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The concept of 'Scythia as an ancestral homeland' played an important role in the Medieval Origogentis. The narratives about the origin of peoples aimed to contribute the construction of new identities in Europe after the Roman empire declined. Iordanes and Isidore of Seville considered Scythiaas either starting or passing point of the Gothic migrations. Bede the Venerable and anonymous authors of Lebor Gabála Érenn named Scythia as a homeland of the Picts and Scots, while in the IcelandicYnglinga sagait was considered as a native land of the Norse gods. It is widely accepted that the medieval intellectuals used the phonetic similarity of the ethnic and geographical terms Scythae/ Scythia, Gothi, Scotti, Svíþjoð (Sweden) and Scedenig (Scandinavia) to construct links between the new ethnic and political entities, Classical history and biblical genealogy of peoples. This supposition is undoubtedly correct, however, it tends to oversimplify the conditions of the Early Medieval historiography's development. The aim of the article is to show that the reasons why Scythia became to be considered the ancestral homeland for the Medieval ethnic communities were much more complicated. The author uses methods of the intellectual historyto demonstrate that apart from the Bible, the authors of the Origogentis had to take into account at least two other important narratives. One of them was a still alive in the 8th century Anglo-Saxon Britain and 13th century Iceland epic tradition, which dealt with the presence of the Goths and other Germanic peoples in the North Pontic area. Greek and Roman geography was another narrative, which medieval authors had to regard. This hypothesis determines the scientific novelty of the paper. According to Pomponius Mela, Plinius the Elder and other Classical writers, the lands of Scythia, Scandinavia, mythical Hyperborea, Britain and Ireland made up a single region – northern periphery of the inhabited world. Visualization of Scandinavia as an island laying opposite to Scythia, coming from the Greek and Roman geography, explains why the description ofAsgard in the Ynglinga saga is to a large extent dependent on the Hyperborea's depictions in the Classical cosmographies. Conclusions. To sum up, one should not consider the stories about the Scythian origin of some Northern and Western European peoples as a complete fiction for at least two reasons. Firstly, some of the Origogentis appealed to the folklore tradition, which, in its turn, preserved a reminiscence of the historically and archaeologically attested events (such as the Gothic migration from the Baltic littoral to the North Pontic area). Secondly, from the viewpoint of educated medieval Scandinavians, British and Irishmen, their own homelands were a part of a single region, neighboring Scythia and being closely connected with it. ; Le concept de Scythia en tant qu'ancienne demeure ancestrale a joué un rôle important dans Origogentis - des ouvrages pseudo-historiques sur l'origine des peuples et des dynasties du Moyen Âge. En particulier, Scythia figurait comme un point de migration intermédiaire (Jordanie) ou source (Isidore de Séville); les pays d'origine des ancêtres des Écossais (Bede Honorable, Déclaration arbrotique) et des Irlandais (Livre des saisies d'Irlande); la patrie des dieux nordiques et des ancêtres de la dynastie dirigeante norvégienne (la saga Ingling). On pense que les auteurs médiévaux ont utilisé la similitude phonétique des termes Scythae / Scythia, Gothi, Scotti, Svíþjoð (Suède), Scedenig (Scandinavie) pour établir un lien entre les royaumes médiévaux, l'histoire du monde antique et la généalogie biblique. Le but de cet article est de montrer que les raisons pour lesquelles la Scythie est devenue la maison ancestrale des peuples médiévaux étaient beaucoup plus compliquées. L'article démontrait que les auteurs d'Origogentis, outre la Bible, étaient obligés, à un degré ou à un autre, de suivre deux autres orientations idéologiques: la tradition épique du séjour des peuples germaniques dans la région nord de la mer Noire, ainsi que la géographie gréco-romaine, selon laquelle Scythia, la Scandinavie, l'hyper mythique La Grande-Bretagne et l'Irlande étaient situées dans le voisinage et représentaient la périphérie nord du monde habité. Cette hypothèse, formulée à l'aide des méthodes de l'histoire intellectuelle, détermine la nouveauté de l'article. Conclusions. Les récits inventés sur «l'exode de Scythie» étaient basés sur des vues géographiques et idéologiques anciennes et médiévales et s'appuyaient, au moins en partie, sur de véritables événements historiques de l'ère de la Grande Migration. Les topos scythes ont joué un rôle important dans la formation des identités des peuples médiévaux. ; Концепція Скіфії як давньої прабатьківщини відігравала важливу роль в Origogentis - псевдоісторичних творах про походження народів та дінастій епохи середньовіччя. Зокрема, Скіфія фігурувала в якості проміжного (Йордан) або вихідного (Ісидор Севільський) пункту міграції готовий; країни походження предків шотландців (Біда Високоповажний, Арбротская декларація) і ірландців (Книга захоплень Ірландії); батьківщини нордических богів і предків норвезької правлячої династії (Сага про інглінгів). Прийнято вважати, що середньовічні автори використовували фонетична подібність термінів Scythae / Scythia, Gothi, Scotti, Svíþjoð (Швеція), Scedenig (Скандинавія) для того, щоб сконструювати зв'язок між середньовічними королівствами, історією античного світу і біблійної генеалогією. Мета даної статті - показати, що причини, за якими Скіфія стала вважатися прабатьківщиною середньовічних народів були набагато складніше. У статті продемонстровано, що автори Origogentis, крім Біблії, були змушені в тій чи іншій мірі слідувати двом іншим світоглядних орієнтирів - епічної традиції про перебування німецьких народів в Північному Причорномор'ї, а також греко-римської географії, згідно з якою Скіфія, Скандинавія, міфічна Гіперборея, Британія та Ірландія були розташовані по сусідству і представляли собою північну периферію населеного світу. Дана гіпотеза, сформульована з використанням методів інтелектуальної історії, визначає новизну статті. Висновки. Вигадані історії про «вихід із Скіфії» були засновані на античних і середньовічних географічних і світоглядних уявленнях та, принаймні частково, спиралися на реальні історичні події епохи Великого переселення народів. Скіфський топос відігравав важливу роль у формуванні ідентичностей середньовічних народів. ; Концепция Скифии как древней прародины играла важную роль в Origogentis – псевдоисторических произведениях о происхождении народов и династій епохи средневековья. В частности, Скифия фигурировала в качестве промежуточного (Йордан) или исходного (Исидор Севильский) пункта миграции готов; страны происхождения предков шотландцев (Беда Достопочтенный, Арбротская декларация) и ирландцев (Книга захватов Ирландии); родины нордических богов и предков норвежской правящей династии (Сага об Инглингах). Принято считать, что средневековые авторы использовали фонетическое сходство терминов Scythae/Scythia, Gothi, Scotti, Svíþjoð (Швеция), Scedenig (Скандинавия) для того, чтобы сконструировать связь между средневековыми королевствами, историей античного мира и библейской генеалогией. Цель данной статьи – показать, что причины, по которым Скифия стала считаться прародиной средневековых народов были гораздо сложнее. В статье продемонстрировано, что авторы Origogentis, кроме Библии, были вынуждены в той или иной мере следовать двум другим мировоззренческим ориентирам – эпической традиции о пребывании германских народов в Северном Причерноморье, а также греко-римской географии, согласно которой Скифия, Скандинавия, мифическая Гиперборея, Британия и Ирландия были расположены по соседству и представляли собой северную периферию обитаемого мира. Данная гипотеза, сформулированная с использованием методов интеллектуальной истории, определяет новизну статьи. Выводы. Выдуманные истории об«исходе из Скифии» были основаны на античных и средневековых географических и мировоззренческих представлениях и, по крайней мере отчасти, опирались на реальные исторические события эпохи Великого переселения народов. Скифский топос играл важную роль в формировании идентичностей средневековых народов.

To explain the existing harmony between the legal and pastoral dimensions of the social reality of the Church is a difficult task, especially when one takes into consideration the ambiguity of the term pastoral which, apart fron its technical significance, has been the object of tactical, vulgarized and equivocal use. In any case, the author not only shares the view that this term makes reference to the order of actions through which the Church finds its place in History by fulfilling its mission, but also accepts the most widely accepted meanings of the term: a) material meanings: pastoral action is synonymous with ecclesiastical o christian action, ministerial or priestly actionand introductory or leading action. b) formal meanings: pastoral action is synonymous with efficacious action, an intermediary action between God and man, an action shaped by the condiyionings of the hie et nune and a planned action. Subsequently the importance of the meanings accepted in the historical and doctrinal evolution of pastoral Theology is analysed so as to detect what the conception of Canon Law, in the minds of the members of the pastorate, is. In order not to fall into «cientifismo» on analysing the «edifying actions of the Church» one has to start from the authentic nature of the pastorate, that ¡s, from the pastorate as a manifestation of the nature of the Church . because it is in this way that the reality of the «pastoral» concept is found; thus the pastorate refers to the very and exclusive dynamics of the priestly ministry, in such a way that Pastoral Theology ought to make itself, as far as science is concerned, into a reflection on «the ministerial actions of the priestly hierarchy». Nevertheless, as the term has today come to be used as a purely scientific concept (and not as a concept per se), three orders of realities have clearly been distinguished to show that there is nonexus of efficient and formal causality; the scientific order (pastoral theology), ontological and sacramental personal realities (pastorate) and the acquisition of the salus animarum. (pastoral efficacy); but one conclusión is crystal clear: that in the transplantation of technical notions and methods of the profane sciences into the Church, the prevalant and absolute principie is the respect for the nature of the Church and the peculiar characteristics of her realities. With these explanations the point of convergente of the Pastora te and Canon Law is delimited; the Canon Law is the nature of the Church, because pastorate and legality are dimensions of the only reality which is the Church, rather than separate realities. The real contribution of Law to the historical edification of the Church is the dimension of justic;e, which affects the entire «Mysterium Ecclesiae», so that it cannot be said that before the legis'lature of the human ecclesiastical Law there exists an «ajuridical camp a priori»; likewise there doesn't exist an «adivine camp a priori»; and neither do the historical and concrete realities appear void of all norms and all exlgencies of justice. The author next writes about the hypertrophy which the term pastoral has undergone in the attempt to understand and solve all the facets of the mystery of the Church exolusively and solely under thls perspective; thls pastorate has led to confusion and the violation of the very formalities of other sciences among which Canon Law needs a special mentlon. Later on, the characteristic traits of the actual patarate are described: substitution of orthodoxy for orthopraxls, loss of clarity in the essential difference between the common priest and the ministerial prlest, hlstorlclty and sociology in the appreciation of the efficacy, In History, of the salvation found in the Church. Finally, the author deduces the following conclusions, concerning the analysis of the relatlonship between Pastorate and Law: 1) in order that a pastoral action might be authentically an action which edifies the Church, It has to be a just action a priori. 2) Canon Law, as a guardianship of Identity, unity and social order of the Church, Is a necessary leit motiv of pastoral activity. ; Dilucidare armoniam iuridicae dimensionis et pastorales realitatis socialis Ecclesiae difficile evenit cum valde aequivocum sit verbum «pastoralis», quod praeter eius significationes technicas utitur etiam sensu tactico, vulgari et aequivoco. Cum quoquomodo referat ad ordinem actionum quibus Ecclesia in perficiendo suo munere autoefficitur in Historia, auctor finit significaciones latiores verbi: a) Significationes materiales: actio pastoralis cognominata fit actionis ecclesialis vel christianae, actionis ministerialis vel sacerdotalis, et actionis hodegeticae vel regiminis; b) Significationes formales: actio pastora lis cognominatafit actionis efficacis, actionis mediatricis Dei hominumque, actionis hic et nunc configuratae, et actionis iam designatae. Examinatur deinde locus quem significationes finitae implent in evolutione historica-doctrinale lheologiae pastoralis ut detectetur quae sit conceptio luris Canonici in mente pastoralistarum. Ut non incurratur in «cientifismum» quoddam cum examinentur actiones aedificantes Ecclesiae, proficiscendumest a natura vera pastoralis, id est, in quantum manifestatio naturae Ecclesiae, in quo consistit realiter notio «pastoralis»; sic pastoralis refert ad dynamicam propriam et exclusivam sacerdotii ministerialis, ita ut scientia lheologiae pastoralis constituenda erit tanquam cogitatio de actionibus ministerialibus sacerdotii hierarchici. lamen, cum verbum «pastoralis» nunc maxi me utatur ut notio pure scientifica et non notio realis, distinguendi sunt nitide tres ordines realitatum ad concludendum non esse inter eos nexum causalitatisefficientis et formalis: ordo scientificus (lheologia pastoralis), realitates personales onticae sacramentalesque (indoles pastoris)atque consecutio salutis animarum (efficacitas pastoralis); ac aliqua potests prominere conclusio: in transponendis Ecclesiae notionibus, technicis atque rationibus scientiarum profanarum, reverentia naturae Ecclesiae et esse proprio rius realitatum est praevalens principiumabsolutum. His suppositis delimitatur punctum convergentiae Pastoralis et luris Canonici, quod est natura Ecclesiae, quia pastorale iuridica cumque potius qua m disiunctae realitates sunt dimensiones unius realitatis quae est Ecclesia. Apportatio propria luris aedificationi historicae Ecclesiae est dimensio iustitiae, aspectus attingens totum mysterium Ecclesiae, Ita ut non possimus dicere «campo ajurídico» praevium es se dationi legislativae luris humani ecclesiastici, sicut non est in Ecclesia «campo a divino» praevium neque eius realitates historicae eculiaresque apparent orbae omni norma omnique exigentia iustitiae. tDeinde poste a agitur de deformatione qua m verbum -pastoralis. passum est in conatu intelligendi et resolvendi omnes species mysterii Ecclesiae unice sub hoc prospectu; hic .pastoralismus» ducit ad inumbrandas et frangendas formalitates proprias aliarum scientiarum, et specialiter luris Canonici ratione significata. Describuntur postea tactus proprii praesentis «pastoralismi»: substituit orthodoxiam pro orthopraxl, amittitclarltatem distinctionis essentialis sacerdotii communis et ministerialis, historicismi et sociologismi in aestimatione efficacitatis salvificae Ecclesiae in Historia. Denique ex analysi relationum Pastoralis etluris auctor infert insequentes conclusiones: 1) Actlo pastoralis ut sit vere actio aedificans Eccleslae, prlus debet esse actio iusta. 2) lus Canonicum, quod est tutela identitatis, unitatis ordinisque social¡s Eccleslae, est suppositum et basis necessaria activitatis pastora lis

