The Epidemic of meningitis is a public health problem historically rooted in the Nigerian society. More than a century ago the phenomenon was reported in Niger, often considered as the epicenter of a space called "the meningitis belt". In the 21st century, epidemics of meningitis become moments of great scientific and political mobilization by major disturbances they cause (more than 3000 death in 1995). The large number of people affected as well as the fast spreading of the disease condemning to death the patient just 24 hours after its appearance, makes it one of the most dreaded diseases in Niger. In the early 1960's, the World Health Organization send a French military physician Léon Lapeyssonnie to rescue Niger. Indeed, the WHO wanted the meningitis epidemics to become one of the major transmitted diseases to control. By identifying temporal sequences of meningitis over half a century, Léon Lapeyssonnie had succeeded in making meningitis not only "a specifically African problem", but also a tropicalized disease, that is to say, confined within a guilty ecological space extending from west Africa to east Africa including geographic coordinates that help identify epidemics in a social space. Contemporary anthropology shows that this phenomenon has evolved and that important issues on public, social and political health evolve around the control of this disease in Niger. Overpowered by the paradigm of epidemiology, the Government of meningitis epidemics is being hindered by strong scientific controversies for more than a decade while even so we are on the turning point of a epidemiological change. What can anthropology teach us on the building up of a pathological phenomenon as complex as meningitis linking ecology, medicine and society? This thesis at the junction of medical anthropology and the sociology of science tends to see how meningitis was built as a public health problem in Niger. I am particularly interested in what appears to be a paradox: the management of a "common disease" as an urgent problem. I'm looking at this paradox through three fields: a scientific laboratory, an epidemic management committee and a rural hausa town. ; La méningite épidémique est un problème de santé publique historiquement ancré dans la société nigérienne. Il y a plus d'un siècle que le phénomène est signalé au Niger, souvent considéré comme l'épicentre d'un espace appelé " ceinture de la méningite ". Au 21ème siècle les épidémies de méningite deviennent des moments de grande mobilisation politique et scientifique par les grands dérangements qu'elles occasionnent (plus de 3000 morts en 1995). Le caractère massif et la rapidité d'évolution de la maladie condamnant à mort le malade à peine 24 heures après son apparition, en fait l'une des affections les plus redoutées. Au début des années 1960, en envoyant un médecin militaire français, Léon Lapeyssonnie au chevet du Niger, l'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé a voulu faire de la méningite une des maladies transmissibles majeures à contrôler. En dégageant les séquences temporelles des épidémies de méningite sur un demi siècle, Léon Lapeyssonnie aura réussi à faire de la méningite non seulement "un problème spécifiquement africain", mais aussi une maladie tropicalisée, c'est-à-dire cantonnée au sein d'un espace écologique coupable s'étendant de l'ouest à l'est de l'Afrique et comprenant des coordonnées géographiques précises qui permettent d'associer les épidémies à un espace social. Une anthropologie du temps présent montre que le phénomène a évolué et que d'importants enjeux de santé publique, sociaux, politiques entourent la question du contrôle de cette maladie au Niger. Dominé par le paradigme de l'épidémiologie, le gouvernement des épidémies de méningite est émaillé de fortes controverses scientifiques depuis plus d'une décennie alors qu'on note aujourd'hui un tournant dans l'épidémiologie de la maladie. Que peut nous apprendre l'anthropologie sur la construction d'un phénomène pathologique aussi complexe que la méningite qui lie écologie, médecine et société? Cette thèse au croisement de l'anthropologie de la santé et de la sociologie des sciences, se propose de voir de quelle manière, la méningite a été construite comme un problème de santé publique au Niger. Je m'intéresse particulièrement à ce qui apparaît comme un paradoxe : la gestion d'une " maladie courante " comme un problème urgent. J'étudie ce phénomène sur trois terrains spécifiques : un laboratoire scientifique, un comité de gestion épidémique et une zone rurale en milieu haoussa.
