world. Reparation from this n~w perspective is most assuredly, then, not merely valuable for those among the faithful who may be attracted to it as a pious practice, but a vital mission entrusted to each mem-ber of the church. Reparative love is the love of God poured out through us, incarnate in the members of Christ's Body, embodied in real hands and real hearts. Reparative love speaks a word of selflessness to a world broken by hatred and individualism. It lives a life of generosity in a world broken by selfishness and fear. It breathes a promise of forgiveness for a world broken by resentment and injustice and gives a hand of compassion to a world broken by suspicion and greed. Reparation is anything but old-fashioned piety entrenched in sen-timentalism or self-derogation. Rightly understood in the brokenness of our contemporary experience, repa- 165 68.2 2009 Herbers * Reparation and the Sacred Heart 166. ration is the tender answer of hearts on fire, yearning to express themselves boldly, so that brokenness and woundedness may always and only be answered with all-consuming love, centered in God, reaching out to every one of God's beloved people. Notes I Quoted in Annice Callahan, Karl Rahner's Spirituality of the Pierced Heart (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1985), pp. 108, 110-111. 2 See Patricia E Walter, "Religious Life in Church Documents," Review for Religious 51, no. 4 (July-August 1992), and Nadine Foley, "The Nature and Future of Religious Life," Origins 19, no. 13 (1989): 212. 3 Michael Himes, "Returning to Our Ancestral Lands," Review for Religious 59, no. 1 (January-February 2000): 18. 4 Sandra Schneiders, Selling All (New York: Paulist Press, 2001), pp. 108, 114. s It is important to be aware of this rich history as we examine Sacred Heart devotion from a modern perspective. For a more com-prehensive examination of the history of the devotion, see Timothy O'Donnell's Heart of the Redeemer (Manassas, Virginia: Trinity Communications, 1989) and Joseph Stierli's Heart of the Saviour: A Symposium on Devotion to the Sacred Heart (New York: Herder and Herder, 1958). 6john Paul II, "Letter to Bishop Raymond Seguy, Bishop of Autun, Chalon, and Macon, June 22, 1990," in Holy Father, Sacred Heart, ed. Carl J. Moell SJ (New York: Crossroad, 2004), p. 210. 7 Augustine, Sermons on the New Testament 7(7). s Thomas Aquinas, ST 1/-1/.81.3 ad 3. See Pius XII, Haurietis aquas (1956), §103. 9 Benedict xvI, letter on the fiftieth anniversary of Haurietis aquas, 15 May 2006. 10 Benedict XVI, Deus caritas est (2005), §17. '~ Sandra Schneiders, New Wineskins (New York: Paulist Press, 1986), p. 109. ,2 Schneiders, New Wineskins, pp. 105, 106. ~3 Clelia Merloni, Spiritual Anthology, ed. Pierpaula de Farias (Rome: privately printed, 1992), pp. 167, t73. Review for Religious ,4 Quoted in Christopher E Mooney, Teilhard de Chardin and the Mystery of Christ (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Image, 1968), pp. 28-29. 15 John Paul II, "Homily during Sacred Heart devotions and beati-fication of Father Stefan Wincenty Frelichowski, at the Aviation Club in Torun, June 7, 1999," in Holy Father, Sacred Heart, p. 112. 16 John Paul II, "Homily at the Polyclinic of the Agostino Gemelli University Hospital in Rome, June 28, 1984," in Holy Father, Sacred Heart, p. 47. 17 Merloni, Spiritual Anthology, p. 167. ,s James Alison poignandy elucidates this idea with his concept of the "intelligence of the victim." See Knowing Jesus (London: Ashford Colour Press, 1998). 19 Merloni, Spiritual Anthology, p. 334. 20 Kenneth E Dougherty, "Atonement," in New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. (Detroit: Gale, 2003), vol. 1, p. 837. 21 Lucien Richard, "Expiation (in Theology)," in New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 5, p. 565. 22 L. Gregory Jones, "The Craft of Forgiveness," Theology Today 50, no. 3 (October 1993): 356. 23 William Temple, The Faith and Modern Thought, quoted in Leonard Hodgson, The Doctrine of Atonement (New York: Scribners, 1951), p. 80. 24 See the letter of John Paul II to Father Peter-Hans Kolvenbach sJ on the Canonization of Blessed Claude la Colombi~re SJ, in UOsservatore Romano, English edition, 27 October 1986, and referred to by Benedict xvI (see note 9 above). 25 G.W.C. Thomas, "Reparation: The Sevenfold Pattern of Redemption," Church Quarterly Review 158, no. 327 (April-June 1957): 165. ,167 68.2 2009 JAMES H. SCHIMELPFENING Being Heard, Being Healed: Learning from the Quaker Tradition We cannot change the world by a new plan, project, or idea. We cannot even change other people by our convictions, stories, advice, and proposals, but we can offer a space where people are encouraged to disarm themselves, lay side their occupations and preoccupa-tions, and listen with attention and care to the voices speaking in their own center. --Henri Nouwen1 168 Community is a word that is tossed around a lot, but is hard to define. My own religious order and those who share in the Marianist tradition embrace community as a constitutive part of our mission and identity, and thus we engage in countless conversations discerning its meaning, the place it has in our lives, and how it is to be an instrument of mission. After thirty-five years of religious life and after living in communities on four continents, my experience of community is all over the board. Sometimes I am most grateful for it, but other times it has been quite the opposite. James H. Schimelpfening SM lives at Marianist Community; Meyer Hall; 4435 East Patterson Road; Dayton, Ohio 45430. Review for Religious Recently I experienced community in an utterly refreshing and transformative way. I participated in a series of six seasonal retreats based on the Quaker tradition and the work of Parker Palmer. The Center for Courage and Renewal, partially funded by Lilly Endowment, offered these retreats for clergy and con-gregational leaders) The approximately twenty partici-pants represented a variety Of religious denominations, including a young Jewish woman and myself, the only Catholic. That in itself made the retreats interesting and delightful. These retreats, spread over eighteen months, opened up and stretched my idea and sense of community. I want to share with you something of the enriching, grace-filled, contemplative experience that the retreats were for me. Welcoming the True Self One of the principal resources for the retreats was Parker Palmer's A Hidden Wholeness: The Journey toward an Undivided Life. He portrays community as "one that knows how to welcome the soul"--or true self--and how to hear its voice within oneself. He refers to this kind of community as a circle of trust, a revealing name. Such a community, he writes, allows us to reach in towards our wholeness, out towards the world's need, while living at "the intersection of the two.''3 This intersection is sometimes a daunting place to be. One needs to be with others who, in the right sort of way, support and encourage each other in their moving inward and outward. Often, at least in my experience of community, issues and concerns are discussed, debated, and at times argued; then votes are taken, and there are winners and losers. Tensions, often subtle but barely hidden, may 169 68.2 2009 Scbimelpfening ¯ Being Heard, Being Healed remain. As a result, people keep trying to fix each other or straighten the others out. Advising and rectifying implies that one knows what is good for others if only they would acknowledge it. Community harmony and peace become elusive, and passive-aggressive behavior comes to the fore. Life in community has taught me that violence has many forms that give pain and raise suspicion and result in protective walls. Often persons are diminished and given less respect in favor of group-think or the institution itself.4 Life in community some-times fails to lead persons to wholeness or holiness, and when such failings occur the mission too falters. Touchstones In the series of retreats that I was part of, there was a quite different style of community and way of being present to one another and ultimately to oneself. I have experienced it also in other religious and church com-munities, but only rarely, and even more rarely as an intentional way of being together. In each retreat of this series, one of the first things we did was review the Circle of Trust Touchstones, the guidelines for all of our time together, not only when we were "sitting in the circle." We would: ¯ presume, extend, and receive welcome. ¯ be present as fully as possible. ¯ offer by invitation, not demand. ¯ speak our truth in ways that respect other people's ¯ not fix, save, advise, or set each other straight. ¯ learn to respond with honest, open questions. ¯ turn to wonder when the going got tough. ¯ attend to our own inner teacher. ¯ trus~t.and learn from and in the silence. ¯ observe deep confidentiality. ¯ know that it is possible to leave the circle with Review for Religious whatever you needed and that the seeds planted could and would keep growing. To live these touchstones intentionally takes work and demands attention, but something good happens and a different environment is created. These touchstones were practical and crucial for our community because we were so diverse. We were men and women, ordained and nonordained, Christian and Jewish, various races and ages, formed in different religious traditions with different doctrines and creeds, coming from all over the country, and having various personali-ties and committed relationships. It was only by living these touchstones that something new and deep could be born, so that we could move beyond differences that would normally keep us separate. Living these touchstones introduced ways of being together that led to deeper respect for persons and enduring bonds of friendship and trust. It is all too easy to focus on what is different and what is perceived to be "wrong," instead of expe-riencing what is right. This environment made it pos-sible to speak and listen in a gender and more attentive manner. It is all too easy tofocus on what is different and what is perceived to be "wrong," instead ,of experiencing what is right. Circles of Trust Parker Palmer calls such a community a circle of trust. The name, in my experience, is descriptive. We would sit in an unbroken circle with no one coming first or being 171 68.2 2009 Schimelpfening ¯ Being Heard, Being Healed 172j last, no beginning or end.In the center of the circle would be a small table with a candle and flowers that would serenely hold our attention, and hold us together like the hub of a wheel. When speaking we would "speak to the circle," not across the circle as groups may do and thereby tend to debate and break down the sense of the whole, of community. That happened to us once, and the feel of the group changed and became charged with something that we recognized as not helpful, not what we desired. We returned to speaking to the circle, not across it, and the environment healed. "Speaking to the circle" is speaking from one's own inner self to the center of the circle, where all that is said is held attentively and respectfully. There is no speaking from one ego to another, nor is it about try-ing to impress or persuade. It is simply about expressing oneself, a kind of sharing that is less stressful and much more peaceful,s Trust is what constitutes the circle; without trust there is no circle. Trust makes the space safe for sharing one's truth without fear of judgment or criticism. This trust grows deeper over time. As I share these reflections, I realize that a circle of trust can seem like avoidance of conflict, blind acceptance, lack of discernment, or some such idea. It might even seem "new age" and shallow. My experience, however, is just the opposite. A circle of trust and living the touchstones allow for something deep to emerge and grow and bear fruit. Circles of trust allow more truths to come to light and authentic relationships to form. It is interesting and even important to note that Quakers do not avoid diffi-cult situations, but instead are present to them differently. That is why historically Quakers have often been present where thorny social issues like justice, peacemaking, and reconciliation are being pondered and evaluated. Review for Religious A circle of trust forms a community that allows per-sons to be attentive to their inner self, what we often refer to as one's true self. This true self can surface in an enviroriment that is encouraging, one that is respectful, silent, attentive, and caring. As Parker Palmer points out, a circle of trust is focused on an inward journey and invisible yet very real pow-ers. The purpose of the circle is to support each person's inner journey. A circle of trust lives the paradox of "being alone together," of being present to one another as a "community of solitudes."6 Solitude and community, rightly understood, go together; they are not opposed. In truth, everyone needs both the interior intimacy that comes from solitude and the otherness that comes from life in community. The purpose of this community is to allow the true self, the self in God, to present itself. Unfortunately, however, too many "communities" do not provide this environment; instead, they scare the true self away. It withdraws into the shadows because it does not feel safe to come forward. We wear masks and do not share what is most truly our own. Too often we do not even know what is most true within us. A circle of trust community is made of people who know how to sit quietly and wait for the soul, the true self, to show its face. The relationships within it are "not pushy, but patient; not confrontational, but compassionate; they are filled, not with expectations and demands, but with abiding faith in the reality of the inner teacher and in each person's capacity to learn from it." In my experience, it is atypical to find a community that has people who have the capacity for this kind of presence to each other. "The people who help us grow toward true self," Parker Palmer writes, "offer uncondi-tional love. They don't judge or try to change us. They 173 68.2 2009 Schimelpfening * Being Heard, Being Healed do offer and hold hopeful expectancy, creating the space that safeguards and encourages the inner journey."7 This is an incredible gift to offer one another, and within this form of community we find, I believe, the greatest potential for growth and transformation. What most people desire is to be heard and honored. As one fellow retreatant commented, "To be heard is to be healed!" Too often in community and in conver-sation we do not feel we have been genuinely heard or respected, and this only deepens wounds and pro- ~_ duces greater alienation. In the circle of trust, deep ¯ .~.L listening to one another, as well as to oneself, is paramount and happens rather naturally. Listening deeply is a nonviolent act; it is an amazing gift to offer. Patient listening, and forming circles of trust according to the touchstones, moves against the .grain of our habitual culture--both secular, and religious. Circles of trust are about listen-ing, expectant listening. This kind of listening only goes deeper with time and is all about God. God is the one who makes such listening possible and who gives us the hunger and thirst for it. God beckons, and we soon dis-cover that all that is good comes from the hand of God. Ultimately, God is the goal of our listening, for in so doing we can discern and do the work of God.s The content is simple, and its purpose is to open us to deeper listening and reflection. We would use poetry, stories, songs, or reflection. Metaphor plays an important part in this kind of sharing because images, allegories, allow us to approach from a slant, not head- What most people desire is to be heardand honoredl , Review for Religious on; they bring into play much more than the intellect. Metaphor has a way of surprising, even seducing the heart and soul, while tricking the mind into taking another look and discovering mystery in the process. We all belong to numerous kinds of groups and com-munities, each offering something unique and respond-ing to different needs. Circles of trust, however, generate within me a longing for such a community within the church and in religious life. Such a community, it seems to me, creates an environment that encourages and sup-ports deep growth and leads to holiness. Circles of trust might not seem to be as useful or as practical and func-tional as other groups might be, and so one considers circles of trust idealistic, utopian, unrealistic, even for religious or church communities. I would disagree. If we strove towards such deep trust and respect, many of the functional things we now squabble about would sim-ply disappear, and other practical details of life would take care of themselves. If they had to be dealt with, conversation and decision making about them would be quite different. We too easily forget that even our busi-ness meetings have a spiritual component and, hope-fully, necessitate a listening for truth.9 The experience and outcome would be a lot healthier, and life together would be more amiable, more authentic, and even more reflective of the gospel and Christian living. Circles of trust and community are not about numbers, but about the quality of the space created and shared. As Parker Palmer notes in A Hidden Wholeness, we live divided lives. We live alienated from our true selves, and end up feeling depressed, aimless, anxious, or angry. We feel the pain of being alienated from our own truth. We yearn to be centered,1° and a circle of trust creates the space where centering can happen and foster wholeness. 