Da den menneskelige civilisation står overfor global opvarmning som et af de største eksistentielle kriser nogensinde, er konverteringen af spildvarme til en bæredygtig vedvarende energikilde en attraktiv løsning, der kan reducere afhængigheden af fossilt brændstof. Termoelektricitet gør det muligt at konvertere varme til elektricitet. Tidligere har højt ydende og stabile tellurid termoelektriske generatorer (TEG) været brugt, til missioner udenjordisk ved at forsyne den påkrævende energi til sondering af rummet. I de seneste år er der opstået interesse for at udnytte denne teknologi i områder som biler, fabrikker, kraftværker, militær og husholdninger. Der har været stor fremgang i opdagelsen af nye og effektive materialer med høj termoelektrisk (TE) ydeevne, men overgangen mod kommercialisering er stadig en udfordring. Selvom nye materialer som Zn4Sb3, Mg2Si, SnSe, skutterudider, Cu2Se, osv. har vist sig at have glimrende termoelektrisk ydeevne, men anvendelsen af disse materialer i kommercielle TEGs er stadig en udfordring. En af de største udfordringer er at producere en stabil og lav resistent kontakt til intensive arbejdsforhold. I denne tese er forskellige sammensætnings metoder blevet udviklet, til at skabe kontakt mellem forskellige TE materialer og metalliske elektroder. Udviklingen af grænseflade mikrostruktur er blevet undersøgt for at undersøge kontakt stabiliteten og nedbrydningsmekanismen. ZnSb blev valgt som det første materiale på baggrund af, at det er et termoelektrisk materiale, som er let, ugiftigt, billigt, og let tilgængeligt. Den succesfulde metode udviklet til ZnSb, blev derefter udvidet til CoSb3 baseret skutterudider, som er blandt de bedste TE materialer ved en temperatur mellem 300 ᴼC-600 ᴼC. Den første del af tesen undersøger konventionelle sammensætningsmetoder ved brug af lodningslegeringer. ZnSb blev valgt som materialet der skal bindes til forskellige metal elektroder som sølv, nikkel og Crofer 22 APU. Materialerne blev loddet sammen med kommercielle zink baseret loddematerialer. Sammensætningen blev testet i lang tid ved høj temperatur, hvorefter grænseflade mikrostruktur og kemisk komposition blev observeret ved brug af elektronmikroskop (SEM) og Energi-dispersive røntgen spektroskopi (EDS). Undersøgelsen viste at både sølv og nikkel elektroderne reagerer med de zink baserede loddematerialer, hvilket resulterede i et tykt diffusions lag bestående at forskellige intermetalliske faser. Det resulterede også i, at zink var dybt diffunderet i ZnSb, hvilket resulterede i en ændring af materiale kompositionen. Introduktionen af en tyk film bestående af titan eller krom som buffer lag var ikke i stand til at stoppe diffusionen. Ved brug af Crofer 22 APU, viste det sig at reaktionslaget var minimalt; hvilket tyder på, at Crofer 22 APU var det optimale elektrode valg til zink baseret loddematerialer. En ny loddefri sammensætnings metode blev hermed udviklet, ved brug af mikrolag med titan og krom som sammenkoblings materialer. Denne metode blev demonstreret på ZnSB TE systemet. Undersøgelsen viste, at titan og krom mikrolag til sammenkoblingsmidler resulterede i et rigtig god grænseflade kontakt uden huller eller revner. Yderligere, var denne metode også i stand til at konservere den oprindelige komposition af ZnSb. Grænseflade kontakten af ZnSb/Cr/Ni viste sig at være stabil efter varme behandling ved 400 ᴼC i 30 timer, hvilket tyder på at den lodnings frie metode er effektiv til at skabe pålidelig kontakt i TE enheder ved medium temperatur (200 ᴼC-400 ᴼC). Den lodningsfri metode var yderligere udviklet og anvendt til forskellige højtydende materialer i en højere temperatur interval. En særdeles stabil n-type Skutterudite blev valgt til sammensætning med Crofer 22 APU elektroden. Den blev testet ved 550 ᴼC i mere end 300 timer, hvorefter grænsefladens mikrostruktur blev undersøgt. De sammenføjende lag baseret på Krom og kobolt blev undersøgt systematisk og resultatet viste, at et flerlagede krom/kobolt gav den bedste kontakt. ; As human civilization faces global warming as the biggest existential threat it has ever faced, harnessing waste heat is a sustainable, renewable source of energy to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. By directly converting heat into electricity, thermoelectricity offers solutions for waste heat recovery. In the past, very stable and high-performance telluride based thermoelectric generators (TEG) have been used for extraterrestrial missions to provide the energy needed for probing the dark deep space. In the recent years, the interest in application of this technology to automobiles, factories, power plants, military and households has increased. There has been great advancement in discovery of new and smart materials, exhibiting high thermoelectric (TE) performance, but the transition towards their commercialization is not smooth. While many new materials, such as Zn4Sb3, Mg2Si, SnSe, skutterudites, Cu2Se, etc., have been reported to show very high thermoelectric performance, the application of these materials in commercial TEGs is still hindered. One of the key challenges is to form stable and low resistant contacts for intensive working conditions. In this thesis, different joining methods were developed to make contacts between various TE materials and metallic electrodes. Interfacial microstructure evolution was investigated to study the contact stability and degradation mechanism. ZnSb was first chosen because it is non-toxic, low-cost, abundant and light weight thermoelectric material. The successful method developed for ZnSb is then extended to CoSb3 based Skutterudites, which are among the highest performing TE materials in the temperature range (300 ᴼC-600 ᴼC). In the first part, conventional joining method using soldering alloys was investigated. Low-cost high performance ZnSb material was chosen to bond with different metal electrodes such as Ag, Ni and Crofer 22 APU using some commercially available Zn-based solders. The joints were tested for long time at high temperature and the interfacial microstructure and chemical composition were observed using scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDS). It was found that both Ag and Ni electrodes reacted with Zn-based solders and formed a thick diffusion layer comprising of different intermetallic phases. Furthermore, Zn was found to deeply diffuse into ZnSb TE leg, resulting in change of material composition. Introduction of thick films of Ti and Cr as buffer layers could not stop this diffusion. In case of Crofer 22 APU, the reaction layer was found to be minor; suggesting that Crofer 22 APU was a good electrode to be used with Zn-based solders. A novel solder-free joining method using microlayers of Ti and Cr as interconnecting agents was then developed and demonstrated on the ZnSb TE system. It was found that, using microlayers of Ti and Cr as interconnecting agents, a very good interfacial contact was obtained without any gaps or cracks. Interestingly, the starting composition of ZnSb legs was also preserved. The interfacial contact of ZnSb/Cr/Ni was found to be stable after heat treatment at 400 ᴼC for 30 hours, suggesting solder free joining as an effective method for reliable contacts in TE devices in the medium temperature range (200 ᴼC-400 ᴼC). The solder free joining method was further developed and applied to different high-performance materials in higher temperature range. A very stable n-type skutterudite material was chosen to join with Crofer 22 APU electrode. The joint was tested at 550 ᴼC for 300 hours and the interfacial microstructure was studied. Cr and Co based interconnecting layers were systematically investigated and it was found that the Cr/Co multilayer made the best contact.

The Thesis of the doctorate, which we elaborated, concerns the religious history of the Armenian high plateau. According to its title «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», it is going to shed a light on the religious, liturgical, cultural, anthropological, sociological and historic vision, as well as the philological study of the people of the Armenian high plateau generally and the Armenian people specifically. The scope of this dissertation is to study the field of the religion: the sociology, the history, the liturgy, the mythology and the anthropology following the traditions, the customs, the myths, the feasts, the superstitions as well as the key elements which define the culture of the religion. In our study, the purpose of our research will be to see which pagan Armenian religious elements were passed onto Christianity from the time of the conversion. In the first four chapters of the thesis, we are going to study the Armenian mythology, which have been practiced by the Armenian people, as to almost all the ancient civilizations. The political and geographical situation of Armenia played a significant role to create its rich vision of the religion. The Armenian view of religion, being an amalgamation of local and non local faiths, evolved through various periods. Even before the cult of idolatry, Armenia was under the influence of the religions and the cults of the nearby nations. These nations were the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, the Acadians, the Persians and the Greeks, with whom the Armenians maintained linguistic, spatial, ethnic or subordination relations. Under the influence of foreign policy, the vision of Armenian religion being a mixture with the local religions had its unique character. Through the thesis, we are going to analyze the scope of the religion: the spiritual powers, represented by the divinities, the spirits, the forefathers, the sacred places, the trees, waters, fires, and animals. Later, we are going to study the subject of the religion: the man (king and priest), the religious community (clan, Church, sect, secret society), and the spiritual elements of the man (soul). Finally, we are going to quote the expressions of the religious experience: ideals (faiths, myths, doctrines) and practices (cults, rites, feasts, magical acts). By studying «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», we concluded that by trying to eradicate the «profane», a «sacred» system was created. In our study, we have made a reflection on the policy of «armenisation» of the foreign elements, and also on what has passed in the realm of the faith. The vision of the Armenian people regarding to mankind, the world, and the God formed a system of beliefs: the myths, the rituals and the worship, which survived and were transmitted from generation to generation in the form of tradition. The manner by which such elements are transmitted are essentially the spoken traditions, the repetition of the worship and the ritual techniques through imitation and learning. Seemingly, the spiritual inheritance of paganism was replaced by the Christian legacy, but in reality had taken place a sublimation of the previous heritage. On the bases of the pagan culture and the ruins of the pagan religion, the Church put its foundations. The Church was established practically thanks to the invention of the alphabet in 5th century, which was called the golden age, it favored the growth of the Armenian Church and the prosperity of the people. ; La Thèse du doctorat qu'on a élaborée concerne l'histoire religieuse du haut plateau arménien. Selon son titre «Le substrat préchrétien et la réception arménienne du christianisme», vont être présentées la vision religieuse, liturgique, culturelle, anthropologique, sociologique et historique, ainsi que l'étude philologique des peuples du haut plateau arménien en général et du peuple arménien en particulier. Le champ d'application de ce mémoire est d'étudier dans le domaine de la religion: la sociologie, l'histoire, la liturgie, la mythologie et l'anthropologie suivant les traditions, les mœurs, les mythes, les fêtes, les superstitions et tous les éléments clés qui définissent la culture de la religion. Dans notre étude, l'objet de notre recherche sera de voir quels éléments païens arméniens religieux sont passés dans le christianisme depuis la conversion. Dans les quatre premiers chapitres de la thèse, on étudiera la mythologie arménienne, qui a servi au peuple arménien, comme chez presque toutes les civilisations antiques, à mémoriser les événements passés, ainsi qu'à idéaliser selon la créativité des peuples. En bref, la mythologie arménienne au-delà des croyances exprime la religiosité du peuple arménien. La situation politique et géographique de l'Arménie a joué un grand rôle pour fonder une riche vision de la religion au voisinage des différents peuples. Le point de vue arménien de la religion, étant une fusion de croyances locales et non locales, a évolué à travers les différentes phases. Même avant le culte des idoles, l'Arménie a été sous l'influence des religions et des cultes des nations environnantes. Ces nations sont les Assyriens, les Chaldéens, les Babyloniens, les Akkadiens, les Perses et les Grecs, avec lesquels les Arméniens entretiennent d'étroites relations linguistiques, spatiales, ethniques ou bien de subordination. Sous l'oppression des influences de la politique étrangère, la vision de la religion arménienne étant une fusion avec la religion locale, a eu son caractère unique. À travers la thèse, on analysera l'objet de la religion: les puissances abstraites, présentes dans les divinités, les esprits, les aïeux, les endroits réceptacles sacrés de forces, d'arbres, d'eaux, de feux, d'animaux. Ensuite on étudiera le sujet de la religion: l'homme (roi et prêtre), la communauté cultuelle (clan, Église, secte, société secrète), et les éléments spirituels de l'homme (âme). Enfin on citera les expressions de l'expérience religieuse: idéaux (croyances, mythes, doctrines) et pratiques (cultes, rites, fêtes, actes magiques). En étudiant les «Substrats préchrétiens», on est arrivé à la conclusion qu'en essayant de déraciner le «profane», on créa un système «sacré», qui dans le langage philosophique n'existe pas sans la présence du premier. Dans notre étude, on a fait une réflexion sur ce qu'est la politique d'«arméniser» des éléments étrangers, et sur ce qui est passé aussi dans le champ de la foi. La vision du peuple arménien à propos de l'homme, du monde et de Dieu a formé un ordre de croyances: les mythes, les rites et la liturgie, qui ont survécu et ont été transmis de génération en génération sous forme de tradition. Les manières dont de tels éléments sont transmis sont essentiellement les traditions orales, la répétition de la liturgie et des techniques rituelles au travers de l'imitation et de l'apprentissage. En apparence, l'héritage spirituel païen a été remplacé par l'héritage chrétien, mais en réalité a eu lieu une sublimation du patrimoine précédent. Sur les bases de la culture païenne et des ruines de la religion païenne, l'Église a placé ses fondements. L'Église s'est établie pratiquement grâce à l'invention de l'alphabet au Ve siècle, qui a été appelé l'âge d'or et qui a favorisé la croissance de l'Église arménienne et la prospérité du peuple.