The Epidemic of meningitis is a public health problem historically rooted in the Nigerian society. More than a century ago the phenomenon was reported in Niger, often considered as the epicenter of a space called "the meningitis belt". In the 21st century, epidemics of meningitis become moments of great scientific and political mobilization by major disturbances they cause (more than 3000 death in 1995). The large number of people affected as well as the fast spreading of the disease condemning to death the patient just 24 hours after its appearance, makes it one of the most dreaded diseases in Niger. In the early 1960's, the World Health Organization send a French military physician Léon Lapeyssonnie to rescue Niger. Indeed, the WHO wanted the meningitis epidemics to become one of the major transmitted diseases to control. By identifying temporal sequences of meningitis over half a century, Léon Lapeyssonnie had succeeded in making meningitis not only "a specifically African problem", but also a tropicalized disease, that is to say, confined within a guilty ecological space extending from west Africa to east Africa including geographic coordinates that help identify epidemics in a social space. Contemporary anthropology shows that this phenomenon has evolved and that important issues on public, social and political health evolve around the control of this disease in Niger. Overpowered by the paradigm of epidemiology, the Government of meningitis epidemics is being hindered by strong scientific controversies for more than a decade while even so we are on the turning point of a epidemiological change. What can anthropology teach us on the building up of a pathological phenomenon as complex as meningitis linking ecology, medicine and society? This thesis at the junction of medical anthropology and the sociology of science tends to see how meningitis was built as a public health problem in Niger. I am particularly interested in what appears to be a paradox: the management of a "common disease" as an urgent problem. I'm looking at this paradox through three fields: a scientific laboratory, an epidemic management committee and a rural hausa town. ; La méningite épidémique est un problème de santé publique historiquement ancré dans la société nigérienne. Il y a plus d'un siècle que le phénomène est signalé au Niger, souvent considéré comme l'épicentre d'un espace appelé " ceinture de la méningite ". Au 21ème siècle les épidémies de méningite deviennent des moments de grande mobilisation politique et scientifique par les grands dérangements qu'elles occasionnent (plus de 3000 morts en 1995). Le caractère massif et la rapidité d'évolution de la maladie condamnant à mort le malade à peine 24 heures après son apparition, en fait l'une des affections les plus redoutées. Au début des années 1960, en envoyant un médecin militaire français, Léon Lapeyssonnie au chevet du Niger, l'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé a voulu faire de la méningite une des maladies transmissibles majeures à contrôler. En dégageant les séquences temporelles des épidémies de méningite sur un demi siècle, Léon Lapeyssonnie aura réussi à faire de la méningite non seulement "un problème spécifiquement africain", mais aussi une maladie tropicalisée, c'est-à-dire cantonnée au sein d'un espace écologique coupable s'étendant de l'ouest à l'est de l'Afrique et comprenant des coordonnées géographiques précises qui permettent d'associer les épidémies à un espace social. Une anthropologie du temps présent montre que le phénomène a évolué et que d'importants enjeux de santé publique, sociaux, politiques entourent la question du contrôle de cette maladie au Niger. Dominé par le paradigme de l'épidémiologie, le gouvernement des épidémies de méningite est émaillé de fortes controverses scientifiques depuis plus d'une décennie alors qu'on note aujourd'hui un tournant dans l'épidémiologie de la maladie. Que peut nous apprendre l'anthropologie sur la construction d'un phénomène pathologique aussi complexe que la méningite qui lie écologie, médecine et société? Cette thèse au croisement de l'anthropologie de la santé et de la sociologie des sciences, se propose de voir de quelle manière, la méningite a été construite comme un problème de santé publique au Niger. Je m'intéresse particulièrement à ce qui apparaît comme un paradoxe : la gestion d'une " maladie courante " comme un problème urgent. J'étudie ce phénomène sur trois terrains spécifiques : un laboratoire scientifique, un comité de gestion épidémique et une zone rurale en milieu haoussa.