68.2 2009 Scbimelpfening * Being Heard, Being Healed A Spiritual Experience Although not always described this way explicitly, circles of trust are a spiritual experience, and the retreats I participated in were, beyond doubt, retreats. They were days of communing with God, with the Spirit of God very much alive and present within us and among us. The retreats were distinctly reflective and contempla-tive, with time for being alone and time for sharing with another or with the entire circle. The environment of the retreat center itself was ideal,ll The Tibetan chime would draw us into silence and into the circle. I found it easy to recall that, where two or three are gathered in God's name, God is truly present. The entire environ-ment was charged with the holiness of God. It was an experience of the shekinah of God. Clearness Committees Those familiar with the Quaker tradition know that forming Clearness Committees is an important part of their life. Each of our retreats set aside time for the work of Clearness Committees. I found myself refer-ring to them as Quaker discernment, a way of listening for truth, truth that is .not imposed from outside, but arises from within. This was one of the most important experiences of discernment that I have ever engaged in, most especially with a group, and was for me a highlight of our time together. This discernment is not done fir us, as sometimes occurs. Instead, in a circle of trust, in a safe, reflective space, we are engaged in our own dis-cernment, in our own way and time, with the encourag-ing and challenging presence of people who really and truly care for us)2 Clearness Committees help the focus person (who has asked for its help)13 to walk an inner iourney. They do so by their presence, asking open and Review for Religious honest questions, not interpreting or offering advice, not judging or fixing, but treating the person carefully as he or she looks and listens deeply. There is no con-flict of agendas or egos; there is only one focus person with one agenda. Just as the circles of trust offer a new way of conceiv-ing community, so the Clearness Committees offer a new way of helping persons make decisions about the direction of their life. I found here an incredible respect for the person and belief in the action of God. Instead of decisions, especially the more personal decisions, being made by others, a Clearness Committee allows for a form of listening and obedience that holds promise of greater life for the person and also, in the long run, for others and for ministry. Clearness Committees were a primary factor in draw-ing me to the seasonal retreats, for I was doing discern-ment in my own life. A series of circumstances along with much that was moving within my own heart and soul had made me wonder where the Spirit might be leading me. I needed and desired some form of guidance, and I needed to enter more deeply into a process of discernment, but I did not want someone or a group telling me what to do. I was desperately seeking someone or a group willing to walk with me, providing the safe place where I could be open and vulnerable in my discerning reflection. In my own religious community this did not seem possible. My superiors were likely to approach my questions as an administrative concern and decision, but did not seem able to walk with me in the way I needed. The seasonal retreats, however, with the circles of trust and the blessed opportunity to be the focus person of a Clearness Committee drew me like a bee to nectar. I asked for a Clearness Committee to sit with me not 177 68.2 2009 Scbimelpfening * Being Heard, Being Healed Such d cision ,making; demands great patienee, and a strongcom i m n once but twice. The experience was powerful because of the safe, caring environment and the confidentiality, the love and faith, that were present. The immediate experi-ence was powerful, but I was surprised and delighted by how it continued to reveal truths in the following days, weeks, and months. Did I receive an immediate answer? No. Were there "aha" moments? More later, than at the time. Was clarity received? Yes, but much more came long after the experience was over. Such decision making demands great patience and a strong commitment to the process: it can take time for the truth to come to light. Quakers are good at waiting and supporting one another in this invest-ment of time and pres-ence, doing so in the belief that a truth can and will come to light and, when it does, can be embraced with one's whole self. One lets the work of God pro-ceed and reveal itself. This "Quaker discernment" takes as long as is needed. It is exceedingly countercul-rural in our quick-fix, fast-food, I-want-it-now culture. If, as religious communities, church, and church min-istries, we could learn to discern in this way, I believe that both community life and ministry would be a good deal richer. Going Home As a high introvert when I first began attending the retreats, I was uncertain about it, but, having read A Hidden Wholeness the year before, I was curious enough Review for Religious to give it a whirl and see what would happen. After the first couple of retreats, I felt completely at home, and, although I never knew what the experience of any particular retreat would be, I soon learned to trust the Spirit, believing that whatever would happen would be grace--and I was never disappointed. It seemed that each retreat was its own "peak" experience that helped me go deeper and deeper into my soul while being sup-portive of others doing the same. Many retreats, even when powerful, are one-shot experiences, but this series of retreats, organized accord-ing to the seasons of the year, allowed for sacred remem-bering of what happened previously and delving into it once again from a slightly different slant, so that further truth could be discovered. On top of everything else, this was a wonderful ecumenical and interfaith setting that opened many wonderful doors. The most difficult part of each retreat was returning home to community and ministry. Although I would return deeply renewed, I saw that my recent experience of community would not be present back home. Every three months, as the next retreat drew near, I would look forward to it with great anticipation. My challenge now is to live the expe-rience and find ways to invite others into these circles of trust so that they too may have the joy and benefit of entering them that I have had. As I noted earlier, there are many different forms of community and many different definitions of commu-nity. Dietrich Bonhoeffer once said, "Community is not an ideal; it is people."14 1 believe that what the Quaker tradition and Parker Palmer offer is worth exploring and experiencing as a very practical way of forming and being community. "By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another" (Jn 13:35). r179 68.2 2009 Scbimelpfening ¯ Being Heard, Being Healed Notes ' As quoted in Mark Nepo, The Exquisite Risk: Daring to Live An Authentic Life (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2005). z Center for Courage and Renewal, www.couragerenewal.org. 3 Parker Palmer, A Hidden Wholeness: TbeJourney toward an Undivided Life (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2004), pp. 22, 25.4 The word person is used intentionally; not individual. The distinction is critical. 5 Palmer, Hidden I~oleness, pp. 118-119. 6 Palmer, Hidden Wholeness, p. 54. 7 Palmer, Hidden Wholeness, pp. 59, 60. 8 Michael Waida, Expectant Listening: Finding God's Thread of Guidance (Wallingford, Pennsylvania: Pendle Hill ~ublicationsi 2007), p. 16. 9 Wajda, Expectant Listening, p. 22. ,0 Palmer, Hidden Wholeness, pp. 45-46. " Santa Sabina Center, San Rafael, California. 12 Palmer, Hidden Wholeness, p. 27. ~3 The focus person asks for Clearness Committee assistance regard-ing a question or issue that he or she is struggling with and seeking light about. ,4 Jean Vanier, From Brokenness to Community (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1992), p. 35. 180] Personal Reflection and/or Group Discussion What has been your own occasion of experiencing the kind of "words of trust" that animate community life? Have you or has your community developed your own special ways of deepening the trust and faith-sharing integral to religious community living? How would you describe it and how often is it used? Review for Religious DORIS GOTTEMOELLER Religious Habits Reconsidered Years ago, when we were just beginning to wear secular dress, a sister friend remarked to me that she never noticed what anyone else was wearing. The remark struck me because I thought she was missing an important commu-nication from others. But, upon reflection later, it seemed likely that she meant that everyone deserves our respect, whether clad in rags or riches, in style or out--a conviction that I share. Also, I thought, she ,was probably indi-cating she is less sensate than I. As the years passed, however, with religious habits less and less in ,evidence, I have occa-sionally thought of investigating the topic more deeply. Comments such as these persist: "If you wore a habit, you'd get more vocations" and "Real sisters wear habits." They imply that our Doris Gottemoeller RSM last wrote .for us in 2005. Her address remains Catholic Healthcare Partners; 615 Elsinore Place; Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. 1181 68.2 2009 Gottemoeller * Religious Habits Reconsidered transition in dress is symbolic of an abandonment of val-ues or identity. It is hard at times not to feel defensive. No doubt there is scholarly literature available about the significance of dress through the ages. Dress as an indicator of social class and status, the change from toga and tunic to trousers and dresses, the influence of climate and occupation, and the development of new fabrics and methods of production--all of this has prob-ably been studied. I have not consulted any of it. First, I want simply to recall and describe this period of change. Then I will reflect on the significance of a religious habit for women and of the many decisions to forgo it. I will close with some questions for reflection and dialogue. Some readers may assume that there is noth-ing to be learned from the decisions made so long ago, but I think that some reflection can bear fruit for our present and future. What a Habit Is Not A religious habit is not a costume, a dress that tempo-rarily provides a new identity, either for dramatic effect or for fun. Costumes are worn in stage productions and at Halloween parties. A disguise is another form of temporary identity, one intended to deceive people. A vestment is worn to temporarily designate that one is performing a sacred function. Nor is a religious habit a uniform. Commentators ask, "Vv'hy don't you wear a uniform like airline atten-dants, nurses, and police personnel?" These uniforms signify professional qualification and a certain authority. In given situations their wearers are entided to respect because of their official function. Note, though, that uniforms often admit of variations. The attendants on a plane may be wearing slacks, shorts, or skirts, with or Review for Religious without coordinating jackets or sweaters. They are all in uniform, but they choose different forms of it. Nursing uniforms, too, admit of variation, even within the same department or on the same floor of a hospital. In contrast to any of these options, the religious habit was a permanent and unchanging garb. The cloth-ing ceremony at the beginning of novitiate signified a new identity, which one intended eventually to make lifelong. As we dressed each morning, we said prayers specific to each item of clothing. For the habit itself we prayed, "Clothe my soul, 0 Lord, with the nuptial - - robe of charity that I may carry it pure and undefiled before Thy judgment seat," The prayer for donning the cincture was "0 Lord Jesus Christ, who became obedi-ent unto death, even the death of the cross, grant me the true spirit of religious obedience." In my experience there were no optional choices around color or design or style, very litde adaptation to climate or occupation. Permission to wear a white habit in nursing care and in the tropics is the only possibility I can recall. The clothing ceremony at the beginning of novitiate sig nified a new identity. The Mandate to Change Before the mandate of Vatican Council II to update, our habit was the only dress we wore. In my experi-ence each sister had two habits, a heavy pleated wool serge version for Sundays and feast days and an every-day version in a lighter fabric. Neither was really wash-able. We wore a knee-length black veil, inner and wide outer sleeves, a leather cincture to which was attached a 183 68.2 2009 Gottemoeller ¯ Religious Habits Reconsidered 841 long rosary, and a starched white cotton coif and guimpe which we changed on Sunday and at midweek. Heavy black stockings and black oxfords completed the ensem-ble. Going out in winter required a shawl or a long black cloak with a heavy black veil pinned over the house veil. This habit was worn 365 days of the year, from rising in the morning to retiring at day's end, in the convent, the classroom, or the hospital, at work or recreation, at home or abroad. The habit was everywhere recognizable and, when clean and pressed, somewhat graceful and attractive. It was also economical: the daily habit lasted several years and the Sunday habit for many years. Thus it was a witness to poverty. The design had remained essentially the same for over 130 years. But, despite its familiarity and attractiveness, the habit was unsanitary, unsafe, and ill-suited to the climate in many places. It was also impractical for many occupations such as housework or recreational sports. Furthermore, all of the parts had to be sewn by hand. Keeping perspi-ration from the starched linens which encircled the face in hot weather was another challenge. Considerations such as these prompted the conciliar directive: "Habits should be simple and modest, at once poor and becoming. They should meet the requirements of health and be suited to the circumstances of time and place as well as to the services required by those who wear them. Habits of men and women which do not correspond to those norms are to be changed" (Perfectae caritatis § 17). This directive prompted the first genera-tion of modified or updated habits. Chapters reviewed designs, and each congregation chose one which seemed to embody the desired improvements. For the Sisters of.Mercy of the Union, this transition occurred in the summer of 1968. The new habit was mid-calf in length Review for Religious and could be purchased from a manufacturer's catalogue in an array of sizes. A veil which came just below the shoulders was attached to a white cap which left some hair exposed in front. The habit was washable, and nothing was starched. From Modified Habit to Secular Dress Why didn't this updated habit, which responded to the conciliar mandate, last? Here the story becomes more complex. As the decades passed, most congrega-tions loosened or eliminated their requirements that everyone wear a habit, even for professional or formal occasions, I would suggest that the following are some of the f~ctors that led to this evolution. First, the change of dress coincided with other changes that brought us into new settings and new cir-cumstances. Permission to travel without a companion and to drive an auto-mobile were two sig-nificant changes. No longer~did we have to depend on employ-ees or volunteer lay-persons to chauffeur us to professional meetings, doctors' appointments, the library or grocery, or a museum, movie, or sporting event. Freedom from the need for a sister companion encouraged individual choices about where to go or what to do with one's discretionary time. Some outings were with only lay friends or relatives. Individuals did not necessarily want to stand out in such settings. The introduction of personal budgets was another change Why .didn't this updated habit, which re.sponded to the conciliar mandate, last? 68.2 2009 Gottemoeller ¯ Religious Habits Reconsidered that facilitated variation in dress, as individuals could choose where they wished to shop and what they wished to buy. Another limit to the success of updated habits was the matter of style. As long as we were in 18th- or 19th-century garb, there was no relationship to any contem-porary style. But an adaptation to "circumstances of time and place" suggests at least some relationship to what other people are wearing. Hemlines are a case in point. Should they be adjusted upward and downward with changing styles? What about the size and proportions of the individual sister? The traditional habit swathed her in so many yards of fabric that her figure was effectively concealed, but the modified habit was more flattering to some than to others. Does everyone have to wear the same color? Do you wear the same thing for scrubbing the kitchen floor, lecturing before a class, attending a board meeting, and playing tennis on Saturday after-noon? Considerations such as these meant that individ-uals almost immediately began modifying the modified habit and also acquiring supplementary wardrobes for occasions when a habit was deemed inappropriate. The question of a veil comes in for special consid-eration. Questions of comfort, ideology, and style inter-mingled. In the old habit, when no hair was visible, we usually cut it very short for comfort. As soon as some hair was visible, it had to be styled. And not every style looked good peeping out from a veil. Keeping a veil anchored on one's head was sometimes a challenge. More significandy, the veil signified for some a femi-nine subservience to men. (Around that time, women gave up wearing hats and veils in church, and nurses stopped wearing caps with their uniforms.) Some argued that the veil was intended to symbolize virginity. Well, Review for Religious if it did, then shouldn't male religious who take a vow of celibacy also wear them? As we began to experiment with lay dress, some continued to wear the veil for a time, leading to some unfortunate combinations of flowered dresses topped off with veils. (Interestingly, the appearance of Islamic women clad in burqas and veils in Western cities was still too rare to invite a com-parison.) Another circumstance that promoted individual choice of dress was the movement toward individual-ism overall in Western culture. This is a phenomenon that would require books to chronicle and critique both its lights and shadows, but the point here is khat we were not immune from its influence. Religious life is essentially a communitarian commitment, but in many ways--not only choice of dress--it has embraced, or at least permitted, a wider expression of personal choice. While we were experimenting with dress, we were also exploring new ministries, new living arrangements, and new prayer styles. Much of this was a healthy reaction to practices which had encouraged immaturity, but some of it has diminished our corporate identity and witness. Nevertheless, choosing how to present oneself on a particular occasion or in a particular setting can be a revelation of one's personal judgment and self-iden-tification. Looking Back on the Changes in Dress The first thing that can be said is that the changes described here proceeded without a lot of self-reflection. We lacked the critical distance necessary to analyze the consequences of our choices or their interaction with other choices we were making. At times we hesitated to raise the issue in community for fear of seeming

Issue 51.5 of the Review for Religious, September/October 1992. ; fo,r relig i ous Christian Heritages and ContemP0ra~ Living SEPTEMBER-O~OBER 1992 ~ t VOLUME 51 ¯ NUMBER Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-535-3048 ¯ FAX: 314-535-0601 ,÷ Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: .Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ 5001 Eastern Avenue ¯ P.O. Box 29260 Washington, D.C. 20017. POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ° P.O. Box 6070 ° Duluth, MN 55806. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional offices. SUBSCRIPTION RATES Single copy $5 includes surface mailing costs. One-year subscription $15 plus mailing costs. Two-year subscription $28 plus mailing costs. See inside back cover for more subscription information and mailing costs. ©1992 Review for Religious for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Assistant Editors Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Michael G. Harter SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Mary Margaret Johanning SSND Iris Ann Ledden SSND Edmundo Rodriguez sJ Sefin Sammon FMS Wendy Wright PhD Suzanne Zuercher OSB Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1992 ¯ VOLUME 51 ¯ NUMBER 5 contents spiritual growth 646 Spirituality, Spiritual Development, and Holiness William G. Thompson SJ explores by means of three personal examples the relationship between being holy and being devel-oped spiritually. 659 Listening as the Foundation for Spirituality Robert P. Malohey CM proposes that listening becomes a basic Christian stance for a healthy and practical spirituality. 675 Two Key Transitions in Spiritual Growth John Wickham SJ mixes traditional language and new approaches to explain the major movements from the discerning and affirmation of the self to ultimate union with the Lord. religious life 691 Seeking a Sense of Direction in a Time of Transition David F. O'Connor ST reviews the history of how traumatic changes in religious life have preceded new forms of dedication and vitality. 707 Religious Life in the Puebla Document Juan Ram6n Moreno SJ emphasizes the directions of religious life in Latin America given official support in the Puebla docu-ment. 716 721 A Collaborative Retirement Convent Kathleen Steinkamp RSM details the process by which two reli-gious communities established a residential care facility for their retired members. living spiritually Reinventing the Sabbath Dennis Hamm SJ presents a refreshing review of the meaning of 642 R~view for Religious 733 736 sabbath rest and its importance for the survival of our faith. Priesthood, Listening, and the Music Bishop Paul A. Zipfel instructs Dominican ordinands to reverence the gift of orders they will be receiving. A Diligent Compassion Theresa Mancuso relives both the pain of grief on the occasion of her mother's death and the long process of being reconciled with that loss. 743 754 praying Becoming Contemplative Here or There Marie Beha OSC traces out four strands of monastic contemplative discipline to give outsiders a close look at some fibers that go into a contemplative life. An Imaginative Look at Mary Jeffrey B. Symynkywicz focuses his imagined prayer or his prayer-ful imagination on how he sees Mary fitting into today's world. life directions 762 A Journey of Transformation Together Lorelle E. Elcock OP describes the steps of the process of trans-forming three Dominican congregations of women into a new unity. 