The Bible is one of the most expensive, most amazing monuments in the treasury of universal values. This Book of Books, which has absorbed the wisdom of hundreds of generations, gives us the answer that such is good, and that evil brings man to an unattainable pedestal of wisdom, self-sacrifice, faithfulness in love and love for parents, their children, the Fatherland. It gives us today a vivid example of the fact that human beings can be vices, the nights and the dark sides of human nature. It is enough to remember the legends from the Old Testament about Cain and Abel, Joseph and his brothers, about Samson and Dalil, about Hama, the prodigal son, about the Garden and Gomorrah.It is difficult to name another book that has had the same strong influence on the formation of all subsequent world art of literature, such as the Bible, in particular the Fourth Gospel. The main reason for this lies in the fact that the Evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John the Theologian) preached the universal ideals of goodness and justice, the infinite value of the human person, the equality of all peoples before God, the primacy of the spiritual principle over material. In addition, the Evangelists were talented writers.For the Ukrainian literature, the Bible is of the utmost importance: the history of the Old Manuscript manuscript begins with the Ostromir Gospel, and from the Apostle (1574) and the Ostroh Bible (1581) — the Ukrainian book printing. At different stages of development, Ukrainian literature interpreted the Bible as an essential element of national culture and self-consciousness. Hryhoriy Savych Skovoroda, P. Gulak-Artemovsky, Markian Shashkevich, Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, Bogdan Lepky addressed the hymns of the Holy Scripture.Taras Shevchenko expanded the thematic range of plots and motives by introducing in his poetry the images of the prophets and a series of evangelical conflicts. However, eternal themes in the work of Kobzar acquire a national patriotic sound. According to Professor Mikhail Drahomanov, none of the literary sources can compare with the Bible for influencing the system of thoughts of Shevchenko. The Bible was a favorite childhood book of the poet, some of its parts, in particular the Psalter, he knew by heart. It was the Bible that became the life-giving source of its holy sacrificial love for its native people, the comprehensive brotherly love, the boundless sorrow for the suffering of Ukraine and the unwavering faith in its liberation from the shackles of tyranny.Biblical motifs in the work of Bohdan Lepky are closely intertwined with the national-patriotic themes that most strongly sounded during the period of World War II. The voice of the citizen poet calling on the Ukrainian people to fight for liberation from the oppression of the imperialist, for the revival of Ukrainian statehood, the unity of Ukraine, sounded in full force during this period.The theme of Christmas and Easter inspired the poet to create the eponymous cycles: «At Christmas Night» (1915), «Under Christmas» (1923), «From Christmas Moods» (1930), «On the Day of Resurrection» (1940), «Easter Bells» (1941). In a series of poems written during the First World War, the painful sums of peaceful years sound when religious holidays spiritually united people, filled their hearts with sincere comfort. The poetry of religious themes on the eve of the Second World War has a certain significance, acquire a patriotic sound, a civic passion — a premonition of the new, even more terrible tragedy that mankind undergoes, it is a powerful call to unite all people of goodwill for peace and happiness on Earth.But Bogdan Lepky was not only a brave and indestructible citizen in poetry. He could also be a gentle, elegant lyricist, elegant writer of the autumn. By the depth of philosophical generalizations, the poetry of B. Lepky can be compared with the «Book of Ecclesiastes» from the «Old Testament.»Speaking about Biblical motives in the work of Bogdan Lepky, one can not but recall his historical novel Mazepa. From the pages of this work, the tragic history of Ukraine of the end of the seventeenth and early thirteenth centuries, the spiritual and political split, fratricidal war, terrible embodiment of the Biblical legend about Cain and Abel, tells us. However, in spite of all the tragedy of the depicted events, the novel also expresses the faith of the writer in the light of the coming of his Fatherland, his deep religious outlook is felt, since the pictures of the suffering of Ukraine, Baturin involuntarily associate with the biblical legend of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, his patience and the wonderful resurrection From the dead. Particular attention in the novel Mazepa needs the image of the Nativity of Christ, because the mystery of Christmas night is presented in it not only unsurpassed beauty landscapes, folk beliefs, magical actions, charms. The writer very original reproduces this poetic image. The Magnonian Christmas Nativity Scene with its allegorical actors is in the forerunner of the fact that the entire Hetman's House, Ukraine, will soon become a bloody vertep. In the form of Christmas, the fate of Ukraine, Lepky, also depicts a grandiose canvas — the battle of Poltava: «In the smoke and cemetery, in the bladder and in the blood, in the cries and weeping in the Poltava fields, the lying part of the villains lay. What does she bring? Freedom and happiness or sorrow and captivity? « Beside this, it should be emphasized that in the novel Mazepa, biblical symbols are very closely and surprisingly organically interwoven with Ukrainian national symbols.In his work, the author uses a huge number of Christian prayers in the Old Slavonic, Old Russian, Ukrainian, which sound in the language of Hetman Mazepa, Orlyk, Chuikevich, Mrochka, Chechel, Kenigsen and other heroes. However, in addition to the original religious texts — prayers for Ukraine, the writer applies in his work both his own, author's, in the spirit of Ukrainian folk songs and dumas. Steppe-mother is an image of the mother of Ukraine that, like a living creature, breathes, rejoices, sad, complains, prays and suffers along with their unrelenting children, who go beyond bounds by their leader, like the ancient Jews by the prophet Moses.One of the most important commandments of the Lord — «Do not kill» — became the name of the third year of the novel «Mazepa». This same thought will pass through all the work of the canvas and is fundamental to it, since the whole work is an angry protest against the fear of war, against the spiritual and physical extermination of one people to others.In the context of world art Biblical images of works of Ukrainian writers reveal a complex and contradictory, they glorify the beautiful and majestic life of man in all its manifestations, not only the simplest but also deep intimate, capable. So we face the phenomena of social life, the condemnation of brute force, deception, treason. At the same time, general human ideals and high national-patriotic principles are glorified. ; Статья посвящена роли Библии в творчестве украинских писателей. Проанализировано философское наполнение поэтических произведений Тараса Шевченко, а также поэзии и романа Богдана Лепкого «Мазепа» в контексте европейской культуры. Акцентированы национально-патриотические и общечеловеческие начала творчества украинских писателей-классиков. ; Стаття присвячена ролі Біблії у творчості українських письменників. Проаналізовано філософське наповнення поетичних творів Тараса Шевченка, а та- кож поезій і роману Богдана Лепкого «Мазепа» в контексті європейської куль- тури. Акцентовано національно-патріотичні й загальнолюдські начала творчості українських письменників-класиків.

The Thesis of the doctorate, which we elaborated, concerns the religious history of the Armenian high plateau. According to its title «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», it is going to shed a light on the religious, liturgical, cultural, anthropological, sociological and historic vision, as well as the philological study of the people of the Armenian high plateau generally and the Armenian people specifically. The scope of this dissertation is to study the field of the religion: the sociology, the history, the liturgy, the mythology and the anthropology following the traditions, the customs, the myths, the feasts, the superstitions as well as the key elements which define the culture of the religion. In our study, the purpose of our research will be to see which pagan Armenian religious elements were passed onto Christianity from the time of the conversion. In the first four chapters of the thesis, we are going to study the Armenian mythology, which have been practiced by the Armenian people, as to almost all the ancient civilizations. The political and geographical situation of Armenia played a significant role to create its rich vision of the religion. The Armenian view of religion, being an amalgamation of local and non local faiths, evolved through various periods. Even before the cult of idolatry, Armenia was under the influence of the religions and the cults of the nearby nations. These nations were the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, the Acadians, the Persians and the Greeks, with whom the Armenians maintained linguistic, spatial, ethnic or subordination relations. Under the influence of foreign policy, the vision of Armenian religion being a mixture with the local religions had its unique character. Through the thesis, we are going to analyze the scope of the religion: the spiritual powers, represented by the divinities, the spirits, the forefathers, the sacred places, the trees, waters, fires, and animals. Later, we are going to study the subject of the religion: the man (king and priest), the religious community (clan, Church, sect, secret society), and the spiritual elements of the man (soul). Finally, we are going to quote the expressions of the religious experience: ideals (faiths, myths, doctrines) and practices (cults, rites, feasts, magical acts). By studying «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», we concluded that by trying to eradicate the «profane», a «sacred» system was created. In our study, we have made a reflection on the policy of «armenisation» of the foreign elements, and also on what has passed in the realm of the faith. The vision of the Armenian people regarding to mankind, the world, and the God formed a system of beliefs: the myths, the rituals and the worship, which survived and were transmitted from generation to generation in the form of tradition. The manner by which such elements are transmitted are essentially the spoken traditions, the repetition of the worship and the ritual techniques through imitation and learning. Seemingly, the spiritual inheritance of paganism was replaced by the Christian legacy, but in reality had taken place a sublimation of the previous heritage. On the bases of the pagan culture and the ruins of the pagan religion, the Church put its foundations. The Church was established practically thanks to the invention of the alphabet in 5th century, which was called the golden age, it favored the growth of the Armenian Church and the prosperity of the people. ; La Thèse du doctorat qu'on a élaborée concerne l'histoire religieuse du haut plateau arménien. Selon son titre «Le substrat préchrétien et la réception arménienne du christianisme», vont être présentées la vision religieuse, liturgique, culturelle, anthropologique, sociologique et historique, ainsi que l'étude philologique des peuples du haut plateau arménien en général et du peuple arménien en particulier. Le champ d'application de ce mémoire est d'étudier dans le domaine de la religion: la sociologie, l'histoire, la liturgie, la mythologie et l'anthropologie suivant les traditions, les mœurs, les mythes, les fêtes, les superstitions et tous les éléments clés qui définissent la culture de la religion. Dans notre étude, l'objet de notre recherche sera de voir quels éléments païens arméniens religieux sont passés dans le christianisme depuis la conversion. Dans les quatre premiers chapitres de la thèse, on étudiera la mythologie arménienne, qui a servi au peuple arménien, comme chez presque toutes les civilisations antiques, à mémoriser les événements passés, ainsi qu'à idéaliser selon la créativité des peuples. En bref, la mythologie arménienne au-delà des croyances exprime la religiosité du peuple arménien. La situation politique et géographique de l'Arménie a joué un grand rôle pour fonder une riche vision de la religion au voisinage des différents peuples. Le point de vue arménien de la religion, étant une fusion de croyances locales et non locales, a évolué à travers les différentes phases. Même avant le culte des idoles, l'Arménie a été sous l'influence des religions et des cultes des nations environnantes. Ces nations sont les Assyriens, les Chaldéens, les Babyloniens, les Akkadiens, les Perses et les Grecs, avec lesquels les Arméniens entretiennent d'étroites relations linguistiques, spatiales, ethniques ou bien de subordination. Sous l'oppression des influences de la politique étrangère, la vision de la religion arménienne étant une fusion avec la religion locale, a eu son caractère unique. À travers la thèse, on analysera l'objet de la religion: les puissances abstraites, présentes dans les divinités, les esprits, les aïeux, les endroits réceptacles sacrés de forces, d'arbres, d'eaux, de feux, d'animaux. Ensuite on étudiera le sujet de la religion: l'homme (roi et prêtre), la communauté cultuelle (clan, Église, secte, société secrète), et les éléments spirituels de l'homme (âme). Enfin on citera les expressions de l'expérience religieuse: idéaux (croyances, mythes, doctrines) et pratiques (cultes, rites, fêtes, actes magiques). En étudiant les «Substrats préchrétiens», on est arrivé à la conclusion qu'en essayant de déraciner le «profane», on créa un système «sacré», qui dans le langage philosophique n'existe pas sans la présence du premier. Dans notre étude, on a fait une réflexion sur ce qu'est la politique d'«arméniser» des éléments étrangers, et sur ce qui est passé aussi dans le champ de la foi. La vision du peuple arménien à propos de l'homme, du monde et de Dieu a formé un ordre de croyances: les mythes, les rites et la liturgie, qui ont survécu et ont été transmis de génération en génération sous forme de tradition. Les manières dont de tels éléments sont transmis sont essentiellement les traditions orales, la répétition de la liturgie et des techniques rituelles au travers de l'imitation et de l'apprentissage. En apparence, l'héritage spirituel païen a été remplacé par l'héritage chrétien, mais en réalité a eu lieu une sublimation du patrimoine précédent. Sur les bases de la culture païenne et des ruines de la religion païenne, l'Église a placé ses fondements. L'Église s'est établie pratiquement grâce à l'invention de l'alphabet au Ve siècle, qui a été appelé l'âge d'or et qui a favorisé la croissance de l'Église arménienne et la prospérité du peuple.