Despite the considerable percentage of inland waters in the temperate zone land cover, their role in the global carbon balance is not clear and the existing data suggest large type specific differences. Respiratory CO2 release from inland waters is a major process in the global carbon cycle, retaining more than half of the carbon flux from terrestrial sources that otherwise would reach the sea. The strongly lake-type-specific balance between primary production and respiration determines whether a lake acts regionally as a net sink or source of CO2. In the global change context even small changes in photosynthesis and respiration rates and/or in the loadings of organic matter or nutrients (e.g. phosphorus) may change the metabolic type of the lake and turn it from autotrophic to heterotrophic system or vice versa. Todays in situ sondes fitted with sensitive and accurate optical oxygen probes have become a useful tool for estimating lake ecosystem metabolism through high frequency continuous measurements. The sonde method provides an alternative to more traditional methods of measuring metabolism that only use discrete samples. Continuous sampling by sondes overcomes many of the limitations of discrete samples and makes it possible to measure metabolism in a wide variety of systems. Long-term observations across many years define the range of natural variability of ecological systems and provide a baseline from which to assess whether a system has changed significantly. Regular hydrological data on large and shallow (area 270 km2; mean depth 2.8 m) Lake Võrtsjärv have been collected for more than 80 years. Regular measurements of nutrients and ecosystem components started in 1960s. Lake Võrtsjärv was intensively studied for more than 50 years before the first monitoring buoy was deployed for high frequency measurements of physical and chemical parameters. Phytoplankton primary production in situ measurements with monthly frequency started in Võrtsjärv already in 1982 but the dataset has many gaps. Present thesis summarizes for Lake Võrtsjärv: the first data on seasonal changes of the ecosystem metabolism based on high frequency measurements; the reconstruction of long term series of phytoplankton primary production by bio-optical modelling; the incoming and outgoing fluxes of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon; and gives an overview of phosphorus retention in Lake Võrtsjärv compared with 54 lakes and reservoirs in different climate regions around the world. ; Hoolimata siseveekogude rohkusest parasvöötmes, mis on limnoloogiliselt enim uuritud piirkond Maal, ei ole meil senini selget ülevaadet nende veekogude rollist globaalses süsinikubilansis. Elusorganismide elutegevuse käigus toodetav süsihappegaas (CO2) vabaneb meid ümbritsevasse keskkonda. Magevetes hingamisel vabaneva CO2 kogus omab olulist rolli globaalses süsinikuringes. Tänu mageveekogudes toimuvale fotosünteesile tarbitakse esmatootjate (primaarprodutsentide) poolt ära rohkem kui pool kogu maismaal toodetavast süsihappegaasist, mis vastasel juhul jõuaks meid ümbritsevasse keskkonda. Veekogudes toimuva primaarproduktsiooni ja hingamise alusel saab järved jagada kahte erinevasse ainevahetuse tüüpi: CO2 tootvateks (heterotroofseteks) ja CO2 talletavateks (autotroofseteks). Globaalses kontekstis võib ka väikene nihe nii primaarproduktsiooni kui hingamise tasakaalus, põhjustatuna näiteks orgaanilise aine või toiteainete (näiteks fosforiühendite) sissevoolu muutustest, muuta järve kui terviku ainevahetuse tüüpi. Oma varasematele uurimistele ja teadmistele tuginedes oletasime, et Võrtsjärv võib vahetada oma metabolismi tüüpi jää tuleku ja minekuga. Jää- ja lumekatte all väheneb oluliselt vette jõudev valguse hulk, mis on üks kõige olulisem mõjur fotosünteesi käivitamisel ja läbiviimisel. Valguse ööpäevane ja aastaajaline muutlikkus ongi üheks peamiseks põhjuseks veekogude metabolismitüübi kujundamisel. Muutused erinevate tegurite osas, mis mõjutavad primaarproduktsiooni või hingamisprotsesse, võivad toimuda ajaliselt üsna kiiresti (tundide ja päevade jooksul), mistõttu oli neid seni kord kuus toimunud vaatluste abil väga raske jälgida. Võrtsjärve on regulaarseire raames uuritud juba rohkem kui 80 aastat. Primaarproduktsiooni mõõtmistega tehti algust 1982. aastal, kuid kogutud andmeridades esineb kahjuks mitmeid "auke". 2008. aastal alustati süsinikubilansi koostamiseks vajalikke uuringuid ka Võrtsjärve suurematest sissevooludes ning väljavoolus. Tänu Euroopa Liidu toetusfondidele ja riiklikult sihtfinantseeritavale teadusteemale soetati 2009. ja 2010. aastal mitmeid uurimisplatvorme ning ka järvepoi, millede abil said Võrtsjärvel alguse pidevmõõtmised. Käesolev töö: määratleb Võrtjärve kui suure ja madala eutroofse parasvöötme järve metabolismitüübi ja rolli nii regionaalses kui globaalses süsinikuringes; koondab Võrtsjärve primaarproduktsiooni (PP) pikaajalised muutused ning täidab PP andmestikus olevad lüngad modelleerimise abil; annab ülevaate Võrtsjärve sisse- ja väljavoolude süsinikuühendite ja toiteainete hulkadest; ning hindab fosfori kinnipidamist 54. erinevas maailma järves. ; The doctoral studies and the publication of the current thesis were supported by the Doctoral School of Ecology and Environmental Sciences created under the auspice of European Union Social Fund.