770 Celibacy as Possibility Marie McCarthy SP explores a celibacy that is concerned about possibilities for life, for generativity, and for transformation. 644 782 789 departments Prisms Canonical Counsel: Communicating an Indult of Departure Book Reviews September-October 1992 643 prisms ~hat does a laywoman in Brooklyn have in common with a professor in Central America gunned down for his beliefs, with an auxiliary bishop in St. Louis known for his pastoral-liturgical style, and with a member of a religious community facing the prospect of no new members? In addition to being people who have struggled to live authentic Christian lives, each of these men and women has articles in this issue of Review for Religious. They join their voices with a treasurer of a reli-gious community, with a cloistered contemplative sister, and with spiritual directors, theologians, and administra-tors from Canada, Rome, and the United States to exam-ine a whole spectrum of issues of interest to the contemporary church. These women and men--and, over the years, many others like them--have written about their religious expe-riences in these pages. As they share their personal insights and practical observations about living their faith, our readers around the world benefit from their reflections. Review for Religious has been a valuable resource because of the rich diversity of topics it treats and because of the wide range of perspectives it presents. Have you ever wondered how such articles come to be published? One of the best-kept secrets about this pub-lication is that the editors seldom solicit articles for a par-titular: issue. Over the years a steady flow of unsolicited manuscripts has provided a substantial backlog of articles. The editors simply select, edit, and group the articles. We are constantly amazed at what comes across our desks. Each year the editors consider 250 to 300 articles. From these we select between 90 and 100 for publication. 644 Review for Religious After the editors have chosen the articles they wish to publish, their time is consumed by the process of careful copy editing, proofreading, and preparing the articles for press. The continued vitality of this journal depends on the contri-butions from our readers. Articles that appear in Review are writ-ten, for the most part, by nonprofessional writers--people just like you. That's right. People just like the one who is reading these words at this moment. But this should not come as a surprise. Some two thousand years ago a tax collector and a tent maker did not look on themselves as writers, but today we still draw inspi-ration from the words they penned. Moses and Jeremiah found words worth recording even though one stuttered and the other felt inexperienced. Many of us feel equally inhibited. Few people consider themselves writers. None of the members of the Review staff, if truth be known, prepared themselves for careers in writing or publishing. Yet each of us discovers that, at some point in our lives, we have something to say. We may, how-ever, have difficulties convincing ourselves of that fact. But consider the words found in the Book of Deuteronomy: "The word is very near to you, it is in your mouth and in your heart." The words we discover within our hearts often merit a wider audience. Have you come to a fresh understanding of prayer during a recent retreat or as you talk with other people who pray? Review for Religious would like to invite you to share your experiences and insights. Has the community or parish you live in developed a program or a new method of interacting that others could profit from hearing about? Review could make that possible. If some-thing strikes you as original or valuable, chances are someone else will benefit from hearing that idea. May we invite you to consider becoming a writer? Should you feel that you have the materials for an article that meets the mission statement printed on the back cover of this issue, con-sider putting it on paper. Review will be delighted to send you a set of writers' guidelines. These guidelines clearly describe how to prepare and submit an article for publication in this journal. Review and its many readers want to hear your ideas. And we will be grateful to you for the courage and hard work you will invest in expressing them. Michael Harter SJ September-October 1992 645 WILLIAM G. THOMPSON spiritual growth Spirituality, Spiritual Development, and Holiness For several years I have been articulating for myself and my classes a working model of the inner world represented by the terms spirituality, spiritual development, and holi-ness. In this article I offer some insights I have had as I wondered about how these terms are related. How is spir-ituality related to the human sciences, especially devel-opmental psychology? Is spiritual development the same as what psychologists call human development? How is holiness related to psychological wholeness? I will begin with three examples, move to a more technical exploration of the terms, and return to reflect on the examples in the light of that exploration. Rachel, an adolescent with cerebral palsy, is so severely delayed in her human development that she cannot attend the regular religious-education classes or the liturgies in her parish. Every two weeks she gathers with five other similarly retarded adolescents and six adult sponsors for sessions in special religious education, symbolic catech-esis for the mentally retarded. Joan, who has been her sponsor and friend in this gathering for five years, is con-vinced that despite her developmental retardation Rachel is a very holy young woman. William G. Thompson sJ specializes in the New Testament for adult spirituality and pastoral ministry. He has a doctorate in Scripture from the Pontifical Biblical Institute and serves as asso-ciate professor in Loyola University's Institute of Pastoral Studies, Chicago. His most recent book is Matthew's Story: Good News for Uncertain Times (Paulist, 1989). His address is Ignatius House; 1331 W. Albion Avenue; Chicago, Illinois 60626. 646 Review for Religious Katie Klein was born in Germany but came to the United States at the end of World War I. When I was a child, she came to our home two days a week to do laundry and clean our house, as she did for two other families. I came to know and love Katie. She lived a simple, structured, apparently rigid and unimaginative, but also very meaningful life. She went to Mass every morning before work, and she spent at least an hour after work reciting traditional prayers at home. I believe that Katie was a very holy woman even though she seemed never to outgrow the simple piety that had given meaning to her younger years. Before her death in 1950, no personal crisis or public event occurred to chal-lenge her way of living a life that appeared to be pleasing to God. During Vatican Council II, I was pursuing doctoral studies at the Biblical Institute in Rome. Day by day I interiorized the drama of the council as I received reports about its progress from a fellow Jesuit who attended the sessions. I soon sensed that the vision of the church in the modern world that was being shaped in the council's debates was tearing down the world of meaning I had put together for myself over the fifteen years of my Jesuit formation and education. I somehow knew that a long and subtle search for a new world of meaning was beginning. Had the Vatican Council not called us Roman Catholics to let our paradigms shift and leap to a different horizon of meaning, I might still be wear-ing the traditional Jesuit cassock and living the style of priest-hood for which I was so well trained. Spirituality Before Vatican II, spirituality as it refers to lived experience was an almost exclusively Roman Catholic term. But it has taken on a much broader meaning with the council's invitation to a new awareness of, dialogue with, and appreciation of other Christian denominations and of non-Christian religions. In recent years we have been speaking of spirituality as found in various Protestant traditions and in the various traditions of Judaism, as well as in Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism. Vatican II also called us to a new dialogue with the human sciences, especially with the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology, in which spirituality refers to the human spirit apart from religion. Some even speak about the spirituality of antireligious movements such as secular feminism and atheistic Marxism. September-October 1992 647 Thompson ¯ Spirituality and Holiness Spirituality has become a broad, inclusive term that is no longer confined to or defined by religion. It seems now to name a human reality which is difficult to define but whose patterns can be verified in quite different religions and movements. It is no longer limited to the so-called "interior life" of those (mostly priests and religious) who "strive for perfection" through a life of prayer and virtue beyond that of the "ordinary" believer. Spirituality now focuses on the human spirit of believers and non-believers, on their lives as a whole, that is, on the physical and emotional, the intellectual and social, the political and cultural, the secular and religious dimensions of their lives.1 In recent years academic courses and publications in spiritu-ality have multiplied in response to the broad and deep interest among professionals in ministry and among academics in semi-naries and universities. How then are we to define spirituality? Sandra Schneiders provides the best definition that I have found: "Spirituality is the experience of consciously striving to integrate one's life in terms not of isolation and self-absorption but of self-transcendence toward the ultimate value one perceives.''2 According to this definition, (1) spirituality names our progressive, consciously pursued movement toward personal integration; (2) such integration happens when we transcend ourselves rather than center on ourselves and our own self-actualization; and (3) such self-transcendence takes place within the horizon of how we imag-ine, think, and feel about what is ultimate in human life and moves us toward it. For Christians our ultimate concern is God revealed in Jesus Christ and experienced through the gift of the Holy Spirit and within the life of the church. But a spirituality may or may not include God or Jesus Christ, may or may not be explicitly reli-gious. Clear boundaries between the secular and the sacred, between believers and nonbelievers, are notoriously difficult to determine. But twelve-step spirituality has taught us that for reli-gious persons reliance on their "Higher Power" may mean reliance on God, while for nonreligious persons it may mean reliance on their support groups. However, our definition of spirituality does not extend to those persons who organize, orient, and orches-trate their lives in dysfunctional or narcissistic ways according to addictive patterns such as alcoholism or self-centered eroticism. Self-transcendence moves us out of compulsive, addictive, obses-sive patterns of behavior toward more healthy relationships with 648 Review for Religious other persons, with ourselves, and with a transcendent Other, however we imagine and name that Other. At the heart of spirituality, then, lies self-transcendence? The philosophical meaning of spirituality is that capacity for self-tran-scendence through knowledge and love which characterizes humans as persons. We human beings actual-ize this philosophical spirituality within the net-works and patterns of our relationships with others. We seek meaning and are found by meaning as we interact with each other indi-vidually and in communities; and we seek truth and are found by truth in these interactions. A religious spirituality affirms that the proper and highest realization of our human capacity for self-transcendence is to be found in our personal relationship with God. Spirituality in this religious sense has as its ultimate concern our individual and communal believing in, hoping for, and loving God. Religious traditions that imagine and understand God as a person who relates reciprocally with individuals and communi-ties on earth have a religious spirituality. The religions of Islam and Hinduism, of Judaism and Christianity, all see our human spirit as responding to, dependent upon, related to, and account-able to a transcendent Other named God. These religions include images, symbols, metaphors, stories, laws, and rituals through which people encounter God and are encountered by God. In Christian spirituality God's Spirit within but other than our human spirit, within but other than the community of believ-ers, actualizes our capacity for self-transcendence by relating us in and through Jesus Christ to others, to our world, and to God. Our spirituality is at work when we implicitly or explicitly imag-ine- think and feel about, make choices and decisions about-- our everyday lives within the ultimate horizon of our relationship to a personal God in and through Jesus Christ and as empow-ered by God's Spirit. We Christians seek to interpret our indi-vidual and collective human experience as centered in Jesus Christ, guided by the Holy Spirit, and oriented to God. Our spirituality is incarnational and trinitarian. God initiates the personal relationship in and through Christ by the power of the Spirit; our spirituality, individual and collec-tive, reflects how we respond to God's initiative as we face the At the heart of spirituality lies self-transcendence. Septentber- October 1992 649 T~_~pson . Spirituality and Holiness, challenges of everyday life within our specific historical and cul-rural environment. Our spirituality is the sum of our responses to what we perceive as the inner call of God. It has to do with our vocation, that is, with the activities by which we find God and are found by God, by which we find a purpose for life that is part of the purposes that God has for our lives in the world. It has to do with the activities by which we are being created by God and create with God, by which we are governed by God and govern our world with God, by which we are being redeemed by God and participate in God's work of redemption in our concrete his-torical situation. At its core, Christian spirituality concerns how we live in part-nership with the action of God in our lives, whatever its pattern. It focuses on how God actively guides our evolving universe, including God's personal interactions with individuals and com-munities. It acknowledges that our human lives are created by God and destined to return to God. It is concerned with how we are aware of and respond to God and how we transcend ourselves to relate more deeply with others and with our world. As we shall see, this call to self-transcendence may also, but need not, include development, that is, movement in the direction of more devel-oped patterns for finding truth and meaning in our lives.4 Returning to our examples: Rachel, although developmentally retarded, transcends herself by responding to Joan's invitation to friendship, the human experience that most closely resembles faith. She is instinctively present to the other adolescents in the praying group, and she senses that the adult sponsors truly want to be totally present to her. Responding more often with smiles and gestures than with words, Rachel lives close to her feelings and does not hide them from others. She has no problem loving the others and wanting to be loved, even though her movement toward personal integration is slow and retarded. Katie Klein transcended herself by serving our family and other families as laundress and cleaning lady and by being devoted to God at daily Eucharist and in her nightly prayers at home. Her faithful devotion to God and her dedicated service of others dis-closed her ultimate concern; she lived cheerfully and peacefully within the horizon of that concern. Her movement toward per-son] l integration seemed not to include changing how she found meaning in her life. I was called to transcend myself by engaging the events of 650 Review for Religious Vatican II, letting them interact with and begin to tear down the world of meaning constructed over the long years of my Jesuit formation and education. From 1963 to 1968, I was invited to let all that the council meant slowly change how I understood myself as a Jesuit priest, as well as let its vision shape in me images of what my life and work would be as a biblical scholar in the post- Vatican II Roman Catholic Church. I experienced this process as an invitation not simply to move but to leap to a new and broader world of meaning and as a challenge to come to a different under-standing of myself in that world. Spiritual Development Human development is the lifelong process of growing, of changing in many different ways. We humans sometimes change to survive or at least to find meaning in our lives. Sometimes we choose new ways to realize our dreams and attain our goals. At other times we learn better skills and gain more expertise while remaining in the same relationships to others and to our work that give meaning to our lives. We are invited to grow and develop, however, when events so shatter the ways in which we have found meaning and been found by meaning that we inust move toward shaping new patterns that will be more adequate to our changed inner and outer environment. Our journey through life may sometimes take us to new vis-tas of knowing, to deeper realms of trusting, to ever widen.ing circles of belonging, to more creative and effective acting. As we develop, we are enabled to embrace a wider world, to acknowledge a more adequate truth, to live in a more inclusive community, and to enter more deeply into the mystery of human existence. A relatively young discipline, the psychology of human devel-opment was born in response to our modern culture, in which, expecting to live longer lives, we become fascinated by what the extended journey entails. We also sense that, as we near the end of the twentieth century, the global village we call our world is dramatically changing. We need and want to know how we indi-viduals and our families and communities are to navigate such hazardous times. Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget are considered the fathers of developmental psychology. For Erikson, the father of psychoso-cial theories, development is h series of tasks based both on bio- Septe,nber- October 1992 651 Thompson ¯ Spirituality and Holiness logical development and on how we interact consciously and unconsciously with other persons, with secular and religious insti-tutions, and with all that makes up our culture. Erikson names a sequence of eight tasks: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair. We never complete any of these lifelong tasks, but, as we move through our lives, one task more than the others may call for special energy and attention. For example, the elderly continue to work at the tasks of trust vs. mistrust and generativity vs. stagnation even as they are called to the final task, integrity vs. despair,s Jean Piaget, the father of structural-developmental theories, focused on the structures of human thought and reasoning. He recognized that infants, children, and adolescents come to know reality differently. He developed an understanding, of cognitive development in which a stage is an integrated pattern of opera-tional structures that at a given time constitute the person's thought processes. Piaget called his stages preoperational, concretely oper-ational, early formal operational, and formal operational. Development from one stage to another involves the transforma-tion of these cognitive structures in the direction of greater inter-nal differentiation, complexity, flexibility, and stability.6 Erikson's tasks, with their focus on what meaning we find in our lives, are related to the seasons of our lives, to our youth and adolescence and to our early, middle, and late adulthood. Piaget's structural stages, with their concern for bow we find and are found by meaning, are not so related to chronological age or social envi-ronment. As children we may have begun to develop formal oper-ational structures in which our experience of others is concrete, literal, and immediate. We may have created strong stereotypes of others, shown little empathy for those with whom we are not familiar, and developed a strong but simple sense of right and wrong based on regulations, law and order, and reward and pun-ishment. Since this structure is not age related, we may live all the seasons of our lives and address all the psychosocial tasks without moving toward the next structural stage of human development. We may continue to use existing structures as long as they work, that is, until our inner and outer worlds become so much more complex that we can no longer find and be found by meaning within those structures and patterns. 