Undoubtedly education is a high priority issue for Zambia. Through education Zambia can become a stronger, more successful and cohesive country. Not only does education address basic needs, such as the eradication of illiteracy but it also serves other valuable purposes. It is evident, that education is an indispensable tool for engaging in politics at any level- local/national, amateur/professional. For example, the possession of knowledge of basic rights and skills associated with political engagement can be vital for realising and maintaining such. This is ever more pressing for the more marginalised in society. Furthermore, the learning and development of life skills are crucial for every-day functioning. In terms of Zambia's specific needs, education is key in areas such as agriculture or agribusiness, health issues such as Malaria and HIV/AIDS as well as healthy living and nutrition. Also those advancing in both vocational and academic expertise are valuable human capital within the national and international market. With regards to 'Access to Education', lack of finances is a major barrier to education at different stages, whether it's initial access to the institution or cost of required resources for learning across an individual's education span. Those who are living on the poverty line simply cannot afford the maintenance. Furthermore, poverty levels are also associated with poor health and sanitation, which are also factors likely to inhibit people from being able to fully access education. Despite efforts to eradicate this barrier to education, Zambia is still off its national target of 100% basic education (early childhood- Grade 9) for all. This being the case, it is important to understand the more nuanced factors that prevent or obstruct access to education and subsequently recommend measures to appease these problems. The second issue to be considered is 'Quality of Education'. Notably this aspect has not been as fully developed and implemented in comparison to access. Whilst it seems logical that access to education is a first priority, it is vital that quality of education accompanies this; ultimately, the two should not be separate but rather develop simultaneously, i.e. opening and maintaining high quality educational institutional facilities throughout Zambia. ; Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are vital for dignity of human life. These rights are incorporated into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) to which Zambia is committed by its constitution. Education, as one of these rights, is not only essential for nurturing personal and intellectual character but also for the country as a whole, in developing its political, social and economic landscape. Ultimately a well-educated population can only make Zambia a more prosperous country. In order to promote social justice - in this case the access to quality education for all - JCTR applies the Church Social Teaching (CST). This is a framework of social wisdom which guides us on how to live out our faith according to the word of God. From a Church Social Teaching perspective, education is key to the promotion of the fullness of life, both in terms of encouraging participation in wider society and creating solidarity amongst people. Extending education to some of the poorest in Zambia, is a demonstration of a commitment to an additional CST principle: 'options for the poor and vulnerable'; a group of people that is often overlooked and unspoken for in relation to educational opportunities. Education in Zambia has gone through a number of significant legal and institutional reforms since independence in 1964. The main objectives were to develop an education system that belonged to and was relevant to Zambia. This was the start of National Development Plans in relation to education. Some of the elementary reforms included revising the structure of education, increasing enrolment, expanding facilities and providing more comprehensive training of teachers. Undoubtedly these have been ongoing reforms and there has been continual pressure for Zambia to adapt to the changing educational needs of its people. With the 2030 vision to become "a prosperous middle income Nation", the onset of the 21st century committed to achieving both old and new targets by 2015. According to a report on Millennium Development Goals (2008), the MDG (2) to have Universal Primary Education, was one of the most likely targets to be met, conceivably on account of having one of the strongest national support systems. In addition to commitment from government policy, there has been a number of sub-policies and programmes and cooperation from non-governmental organisations (NGOs), faith-based organisations (FBOs) and community based organisations (CBOs). This has undoubtedly helped to bolster the provision of education throughout the country. Whilst there has been considerable improvement in areas across the board- and this brief will highlight and commend this where possible- undoubtedly there is still work to be done. Most notably, 'Education for All' in Zambia has still not been fully realised, leaving a percentage of children and adult learners deprived of a basic human right. This policy paper mainly draws on the JCTR's findings from surveys taken in Mongu, Monze, Kasama and Kabwe, as well as other National reports taken from Ministry of Education and Millennium Development goals. It briefly aims to explain the current situation of education in Zambia and its on-going development and challenges, as well as offer appropriate recommendations to help unlock Zambia's education potential. It is worth noting that this paper is predominantly focused around the urban picture. This being the case, where issues have been resolved in urban areas, it is likely that they remain a major hurdle for rural areas. Likewise, the challenges that urban areas continue to face are presumably exacerbated in rural areas, on account of more severe poverty levels. Henceforth, education in rural areas can only be properly addressed alongside rural development. Of course urban areas are one step ahead of this and so naturally some of the challenges and recommendations in this paper are more sensitive to this context. recommendations to help unlock Zambia's education potential. It is worth noting that this paper is predominantly focused around the urban picture. This being the case, where issues have been resolved in urban areas, it is likely that they remain a major hurdle for rural areas. Likewise, the challenges that urban areas continue to face are presumably exacerbated in rural areas, on account of more severe poverty levels. Henceforth, education in rural areas can only be properly addressed alongside rural development. Of course urban areas are one step ahead of this and so naturally some of the challenges and recommendations in this paper are more sensitive to this context. It is hoped that policy makers and duty bearers will understand the importance of accessible and quality education for all through a Human Rights lens and hence endeavour to do all that is possible to promote, implement and monitor necessary reforms. It is hoped that policy makers and duty bearers will understand the importance of accessible and quality education for all through a Human Rights lens and hence endeavour to do all that is possible to promote, implement and monitor necessary reforms.

The Thesis of the doctorate, which we elaborated, concerns the religious history of the Armenian high plateau. According to its title «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», it is going to shed a light on the religious, liturgical, cultural, anthropological, sociological and historic vision, as well as the philological study of the people of the Armenian high plateau generally and the Armenian people specifically. The scope of this dissertation is to study the field of the religion: the sociology, the history, the liturgy, the mythology and the anthropology following the traditions, the customs, the myths, the feasts, the superstitions as well as the key elements which define the culture of the religion. In our study, the purpose of our research will be to see which pagan Armenian religious elements were passed onto Christianity from the time of the conversion. In the first four chapters of the thesis, we are going to study the Armenian mythology, which have been practiced by the Armenian people, as to almost all the ancient civilizations. The political and geographical situation of Armenia played a significant role to create its rich vision of the religion. The Armenian view of religion, being an amalgamation of local and non local faiths, evolved through various periods. Even before the cult of idolatry, Armenia was under the influence of the religions and the cults of the nearby nations. These nations were the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Babylonians, the Acadians, the Persians and the Greeks, with whom the Armenians maintained linguistic, spatial, ethnic or subordination relations. Under the influence of foreign policy, the vision of Armenian religion being a mixture with the local religions had its unique character. Through the thesis, we are going to analyze the scope of the religion: the spiritual powers, represented by the divinities, the spirits, the forefathers, the sacred places, the trees, waters, fires, and animals. Later, we are going to study the subject of the religion: the man (king and priest), the religious community (clan, Church, sect, secret society), and the spiritual elements of the man (soul). Finally, we are going to quote the expressions of the religious experience: ideals (faiths, myths, doctrines) and practices (cults, rites, feasts, magical acts). By studying «The pre-Christian substratum and the Armenian conversion to Christianity», we concluded that by trying to eradicate the «profane», a «sacred» system was created. In our study, we have made a reflection on the policy of «armenisation» of the foreign elements, and also on what has passed in the realm of the faith. The vision of the Armenian people regarding to mankind, the world, and the God formed a system of beliefs: the myths, the rituals and the worship, which survived and were transmitted from generation to generation in the form of tradition. The manner by which such elements are transmitted are essentially the spoken traditions, the repetition of the worship and the ritual techniques through imitation and learning. Seemingly, the spiritual inheritance of paganism was replaced by the Christian legacy, but in reality had taken place a sublimation of the previous heritage. On the bases of the pagan culture and the ruins of the pagan religion, the Church put its foundations. The Church was established practically thanks to the invention of the alphabet in 5th century, which was called the golden age, it favored the growth of the Armenian Church and the prosperity of the people. ; La Thèse du doctorat qu'on a élaborée concerne l'histoire religieuse du haut plateau arménien. Selon son titre «Le substrat préchrétien et la réception arménienne du christianisme», vont être présentées la vision religieuse, liturgique, culturelle, anthropologique, sociologique et historique, ainsi que l'étude philologique des peuples du haut plateau arménien en général et du peuple arménien en particulier. Le champ d'application de ce mémoire est d'étudier dans le domaine de la religion: la sociologie, l'histoire, la liturgie, la mythologie et l'anthropologie suivant les traditions, les mœurs, les mythes, les fêtes, les superstitions et tous les éléments clés qui définissent la culture de la religion. Dans notre étude, l'objet de notre recherche sera de voir quels éléments païens arméniens religieux sont passés dans le christianisme depuis la conversion. Dans les quatre premiers chapitres de la thèse, on étudiera la mythologie arménienne, qui a servi au peuple arménien, comme chez presque toutes les civilisations antiques, à mémoriser les événements passés, ainsi qu'à idéaliser selon la créativité des peuples. En bref, la mythologie arménienne au-delà des croyances exprime la religiosité du peuple arménien. La situation politique et géographique de l'Arménie a joué un grand rôle pour fonder une riche vision de la religion au voisinage des différents peuples. Le point de vue arménien de la religion, étant une fusion de croyances locales et non locales, a évolué à travers les différentes phases. Même avant le culte des idoles, l'Arménie a été sous l'influence des religions et des cultes des nations environnantes. Ces nations sont les Assyriens, les Chaldéens, les Babyloniens, les Akkadiens, les Perses et les Grecs, avec lesquels les Arméniens entretiennent d'étroites relations linguistiques, spatiales, ethniques ou bien de subordination. Sous l'oppression des influences de la politique étrangère, la vision de la religion arménienne étant une fusion avec la religion locale, a eu son caractère unique. À travers la thèse, on analysera l'objet de la religion: les puissances abstraites, présentes dans les divinités, les esprits, les aïeux, les endroits réceptacles sacrés de forces, d'arbres, d'eaux, de feux, d'animaux. Ensuite on étudiera le sujet de la religion: l'homme (roi et prêtre), la communauté cultuelle (clan, Église, secte, société secrète), et les éléments spirituels de l'homme (âme). Enfin on citera les expressions de l'expérience religieuse: idéaux (croyances, mythes, doctrines) et pratiques (cultes, rites, fêtes, actes magiques). En étudiant les «Substrats préchrétiens», on est arrivé à la conclusion qu'en essayant de déraciner le «profane», on créa un système «sacré», qui dans le langage philosophique n'existe pas sans la présence du premier. Dans notre étude, on a fait une réflexion sur ce qu'est la politique d'«arméniser» des éléments étrangers, et sur ce qui est passé aussi dans le champ de la foi. La vision du peuple arménien à propos de l'homme, du monde et de Dieu a formé un ordre de croyances: les mythes, les rites et la liturgie, qui ont survécu et ont été transmis de génération en génération sous forme de tradition. Les manières dont de tels éléments sont transmis sont essentiellement les traditions orales, la répétition de la liturgie et des techniques rituelles au travers de l'imitation et de l'apprentissage. En apparence, l'héritage spirituel païen a été remplacé par l'héritage chrétien, mais en réalité a eu lieu une sublimation du patrimoine précédent. Sur les bases de la culture païenne et des ruines de la religion païenne, l'Église a placé ses fondements. L'Église s'est établie pratiquement grâce à l'invention de l'alphabet au Ve siècle, qui a été appelé l'âge d'or et qui a favorisé la croissance de l'Église arménienne et la prospérité du peuple.

La ingente obra de Plutarco de Queronea comprende los Moralia y las Vidas paralelas. En su corpus, de carácter enciclopédico, prevalece la intención moralizante y educativa por encima de la exactitud en el relato histórico, especialmente en sus biografías. El objetivo principal de la presente tesis ha sido detectar y analizar la información aportada por el autor con respecto a las fiestas y el culto griegos en las Vidas paralelas, aunque sin excluir los datos relativos al culto romano o de índole oriental más interesantes. La preocupación por el tema religioso es uno de los rasgos destacados en la obra de Plutarco. De las 48 biografías conservadas, todas, a excepción de seis, aparecen citadas en este trabajo; en todas es posible hallar alguna alusión a este aspecto fundamental de la civilización grecorromana. El propio Plutarco fue una personalidad profundamente religiosa y desempeñó diversos cargos sacerdotales en el santuario délfico. A lo largo de las diferentes Vidas se acumulan menciones a fiestas, oráculos, sacrificios y ofrendas, además de epítetos cultuales o digresiones en las que describe ritos o reflexiona sobre las semejanzas y diferencias entre rituales griegos y romanos. Todo ello supone una muy valiosa información para el estudioso moderno, lo que justifica, a nuestro entender, el presente estudio. Un segundo objetivo de éste era completar una tesis anterior, Tipología de la fiesta en Moralia de Plutarco, realizada por A. Vera Muñoz, que presentaba una finalidad semejante a la nuestra, pero centrada en los escritos no biográficos del queronense. En tal trabajo, los datos extraídos de Moralia se organizan siguiendo un criterio geográfico; en el nuestro, en cambio, y obedeciendo a la información proporcionada en Vidas, hemos preferido dividir la exposición en ocho capítulos, dedicados cada uno de ellos a una divinidad griega, cuatro femeninas y cuatro masculinas. Así, junto a la tesis antes mencionada, podría contarse con una visión global y detallada de la fiesta y el culto en el conjunto de la obra plutarquea. La metodología empleada se ha basado fundamentalmente en el texto: hemos partido de una lectura exhaustiva de los escritos biográficos de Plutarco con el fin de recopilar la mayor cantidad posible de datos que aludan no sólo a fiestas, sino también a otros aspectos del culto como epítetos de dioses, ofrendas puntuales o periódicas, lugares consagrados a diferentes divinidades, relatos míticos asociados a esos lugares, oráculos u otras señales de procedencia divina, para pasar a continuación a clasificar tales datos según la deidad a que iban dirigidos. Además, la información sobre religión presente en Vidas se ha contrastado o completado con la que ofrecen autores contemporáneos de Plutarco (Dionisio de Halicarnaso o Estrabón) y autores anteriores o posteriores a él (los trágicos griegos, Ovidio o Pausanias), así como con la que recogen los principales manuales modernos de religión antigua. Una vez llevado a cabo ese análisis, comprobamos que el queronense sólo ocasionalmente ofrece en Vidas descripciones completas de fiestas religiosas, y por lo general se trata de celebraciones locales poco conocidas. En el caso de aportaciones menores, meras alusiones a fiestas o ritos, busca con frecuencia incidir en algún rasgo de carácter del personaje biografiado, a través de la actitud que tal personaje adopta ante el hecho religioso. Por otro lado, es reseñable que el autor acumule menciones a ritos y señales divinas en ciertos lugares de sus relatos biográficos: antes o después de una batalla, de una situación de crisis de gobierno o de momentos cruciales en la vida del héroe. De este modo, Plutarco presenta la cuestión religiosa no como algo aislado, sino entremezclada con el curso de los acontecimientos históricos. Abstract The enormous work of Plutarch of Chaeronea comprises Moralia and Parallel Lives. In his corpus, of encyclopedic character, moralizing and educative intention prevails on the accuracy in the historical account, specially in his biographies. The main objective of this thesis has been detecting and analyzing the information provided by the author on the Greek feasts and cult in Parallel Lives, although not excluding the most interesting data relative to the Roman or Oriental cult. The concern about the religious question is a prominent feature in Plutarch's work. The 48 surviving biographies are all quoted in this study, except six. In all of them it is possible to find an allusion to this fundamental aspect of Greek-Roman civilization. Plutarch himself was a deeply religious personality and developed several sacerdotal charges in the Pythian sanctuary. Along the different Lives mentions to feasts, oracles, sacrifices and offerings are accumulated, so as cultual epithets or digressions in wich he describes rituals or considers differences between Greek and Roman rituals. It all means a valuable information for modern scholars, wich, in our opinion, justifies this study. A second objective was to complete a previous thesis, Tipología de la fiesta en Moralia de Plutarco, written by A. Vera Muñoz, that searched a similar purpose, but was focused on non-biographical Plutarch's writings. In that work, data extracted from Moralia are organized by geographical criteria; in ours, however, and due to the information provided by Lives, we have separated the exposition in eight chapters, each dedicated to one Greek divinity, four femenine and four masculine. Thus, in addition to the previously mentioned thesis, a global and detailed vision of feasts and worship in the whole work of Plutarch could be available. The methodology used has been primarily based on the text: we have started from an exhaustive reading of Plutarch's biographical writings in order to collect the maximum amount of data that relate not only to feasts, but to other aspects of worship like divine epithets, occasional or regular offerings, places consecrated to different gods, mithycal stories associated with these places, oracles or other signs of divine origin, and after that we have classified these data according to the divinity to wich they are addressed. Also, information about religion found in Lives has been contrasted and completed with the one that is provided by contemporary authors of Plutarch (Dionysius of Halicarnassus or Strabo) or by previous or later authors (Greek tragic poets, Ovid or Pausanias), as well as the one collected by the main modern manuals of ancient religion. Once this analysis has been brought to term, it is confirmed that Plutarch only occasionally offers in Lives complete descriptions of religious feasts and they are usually little known celebrations. In case of minor contributions, mere allusions to feasts or rituals, he often intends to draw attention on one trait of personality of the character, through the attitude this character adopts in relation to the religious fact. It is also noteworthy that the author accumulates mentions to rites and divine signals in certain places of his biographic writings: before or after a battle, a political critical situation or crucial moments in hero's life. This way Plutarchs presents the religious matter not as something isolated, but something that intermingles with the course of historical events.

Demenssjukdomar drabbar mer än 35 miljoner människor världen över, en summa som kommer att fördubblas vart tjugonde år. Demens är en global störning av intellektuella funktioner: förmågan att minnas försämras, och förmågor som att orientera sig i tid och rum, språklig förmåga, tankeprocesser som att gå från tanke till handling, problemlösande, utföra saker praktiskt och känna igen föremål. Symtomen följs ofta av förändringar i beteende och personlighet, som låg initiativförmåga, irritation, grovt socialt beteende och humörsvängningar. I Sverige diagnostiseras 25 000 personer per år, totalt så lever 160 000 personer med sjukdomen i Sverige idag. I Sverige ställs diagnosen ofta utifrån blodprover, hjärnröntgen och Mini Mental Score Evaluation-Swedish Revision tillsammans med personens sjukdomshistoria. Efter diagnosen har ofta anhöriga många frågor om hur livet kommer att te sig framöver, är det bra att flytta eller ska man bo kvar? Hur kommer sjukdomen att förändra livet och personligheten hos den drabbade? Tidigare studier visar att dessa frågor ofta förblir obesvarade, det är svårt att få en uppföljning hos läkare och det finns få länder där stöd efter diagnosen är vanligt förekommande. Sverige har sen 2009 lagstiftat om rätten till stöd till anhöriga och närstående med demenssjukdom eller andra kroniska sjukdomar med funktionshinder. Typen av stöd som ges skiljer sig däremot åt, Socialstyrelsen kom därför hösten 2013 ut med riktlinjer för hur stödet bör se ut för att vara effektivt: 8-10 träffar under 3-6 månader med information och socialt stöd till anhöriga. En kommun i norra delen av Sverige har gett långvarigt stöd till personer med demenssjukdom och deras anhöriga sen 2006. Ett nära samarbete med Landstinget i regionen och på senare tid även privata vårdcentraler i området har lett till att stöd kan erbjudas i direkt samband med diagnostillfället. Personerna deltar ofta i stödgrupp inom ca 4-6 veckor efter sin diagnos. Avhandlingens syfte var att fördjupa kunskapen om personernas upplevelse av att vara i stödgrupp under lång tid; den längsta i 4 år. Intervjuer gjordes med anhöriga och personer med demenssjukdom. Resultaten visade att de par som varit med längst i stödgrupp kände sig trygga, de upplevde att de fick god kunskap om demens och var förberedda på den förändring som skulle komma. Resultaten visade också att vara vuxet barn till en person med demens innebar att vara tyngd av ansvar för att agera i den sjuka förälderns intresse trots en djup känsla av sorg of förlust vilket ofta leder till frustration med situationen. Relationerna inom familjen kan förändras efter demens diagnosen både till det bättre; att man sluter upp kring den demenssjuke föräldern men också till det sämre; att familjen splittras då relationerna utsätts för påfrestningar. Personerna med demenssjukdom som deltog i stödgrupperna upplevde och skattade sin känsla av sammanhang högt; att livet var meningsfullt, begripligt och hanterbart. Deras friska partner upplevde mindre begriplighet och hanterbarhet och de vuxna barnen mer meningsfullhet. Avhandlingens resultat har legat till grund för en modell för stöd till personer med demenssjukdom och deras anhöriga kallat PER-modellen®; Pedagogisk, Emotionell och Relationsbaserad modell för stöd. ; Dementia disorders affect more than 35 million people around the world, which will double every twenty years. Dementia is a global disruption of intellectual functioning; there is a decrease of memory ability and other intellectual abilities such as orientation, visuospatial- perceptive ability, language, thinking, executive abilities, problem solving, apraxia and agnosia. These symptoms are often followed by behavioral changes and changes in the personality, such as loss of initiative, emotional instability, irritation, apathy, coarse social behaviour and mood changes. The most frequent symptoms were apathy, depression, irritability, and agitation. About 25, 000 persons are diagnosed with dementia each year in Sweden. Today, estimates are that 160, 000 persons in total are suffering from dementia in Sweden. In Sweden, most diagnoses are done in the primary health care setting by general practitioners and are based on the person´s own history, interviews with next of kin and an Mini Mental Score Evaluation- Swedish Revision (MMSE-SR) along with blood work and a brain scan to rule out any other diseases. After diagnosis the next of kin often have many questions about the coming lifestyle changes and ways to handle the personality changes that the person suffering from dementia may go through. Previous studies show that in many cases these questions are left unanswered, because it is difficult to get a follow up with a physician and there are few countries where support after diagnose is common. In 2009, the Swedish Parliament passed a new law that states that support is to be given to persons caring for people with chronic illnesses, elderly people, or people with functional disabilities. There was, however, no detailed description of the extent or kind of services to be provided, and the municipalities had extensive freedom in implementing the legislation. In the autumn of 2013 the Swedish National Health Board therefore, issued guidelines where eight to ten meetings during a three- to six-month period with information and social support were recommended.A municipality in northern Sweden have a long term ongoing support to persons with dementia and their next of kin since 2006. A close collaboration with the geriatric clinic and private health centers has resulted in support being offered within 4-6 weeks after diagnose. The overall aim of this thesis was to explore experiences of living with dementia both as a sufferer and as a next of kin; and being part of a long-term ongoing support group, the longest for four years. Interviews were done with persons with dementia and their next of kin. Results showed that couples who had been the longest in a support group felt great comfort and support. They experienced that their knowledge about the disorder was good and that they could prepare for the changes to come. Results also showed that to be an adult child of a person with dementia disease means being burdened with the responsibility to act on behalf of the diseased parent despite a deep sense of grief and loss, which leads to frustration with the situation. Relationships within the family can sometimes change when a family member is affected by dementia. Sometimes for the better; where the family rallied to support the affected member and sometimes for worse; where the relationships were strained when pressure became too much. The persons with dementia who participated in the support groups experienced a great sense of coherence and felt that life was manageable, comprehensible and meaningful. Their healthy partners experienced less comprehensibility and manageability and the adult children more meaningfulness. The results of the thesis have founded a model for support called PER-model®; Pedagogical, Emotional and Relationship based model of support.