652 Review for Religious When we experience life as more complex than we have known it, we may be invited to move toward the next stage of human development, toward the next task (Erikson) or toward the next structure for finding meaning (Piaget). Crises, marker events, unfulfilled hopes, changes in significant relationships can create an inner climate of confusion, doubt, and conflict that invites us into transition. Rome during Vatican II was such an inner and outer environment. If we choose to respond to the invi-tation, we begin to separate from the images that have given mean-ing to our lives and then to float in between the old and the new so that we may gradually reintegrate our lives around more ade-quate images of how we are to know, feel, value, love, and act. As we change, we may feel weak, vulnerable, and out of control because we have begun to experience our lives as more chaotic than orderly. Nevertheless, we are drawn to risk moving or being moved toward more developed patterns so that we may live and act more effectively in our increasingly complex world. Transitions in human development are those more or less extended periods in which we gradually develop more internal complexity, more sub-tle differentiation, greater flexibility, and stronger inner stability. This is the place to ask how human development with its stages and transitions relates to spiritual development. We have seen that spirituality has as its concern how over time we integrate our lives in the direction not of isolation and self-absorption but of greater self-transcendence toward the ultimate value as we per-ceive it. According to Daniel Helminiak, spiritual development is the same as human development but with four characteristics that make it spiritual: (1) an intrinsic principle of authentic self-transcendence, (2) the openness of the person to such self-tran-scendence, (3) the integrity or wholeness of the person in question, and (4) an adult capacity for self-criticism and responsibility for oneself.7 Spiritual development, like spirituality, is a general human phenomenon that may or may not be religious. It is more prop-erly studied in the human sciences than in theology, particularly in developmental psychologies with a philosophical perspective. Spiritual development can be called religious when in our search for meaning we acknowledge a personal God to whom we are related and with whom we can realize our deepest capacity for self-transcendence. Christian spiritual development understands that relationship as the gift of God's Spirit actualizing our capac- Septentber-October 1992 653 Thompson ¯ Spirituality and Holiness ity for self-transcendence and relating us to God in Jesus Christ within the Christian community of believers. We Christians believe that God is present and active in the events that change our inner climate, that Jesus Christ invites us into transition and enables us to respond to the invitation, and that God's Spirit com-panions us as we separate from outworn images and learn to float in between, waiting patiently for new, more life-giving images to emerge. Spiritual development can also be described as our moving into deeper and more comprehensive love. Love is Jesus' only command and the standard of perfection in the Christian tradi-tion. 8 Developmental psychology considers this same movement from self-centeredness to self-transcendence its criterion for human development. Although Christians understand spiritual growth as involving more than psychological development, both the Christian tradition and developmental psychology have the same vision of human maturity, that is, movement toward greater autonomy for the sake of more authentically mutual and intimate relationships. Insights from developmental psychology can enrich our understanding of and help us grow into more mature rela-tionships with others, with ourselves, with the cosmos, and with God. Holiness With this understanding of spirituality and spiritual devel-opment, we now ask what it means to be holy and whether holi-ness is the same as wholeness. I agree with Daniel Helminiak that holiness has to do with the quality of one's relationship to God, while spiritual development has to do with the pattern of that relationship? A person can be holy at any stage of spiritual devel-opment; a neurotic person can be holy; a developmentally dis-abled or retarded person can be holy. Holiness has nothing to do with psychological wholeness, but everything to do with the qual-ity of our relationships to God and others, to ourselves and our world, whatever the pattern of those relationships. Holiness has to do with generosity, surrender, intensity, openness, and depth according to our capacity to possess and exercise these qualities. Holiness concerns our authenticity before God, others, ourselves, and our world, how we walk in these relationships, how we do God's will, how we remain close to God and others, how we live 654 Review for Religious in harmony with God, others, and ourselves, how we cooperate with the call and grace of God in our lives. Holiness concerns how well we respond to God's call to self-transcendence and enter into meaningful relationships with oth-ers and with all that makes up our environment. God's call may or may not include an invitation to move toward the next stage of human development, that is, toward more complex patterns for finding and being found by meaning. What counts is how open we are to God, how well we listen for God, and how well we respond to God in and through the relationships that make up our everyday lives. God calls us to holiness within our concrete histori-cal and cultural situation, whether we are developmentally retarded, as is Rachel; or we live with simple patterns for finding meaning, as did Katie; or we are invited to " move to the next stage of spiritual devel-opment, as I was invited. Our vocation--that is, the activities by which we find God and are found by God, by which we find a purpose for our life that is part of the purposes that God has for our life in the world--may include an invitation to develop new, more complex patterns for making meaning, but it may not. Holiness cannot be identified with psychological wholeness or correlated with spiritual development. A less developed person may be holy, while a more developed person may not. As we pass through the stages of spiritual development, we may become more psychologically mature, but whether or not we also grow in holi-ness depends on the quality of our response to the call of God in our lives. Holiness has to do with the quality of one's relationship to God, while spiritual development has to do with the pattern of that relationship. Conclusion Now we return to our cases. Rachel cannot manage in the usual parish groups of adolescents because she moves at a much slower pace than normal in her spiritual development. She has moved through the stages of grasping reality by exploring every-thing in sight (sensory-motor thinking), of imagining the outside Septentber-October 1992 655 Thompson ¯ Spirituali~ and Holiness " world to fit her inside world (symbolic thinking), and of identi-fying with what she learns (intuitive thinking). But her retardation makes her as yet incapable of thinking beyond what actually is to what is possible (formal operational thinking). Her adult friend Joan and the other adult sponsors are convinced that Rachel is holy and growing in holiness even though developmentally retarded. Rachel receives her vocation from God through Joan and the other adolescents and adults at their biweekly sessions in symbolic catechesis. She responds to those around her and to God with the capacity she has to symbolize and imagine, to know and be known, to love and be loved. Joan senses that almost imperceptibly Rachel is growing more open, more generous, and more authentic in responding to this call of God. Her holiness depends on the quality of her response to others and to God, not on the stage of her spiritual development,l° Katie Klein lived a regular, structured, apparently unimagi-native, but meaningful life. Her experience of others and of God was concrete, literal, and immediate. And she had a 'strong but simple sense of right and wrong. She moved through the tasks of adult life (Erikson) with early formal operational structures of thought (Piaget). Although capable of further development, Katie found those patterns adequate for finding and being found by meaning in her inner and outer world. Generously serving others and being faithful to daily Mass and devotional prayers, Katie became a very holy woman even though her life situation, God in her life, never invited her to move beyond an uncomplicated pat-tern of spiritual development. Within that pattern Katie responded more and more generously to God and walked more and more faithfully with God to become as holy a person as anyone I have known. In how well she loved and served our family, in how deeply she trusted God as she approached death, we knew that Katie's was a rich, solid, strong partnership with God. During my doctoral studies, the events of Vatican II invited me to develop spiritually by letting conventional patterns for find-ing meaning in my Jesuit life be shattered so that more adequate, more individuated, more autonomous structures might be shaped. As I interacted with the environment of the council, God called me to an experience of brokenness so that I might become more whole psychologically, more mature spiritually. Reality became chaotic compared with what I had known in my years of Jesuit formation. Challenged to change, feeling vulnerable, I risked 656 Review for Religious moving toward more complex patterns for making meaning in my life. God called me into this transition so that I might more effectively live and work in the world envisioned by the council. As I struggled through this developmental transition, whether or not I was also becoming holy depended not on the transition but on how well I was listening to and how generously I was responding to the call of God in that experience. Rachel was developmentally retarded, but l~oly; Katie was never called into transition, and she was holy. God invited me to move from the conventional world of meaning I had constructed in my Jesuit formation toward a more individual stage of spiritual develop-ment. Does that mean I was also becoming more holy? Not nec-essarily! We cannot measure holiness, neither our own nor other people's; only God knows the quality of that response to God. We can remember, however, and we must, that holiness concerns how well we live in partnership with God, not how far we have advanced through the stages of spiritual development. Notes ~ Sandra M. Schneiders, "Spirituality in the Academy," Theological Studies 50 (1989): 681-683; Joann Wolski Conn, Spirituality and Personal Maturity (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1989), pp. 13-29. 2 Schneiders, "Spirituality," p. 684. 3 Sandra M. Schneiders, "Theology and Spirituality: Strangers, Rivals, or Partners," Horizons 13 (1986): 266; Wolski Conn, Spirituality, pp. 29- 30. 4 For further discussion see Katherine Marie Dyckman and L. Patrick Carroll, Inviting the Mystic, Supporting the Prophet (Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1981), p. 79; Benedict J. Groeschel, Spiritual Passages (New York: Crossroad, 1988), p. 4; James W. Fowler, Becoming Adult, Becoming Christian (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984), pp. 71-76; James W. Fowler, Weaving the New Creation (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1991), p. 31. s For another approach to psychosocial development, see Daniel J. Levinson, The Seasons of a Man's Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978); Anita Spencer, Seasons (New York: Paulist, 1982). 6 For a description of contemporary structuralists (Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan, James Fowler, Robert Kegan), see James W. Fowler, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1981), pp. 37-116; Fowler, Becoming Adult, pp. 37-47. 7 Daniel A. Helminiak, Spiritual Development (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1987), pp. 29-42. September-October 1992 657 8 Joann Wolski Corm and Walter E. Corm, "Christian Spiritual Growth and Developmental Psychology," The Way Supplement 69 (1990): 3-13. 9 Helminiak, Spiritual Development, pp. 143-158. ~0 For an excellent treatment of the mentally retarded, see Mary Therese Harrington, A Place for All: Mental Retardation, Catechesis, and Liturgy (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992). The Chess Game It seems you never give up needling away at my defenses. You come to me ready to play a game of chess where you are the seasoned player, and L the fumbling novice. Sometimes you move all at once your strategically placed artillery, leaving me helpless soon after the confrontation has begun. On other occasions you will move, with well-&ought-out expertise, your black knight too near the weakest part of my citadel. You know from past maneuvers I tend to abandon the safety of my ramparts in my hasty efforts to capture him. In the process I give you the liberty to rush into my undefended heart, capturing, as a victory prize, any false god who resides there. When you play, you are never content with a pawn or queen of mine. You want them all! Richard Heatley FSC 658 Review for Religious ROBERT E MALONEY Listening as the Foundation for Spirituality Each morning he wakes me to hear, to listen like a disciple. The Lord Yahweh has opened my ear. Isaiah YO:4-Y manuals on the spiritual life, and even in the classics? One searches in vain for a chapter on listening in the writings of St. Benedict or St. Ignatius or even in the writings of very practical, concretely oriented saints like Francis de Sales and Vincent de Paul. One comes up empty too in Luis de Granada and Rodriguez and in later widely used treatises on spirituality like Tanquerey. Listening, of course, enters these writings implicitly under many headings. But if one considers listening the foundation for spirituality, one might have expected it to stand out in greater relief. This article proposes some reflections on listening as the foundation of spirituality. It will examine, in a preliminary way: (1) listening in the New Testament; (2) listening as the foundation for all spirituality; (3) some echoes of the theme in the history of spirituality; (4) the contrast between an implicit and an explicit theme; (5) some ramifications today. Christian listening begins, of course, with the Old Testament, R6bert P. Maloney CM writes from Rome, where he serves as a mem-ber of the general administration of the Vincentian Fathers and Brothers. His address is Congregazione della Missione; Via dei Capasso, 30; 00164 Roma, Italy. September-October 1992 659 Maloney ¯ Listening where listening plays a vital role, especially in the Deuteronomic and prophetic traditions. Yahweh often complains that, when he speaks, his people "do not listen." Conversely, the prophets are preeminent listeners; they hear what Yahweh has to say and then speak in his name. "Speak, Lord, for your servant is listening," says the boy Samuel as he begins his prophetic career. Listening recurs again and again in the New Testament, where a study of Johannine literature, for instance, would reveal listening as the key to eter-nal life. "Whoever is of God listens to every word God speaks. The reason you do not hear is that you are not of God . If someone is true to my word he shall never see death" On 8:47, 51). Listening in Luke's Gospel In Luke's Gospel the listening theme is quite explicit. For Luke, as for the entire New Testament, God takes the initiative through his word, which breaks into the world as good news call-ing for human attention and response. Mary the model listener. As with almost all the important themes in Lukan theology, the listening theme is introduced in the infancy narratives. These narratives provide a summary of the theology that Luke will weave through his Gospel. The listening theme is among the most prominent Lukan motifs (parenthetically, one might add that in Luke's Gospel another theme is at work in many of the listening stories; contrary to the expected cultural patterns of the writer's time, a woman is the model listener presented to the reader). Mary is evangelized in Luke's first two chapters. She is the first to hear the good news. She is the ideal disciple, the model for all believers. Mary listens reflectively to Gabriel, who announces the good news of God's presence and tells her of the extraordinary child whom she is to bear; to Elizabeth, who proclaims her blessed among women because she has believed that the word of the Lord would be fulfilled in he~; to shepherds, who tell her and others the message which has been revealed to them about the child, the good news that a Savior is born; to Simeon, who proclaims a song of praise for the salvation that has come to all nations and a prophecy that ominously forebodes the cross; to Anna, who praises God in Mary's presence and keeps speaking to all who are ready to hear; to Jesus himself, who tells her about his relationship with his heavenly Father, which must take precedence over everything. 