Voor ik een persoonlijk antwoord geef op de vraag die wordt voorgelegd, wil ik in eerste instantie een andere vraag opwerpen. Mijn eerste spontane reactie op de vraag die gesteld werd, was immers: 'Is het wel zo dat studenten wetenschappelijkheid identificeren met kwantitatief onderzoek?' Het stellen van de vraag is onmiddellijk ook het halve antwoord: is hier misschien sprake van een ander aanvoelen in Nederland dan in Vlaanderen? Vanuit de Vlaamse context heb ik niet de indruk dat er een onderscheid gemaakt wordt tussen kwalitatief en kwantitatief onderzoek in de mate waarin ze al dan niet wetenschappelijke resultaten opleveren en bijdragen aan kennisopbouw. Studenten schrijven op grote schaal masterscripties die gebruik maken van allerhande kwalitatieve technieken en lijken niet bezorgd dat deze eindverhandelingen minder wetenschappelijk zouden zijn. Bij het vergeven van academische posities lijkt het bovendien ook niet zo dat er bij selecties een onderscheid gemaakt wordt op basis van de bij de eindverhandeling gebruikte methoden. Als er al een onderscheid waar te nemen is, dan is het in de toepassing van de methoden in onderzoek. Soms meen ik tendensen te zien die ook in het Verenigd Koninkrijk waar te nemen zijn, namelijk dat studenten vluchten van het kwantitatieve, statistische werk en zich eerder richten op kwalitatieve methoden. Dat is een negatieve keuze, die echter niet te maken heeft met wetenschappelijkheid maar met cijferangst.De vraag blijft dan wel hangen of er een structureel verschil bestaat in de organisatie van het Vlaamse en Nederlandse onderwijs dat het wantrouwen tegenover kwalitatief onderzoek voedt? Het is niet mogelijk om hier een eenduidig antwoord op te geven. Daarvoor ben ik onvoldoende vertrouwd met alle opleidingsprogramma's in Nederland. Misschien ligt een mogelijk verschil in de mate van specialisering die door opleidingen nagestreefd wordt. In Vlaanderen worden studenten inhoudelijk gespecialiseerd. Dat wil zeggen dat methodologische opleidingsonderdelen door grote groepen studenten gevolgd worden, maar dat inhoudelijke richtingen steeds specifieker gaan en met kleinere studentenpopulaties te maken krijgen. Op enkele uitzonderingen na wordt studenten niet gevraagd om ook methodologisch een keuze te maken. Zowel kwantitatief als kwalitatief onderzoek wordt door de hele opleiding heen en naast elkaar gedoceerd, zodat iedere student op het einde van de rit beide methoden (min of meer) onder de knie heeft. Op deze manier ontstaat er geen concurrentie tussen studenten die deze of gene methode gebruiken. Ze zijn in beide geschoold en de inhoudelijke keuzes van domein en onderzoeksvragen bepalen hun uiteindelijke specialisatie. Hierdoor is er voor de ene groep studenten geen reden om een andere methode als minder wetenschappelijk af te doen, noch voor onderzoekers die met elkaar concurreren om (beurs of project) middelen. De strijd om de fondsen en om de (goede) studenten wordt in Vlaanderen nooit uitgevochten op methodologische keuzes, en zeker niet op basis van het onderscheid kwantitatief of kwalitatief.Tot zover de kadering vanuit een Vlaamse achtergrond. Maar daarmee is de essentie van de vraag niet aangeraakt: gegeven dat studenten kwalitatief onderzoek nog steeds afdoen als minder wetenschappelijk, wat zijn dan mogelijke strategieën om studenten te helpen hierover te raken? Om strategieën hiertegen te bedenken moeten we ons heel erg bewust zijn van de mogelijke structurele oorzaken van dit wantrouwen. Nog steeds is het zo dat overheden eerder geïnteresseerd zijn in cijfergegevens dan in interviews en focusgroepen. De roep om representativiteit vanuit het parlement is oorverdovend. De bede van kabinetten om trendanalyses en simulaties is enorm. Het is niet zo dat overheden blind blijven voor inzichtelijke kwalitatieve studies, maar als je de balans maakt in onderzoeksmiddelen wordt duidelijk dat het grote geld niet gaat naar kwalitatieve inzichten. Veelal zit hier ook een wantrouwen achter tegenover 'softe' kwalitatieve gegevens. Los daarvan zijn er ook nog steeds academische tijdschriften die kwantitatieve kwaliteitsvereisten opleggen aan kwalitatieve bijdragen (intercodeurbetrouwbaarheid is daar de meest prominente van). Hoewel ook daar de methodenstrijd in veel gevallen is gestreden, is het wantrouwen nog niet helemaal verdwenen. Beide tendensen raken het academisch personeel en sijpelen op die manier door tot bij studenten. Als ik lesgeef aan doctoraatsstudenten over NVivo is de interesse voor de ingebouwde Coding Comparison Query (die toelaat intercodeurbetrouwbaarheid te testen) steeds aanwezig. Vaak zijn er verhitte discussies over hoe sterk je kwalitatief onderzoek moet kwantificeren om toch te kunnen publiceren of om toch dat ene project binnen te halen. De macht van het cijfer zit dus ook bij een deel van het onderwijzend personeel in het hoofd. Niet dat hun dat kan worden aangewreven, want als de oudere generatie hen in die traditie vormt of als de externe wereld blijft vragen om oude proeven van wetenschappelijkheid, dan weet je dat het nog enkele decennia zal duren om dergelijke tendensen om te buigen. Een mogelijke strategie is dan ook niet om de tendens om te buigen bij de studenten, maar bij het academisch personeel zelf. Als er steeds opnieuw wordt gehamerd op de eigenheid van kwalitatief onderzoek, op de eigenheid van ons kwaliteitsbewakingssysteem (Guba en Lincoln doen het hier nog prima in mijn ogen) bij overheden, bij parlementariërs en bij onze collega-redactieleden, dan draait het inzicht op lange termijn vanzelf wel bij. Kijk naar hoe in de jaren negentig het kwalitatief onderzoek internationaal een boost kreeg en opnieuw omarmd werd als wetenschappelijke methode. Ook dat is sneller gegaan dan misschien ooit voor mogelijk werd gehouden.Is er dan geen werk naar studenten toe? Uiteraard kunnen we op korte termijn als kwalitatieve onderzoekers en lesgevers alleen maar blijven hameren op het verhaal dat we al zo lang vertellen. En blijkbaar winnen we daarmee slechts heel langzaam terrein. Als studenten kwalitatief onderzoek niet wetenschappelijk vinden, dan is mijn ervaring dat ze steeds opnieuw twee argumenten bovenhalen: het is geen representatief onderzoek en het is geen betrouwbaar onderzoek omdat twee onderzoekers steeds tot andere resultaten zullen komen wanneer ze op dezelfde gegevens werken. Op het gebied van representativiteit kunnen we alleen maar blijven aantonen dat representativiteit ook anders geïnterpreteerd kan worden dan statistisch representatief. Er zijn mooie voorbeelden aan te halen van hoe onderzoek ook theoretisch representatief kan zijn, ook al is het slechts uitgevoerd op kleine aantallen. Wat de betrouwbaarheid betreft geloof ik steeds minder dat kwantitatieve onderzoekers op dit vlak beter scoren. Natuurlijk moet een enkelvoudige frequentietabel er bij iedere onderzoeker identiek uitzien. Maar als je naar multivariate statistiek gaat, is dat dan nog steeds het geval? Net zoals een doorgedreven kwalitatieve analyse door twee onderzoekers niet exact hetzelfde oplevert, zo zal een doorgedreven multivariate analyse die door twee onderzoekers onafhankelijk wordt uitgevoerd ook niet exact hetzelfde opleveren. Misschien moeten we wel eens een groot experiment uitvoeren in Vlaanderen en Nederland waarbij we masterstudenten of doctoraatsstudenten dezelfde database geven met de vraag een bepaalde onderzoeksvraag uit te spitten en te beantwoorden. Mijn voorspelling is dat niet alleen de kwalitatieve onderzoekers, maar ook de kwantitatieve onderzoekers met heel verschillende modellen en interpretaties naar voor zullen komen. Dit soort levende experimenten zou studenten kunnen aantonen dat zowel in kwalitatief als in kwantitatief onderzoek de rol van de onderzoeker cruciaal is in het verwerven van resultaten. Het zou 'van binnenuit' een doorleefde ervaring kunnen zijn die in een cursus tot een diepgaand debat onder studenten kan leiden over hoe wetenschap in de praktijk tot stand komt en hoe wetenschappelijke inzichten groeien. Op die manier helpen we studenten misschien over de simplistische clichés van 'wetenschappelijkheid' heen.

2009/2010 ; Il procedimento innovativo di spazializzazione testuale che emerge a Venezia nel Cinquecento e caratterizza il nuovo trattamento rinascimentale delle informazioni geografiche, trova nell'Oriente e nel suo ampio e stratificato bagaglio di conoscenze precostituite un ambito privilegiato di applicazione, che si sviluppa lungo tre principali direttrici (Gerusalemme, Cambaluc, Bisanzio). Nel contesto di un declino delle utopie religiose (esemplificato dall'incontro fra il geografo Giovanni Battista Ramusio e il falso messia David Reubeni), di una rivalutazione dell'utopia politica imperiale (la riproposizione, da parte di Ramusio, dei viaggi di Marco Polo) e della tecnica di spazializzazione geografica del racconto medievale (il cronotopo storiografico dellla Quarta Crociata fissato dal figlio di Giovanni Battista, Paolo Ramusio), un importante investimento teorico e simbolico viene condotto nel Rinascimento – e attraverso i generi più diversi della produzione geografica e cartografica di cui la città è all'epoca capitale indiscussa – sull'itinerario che da Venezia si snoda lungo l'Adriatico orientale e, a seconda delle circostanze, attraversa i mari Ionio ed Egeo oppure valica per via di terra i Balcani, per raggiungere infine Costantinopoli, capitale dell'impero ottomano. Pellegrinaggio moderno e secolarizzato, questo viaggio si offre alla descrizione e al racconto, e quindi all'analisi, come oggetto unitario e discorsivo da contestualizzare nell'ambito umanistico del rinnovamento cinquecentesco delle conoscenze geografiche, della nascita dell'istituto diplomatico veneziano e dell'elaborazione di nuovi generi di scrittura letteraria. Il valore della ricerca e dell'individuazione di questo corpus si giustifica alla luce sia del suo significato quantitativo (l'itinerario da Venezia a Costantinopoli è quello che, soppiantando il tradizionale pellegrinaggio in Terrasanta, viene più descritto e narrato in assoluto durante il Rinascimento) sia del suo significato qualitativo (è il terreno di scrittura e rappresentazione in cui si sviluppa la moderna geopolitica, si promuove un discorso imperialista veneziano, si mettono alla prova nuove concettualizzazioni geografiche, si gettano le fondamenta del futuro discorso orientalista e della scrittura etnografica in generale). Oltre alle evidenti ragioni politiche ed economiche che giustificano la pratica di questo viaggio – ma non la sua incessante riscrittura – è possibile individuare gli elementi testuali che concorrono ad attribuire all'itinerario in questione un'immagine e una densità simbolica senza eguali: un contenuto utopico, veicolato principalmente dalla rappresentazione cartografica e dalle descrizioni impersonali, legato tanto al mito di Venezia quanto a quello imperiale di Costantinopoli e alla fortuna della rappresentazione idealizzata dell'isola come microcosmo; un corrispondente contenuto eterotopico che invece emerge dai racconti in prima persona che registrano l'esperienza materiale dei viaggiatori in quegli stessi spazi trasformati in luoghi dalla loro presenza; contenuti che vengono entrambi potenziati da drammatizzazioni storiografiche che svolgono un preciso ruolo politico e propagandistico nell'agenda governativa della Repubblica. Da un punto di vista metodologico questo corpus incoraggia l'integrazione di tre modalità di approccio critico (storico-letterario, teorico, interdisciplinare) che prevedono altrettanti terreni d'indagine: 1) L'analisi testuale delle descrizioni e dei racconti del viaggio cinquecentesco a Costantinopoli, nella loro graduale acquisizione di autonomia formale e nelle conseguenti possibilità di contaminazione, si articola in tre momenti, uno strategico (i quadri, le descrizioni), uno tattico (i racconti, le narrazioni), uno discorsivo (pellegrinaggi e viaggi in Oriente): dall'emergenza di una nuova inquadratura dell'area non contemplata in precedenza né dalla cartografia nautica né da quella tolemaica, alla visualizzazione in sequenza delle tappe del viaggio che negli isolari e nelle raccolte di vedute funge, oltre che da possibile alternativa cosmografica (la frammentazione in microcosmi insulari contro o a complemento della visione totalizzante della cartografia tolemaica), da inventario delle possessioni marittime veneziane, veicolo del mito di Venezia cui risponde l'immagine in bilico fra utopia e distopia della capitale ottomana; dalla pura descrizione degli scali offerta dai portolani e amplificata dalla stabilità e dalla razionalizzazione della pagina stampata, al graduale sganciamento, grazie al bilanciamento fra istanza narrativa e "medaglioni" geografici, del racconto di viaggio sia dai "blocchi" descrittivi tipici della prosa diplomatica e della trattatistica etnostoriografica sui turchi (il testo preliminare), sia dalla pura contingenza cronachistica praticata dagli stessi autori, tutti uomini di stato, ambasciatori, segretari o loro accompagnatori, nella scrittura dei loro dispacci al governo; dalla formalizzazione e standardizzazione dei capitoli descrittivi che permette di classificare le strategie all'opera nei racconti di viaggio, all'emergenza dei luoghi irripetibili dell'esperienza, ovvero delle tattiche dei viaggiatori, per i quali è possibile solo una casistica topologica in cui prendono risalto le eterotopie sottintese (Venezia), o annunciate ma raramente realizzate (Costantinopoli, il Serraglio), i luoghi della metastruttura rituale del viaggio, quelli che ne assicurano il regolare svolgimento (alloggi, luoghi di ristoro, mezzi di trasporto, chiese e luoghi istituzionali), le paratopie spesso drammatiche che invece ostacolano o ritardano il viaggio (tempeste, intemperie, aggressioni, incidenti), i luoghi che emergono per un salto nel tempo, in un passato collettivo o personale (eterocronie antiquarie, politiche, familiari), e luoghi invece in cui il viaggiatore valuta o gode direttamente del paese visitato senza descriverlo in maniera distaccata e impersonale. 2) A questa analisi storica e testuale si accompagna un'interrogazione teorica sulle nozioni applicate dalla critica per descrivere i cambiamenti epistemologici collegabili a questi testi: la scomparsa di elementi storici e religiosi (Lefebvre) da uno spazio rinascimentale fondamentalmente quantitativo e perciò da contrapporre al mondo prevalente in età medievale (Farinelli), a quello spazio di localizzazione (Foucault) strutturato su rapporti oppositivi fra luoghi qualitativi che si caratterizzano per una densità simbolica provocata dalla drammatizzazione e dalla presenza manifesta del corpo (Tuan), una competizione che dà vita al racconto di viaggio come bilanciamento o tensione fra strategie e tattiche (Certeau), fra descrizione e narrazione (Marin); l'elaborazione, in queste operazioni di spazializzazione rinascimentale, di un nuovo nesso fra spazio e tempo storiografico (il cronotopo), che chiama in causa il ruolo stesso di quest'ultimo nell'ambito della ricerca (i concetti neostoricisti di aneddoto e master narrative); infine l'utilità che queste categorie svolgono nell'individuare il viaggio da Venezia a Costantinopoli come un discorso che rappresenta storicamente uno sviluppo in controtendenza nella secolarizzazione di un precedente discorso sul viaggio (la peregrinatio medievale) sfociato nel meraviglioso periplo orientale, e allo stesso tempo una riserva di immagini che verranno risemantizzate, attraverso una loro esotizzazione, dal più tardo discorso europeo sul viaggio in Oriente (l'orientalismo). 3) L'individuazione e la valorizzazione di un corpus unitario e non univocamente letterario, ma anche cartografico e variamente scientifico o divulgativo, tanto manoscritto quanto a stampa, in relazione a un sistema umanistico di articolazione dei saperi mal tollerante rigide distinzioni disciplinari. Questo il contributo più importante che la tesi vuole offrire: oltre a indicare nella loro coerente totalità un insieme disperso di testi – alcuni dei quali per niente studiati o laddove oggetto di attenzione, frammentati in funzione di ristretti obiettivi disciplinari di volta in volta diversi – attirare l'attenzione sulle potenzialità teoriche ma anche storiografiche dell'analisi letteraria nella comprensione del ruolo politico e culturale svolto da questo corpus, fondamentale nella cultura europea per la definizione della propria geografia in base a una nuova idea di spazio e a nuove emergenti figure di alterità; mostrare che anche gli studi rinascimentali possono contribuire a dibattiti molto attuali su cosa sia lo spazio, dibattiti che sembrano esigere sempre di più operazioni di storicizzazione. Il repertorio bibliografico, pensato anche per alleggerire il discorso, offre infine uno stato aggiornato della bibliografia relativa ai testi e ai loro autori, permettendo di ripercorrerne il sostanziale intreccio in maniera più sequenziale. ; XXII Ciclo ; 1981

Il presente lavoro è volto ad indagare la natura delle norme penali di favore ed i limiti al sindacato di costituzionalità su queste ultime. Si parte dalla considerazione che nel sistema penale il ruolo di custode della legalità costituzionale che l'art. 134 Cost. riserva al Giudice delle leggi si affianca a quello di garante della libertà personale, di cui è investito il legislatore ai sensi dell'art. 25 comma 2 Cost. Sebbene l'assetto giuridico-isituzionale ordinato nella Carta fondamentale sia chiaro nel definire le funzioni e attribuire i poteri ai predetti organi costituzionali, non si può tacere del fatto che, talvolta, si sia assistito ad una invasione di campo, in un settore, quello penale, ove gli equilibri tra la riserva di legge ed il sindacato di costituzionalità assumono una certa significatività proprio in considerazione del fatto che si tratta di scegliere se e come restringere lo spazio di libertà dei cittadini. Le modifiche dell'ordinamento penale da parte della Corte costituzionale sono imposte dal vincolo di conformità delle disposizioni di legge e degli atti ad esse equiparati ai principi ed ai parametri della Costituzione; tuttavia in che modo , e nel rispetto di quali limiti, debba svolgersi l'intervento della Corte è questione complessa sulla quale il dibattito della dottrina costituzionalistica e di quella penalistica sembra essere a tutt'oggi vivace. Dopo aver esaminato i recenti orientamenti della giurisprudenza costituzionale sul tema delle sentenze c.d. normative della Corte costituzionale, l'indagine volge proprio sulla categoria delle norme penali di favore. Tradizionalmente la dottrina costituzionalistica con l'espressione «norme penali di favore» ha inteso riferirsi ad una categoria eterogenea comprendente: cause di giustificazione; cause di non punibilità; cause di estinzione della pena; norme che comportano l'esclusione o il trattamento più favorevole di un soggetto o di una situazione dall'area della norma incriminatrice; cause di estinzione del reato.Il profilo caratterizzante tutte queste diverse tipologie di norme attiene al piano degli effetti giuridici: l'esclusione o l'attenuazione della responsabilità penale a favore dell'agente. Il principale problema sollevato dalle ordinanze di rimessione con le quali si è richiesta la caducazione dell'una o dell'altra norma penale favorevole riguarda le conseguenze prodotte da un'eventuale sentenza di accoglimento: una volta che la norma in bonam partem viene espunta dall'ordinamento il fatto di reato prima lecito, o scusato, o non punibile, torna ad essere sottoposto a pena per effetto di una decisione della Corte che ha (ri)ampliato i confini della rilevanza penale. Ciò determina che il sindacato della Corte entri in tensione (se non addirittura in conflitto) con almeno due dei principi su cui si fonda l'ordinamento penale: la riserva di legge e l'irretroattività della norma penale sfavorevole. Dopo aver analizzato il tradizionale orientamento giurisprudenziale che affermava l'inammissibilità del sindacato in ragione della irrilevanza della questione, nell'elaborato si approfondiscono gli approdi ermeneutici raggiunti con la sentenza della Corte costituzionale n. 394 del 2006, ed in particolare la distinzione operata tra norme penali di favore e norme penali favorevoli. Le prime «stabiliscano, per determinati soggetti o ipotesi, un trattamento penalistico più favorevole di quello che risulterebbe dall'applicazione di norme generali o comuni» e risultano da «un giudizio di relazione fra due o più norme compresenti nell'ordinamento in un dato momento»; tale qualificazione, si precisa, non può essere fatta discendere «dal raffronto tra una norma vigente ed una norma anteriore, sostituita dalla prima con effetti di restringimento dell'area di rilevanza penale o di mitigazione della risposta punitiva». La dichiarazione di incostituzionalità di una norma penale di favore non si traduce in un intervento creativo né additivo, poiché « l'effetto in malam partem non discende dall'introduzione di nuove norme o dalla manipolazione di norme esistenti da parte della Corte, la quale si limita a rimuovere la disposizione giudicata lesiva dei parametri costituzionali; esso rappresenta, invece, una conseguenza dell'automatica riespansione della norma generale o comune, dettata dallo stesso legislatore, al caso già oggetto di una incostituzionale disciplina derogatoria. Tale riespansione costituisce una reazione naturale dell'ordinamento – conseguente alla sua unitarietà – alla scomparsa della norma incostituzionale». Le norme penali favorevoli, al contrario, sono insindacabili in quanto «delimitano l'area di intervento della sanzione penale» con dati espressivi di un bisogno e di una meritevolezza di pena. La distinzione tra norme che sottraggono e norme che delimitano non appare del tutto convincente e tuttavia si sottolinea come l'ammissibilità del sindacato sulle norme di favore sia strettamente connesso all'ineludibile esigenza che nell'ordinamento non vi siano zone franche ove il legislatore opera svincolato dal rispetto dei valori costituzionali. Nella parte finale del presente lavoro si approfondisce la questione che vede contrapporsi i poteri giurisdizionali di controllo della Consulta e le prerogative di normazione del Parlamento. Si tratta di scegliere ed è una scelta difficile proprio perché non esiste una soluzione interpretativa che consenta di salvaguardare la tenuta complessiva del sistema; o si cede nell'ordinamento penale e ci si rassegna a vedere scalfita la trincea della riserva di legge, oppure ci si barrica nella roccaforte della legge penale e si osserva come all'esterno si sia determinata una crepa nella cornice della legalità costituzionale. Entrambe le soluzioni non sono sicuramente appaganti; si tratta, allora, di scegliere quale sia il sacrificio che si è costretti a sopportare, nella consapevolezza che, trattandosi del settore penale, è in gioco il sommo bene della libertà personale del cittadino. Quest'ultimo è garantito dal fondamento di democraticità che si rinviene nella riserva di legge e tuttavia è chiaro che il legislatore non è un'entità onnipotente cui tutto è consentito in virtù della sua legittimazione democratica diretta. Ciò che l'ordinamento pare non possa tollerare è la consacrazione di «zone franche istituzionali» dove leggi incostituzionali sono sottratte al controllo della Corte costituzionale. Le scelte politiche, in quanto tali, sono scelte discrezionali; ma discrezionalità non significa arbitrio. La diversa ponderazione di interessi che può portare ad introdurre nell'ordinamento una norma in favor libertatis non può per ciò solo essere sottratta ad uno scrutinio che ne verifichi la compatibilità con la Costituzione. Così come la riserva di legge serve a garantire il cittadino dall'arbitrio del legislatore quando questo si determina a restringere gli spazi di libertà, il principio di uguaglianza dovrebbe limitarne l'arbitrio quando l'opzione normativa si indirizzi verso un ampliamento della sfera di liceità di un determinato comportamento. In altri termini l'art. 3 Cost. dovrebbe garantire ad ogni cittadino di poter godere della stessa libertà accordata ad altri che versino nelle medesime condizioni soggettive ed oggettive. In questa prospettiva il diritto alla libertà personale verrebbe garantito non solo quando ci si indirizzi verso una sua compressione (art. 25 Cost.), ma anche quando la norma si proietti verso un'espansione della stessa (art. 3).

Judenschutz und Eigennutz. Auseinandersetzungen um die Juden an der Ostgrenze des Römisch-Deutschen Reiches im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert Jürgen Bürstenbinder Die Publikation beschreibt und analysiert Aspekte jüdischen Lebens in den Gebieten von Mecklenburg, Pommern, Brandenburg, Böhmen, Mähren, Schlesien und Polen im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert. Hauptsächlich werden zeitgenössische Quellen wie Staatsschriften, Schutzbriefe, Verträge, Stadtbücher, Steuerlisten, Beschriftungen von Grabsteinen und andere Mitteilungen verwendet. Bei Einzelaspekten wird auch Sekundärliteratur herangezogen. Besonderer Wert wurde auf die Analyse der Parallelen und der Unterschiede jüdischer Lebensumstände zum christlichen Umfeld gelegt. In den beiden Jahrhunderten waren Juden für alle Herrschenden eine wichtige Einnahmequelle und wurden daher häufig wie andere Regalien oder Vermögensgegenstände behandelt. In den Auseinandersetzungen zwischen Kaisern, Landesherren, Städten und der römischen Kirche hatten Juden keinen Kombattantenstatus, sie waren lediglich Objekte der Auseinandersetzungen. Entsprechend wurde über die Menschen und deren Eigen-tum verfügt. Beispiele aus der Untersuchungsregion zeigen die weitgefächerten Zugriffsmöglichkeiten. Papst Gregor IX. bestimmte 1234 namens der römischen Kirche die "perpetua servitus" für Juden, konnte aber keine durchsetzbare Rechtsnorm schaffen. Bis zum Jahr 1236 galten Juden nach mittelalterlichem Recht als Freie. Erst Kaiser Friedrich II. änderte mit der Erneuerung eines Privilegs den Rechtsstatus der Juden als "servi came-rae". Es wird gezeigt, dass dieser Begriff in Anlehnung an Aristoteles' Definition von Sklaven und an die Begriffe der Finanzverwaltung aus dem Königreich Sizilien entstand. Eine als Privileg angesehene Feststellung des Kaisers machte Freie zu seinem sächlichen Eigentum. Ab dem Jahr 1244 wurden landesherrliche Judenstatuten erlassen. Herzog Friedrich II. von Österreich, der im Kampf gegen den Kaiser stand, definierte eine Rechtsnorm, die Juden in das christliche Rechtssystem integrierte und einen Rechtsschutz bot. Dieses bahnbrechende Statut wurde bis in das 15. Jahrhundert in mehreren Herrschaftsbereichen an der Ostgrenze des Reiches erneuert. Daher schlägt der Autor vor, die gesamte Familie von Statuten als "Codex Iuris Fridericianum" zu bezeichnen. An einem generellen Kommunikationsmodell werden die Möglichkeiten zur Weiterverbreitung dieser Statuten untersucht. Im Gegensatz zu der Entwicklung auf Landesebene forderte die römische Kirche auf dem 4. Laterankonzil und auf Provinzialsynoden in Breslau und Wien eine weitgehende Ausgrenzung der Juden, was ihr nur teilweise gelang. Mehrere der dortigen Detailforderungen wurden in späteren Jahrhunderten von Antisemiten erneut aufgenommen und durchgesetzt. In der Zeit zwischen 1348 und 1350 geißelte die große Pest Europa. Etwa 30 % der Bevölkerung starben an der Seuche. Der Anteil der jüdischen Toten war deutlich höher, aber nicht nur wegen der Pest. Die christliche Bevölkerung war durch eine pseudo-religiöse Konditionierung darauf eingestellt, Juden als Feinde des Christentums zu sehen und als "Gottesmörder" zu vernichten. In der Arbeit wird die Ausbreitung von Judenhass und Pogromen mit den medizinischen Begriffen der Epidemie, Pandemie und Endemie verglichen. Beim Zusammentreffen von extremen Belastungen durch Kälteeinbrüche, Missernten, Hungers-nöte und schließlich der großen Pest kam es zur ersten europaweiten pandemischen Ju-denvernichtung, die in ihrem schrecklichen Umfang erst wieder von den Nationalsozialisten und ihren Helfern übertroffen wurde. Das jüdische Finanzwesen wird an einigen ausgewählten Kreditverträgen untersucht und in Vergleich zur christlichen Geschäftspraxis gestellt. Es wird gezeigt, dass viele Aspekte dieser jüdischen Verträge noch heute gängige Praxis von Banken sind. Die Siedlung von Juden wird für das Gebiet an der Ostgrenze untersucht, gegenüber der Standardliteratur vervollständigt, auf Plausibilität überprüft und in einen Zusammenhang mit der deutschen Ostsiedlung gestellt. In vielen Fällen folgte die Besiedlung dem gleichen Muster und verlief sehr ähnlich. Das Resultat der Auseinandersetzungen um die Juden im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert bestand darin, dass sie aus fast ganz Europa vertrieben wurden, nach Osten wanderten, beim Aufbau Polens halfen, und dort trotz aller weiteren Verfolgungen ihr Hauptsiedlungsgebiet