660 Review for Religious Luke pictures Mary as listening to the Angel Gabriel with wonderment, questioning what it might mean, deciding to act on it, and afterwards meditating on the mystery of God's ways, reflecting on them in her heart. The theme of listening later in Luke's Gospel. Luke uses three brief stories to illustrate this theme of listening discipleship, namely, that those who listen to the word of God and act on it are the true followers of Jesus. (1) His mother and brothers came to be with him, but they could not reach him because of the crowd. He was told, "Your mother and your brothers are standing outside and they wish to see you." He told them in reply, "My mother and my brothers are those who listen to the word of God and act upon it" (8:19-21). In this story Luke changes the Markan emphasis (cf. Mk 3:31- 35) radically. While Mark depreciates the role of Jesus' mother and relatives, Luke extols it, echoing his first two chapters and show-ing that Mary is the ideal disciple, who listens to God's word and acts on it. (2) On their journey Jesus entered a village where a woman named Martha welcomed him to her home. She had a sis-ter named Mary, who seated herself atthe Lord's feet and listened to his words. Martha, who was busy with all the details of hospitality, came to him and said, "Lord are you not concerned that my sister has left me to do the household tasks all alone? Tell her to help me." The Lord in reply said to her: "Martha, Martha, you are anxious and upset about many things; one thing only is required. Mary has chosen the better portion and she shall not be deprived of it" (10:38-42). Even though Jesus' statement about the one thing necessary has been subject to innumerable interpretations, there is little doubt about the point of this story in the context of Luke's Gospel. Mary has chosen the better part because she is sitting at Jesus's feet and listening to his words, just as any true disciple does. While there are many other themes in the story (such as the role of women and the role of the home-church in early Christianity, which is reinforced here through a Lukan addition), Luke empha-sizes the basis of discipleship: listening to the word of God. That is the better part (see Lk 8:4-21). (3) While he was saying this a woman from the crowd called out "Blessed is the womb that bore you and the breasts that September- October 1992 661 Maloney ¯ Listening nursed you! . Rather," he replied, "blest are they who lis-ten to the word of God and keep it." This passage interrupts, rather puzzlingly, a series of contro-versies that Jesus is involved in during the journey to Jerusalem. But Luke inserts it to clarify the meaning of discipleship once more: real happiness does not lie in physical closeness to Jesus, nor in blood relationship with him, but in listening to the word of God and acting on it. Listening as the Basis for Spirituality All spirituality revolves around self-transcendence. As a work-ing definition for spirituality, we might use one proposed by Sandra Schneiders: "The experience of consciously striving to integrate one's life in terms not of isolation and self-absorption but of self-transcendence toward the ultimate value one per-ceives." l For Christians spirituality involves "putting on the Lord Jesus Christ" (Rm 13:14), "giving away one's life rather than saving it up" (Mk 8:35, Mt 16:25, Lk 9:24, Jn 12:25), and other phrases that imply self-transcendence. The self is not obliterated through self-transcendence; rather, it becomes fully actualized.2 That is the Christian paradox: in giving oneself, one finds one's true self. In that sense authentic love of God, of the neighbor, and of self come together. Authors put this in different ways. For Bernard Lonergan self-transcendence occurs in the radical drive of the human spirit, which yearns for meaning, truth, value, and love. Authenticity, then, "results from long-sustained exercise of attentiveness, intel-ligence, reasonableness, responsibility.''3 For Karl Rahner the human person is the event of the absolute self-communication of God. In his foundational works Rahner describes the human per-son as essentially a listener, one who is always awaiting a possible word of revelation. Only in Jesus, the self-communication of God, is the human person ultimately fulfilled. At the core of the his-torical human person is a gnawing hunger for the other, for abso-lute Value. A particular spirituality is a way in which this longing for the absolute is expressed.4 But this inner yearning for truth and love, this "reaching out," as Henri Nouwen expresses it, can only be satisfied by a word from without--spoken or enfleshed--that reveals what true 662 Review for Religious humanity really is. In the human person the fundamental dispo-sition for receiving that word or Word is listening. It is worth notirig here that Genesis, the wisdom books, and the Johannine tradition all seize on the concept of the Word as the way in which God initiates and breaks into human history. The creating word bears within it its own immediate response: "Let there be light, and there was light." But the word spoken to the human person, who in God's image and likeness rules with free-dom over all creation, must be listened to and responded to freely. Of course, listening here is used in the broadest sense. It includes seeing, hearing, sensing, feeling, perceiving. "Attentiveness" might serve as the term for the various ways in which the human person is ready to grasp what comes from with-out. Listening in this sense is the indispensable precondition for self-transcendence. Without it the word that comes from without goes unheard, the truth that draws the human mind to a vision beyond itself goes unperceived, the love that seeks to capture the heart goes unrequited. Is this why the saints have so stressed the importance of lis-tening in prayer? ls this why obedience has played such an influ-ential role in the tradition of religious communities? Is this why the seeking of counsel has always been regarded as one of the signs of true wisdom? Is this why the Word made flesh and the word of God in the Scriptures are at the center of all Christian spiritual-ity? Is this why the reading of the Scriptures in the liturgy and communion with the Word himself in his self-giving, sacrificial love are "the source and summit" of genuine Christian living? Listening in Vincent de Paul One can find echoes of the listening theme in many tradi-tions. Ignatian discernment, which has exerted such a forceful influence on the countless people who have made the Spiritual Exercises since the sixteenth century, is a means of listening atten-tively to what God is saying and allowing God's word to work conversion within us. Francis de Sales, whose Introduction to the Devout Life has been read by millions since its first publication in 1609, spoke of the need to "be devoted to the word of God whether you hear it in familiar conversation with spiritual friends or in sermons." He urged his readers, "Always listen to it with attention."5 September-October 1992 663 Maloney ¯ Listening Here, however, I will focus briefly on another seventeenth-century figure, Vincent de Paul, whose writings are less well known, but whose charism has influenced enormous numbers of men and women, not only in the two communities he founded (the Vincentians and the Daughters of Charity), but in other com-munities that have sprung up under his inspiration, and also in the hundreds of thousands of Ladies of Charity and St. Vincent de Paul Society members throughout the world. The central place of listening in spirituality is not explicit in the conferences and writings of St. Vincent. But the spirituality he proposes includes several key themes in which the importance of listening is evident. Humility the Foundation of Evangelical Perfection Vincent calls humility "the foundation of all evangelical per-fection and the core of the spiritual life.''6 For him truly humble people see everything as gift. The humble recognize that God is seeking to enter their lives again and again so that he may speak to them. They are alert, they listen for God's word, they are eager to receive God's saving love. The humble know that the truth which sets them free comes from without: through God's word, through the cries of the poor, through the church, through the community in which they live. There is probably no theme that St. Vincent emphasized more. He described humility as the origin of all the good that we do.7 He told the Daughters of Charity: "If you establish your-selves in it, what will happen? You will make this company a par-adise, and people will rightly say that it is a group of the happiest people on earth . ,,8 Humility and listening are closely allied in that listening is the basic attitude of those who know that fullness of life, salvation, wisdom, truth, and love come from without. Brother Robineau, Vincent's secretary, whose reflections about the saint have just been published, notes that this attitude was especially evident in Vincent's conversations with the poor, with whom he would sit and converse with great friendliness and humility.9 St. Vincent loved to call the poor the real "lords and mas-ters" ,0 in the church. It is they especially who must be listened to and obeyed. In the reign of God, the world of faith, they are the kings and queens; we are the servants. Recognizing the special 664 Review for Religious place of the poor in the new order established by Jesus, Vincent was eager not only that his followers would serve and evangelize the poor, but also that they would hear God speaking in those they served or, as we would put it today, that they would allow themselves to be evangelized.1~ Reading Sacred Scripture St. Vincent was convinced that the word of God never fails. It is like "a house built upon rock.''~2 He therefore begins each chapter of his rule and many individual paragraphs with a citation from Scripture. He asks the members of the Congregation of the Mission to read a chapter of the New Testament every day. He wants them to listen to the word of God and to make it the foun-dation of all they do: "Let each of us accept the truth of the fol-lowing statement and try to make it our most fundamental principle: Christ's teaching will never let us down, while worldly wisdom always will." ~3 Abelly, Vincent's first biographer, notes, in a colorful passage, how devoted the saint was to listening to the word of God: "He seemed to suck meaning from passages of the Scriptures as a baby sucks milk from its mother, and he extracted the core and sub-stance from the Scriptures so as to be strengthened and have his soul nourished by them--and he did this in such a way that in all his words and actions he appeared to be filled with Jesus Christ.''~4 "Obeying" Everyone The word "obedience" (ob + audire = to listen thoroughly) is related etymologically to the word "listen" (audire). For St. Vincent the role of obedience in community was clearly very important. But he also extended obedience beyond its usual mean-ing, that all are to obey the legitimate commands of superiors. Using a broadened notion of obedience, he encouraged his fol-lowers to listen to and obey everyone, so that they might hear more fully what God is saying and act on it: Our obedience ought not limit itself only to those who have the right to command us, but ought to strive to move beyond that . Let us therefore consider everyone as our superior and so place ourselves beneath them and, even more, beneath the least of them, outdoing them in defer-ence, agreeableness, and service.Is September-October 1992 665 Maloney ¯ Listening~ Obedience moreover, is not the duty of subjects alone, but of superiors too. In fact, superiors should be the first to obey, by listening to the members well and by seeking counsel: "There would be nothing more beautiful in the world, my daughter, than the Company of the Daughters of Charity if. obedience flour-ished everywhere, with the sister servant the first to obey, to seek counsel, and to submit herself." 16 An Implicit Theme vs. an Explicit One It is clear that listening plays a significant, even if unaccented, role in each of the themes described above. The importance of lis-tening is not, therefore, a "forgotten truth" (to use Karl Rahner's phrase) in the writings of Ignatius Loyola, or Francis de Sales, or Vincent de Paul, or in the overall spiritual tradition; neither, however, is it a central one. Therein lie two dangers. First, truths that remain secondary or merely implicit run the risk of being underemphasized or distorted. For example, reading a chapter of the word of God daily can degenerate into fulfilling an obligation or studying a text unless listening attentively retains its preeminent place. Likewise, the practice of humility, when distorted, can result in subservience to the voices without and deafness to the voices within, where God also speaks. In such a cir-cumstance, "humility" might mask lack of courage in speaking up, deficient self-confidence, or a negative self-image. A distorted emphasis on obedience can cause subjects to listen exclusively to superiors, no matter what other voices might say, even voices that conscience demands that we listen to. Conversely, it could cause a superior to insist loudly that he only has to "listen" to the advice of others, .not follow it (whereas in such instances he may usu-ally listen to almost no one but himself). But when listening retains a place at the center, the danger of distortion is lessened. Reading the word of God, practicing humility, and obeying are seen as means for hearing what God is saying. The accent remains on attentiveness. Second, when the importance of listening is underempha-sized, there is a subtle tendency to focus on particular practices to the detriment of others or to be attentive to certain voices while disregarding others. For instance, a member of a community might pray mightily, seeking to discern what God is saying, but pay little attention to what a superior or spiritual director who 666 Review for Religious knows the person well is trying to say. He or she may listen "tran-scendentally" or "vertically," so to speak, but show little concern for listening "horizontally." Along similar lines, a superior might be very confident that, because of the grace of his office, God lets him know what his will is, while other persons, by the grace of their office, are desperately trying to signify to the same supe-rior that God is saying something quite different. The simple truth is that we must listen to many voices since God speaks to us in many ways. Some of these ways are obviously privileged, but none has an exclusive hold on the truth. Some Ramifications In his wonderful book on community, Dietrich Bonhoeffer wrote: The first service that one owes to others in the community consists in listening to them. Just as love of God begins by listening to his Word, so the beginning of love for the brethren is learning to listen to them. It is because of God's love for us that he not only gives us his Word but also lends us his ear. So it is his work that we do for our brother when we learn to listen to him. Christians, especially ministers, so often think they must always contribute something when they are in the company of others, that this is the one ser-vice they have to render. They forget that listening can be a greater service than speaking. Many people are looking for an ear that will listen. They do not find it among Christians, because these Christians are talking where they should be listening. But he who can no longer listen to his brother will soon be no longer listening to God either, he will be doing nothing but prattle in the presence of God too. This is the beginning of the death of the spiritual life. 17 If listening is so crucial to healthy spirituality, then how might members of communities grow in it, both as individuals and in common? Listening as Individuals From reflection on the church's long spiritual tradition, one might glean a number of qualities that characterize good listen-ers. Here I will touch briefly on four, which seem to me crucial for better listening. The first indispensable quality for good listening is humiliW. September- October 1992 667 It is "the foundation of all evangelical perfection, the core of the spiritual life," as Vincent de Paul put it.is Humble people sense their incompleteness, their need for God and other human per-sons. So they listen. Humility acknowledges that everything is gift; it sees clearly that all good things come from God. St. Vincent writes to a priest of the Mission: "Because we recognize that this abundant grace comes from God, a.grace which he keeps on giving only to the humble who realize that all the good done through them comes from God, I beg him with all my heart to give you more and more the spirit of humility." t9 But consciousness of one's incompleteness has a further dimension. It is not only "vertical," so to speak, but "horizontal"; we depend not only on God direcdy, but on God's creation around us. Truth, then, comes from listening not only to God himself, but to other human persons, through whom God's presence and words are mediated to us. The hunger for truth and love that lie at the heart of the mystery of the human person is satisfied only from without. We are inherently social, living within a complex network of relationships with individuals and with society. It is only when what is heard is pondered that its full mean-ing is revealed. The second quality necessary for better listening, then, is prayerful reflectiveness. While at times one can hear God speak even in a noisy crowd, it is often only in silence that one hears the deepest voices, that one plumbs the depth of meaning. The Psalmist urges us: "Be still and know that I am God" (Ps 46:10). The Gospels, particularly Luke's, attest that Jesus turns to his Father again and again in prayer to listen to him and to seek his will. Prayer is then surely one of the privileged ways of lis-tening. But it must always be validated by life. One who listens to "what God is telling me" in prayer, but who pays little heed to what others are saying in daily life, is surely suspect. Prayer must be in continual contact with people and events, since God speaks not only in the silence of our hearts, but also (and often first of all) in the people around us. Because prayer is a meeting with God himself, what we say in prayer is much less important than what God says to us. When there is too much emphasis on what we say or do during prayer, it can easily become a "good work," an "achievement," a "speech," rather than a "grace," a "gift," a "gratuitous word" from God. 668 Review for Religious Naturally, prayer, like all human activities, involves structures, personal discipline, persevering effort. But the emphasis must always be on the presence of the personal God, to whose word we must listen attentively as he speaks to us the good news of his love for us and for others. In an era when there is much noise, where the media, if we so choose, speak to us all day long, one must surely ask: Are we able to distinguish the voice of God among the many voices that are speaking? Is God's word able to say "new things" to us? Are we still capable of wonder? As may be evident to the reader, the word wonder has an etymological kinship, through German, with wound. Is the word of God able to wound us, to pen-etrate the membrane that seals us off, that encloses us within ourselves? Can it break into our consciousness and change us? The third necessary quality is respect for the words of human persons. It is here perhaps that the tradition was weakest. It did emphasize humility. It Prayer must be in continual contact with people and events, since God speaks not only in the silence of our hearts, but also in the people around us. did accent the need to hear what God is saying and to discern his will. But it rarely focused explicitly, in the context of spirituality, on the central place of listening to other people. Many contemporary documents put great emphasis on the dignity of human persons and on the importance of hearing the cries that come from their hearts. Vatican II's Gaudium et Spes and the encyclical Redemptor Hominis see the human person as the center of creation,z° Centesimus Annus puts it strikingly: "Today the church's social doctrine focuses especially on man . ,,2~ Respect for human persons acknowledges that God lives in them and that he reveals himself in and through them. It acknowl-edges that words of life come from the lowly as well as the pow-erful. In fact, St. Vincent became gradually convinced that "the poor have the true religion" and that we must be evangelized by them.22 Many of the recently published texts of Brother Louis Robineau, which relate his pe,rsonal experience of Vincent de Paul, attest to the saint's deep, respect for persons of all types. September-October 1992 669 Maloney ¯ Listening Attentiveness is an indispensable means for creating authentic communities. Robineau notes how well Vincent listened to them: poor and rich, lay and clerical, peasant and royal.23 In this context, the process of questioning persons that is involved in the quest for truth takes on a new light. When there is deep respect for all human persons, questioning involves a genuine search for enlightenment, rather than being, in some hidden way, refutation or accusation. Questioning is a tool for delving deeper, for unpeeling layers of meaning, for knowing the other person bet-ter, for digging toward the core of the truth. As we attempt to develop increasing respect for human persons, surely we must ask some challenging questions. Are we really able to hear the cries of the poor, of the most oppressed: the women and chil-dren, who are often the poorest members of society; those discriminated against because of race, color, nationality, religion; the AIDS victims, who are often shunned by their families and by the physically healthy; those on the "edges of life," the helpless infants and the helpless aged, who are unable to speak for themselves? Are we able to hear the counsel given to us by others: by spiritual directors, by members of our own com-munities, by the documents of the church and our own