bis 1939 fanden. Viele Handlungen, die wie Judenschutz aussahen, dienten zugleich oder überwiegend dem Eigennutz der Herrschenden. ; Patronage and Selfishness towards Jews. Disputes and Conflicts about Jews along the Eastern Border of the Roman-German Empire during the 13th and 14th Centuries Juergen Buerstenbinder This publication describes and analyses aspects of Jewish life in the regions of Mecklen-burg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Poland, all located along the Eastern border of the Roman-German empire, during the 13th and 14th centuries. This work is based mainly on contemporary sources as official state papers, custodial letters and contractual papers, books from city administrations, tax lists, and inscriptions from gravestones and other types of messages. For some specific aspects only secondary literature has been referenced. Special emphasis has been given to the analysis of similar and different circumstances of Jewish life in comparison to Christian environments. During both centuries, Jews formed a significant source of income for all ruling parties. Therefore, the Jewish people have been treated as other legal ownership or treasuries. Jews did not achieve a status of full combatants during the conflicts between emperors, regional rulers, cities and the Roman Church. Jews were simply objects in the conflicts. Following this concept Jews and their possessions were in free disposition. Examples from the region investigated illustrate the wide spread of possibilities accessing the people and their properties. In 1234 pope Gregory IX decreed in the name of the Roman Church the so called "perpetua servitus" for Jews. But, he could not convert this attempt into a legal norm. Following medieval law Jews were free people up to the year 1236. Emperor Frederic II modified this status while renewing a "privilege". He generated the legal status for Jews as "servi camerae". It has been shown that this concept is based on Aristotle's definition of slaves and on the understanding of the financial administration in the kingdom of Sicily. Finally, an imperial letter, originally meant as a privilege, transformed free people into financial properties. From the year 1244 on, regional statutes concerning Jews have been granted. Duke Frederic II of Austria, who was in a military conflict with the emperor, was the first to define a legal normative integrating Jews into the Christian legal system and simultaneously offer-ing protection to this group. This epoch-making statute has been renewed up to the 15th century in many regions along the eastern border of the empire. Therefore the author proposes a specific term for the complete family of statues: "Codex Iuris Fridericianum". Potential paths for transfer of statutes are investigated on the basis of a general communication model. In contrary to the regional developments the Roman Church demanded on the 4th Lateran Council and at regional synods in Breslau and in Vienna a strict separation of Jews from the Christian society, which succeeded only in parts. Several of the de-tailed regulations have been adopted and applied by Anti-Semites in later centuries. From 1348 up to 1350 the great plague tortured people in Europe. More than 30 percent of the population died on the epidemic. The respective percentage of the Jewish population was significantly higher, not only because of the plague. The Christian population was conditioned by pseudo-religious argumentation to understand Jews as murderers of God and extinguish the Jews. This work discusses and compares the spread of hatred and pogroms against Jews in relation to epidemic, pandemic and endemic processes in medicine. With extreme pressure from severe coldness, crop failure, famine and finally the great plague all together the first Europe wide pandemic persecution of Jews happened. Only Nazi and their supporters raged more severely. The Jewish financial system of the period has been investigated based on several credit contracts. Furthermore, it has been related to the respective Christian business procedures. It has been shown that several details and procedures from the old Jewish contracts are still in use in our days with respect to the financial system. The settlement of Jews on the eastern border has been investigated; the description has been completed in comparison to standard literature, checked for plausibility and connected to the German settlements in the East. Frequently both migrations appeared in parallel and following the same pattern. As a result of all disputes and conflicts about Jews in the 13th and 14th centuries it can be seen that Jews have been expelled from nearly all Europe, migrated to the East, helped to build up Poland, suffered from ongoing pogroms and nonetheless kept their main settle-ments in Poland until 1939. Many actions appealing as patronage or protection of Jews were – looking at the details – mainly selfishness and greed from the ruling parties.

This study seeks to address a gap in the study of nonviolent action. The gap relates to the question of how nonviolence is performed, as opposed to the meaning or impact of nonviolent politics. The dissertation approaches the history of nonviolent protest in South Asia through the lens of performance studies. Such a shift allows for concepts such as performativity and theatricality to be tested in terms of their applicability and relevance to contemporary political and philosophical questions. It also allows for a different perspective on the historiography of nonviolent protest. Using concepts, modes of analysis and tropes of thinking from the emerging field of performance studies, the dissertation analyses two different cases of nonviolent protest, asking how politics is performatively constituted. The first two sections of this study set out the parameters of the key terms of the dissertation: nonviolence and performativity, by tracing their genealogies and legacies as terms. These histories are then located as an intersection in the founding of the nonviolent. The case studies at the analytical core of the dissertation are: fasting as a method in Gandhi's political arsenal, and the army of nonviolent soldiers in the North-West Frontier Province, known as the Khudai Khidmatgar. The study begins with an overview of current theorisations of nonviolence. The approach to the subject is through an investigation of commonly held misconceptions about nonviolent action, such as its supposed passivity, the absence of violence, its ineffectiveness and its spiritual basis. This section addresses the lacunae within existing theories of nonviolence and points to possible fertile spaces for further exploration. Section 3 offers an overview of the different shades of the concept of performativity, asking how it is used in various contexts and how these different nuances can be viewed in relation to each other. The dissertation explores how a theory of performativity may be correlated to the theorisation of nonviolence. The correlations are established in four boundary areas: action/inaction, violence/absence of violence, the actor/opponent and the body/spirit. These boundary areas allow for a theorising of nonviolent action as a performative process. The first case study is Gandhi's use of the fast as a method of nonviolent protest. Using a close reading of his own writings, speeches and letters, as well as a reading of responses to his fast in British newspapers and within India, the dissertation asks what made fasting into Gandhi's most favoured mode of protest and political action. The study reconstructs his unique praxis of the fast from a performative perspective, demonstrating how display and ostentation are vital to the political economy of the fast. It also unveils the cultural context and historical reservoir of body practices, which Gandhi drew from and adapted into 'weapons' of political action. The relationship of Gandhian nonviolence to the body forms a crucial part of the analysis. The second case study is the nonviolent army of the Pashtuns, Khudai Khidmatgar (KK), literally Servants of God. This anti-imperialist movement in the North-West Frontier Province of what is today the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan existed between 1929 and 1948. The movement adopted the organisational form of an army. It conducted protest activities against colonial rule, as well as social reform activities for the Pashtuns. This group was connected to the Congress party of Gandhi, but the dissertation argues that their conceptualisation and praxis of nonviolence emerged from a very different tradition and worldview. Following a brief introduction to the socio-political background of this Pashtun movement, the dissertation explores the activities that this nonviolent army engaged in, looking at their unique understanding of the militancy of an unarmed force, and their mode of combat and confrontation. Of particular interest to the analysis is the way the KK re-combined and mixed what appear to be contradictory ideologies and acts. In doing so, they reframed cultural and historical stereotypes of the Pashtuns as a martial race, juxtaposing the institutional form of the army with a nonviolent praxis based on Islamic principles and social reform. The example of the Khudai Khidmatgar is used to explore the idea that nonviolence is not the opposite of violent conflict, but in fact a dialectical engagement and response to violence. Section 5, in conclusion, returns to the boundary areas of nonviolence: action, violence, the opponent and the body, and re-visits these areas on a comparative note, bringing together elements from Gandhi's fasts and the practices of the KK. The similarities and differences in the two examples are assessed and contextualised in relation to the guiding question of this study, namely the question of the performativity of nonviolent action. ; Die Dissertation widmet sich einer bislang wenig untersuchten Frage in der Forschung zur gewaltfreien Aktion, nämlich der Performativität des gewaltfreien Protests, im Gegensatz zur viel untersuchten Frage der Wirksamkeit von gewaltfreien politischen Ansätzen. Woraus besteht ein gewaltfreier Akt, wenn man ihn als Handlungsfeld und nicht im gängigen Sinne eines Zustands der Abwesenheit von Gewaltanwendung sieht? Was können theaterwissenschaftliche Theorien zum Verständnis gewaltfreien Handelns beitragen? Die Studie hinterfragt die Geschichtsschreibung des gewaltfreien Protestes in Südasien durch die Einbeziehung von theaterwissenschaftlichen Begriffen, Analysemethoden und Denkfiguren. Die ersten zwei Abschnitte der Studie erläutern die begrifflichen und interdisziplinären Parametern der Dissertation, und zwar einerseits die Gewaltfreiheit und andererseits die Performativität. Die Genealogien der beiden Begriffe werden kritisch beleuchtet und durch wiederkehrende Bezugsfelder in Verbindung zueinander gesetzt. Zwei Fallbeispiele ermöglichen eine tiefergehende Untersuchung von der Performativität der Gewaltfreiheit: erstens das Fasten als Protestwaffe in Gandhis politischem Arsenal und zweitens die Khudai Khidmatgar, die Armee der gewaltfreien Soldaten in der Nordwestfrontierprovinz von heutigem Pakistan. Die Dissertation beginnt mit einem typologischen Überblick von Theorien der Gewaltfreiheit. Die Theorien werden zusammengefasst im Hinblick auf häufig vorkommende Missverständnisse über Gewaltfreiheit, wie beispielsweise die Opposition zwischen passivem und aktivem Handeln, die Infragestellung der tatsächlichen Abwesenheit von Gewalt oder die mangelnde Wirksamkeit des politischen Ansatzes. Dieser Abschnitt zeigt die Lücken in existierenden Theorien der Gewaltfreiheit auf und weist auf potentielle Erörterungs- und Forschungsmöglichkeiten darin. Kapitel 3 bietet einen Überblick über die verschiedenen Begriffsabschattungen des Begriffs der Performativität, und stellt die unterschiedlichen Anwendungsfelder kritisch in Bezug zueinander. Die Dissertation fragt nach dem Potential des Begriffs der Performativität in einer Theoriebildung zur Gewaltfreiheit und schlägt dann vier Grenzfelder vor: Handeln/ Handlungsunfähigkeit, Gewalt/ Abwesenheit von Gewalt, der Akteur/ der Gegner und Körper/ Geist. Diese Grenzfelder ermöglichen eine theoretische Annäherung von Gewaltfreiheit als einen performativen Prozess. Das erste Fallbeispiel der Dissertation ist Mohandas Gandhis Gebrauch des Fastens als Methode des gewaltfreien Protestes. Mithilfe einer Lektüre seiner eigenen Äußerungen zum Thema, seiner Reden und Briefe sowie durch eine Diskursanalyse der Reaktionen zu Gandhis Fasten in der britischen Presse untersucht die Studie wie das Fasten zu einem der erfolgreichsten Methoden in Gandhis politischer Kommunikation wurde. Der Abschnitt erläutert den kulturellen Kontext und die historischen Bezugsquellen, aus denen Gandhi seine Methoden geschöpft und neu interpretiert hat. In der kritischen Analyse liegt der Schwerpunkt auf Gandhis performative Körperkonzeption. Das zweite Fallbeispiel ist die gewaltfreie Armee der Paschtunen, Khudai Khidmatgar (KK), wörtlich die Diener Gottes. Diese anti-imperialistische Bewegung in der Nordwestfrontierprovinz des heutigen Pakistans existierte zwischen 1929 und 1948. Die antimilitaristische Bewegung adoptierte die Organisationsform einer Armee. Ihre Aktivitäten variierten zwischen Protestaktionen gegen die britische Herrschaft und Sozialreformaktionen innerhalb der eigenen Bevölkerung. Die KK war formal mit der indischen Kongress-Partei verbunden, in ihrer Praxis und in der Konzeptualisierung von Gewaltfreiheit war sie jedoch von einer ganz anderen Tradition inspiriert als Gandhi, nämlich vom Islam und von der Paschtunkultur. Die Studie erforscht die Aktivitäten der gewaltfreien Armee durch eine Neulektüre des existierenden historiographischen Materials, besonders im Hinblick auf ihr Verständnis von gewaltfreier Aktion und Konfrontation. Von besonderem Interesse ist die Art, wie scheinbar gegensätzliche Ideologien und Haltungen in der KK performativ miteinander kombiniert wurden. Das Beispiel der KK dient zu einer dialektischen, sich aus Gegensätzen hervorhebenden Beschäftigung mit dem Begriff der Gewaltfreiheit. Das letzte Kapitel der Dissertation bietet eine vergleichende Interpretation von Gandhis Fasten und die Aktionen der KK. Die Unterschiede und die Gemeinsamkeiten werden in Bezug auf die Grundfrage der Dissertation erläutert, nämlich die der Performativität der Gewaltfreiheit.