religious congregations? Are we sensitive to the contributions that come from other sources of human wisdom (like economics, sociology, the audiovisual media, the massive data now available in com-puterized form) that often speak concretely about the needs of the poor, that can help us find and combat the causes of poverty or that can assist us in the new evangelization called for by the church? Are we alert, "listening," to the "signs of the times": the increasing gap between the rich and the poor and the repeated call for justice made by the church; the movement toward unity within global society, which is now accompanied by an opposite movement toward separatism and nationalism; the growth of the church in the southern hemisphere, which contrasts with its diminishment in many places in the northern hemisphere. The fourth quality needed is attentiveness, one of the most important signs of respect for the human person. It is the first step in all evangelization, the prerequisite for serving Christ in the poor. It is only when the servant is attentive to the needs of the master (in this case, the poor person) that he really knows what to 670 Review for Religious bring him. It is only when the evangelizer is alert to the needs of the listener that she is able to communicate genuinely good news. Attentiveness is an indispensable means for creating authen-tic communities. If community members do not pay close atten-tion to the opinions and needs of those they live with, each person becomes isolated even if still physically present to others. Those living in community must therefore continually seek renewed ways of listening to each other and of sharing their prayer, their apostolic experience, their struggles in community, their successes and failures, their joys and sorrows. Attentiveness is also of the greatest importance as one seeks counsel. Robineau relates how often St. Vincent asked others their' opinion about matters at hand, "even the least in the house." He often heard him say that "four eyes are better than two, and six better than four.''24 Robineau relates an interesting incident in this regard: One day he did me the honor of telling me that it was nec-essary to make it our practice, when consulting someone about some matter, always to recount everything that would be to the advantage of the opposing party without omitting anything, just as if it were the opposing party itself that was there to give its reasons and defend itself, and that it was thus that consultations should be carried out.zs Listening in Community Meetings, along with consultations and questionnaires of var-ious sorts, are among the primary means of listening in commu-nity. Like most realities, meetings are "for better or for worse." Almost all of us have experienced some that we find very fruitful and others that we would be happy to forget about. To put it in another way, meetings can be a time of grace or a time when sin threatens grace. Communities, like individuals, can become caught up in them-selves. A healthy self-concern can gradually slip into an unhealthy self-preoccupation. Outgoing zeal can be replaced by self-cen-tered security seeking. Communities can be rescued from this state, in a way analogous to that of individuals, only through cor-porate humility,26 a communal effort to listen to God and com-munal attentiveness to the words of others. September-October 1992 671 Maloney ¯ Listening Meetings can be a time when sin threatens grace. When there is no listening, they create strife and division. They disrupt rather than unify. They deepen the darkness rather than focus the light. Among the signs that sin is at work in meetings is fighting. When participants do not listen, there is inevitable strife, bad feelings, disillusionment, bitterness. Such meetings result in fleeing. The group backs away from major decisions, especially those that demand some conversion; it refuses to listen to the prophets; it seeks refuge in the status quo. A further consequence is fractur-ing. When participants do not listen, badly divided splinter groups form; the "important" conversations take place in the corridors rather than in the meeting hall; politics, in the worst sense, takes the place of discernment. Meetings can be an opportunity for grace. They provide us with a wonderful opportunity for listening and discernment. They enable communities to work toward decisions together, as a com-munity. In order for this to happen, those who meet must be com-mitted to sharing their common heritage, creating a climate of freedom for discussion, and planning courageously for the future. In meetings where God is at work, we recall our heritage in order to renew it. We listen to and retell "our story." We recount and rehear the deeds of the Lord in our history. We celebrate our gratitude in the Eucharist and let thanksgiving fill our hearts, for we have heard the wonderful works of the Lord. We share com-munal prayer and reflection because the faith of others strength-ens us. The atmosphere will be grace-filled if all are eager to listen to each other. If all arrive without hardened positions and preju-dices, convinced that the group must seek the truth together, then the groundwork for the emergence of truth has already been laid. The content, no matter how concrete or seemingly pedes-trian, will be grace-filled if all hear the word of God together, listen to each other's reflections on that word, and make deci-sions on that basis. The decisions of a listening community will flow from its heritage while developing the heritage in the light of contemporary circumstances.27 Meetings play an important role within God's providence. God provides for the growth of communities through wise deci-sions that govern their future, especially the training of the young, the ongoing formation of all members, and care for the aging. But such decisions can be made only if the members of the com- 672 Review for Religious munity are willing to listen to the data that describes its present situation and projects its future needs. Communal decision mak-ing, based on realistic projections, is one of the ways in which providence operates in community life. Failure to listen to the data--difficult though it may sometimes be to "hear" it honestly-- results in calamitous "blindness" and "deafness." The listening individual and the listening community will surely grow, for listening is the foundation of all spirituality. To the listener come truth, wisdom, the assurance of being loved. To those who fail to listen comes increasing isolation. Jesus, like the prophets, knew that listening made demands and consequently was often lacking. He lamented its absence: "Sluggish indeed is this people's heart. They have scarcely heard with their ears, they have firmly closed their eyes; otherwise they might see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and under-stand with their hearts, and turn back to me, and I should heal them" (Mt 13:15). He also rejoiced in its presence: "But . . . blessed are your ears because they hear" (Mt 13:16). In recent years many congregations have attempted to assist individuals, local communities, and assemblies to listen better, In workshops much effort has been put into fostering practical lis-tening skills. But are there ways in which communities, particu-larly during initial formation, can better communicate the importance of listening as foundational for growth? If listening is the foundation of all spirituality, as this article has tried to show, then it is crucial for personal growth and for the vitality of all communities. Notes ~ Sandra Schneiders, "Spirituality in the Academy," Theological Studies 50 (1989): 684. 2 See Ga 2:19-21: "I have been crucified with Christ, and the life I live now is not my own: Christ is living in me. Of course, I still live my human life, but it is a life of faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for me." The Greek text identifies Jesus as the self-giving one. It also makes it clear that self-transcendence does not wipe out true human-ity, but fulfills it. 3 Bernard Lonergan, A Third Collection, ed. Frederick Crowe (New York: Paulist, 1985), p. 9. 4 See K. Rahner, Grundkurs des Glaubens (Freiburg: Herder, 1984), pp. 35f, 42f. Septewtber-October 1992 673 Maloney ¯ Listening s Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life, trans. John K. Ryan (New York: Doubleday, 1972), pp. 107 and 108. 6 Common Rules H, 7. 7 SV IX, 674; see Common Rules H, 7. 8 SV X, 439. 9 Andrd Dodin, ed., Monsieur Vincent racontdpar son secrdtaire (Paris: O.E.I.L., 1991), §46 and §54. 10 See SVIX, 119; X, 332. 1~ See Evangelii Nuntiandi, §15. 12 Common Rules H, 1. ,3 Ibid. 14 Abelly, Book III, 72-73. ~s SV XI, 69. ~6SV IX, 526. ~7 D. Bonhoeffer, Life Together (London: SCM Press, 1954), p. 75. ~Common Rules H, 7. 19 SV I, 182. 20 Gaudium et Spes, §§9, 12, and 22; Redemptor Hominis, passim. 21 Centesimus Annus, ~54. 22 SV XII, 171. 23 Andrd Dodin, ed., Monsieur Vincent racont? par son secrdtaire (Paris: O.E.LL., 1991), especially §§71-83. 24 Ibid, §52. 25 Ibid, §118. 26 Vincent de Paul repeatedly emphasized the need for corporate humility if the congregations he founded were to grow. See SV II, 233: "I think the spirit of the Mission must be to seek its greatness in lowli-ness and its reputation in the love of its abjection." 27 In his essays on spirituality, Karl Rahner distinguishes between "material" and "formal" imitation of Christ. In material imitation, one seeks to do the concrete things that Jesus did, ignoring the extent to which everything he did was influenced by his social context. In formal imitation, one seeks to find the core meaning of what Jesus said or did and apply it within the changed social context. 674 Review for Religious JOHN WICKHAM Two Key Transitions in Spiritual Growth Both in coming to understand our own spiritual develop-ment and (should we be engaged in spiritual direction) in reflecting on where a directee of ours may presently be moving, a sense of the various kinds of transition that often occur can be a great help. I assume here that spiritual growth (changes, new data) are to be expected, are even to be sought. Quite a number of transitions are possible. One can move, for example, from a life of mortal sin to a life of sanctifying grace, from a rather legalistic reliance on external rules to a life of per-sonal choices; or, at the other end of the spectrum, one can move from a devout life to a life of advanced mystical prayer. But two other transitions deserve, I think, special attention today. The two developments I have in mind are often at issue in the Spiritual Exercises ofSt. Ignatiushone of them in the First and Second Weeks taken as a whole, and the other in the unit formed by the Third and Fourth Weeks. In his active spirituality St. Ignatius may be said to have reshaped the "Three Ways" (purgative, illuminative, unitive) into two spiritual transitions, each of which reveals both a negative and a positive side. This essay will attempt to describe and study these two major movements that occur in many dedicated lives. After each of them has been clarified, their relationship and especially their differ-ences will require comment. John Wickham sJ is director of the Ignatian Centre of Spirituality, which prepares and accredits directors. His address is 4567 West Broadway; Montreal, Quebec H4B 2A7; Canada. Septentber-October 1992 675 The First Transition Assuming, as St. Ignatius does at the start of his First Week Rules for Discernment, that we are in touch with persons living a good Christian life, striving to get free of sinful ways and to grow into closer union with God, then this first important tran-sition may be seen to move from relying mainly on getting emo-tional satisfaction to discerning spiritual consolations received from the Lord and felt in the heart. This formulation makes a contrast between emotions and feelings (or felt knowing). Emotions in this usage refer to per-sonal responses to objects in the external world around us (through our five senses) and to interpersonal events in our social setting. There is nothing wrong, of course, with emotional expe-riences. Emotions are often the main stuff of human life. In their endless varieties they fill most of our daily hours. We wake up in one mood and at night perhaps we drift off to sleep in the grip of another. Between times we may be surprised by shifts and changes of emotion or brood over a lingering mystery of emotional confusion. Persons without emotional reactions are hard to bear. We might wonder if they suffer from some disorder. But perhaps their emotions are not warm and pleasant but of the cold, off-putting kind. Whatever their nature, we can be sure that our emotional responses provide the real texture of human life. In themselves they are part and parcel of God's creation. And like other creatures they may be put to good use or they may get us into trouble. Returning to the formula given above, what needs emphasis at this point is the habit of relying too much on emotional satisfac-tions. When we habitually demand to be satisfied emotionally, we become blocked against further spiritual growth. We can become stuck right there. Without realizing the fact, we may be expect-ing God to deliver emotional satisfaction to us and we get angry when God fails to do so. We pray, in effect, a self-centered prayer, "my will be done on earth--not Thine!" While nothing is wrong with emotions in themselves, we can put too much stock in them. Let us be honest, many of us do so a good part of the time. We come to rely almost entirely on our own emotional states. If they are satisfying, "God is good!" If not, "God has rejected me!"--or we imagine things are going wrong. 676 Revie'w for Religious One of the major troubles of social life is to have others inflict their moods on us--because they tend to interpret the nature of reality in terms of current emotions. "The emotion that grips me now tells me who I am and what the world is doing to me." Even if we can avoid inflicting our emo-tional state on others, we still often experience the world in accord with our emotional state at the moment. As the poet Pope tells us, "All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye"--and the world looks rosy through rose-colored glasses. Our emotions easily become a lens that colors our world--for the time they last. This is often how we are as we begin our spiritual journey. There is nothing very surprising about it. And so a well-known stage of purification consists in getting free of emotional demands. First comes the step of noticing our emotional reactions, of naming them as they occur, and of refusing to identify our being with their con-tinuance. In order to become liberated from their insistent claim upon us, we learn to do small penances. In the past there has often been a danger of coming to despise our own emotions--an undesirable side-effect when struggling to gain freedom by willpower alone from these emotional claims. ~Without further treatment of that point, I merely note here the need to avoid puritanical efforts in this transition. We are dealing with spiritual growth, which is always initiated and brought about by divine grace. We do, of course, need to cooperate with such graces, and small penitential acts are forms of cooperation. But our highly emotive personal responses are right and true in themselves. Even if emotional self-denial is necessary for a cer-tain time, we will need to return to our emotions just as soon as we can get free of their tyranny. Then they may become, not only right and true, but beautiful and even holy. Emotional self-denial is only a temporary ploy within a larger movement of growth, not the main aim of the spiritual life. An egotistical tendency (if it is present) to invest our sense of self mainly in our emotional satisfactions needs to be purified during the First Week exercises. That is, of course, a rather sub-jective way of approaching the areas of sinfulness that call for purification, but it seems appropriate here because I am focus- When we habitually demand to be satisfied emotionally, we become blocked against further spiritual growth. September-October 1992 677 ,Wick~ ham ¯ Key Transitions,, ing on interior transitions. The Rules for Discernment them-selves lay heavy stress on the desolations to be expected in a per-son striving to move forward, and on the need to persevere in that intention despite the losses of emotional satisfaction that may be experienced. Spiritual Feeling In the more positive phases of the continuing transition, spir-itual consolations arising from moments of union with Jesus the Lord may make their presence felt as one enters the Second Week of the Exercises. It is assumed at this point that exercitants have already heard the call of Christ to follow him and have responded (with varying degrees of enthusiasm) to that summons. And dur-ing the contemplations of the public life that follow, each one must learn how to discern true from false consolations. An elementary principle to be noted here is that consolations of the Lord are not to be identified as "feeling good" and deso-lations as "feeling bad." Many today use the term "feeling" in a general sense that includes (or mainly denotes) what I have described above as emotions. That is a defensible usage, but in this essay I wish to separate the term "feelings" from the term "emo-tions" as already defined. I want to cast light on the rather dif-ferent movements we may experience at a deeper, more interior level of our being. In other words, I wish to define feeling (an enduring state) and feelings (momentary events or "touches") as personal responses that occur at our spiritual center in the core of our being, and not primarily in our social world. Humans may be said to enjoy a double-leveled awareness, one with outer and inner dimensions. In this discussion I am using emotions to refer to responses at the outer level, and feeling to refer to responses at the inner level. Quite correctly, it should be insisted that outer and inner lev-els are continually interacting together. Whena sudden event moves us wholly, it is often true that emotions and feelings are impossible to distinguish. Tears start from our eyes, our heart is fully engaged, we cry out with joy or sorrow, we even experience sensations in our body (waves of heat or cold, tingling of the spine, pressures in hands or feet, a burning forehead, and so on). Similar points may be made about calmer experiences as well. 678 Review for Religious In fact, it is normal for human beings to "sense" a two-way intercourse between outer and inner events, between what occurs in the social world and simultaneously in the interior feeling. Our reflective capacity, which is not merely mental but also passion-ate, is precisely what makes our awareness human. Our con-sciousness is multidimensional. While we know and feel, we also know we are knowing and feeling. And when we respond emo-tionally, we are aware at the same time of various intuitions under-lying our most emphatic emotions. Even when we "forget our self" in some activity or other, that welcome effect is considered unusual--an exception to the rule, and never total. Besides, an egotistical self-awareness is not the only kind of selfhood we may experience. We may be full of self-doubt, for example, or eagerness, or mistrust, or calm happiness, and so on. The Inner Self All the same, what is transpiring in this first transition is pre-cisely a development of interior selfhood. As certain modes of dominance by the outer self are overcome, we receive a new growth of inner self---a very important transition in anyone's life. Today we may take it for granted that the "self" we are talk-ing about, no matter how much trouble it may get us into, is a positive value in its own right, not to be identified with mere self-ishness or false egotism. Only fairly recently did this new assump-tion gain acceptance. For example, in The Imitation of Christ the term "self" was rarely used except in a pejorative sense, and it followed that one's main goal was to get free of it as much as possible. That view continued to be the dominant one until only a few decades ago. The shift that has taken place so recently has brought with it a new sense of the human subject, of selfhood as a valuable reality-- however much it may need to be discovered, owned, purified, and developed. A much stronger awareness of the "inner-self"--at least as a potential reality--has arisen among many members of our secu-lar culture today. Often we know it first for negative reasons: we are hurt, we feel misunderstood, we are unable to communicate our special desires or intentions, we are judged wrongly or become unsure of what we really meant. It causes a great deal of confusion, September-October 1992 679 anger, resentment, and so on. But at some point or other it may dawn on us that, despite the urgent need we may be feeling for much more growth and clarity, our inner self is a reality, valu-able in and for its own simple being. We may begin to experi-ence our own goodness as a fact. It need not, and cannot, be earned or proven. It is just "given." Through faith I may know that my personal existence is received from God who does not choose to make me without lov-ing me. My selfhood is real and my unique being is loved--even holy. That realization is such a remarkable event in anyone's life that it calls for prolonged attention and care during the earlier stages of spiritual growth. Since I assume that the above reality is widely recognized and appreciated today, I wish to focus now upon the kind of transition involved in its realization. An individual coming through that key transition begins to experience things in a personal way that may be called heartfelt. They are spiritual feelings and illuminations in the inner self. These consolations (or desolations) differ noticeably in qual-ity from emotions experienced in the outer, social world. And the transition from relying mainly on emotions to rel~ing mainly upon spiritual consolations (feeling) is a very significant "moment" in one's development. Not a False but a True Self This transition has been the main aim of novitiate programs ii~ recent centuries, although in most cases the novitiate was directed toward the positive adoption of each congregation's way of life. In other words, a single spiritual "style" or mode of oper-ation was proposed for every novice to imitate and put into prac-tice, and what needed to be sacrificed in order to obtain this goal was the ordinary tendency to demand emotional satisfactions for oneself. The self in question was taken to be wholly "selfish" and needed to be "offered up." Today a single spiritual lifestyle imposed on everyone alike has been replaced by "the charism of the founder/foundress" in a way that leaves room for the unique selfhood of each member to receive recognition and approval. As a result, the sense of self in question had to be clarified. The false self, which needs to be purified, is one that demands 680 Revievo for Religious emotional satisfactions and is upset when these are not forth-coming. But the true self, to be realized through penance and pa.tient striving against desolations, is received as a gift from God and recognized in consolations consisting of spiritual feeling and preconceptual knowing (experiences of sentir). A special way of following Christ, modeled in each congre-gation by the founder/foundress, will enable new members to undergo a radical purification of their conscious (or outer) self in the process of identifying their center of being in their heart's core. Members of vowed congregations who were trained in the older system have likely gone through an adjustment of this sort during recent decades. Each one will need to say how he or she has made the required adaptation, if indeed it has taken place, and what precisely was involved. But in general it may be said with some confidence that this first transition, which is of primary importance in spiritual growth, has been clarified as the emergence of an inner self united with the Lord in discipleship. What prevents its growth is usually the habit of expecting or relying upon emotional satisfactions, a habit which must be changed if the desired transition is to take place. Once it has been changed, and soon after the new inner self has grown accustomed to spiritual consolations, a reintegration of the'whole person with her or his emotional responses should then commence. This process will involve the formation of new social habits on the basis of the inner self so recently received from the Lord as a true actuation of one's potential being. The Second Transition An expectation of further growth should not disappear from our purview for too long after the first transition has been com-pleted. True enough, a directee who begins to enjoy true spiritual consolations does require considerable time (perhaps several years) to integrate them and create a new way of life on the basis of the inner self they bring alive. But the moment will inevitably come when remembering past graces will no longer suffice. As soon as signs of this new need begin to appear, the director (if not the directee) ought to recognize them. Such signs may point to the onset of a second, rather different transition. What might signs of this new sort be like? In general, con-solations of "the Second Week type" curiously do not seem to Septentber-October 1992 681 Wickbam ¯ Key Transitions operate "as well as" ones of an earlier stage. In different contexts, we should notice, St. Ignatius employs the same word, "consola-tion," in somewhat different senses. In the First Week, for exam-ple, which deals with persons who seek to be more and more purified from their sins, the ferm simply means experiences lead-ing to closer union with God. But in the Second Week it means experiences of persons bound in close discipleship to the Lord; because these apparent consolations may come from God or from the enemy, they need to be examined much more carefully. It is my contention here that the term is further varied in the Third and Fourth Weeks: if it gains in nuance by moving from the purgative to the illuminative way, we should not be surprised that it varies again in moving to the unitive way. It is usually rather puzzling to find that "what used to make me happy no longer does so." Naturally enough, we normally expect things to continue as they were. But the fact of the matter is that we may change so significantly (because of Our authentic spiritual growth) that what used to console us does not console us any more. Former ways, including ways of praying, that we had first discovered with some difficulty and later came to enjoy with a sense of real progress now seem to leave us cold. They no longer satisfy our hearts, but instead cause a certain malaise or uneasiness. It can be quite disconcerting. What can have gone wrong? At first we may fasten on various explanations: we are not trying hard enough; we have grown com-placent and lack humility; we should return to our former graces with renewed enthusiasm, and so on. But try as we will, the loss of taste, the lack of any real sense of meaning and .value in our usual way of life, continues to bother us. Of course, many different factors may be relevant in the case of each person. But I want to introduce the possibility of a new kind of transition as an important consideration in many cases. If indeed the divine Spirit is moving us to a new stage of growth, then we are obliged to give it some attention. Unitive Experiences Since what I will be describing his to do with the unitive way, let me begin by insisting that this traditional stage of spiritual development is not exceptional, not meant for only a very few persons, and not regularly accompanied by unusual mystical phe- 682 Review for Religious nomena. Unitive graces are an ordinary occurrence in most devout lives, just as are those of the illuminative and purgative ways. (Besides, concretely speaking, even after one has discerned unitive experiences, he or she is not usually separated for very long from renewed moments of purification and illumination. Perhaps one should stress the fact that occasional unitive graces do not mean one is "firmly established" in the unitive way--what-ever that may mean.) It is my conviction that the Third and Fourth Weeks of the Spiritual Exercises cannot be reduced to a "confirmation of Second Week graces." That may be legitimate in many cases, but the limitation ought to be spelled out rather than turned into a general rule. Let me be explicit: a limitation of Third and Fourth Week graces occurs quite legitimately when the individual person has for the first time received graces belonging to the first transition or when a notable deepening of that transition has been granted. In other words, the person's "inner self" has been realized or deep-ened in graces of union with Christ--and this is quite new for this individual. In that case (and it is a very important develop-ment) the Third and Fourth Weeks are likely to consist mainly of graces that confirm the key event that has so recently transformed the person involved. The Passion of Jesus may be shared in many different ways-- even by the same people at different times. I may cling to the cross in a sort of desperation if I am in serious danger of falling into mortal sin. Or during a crisis of decision making or of self-doubt I may dwell in the Garden of Gethsemane. Alternatively, I might find my personal illness or injuries transformed by a new way of sharing in the sufferings of Christ. Or I could accept obsta-cles thrown across my path, get free of resentments that have long bothered me, or deal more creatively with insults and humil-iations that come my way by prayerfully participating in what the Lord endured in his Passion out of love for me. This list could be much extended, but I simply wish to illus-trate here the wide variety of possible experiences we may find. At least a mention may be made of special graces of union with the Passion, such as we may read about in St. Juliana or other spiri-tual writers. Some of these may be clarified in what follows, but my main concern is to speak about Third Week (and Fourth Week) graces in a way that might enable ordinary Christians seek- September-October 1992 683 ~ickham ¯ Key Transitions ing a closer union with the Lord to recognize the possible mean-ing of unitive experiences that may also have been given to them. When the Passion of Christ "confirms" the first transition in the experience of a given directee, then that person's union with the Lord (so recently received or deepened) may be clarified and strengthened through worldly rejections and insults, even when these are taken in prayer to the limit situations of betrayal, impris-onment, violence, condemnation, and death. In other words, one's interior meaning and value as a person created and saved by the Lord and called to his service will become much more surely "known" in consolations received when contemplating the Passion. The Resurrection contemplations, in similar fashion, may confirm the previous grace more positively through experiences of a new way of life operating out of spiritual feelings received in the depths of the inner self. Those "Second Week" consolations may become clarified and strengthened through experiences of union with the risen Lord. Such graces received during the Fourth Week are to be discerned, unless I am mistaken, as confirming the Second Week graces already obtained by the directee. Limiting the Last Two Weeks In short, in these cases (only), confirmation of the Election in the Passion and Resurrection contemplations may be taken as appropriate during the Third and Fourth Weeks. This means that the central grace of the Spiritual Exercises is seen to be one of inti-mate personal union with Jesus (most fully revealed in the Election). What I have called the "first transition" may be rec-ognized as the main event for the individual person one is direct-ing-- even during the last two Weeks. So frequently is this the case today that many directors tend to consider it the only true goal of the Third and Fourth Weeks. But if that is so, then their notion of the unitive way has become dangerously foreshortened. For all practical purposes, it has been subordinated to the purgative and illuminative ways. But if the unitive way is truly a normal dimension in the growth of every devout Christian (as I believe it to be), then its omission from the Spiritual Exercises would be a limitation that raises serious questions. And to restrict unitive graces to a few exceptional persons would, in my opinion, be equally damaging. There is secular evidence to give us pause today. When 684 Review fbr Religious Maslow began to publish his findings on "peak experiences," he was under the impression that only a small number of persons had undergone this type of interior opening. But further research by himself and others produced widespread testimonies to simi-lar events. Eventually he reached the conviction that peak expe-riences of one kind or another are universal, although ignored or repressed by a hardy few. While his concept of "peak experiences" is ambiguous and may refer to quite a wide range of phenomena, his evidence cannot be restricted to what I have named the first transition. What I would like to call the second transition, then, would always assume the previous acquisition of first-transition graces. For example, if we suppose that a directee before making the Spiritual Exercises has already received profound graces of the Second Week type, what would likely occur during the first two Weeks? Usually one would expect the directee to receive confir-matory graces during those meditations and contemplations. But I would add that such prayer experiences might also be prepara-tory to more advanced graces possibly to be offered during Weeks Three and Four. If a director is not open to this possibility, then the fore-shortening of the Exercises, already mentioned, becomes all too likely. And if the more advanced graces of the second transition are actually given, such a director would not know what to make of them. The directee's experiences might easily be misunder-stood and the director could fall into false discernments. I believe that this has in fact occurred far too often. Challenges to a Good Way of Life The reality of spiritual growth reveals how frequendy believ-ers find that God disallows their apparently excellent form of commitment to the divine service. "The rug is pulled out from under their feet," we could say. Let us assume, for the sake of argument here, that the way of life of a given directee is truly unselfish and generous. It has been discerned carefully under direction, and has in fact become fruitful in its apostolic outreach. Is it possible that God might call the individual to surrender, or move away from, this entirely good way of life? Not only is it possible, it ftequendy takes place. A car accident, a heart attack, a financial loss, or social changes intervene to make September-October 1992 685 IVickbam ¯ Key Transitions our chosen course no longer viable. From many (limited) points of view, this makes no sense at all. But the point of view that mat-ters is the divine one--where we are called to believe and trust without knowing why, without making our own merely "common sense views" the final criterion in our discernment. This is what must have challenged Mary, the Mother of Jesus, on that first Holy Saturday. To her way of thinking, what could have been better than the life and teaching of Jesus? And yet its rejection in Israel was permitted by the divine mystery. Mary had to accept that baffling course of events, painful as it was in the extreme, without any "human" understanding of its value. We might say that God asked her to endure a spiritual death in her own heart corresponding exactly with the actual death of her Son. If this line of thought is pushed a little further, of course, we may perceive that the Passion and Death of Jesus was itself most acutely a spiritual death for our Lord himself. Had he not set his heart upon the conversion of Israel whom he desired to gather under his wings as a hen gathers her chicks? But they would not have it so. Instead, he was compelled to accept the rejection of his teachings, and of himself with them, at the hands of those in Israel who were in positions of wealth, prestige, and power. Only a few remained his followers. Jesus embraced this destiny out of love for all his people (including the very ones who were bent on his destruction). Not only did he accept the loss of what he had hoped to gain, but he did so with generosity of spirit. And so the Father raised him to a new role in the course of our history, a role that brought him into direct relation with every nation on earth. That spiritual death, which he so fully accepted, led to a new form of spiritual life for every people--even for ourselves. This, of course, is the pattern set for all of us by our Lord in his paschal mystery. But it should be obvious that we do not reach the fuller modes of participation all at once. Only gradually over many years do the devout followers of Jesus find the path to a more complete union with the Lord in the mystery of divine pur-pose. This does not mean that what we presently do will certainly be taken away during our course of active life (that remains a mystery of the future). It means only that, if we do move forward in union with the Lord, our basic attitude toward what we do and who we are will likely be tested in a more radical way. Even so, 686 Re~ie~ for Religious those who know us externally may not even notice the changes occurring deep within us. But somehow, through threats of illness, accidents, or altered situations that touch each one of us deeply, experiences like those that came upon our Lady and the other disciples of our Lord-- experiences, that is, of a spiritual death corresponding to the actual death embraced by Jesus out of love--will need to be encountered. And if we are graced by the divine love, we may pass through that "radicalization of the paschal mystery" so as to enter into a new kind of life in God--or at least into momentary tastes of it. This is what I mean by unitive graces. The Root of the Matter The term "radicalization" refers to the removal of more deeply rooted barriers to union with the Lord. Negative events similar to the ones mentioned above may occur in our lives, of course, without becoming the occasion of unitive graces. What is assumed here is that advanced graces of purification from sin have already been received, and that graces of intimate discipleship have also been conferred which have enabled well-discerned com-mitments to service of the Lord's kingdom in this world. It is only some years after a first transition has been made that certain neg-ative events may trigger an experience of lost selfhood or lost capacity for going on--even though outwardly one still goes throughthe motions that resemble a normal life. But why is it necessary to "die" to our good interior self in order to "live" in the heights of the spirit? Whatever answers we attempt will necessarily dwell within the mystery of divine union. Does our chosen way of life in its underpinnings somehow tend to place a barrier between ourselves and God? If so, why should that be? Does our most intimate sense of true selfhood always to some degree (because it remains unfinished) hinder us in our encoun-ters with God? Does our entry into utter transcendence always call for a further surrender--and yet never actually deny the validity of our individual and communal being? (These are far from being new questions--they belong to a well-worn tradition.) Sometimes our experiences of union seem to emphasize a oneness that obliterates awareness of distinct selfhood or to bring about a newness of love-identity in the Other that makes us eas- September-October 1992 687 ily forget our usual human longing for recognition as individuals. True. But these passing tastes and their remembered glories refer to unitive graces which at first can stun us with their breakthrough "difference." By this I mean that the experiential qualities tend to capture too much attention at first--they are new to us, very fulfilling, and so ~ometimes a bit extravagant. Nonetheless, the substantial reality of a grace, once given, is never taken away by the Lord even though the experiential aspects are temporary. We remember the experiences, but we are still inwardly changed and even "put together" differently by the substantial character of those gifts. The Way of the Cross In the specific case of unitive graces, however, a prior expe-rience of spiritual death points to another factor. There is no way to Easter, as we know, that does not pass through Calvary. In the terms already used above, this means that radical experiences of union with the risen Lord in the "heights of the spirit" are not possible for us until we have undergone a spiritual death "in the depths of the soul." P~erhaps this factor can be clarified by saying that we are not ready for unitive graces (of the Fourth Week type of consolation) until we have experienced the loss of interior consolations previ-ously given us (Second Week spiritual feelings and illuminations). In terms of selfhood, we might say that we must die (not to any false self, but) to the good "inner self" given to us in the first transition. Only the loss of that very g~od gift can prepare us to receive a "higher self," spiritually communicated to us by the risen Christ in this second transition. In consequence, the two transitions I have been describing are related in the Spiritual Exercises--and beyond them. The "spiritual death" that essentially prepares for the second transition is the experiential loss precisely of the grace already received in the first transition. There can be no second transition, then, if the first has not previously occurred. We should note that the "second kind of humility" is cer-tainly meant for use in the Election. The "third kind of humility," on the other hand, is intended to enable directees--should they actually receive that grace--to move forward into the second tran-sition after their full acceptance of the first. 688 Review for Religious Concretely, of course, this conceptual clarity is muddied by many variations in practice: both transitions may be combined or crossmated, along with backward and forward movements, fre-quent delays and regressions, sudden spurts and more sudden withdrawals--endless "visions and revisions," as Eliot puts it. The actual circumstances do not often present ready-made examples for our mental laboratory. MI the same, our awareness of the "crucial" contrast between the second transition and the first may prove helpful. If the approach taken here is even approximately correct, then we may be assisted in discerning the special qualities of second-transition experiences, especially in their earlier phases (of the Third Week sort). And this may enable us to avoid false strictures on our own or others' responses to these movements of grace. Qualities of the New Life The first transition, then, moves an individual from relying mainly on emotional satisfactions to receiving spiritual consola-tions in the inner self. The sedond transition may be said to move one from a well-accepted habit of interior union with the Lord and a way of life based upon it to a new life received directly from the risen Christ and enabling experiences of a higher self. It remains to suggest various qualities of the higher life that is enabled by unitive graces. First of all, although one's ordinary life, of course, continues, along with it (and not only behind it but also "in among" it) there is known to be a divine presence-- ever so delicate and respectful of one's freedom. That factor may grow more powerful at certain times, but often it remains gentle, although unmistakable. Another feature is a "higher" movement of the Spirit--rather unlike the heartwarming and compelling graces of the first tran-sition (which are usually "deep" and "interior" in quality). It is the awareness of divine mystery operating everywhere, bringing about God's will despite all evidence to the contrary; it is a dis-position to wait for God to reveal the divine will, to expect this and not to be surprised when it comes. It means not to speak until words are given, not to act until one "knows" how the Lord desires to act in the community. These few features may be taken as examples of the higher life (often seen in the lives of the saints). In general, that nothing Septentber-October 1992 689 should prevent God from loving others through my life becomes the central desire of my existence, the main reason for continu-ing to live. It need not, on the other hand, mean that the interior expe-riences of the inner self do not return and are not customary in one who has received unitive graces. It is just that one can no longer identify oneself with them. They are available at times and should be exercised. But they may also be taken away, and one is ready now to let them go. All this is possible because the risen Lord has made his divine presence felt by uplifting one to the level of his own activities in the church, in each person, and in every part of the world. Burning Bush Afire burns outside my bedroom window, October-red euonymus its name. As I look down The blood-red leaves leap up Vivid as living rivulets of flame. Transfixed, ! stand, New-wakened in the early autumn dawn. Then, barefoot, kneel, Obedient, Although no voice is heard. What angel calls me - silent? "Here I am!" I almost cry, Drawn by this shock of unconsuming fire To listen, stricken as Moses, For some name, some quickening word. Therese Lynch csJ 690 Revie'w fbr Religious DAVID E O'CONNOR Seeking a Sense of Direction in a Time of Transition As we try to read the "signs of the times" and prepare for an unknown future, we should not forget the lessons of the past. We should take note of the cultural, theologi-cal, ecclesial, ideological, and generational influences that have moved our personal and collective lives as religious in certain directions. And we should be alert to the factual changes, adjustments, adaptations, and developments which seem to indicate some of the shapes and forms that religious life may be taking as we approach the third mil-lennium. religious life Recalling the Lessons of History Recent historical scholarship has opened our eyes to the uneven history of religious life--a history filled with crises and chaos, with high points and low? Interestingly, there have been relatively short periods of time when the church and religious life appeared to enjoy some institu-tional tranquillity and stability. More than once the whole concept of religious life seemed doomed to extinction by events out of control. Religious in North America, especially during the first part of the twentieth century preceding the Second Vatican David O'Connor ST teaches at the Washington Theological Union. He is the author of Witness and Service: Questions about Religious Life Today (Paulist Press, 1990). His address is 9001 New Hampshire Avenue; Silver Spring, Maryland 20903. Septetttber-October 1992 691 O'Connor ¯ Seeking a Sense of Direction Council, found themselves in one of those rare stable periods in the church. It was a time when the highest leadership in the Roman Catholic Church, beginning in the late nineteenth century and ending only in the middle of the twentieth, had chosen a defensive and protective position, effectively withdrawing from a changing and modern world which, in fact, was often hostile to it. The Catholic Church centralized itself at the Vatican to a degree unknown until then. Within this same period of time, the Catholic Church in the United States developed and flourished.2 American Catholics were, for the most part, an immigrant population that experi-enced the hostility of the WASP (white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant) culture. While retaining a fierce loyalty to Rome, they tried to prove they were loyal Americans as well. For them the Roman Catholic Church appeared to be the model of stability and the rock of certitude. Although the worldwide Catholic Church of this period seemed intransigent, it was, in fact, still recovering from the buf-feting of social and historical changes that had rocked it at the end of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth. Following the French Revolution, religious life and many other institutions of the church seemed to be in their death throes. Yet, by the beginning of the twentieth century, it was clear that the church and religious life had recovered their vitality and were experi-encing unprecedented growth. In the 150 years preceding Vatican II, religious life had more than recovered from previous losses. Statistically, its number of members peaked in 1965.3 The post-Vatican II period, through which we are presently living, has been one of immense social and cultural changes. The council fathers thrust the church into the modern world, and fall-out from this movement of the Spirit in the church has occa-sioned a difficult time of transition for all, especially religious in the Western world. The rnove from a church-imposed inflexibil-ity and rigidity of the pre-Vatican II period to a church-initiated reform of religious life in the post-Vatican II period brought about an upheaval that was radical and spectacular in its magni-tude and complexity.4 No one could have imagined the depth and breadth of these changes. Indeed, we are still too close to events to make a true assessment. We will have to leave that to a future generation. Presently, it is still difficult to read the signs of the times because they are so ambiguous. Yet one of the clear lessons 692 Review for Religious of history is that drastic changes in religious life in the past did precede new forms of dedication and new vitality which were appropriate for the new needs of the church in a new time and in new situations. God does speak to us through history. One of the more important lessons of history is that, while religious life appears to be perennial, individual religious insti-tutes are not. Dedication, consecra-tion, and commitment to Jesus and his people are evident in the lives of groups and individuals throughout the history of the church, but the forms these have taken and their specific expression in individual groups, communities, monasteries, and institutes does change. Institutes are like people--they are born, they grow, they live their lives, and even-tually they die.s V~hile monastic groups can sur-vive with a minimum of members, and even decrease to a handful of people in one or two monasteries, apostolic institutes cannot. Apostolic groups frequently respond to spe-cific needs at certain times and in particular places in the life of the church. Once they have achieved their purposes, they tend to fade away or find new life through adaptation and change. In any case, an apostolic group requires many members to fulfill its corpo-rate role and purpose. The institutional life of these religious, all things considered, is much shorter and more tenuous than that of monastic groups. However, some forms of religious life have had the ability to be revitalized over and over again through reform, adaptation, and new expressions. One need only consider the Rule of St. Benedict, which has been adjusted to multiple forms of monastic and quasimonastic life. While individual monasteries or groups of them fade away, new ones are established in other places and times. Each institute has its own life to live. Not a few have seemed to be dying out or even were suppressed, as was the Drastic changes in religious life in the past did precede new forms of dedication and new vitality which were appropriate for the new needs of the church in a new time and in new situations. September-October 1992 693 O'Connor ¯ Seeking a Sense of Direction Society of Jesus in 1773, only to be given new life and experi-ence spectacular growth. Nevertheless, breakdown and death are probably inevitable for every religious institute. Some may have a very short life and others may live for an unusually long time, just as individual per-sons do. Calamities and misfortunes overtake certain groups. It might be combinations of political and economic or social and religious events which occasion their breakdown and demise. Often these events have nothing to do with the interior vitality of the group. For example, .when pestilence decimated the Western world in the fourteenth century, the mendicant orders were espe-cially ravaged when many members generously ministered to the sick and dying; some orders lost half their membership.6 Time also takes its toll. The life and death of individual com-munities frequently have nothing to do with the spiritual vitality of the members. Often, in fact,'it appears that in periods of decline the membership display many virtues and signs of dedication. Their corporate life has simply come to an end. As death crowns their collective life, other dedicated people often rise up to meet the new challenges confronting the church. Contemporary Influences on Western Religious Life Cultural Factors. The church does not exist in a cultural vacuum, but in the world as it is. We are, at present, living through a period of exceptionally rapid and revolutionary cultural change in an increasingly technological society. Our Western culture has had an immense influence on the attitudes of our people toward freedom, authority, obedience, sexuality, intimacy, and affectiv-ity. Periods of rapid social change promote personal and institu-tional instability and make it extremely difficult for people, especially the young and inexperienced, to make any permanent and unconditional commitment as expected in marriage, the priesthood, or religious life. The high incidence of divorce and remarriage and the many departures from the clergy and reli-gious life coupled with a corresponding drop in vocations dur-ing the last two and a half decades manifest this unfortunate social fact. The postconciliar years also chanced to coincide with "a kind of cultural revolution which led to a break with tradition, a crisis of authority, and indifference toward questions of faith, great 69¢ Review for Religious uncertainty about moral values, and a crisis in the realm of ethics.''7 The whole world seemed caught up in a series of extraor-dinary social and cultural changes. These enormous cultural shifts and their concomitant crisis of meaning forced even the religious who did not leave their communities during these years to change their lives in such a radical way that their communities are now different from the ones they originally entered decades ago.8 The American cultural values of personalism and personal fulfillment, freedom and self-determination, pluralism, democratic self-crit-icism, and egalitarianism and an emphasis on productivity and success have frequently clashed with an older and more rigid reli-gious life.9 In the period before Vatican II, religious life became part of the Catholic ethos and was carried along by its own cogency. It was largely insulated from the broader currents of American cul-ture. This situation, however, could not continue--certainly not for many members who left it after the reforms called for by the council began to take effect,j° Moreover, Catholics are no longer social outsiders in the U.S. culture; they have joined the nation's insiders.II Because of its outsider mentality, the Catholic Church had built its own vast school system, its own hospitals, newspapers, and fraternal and professional societies parallel with everything that was found among the WASP insiders. Large numbers of Catholic men and women joined religious life. It was a natural way for many to obtain an education and take their place in the Catholic society of that time. Now that Catholics are social insid-ers, they are no longer attracted to serve only in church institu-tions, for many options are available to them in the larger society and in the church.12 Also, the present-day phenomenon of the prolongation of adolescence into the early twenties and the consequent delayed adulthood of many young people in our culture is a sociological fact.13 Large numbers of young adults remain dependent upon others and do not assume full responsibility for themselves until, perhaps, they are forced by circumstances to do so later in life. This has had a direct effect upon the vocational and formational problems facing religious communities. The perceptions of young people concerning religious life today are quite different from those of their elders.14 The younger the person, the less he or she perceives religious life as dynamic and effective, and the less attractive it is to him or her. Moreover, Septentber-October 1992 695 O'Connor ¯ Seeking a Sense of Direction because the positive perception women religious have of them-selves is not shared in the same degree by those outside religious life, it does not bode well for the replacement of present mem-bership. 15 Most significantly, because of the changed perceptions regarding the value of a celibate lifestyle on the part of so many people in our culture, the continuance of a celibate religious life, as we know it, is highly problematic with regard to the availabil-ity of potential candidates. There are very few people open to considering such a lifestyle, in the opinion of professional observers.16 Therefore, to state that religious life is countercultural in our present society is to assert an all-too-obvious fact. Theological and Ecclesial Factors. Pope John Paul II expressed his own grave concern about the drop in religious vocations when he sent a letter to the bishops of the United States on 3 April 1983. A pontifical commission was established to investigate the matter--dubbed the Quinn Commission because Archbishop John R. Quinn, of San Francisco, was appointed the pontifical dele-gate. 17 This commission made its lengthy report to the pontiff in October 1986 and a shorter one to the U.S. bishops in November 1986.18 The report did affirm many positive developments sucla as the rediscovery of the charisms of many institutes, the deepening of authentic spirituality, a new appreciation of apostolic religious life, a new awareness of the uniqueness of each individual reli-gious, the promotion of a greater participation in the decision-making processes of the institute, a new appreciation of the universality of the church's mission, a growing awareness of the feminine, the development of new constitutions, and new signs of hope through older and more mature vocations.19 It did note, however, that the universal call to holiness of all members of the church made at Vatican II in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (§§ 39-42) affected religious and those who were contemplating entering religious life. This affir-mation of a common vocation to live a full Christian life was inserted in the conciliar document before its treatment of reli-gious life. It effectively undercut the popular misconception that the call to holiness lay primarily in religious life and in the priest-hood, or that one needed to enter them to pursue holiness seri-ously. A clear call to holiness was being made to (and heard by) 696 Review for Religious those in the married and the single life and not just to those liv-ing the celibacy of the religious life and the priesthood. Second, religious women and men took to their hearts the council documents' emphasis on social justice, which expanded upon the social teachings of the Gospel and the popes. This emphasis was reinforced by the personal experience of religious when they encountered social evil and injustice in their efforts to live and preach the Gospel. This experience, however, seemed to some to place apostolic religious in a theological bind between two apparently contrary church expectations: that they live "apart from the world" while they live and minister with an "option for the poor" in a modern world filled with social injustice. Third, the council'g reaffirmation of the need for the lay peo-ple to serve and to minister--to evangelize--in response to their baptismal call had an effect on religious. They became aware of the apostolic call made to all the faithful. The identity of religious can become clouded in periods of theological and ecclesial change. Their sense of direction and their morale are affected. Some religious now see themselves more as lay people. They react negatively to any restriction they per-ceive