In Guinea-Bissau leiden Wildtiere im Allgemeinen und Säugetiere insbesondere unter zunehmendem Druck, hauptsächlich durch übermäßige Jagd und Habitatrückgang und -fragmentierung. Der Mangel an zuverlässigen Daten über die Verteilung von Wildtierbeständen und über Populationstrends stellt ein wichtiges Hindernis für ein effektives, auf den Schutzanforderungen der verschiedenen Arten ausgerichtetes Wildtiermanagement dar. Ziel dieser Studie war es, den Schutzstatus großer und mittlerer Säugetiere im Küstengebiet von Guinea-Bissau zu ermitteln, und die Aussichten für die Entwicklung von gemeinschaftlich getragenen Wildtiermanagementmodellen zu analysieren. Für die Verbreitungs- und Dichteermittlung bei Säugetierarten wurden Feldbeobachtungen durch kombinierte Transektbegehungen und Wegüberwachungen ( reconnaissance surveys) an zufällig ausgesuchten Standorten innerhalb des Untersuchungsgebiets durchgeführt. Die Dichten wurden mittels des Computerprogramms Distance 3.5. und verschiedener manueller Methoden berechnet. Für die meisten Arten wurde ein relativer Häufigkeitsindex mit Hilfe der Treffenrate pro besichtigtes Kilometer berechnet. Für die Analyse der Nutzungsformen und Vorstellungen lokaler Gemeinschaften gegenüber Wildtiere wurden halbstrukturierte Gruppeninterviews und informelle Gespräche in Dörfern innerhalb und um die Untersuchungsgebiete durchgeführt. Das Vorkommen von etwa 44 großen und mittelgroßen Säugetierarten aus 15 Familien wurde im Küstenbereich von Guinea-Bissau bestätigt. Einige Arten mit hohem Schutzwert wie der Schimpanse P. troglodytes verus, der Bärenstummelaffe C. p. polykomos und der Rote Stummelaffen P. badius temminckii kommen in begrenzten Gebieten innerhalb und außerhalb von Schutzgebieten vor. Jedoch ist eine Verschlechterung des Schutzstatus der meisten Säugerarten in Guinea-Bissau erkennbar, vor allem infolge zunehmenden Jagddrucks und Habitatverlust. Einige Säugerarten, die einen wichtigen Platz in der lokalen Kultur spielen, wurden durch lokale und traditionell Praktiken und Sc hutzmaßnahmen geschützt. Weitere günstige Gelegenheiten für die Entwicklung von gemeinschaftlich getragenen Wildtiermanagementmodellen bieten unter anderem das zunehmende Bewusstsein lokaler Gemeinschaften über Notwendigkeit und Nutzen von Wildtierschutz, die bestehenden traditionellen regulierenden Mechanismen, die wertvollen lokalen Kenntnisse über natürliche Ressourcen und die zunehmende offizielle Anerkennung und Annahme von partizipativen Managementprinzipien. Wichtige begrenzende Faktoren bestehen noch, unter anderem: der zunehmende Nutzungsdruck und die rapide Abnahme der Wildtierressourcen, der Mangel an Informationen über Wildtiere und Ökologie, die rapide schwächer werdenden traditionellen ökologischen Managementstrukturen und Regulierungsmechanismen, die allgemein nicht offiziell anerkannt werden. Es ist notwendig, kosteneffektive Monitoringprogramme für Wildtierarten und detaillierte Langzeitstudien zu entwickeln, um die Informationen über die am meisten gefährdeten Arten regelmäßig zu aktualisieren und auf diese Weise eine wissenschaftliche Basis für die Managementmaßnahmen zu liefern. Zusätzlich sollten die gesetzlichen Maßnahmen dringend verstärkt werden, um den Schutzstatus einiger bedrohter Arten und Ökosystemen mit hohem Schutzwert zu verbessern. Auf die lokale Lage zugeschnittene Strategien, einschließlich politischer/juristischer Unterstützung für die lokalen/traditionellen Managementstrukturen, ökonomische und andere Anreize, sowie die wissenschaftliche Unterstützung für die Entscheidungsfindung sind Schlüsselfaktoren für die erfolgreiche Entwicklung von gemeinschaftlich getragenen Wildtiermanagementmodellen in Guinea-Bissau. ; In Guinea-Bissau, wildlife species in general and mammals in particular are suffering increasing pressure, mainly from overhunting and habitat reduction and fragmentation. The lack of reliable data on wildlife distribution and population trends is an important constraint to effective wildlife management based on the conservation needs of the different species. The aim of this study was to assess the current conservation status of large- and medium-sized mammals in the coastal zone of Guinea-Bissau and to analyse the prospects for implementing community-based wildlife management schemes in that country. To assess mammal species distribution and abundance, ground surveys combining line transect sampling with reconnaissance walks were carried out in randomly selected locations within the study sites. Density estimates were obtained using the software Distance 3.5. and different manual calculation methods. For most species, a relative abundance was estimated using the encounter rate per surveyed kilometre. Data on wildlife use patterns and perception by local communities were collected through semi-structured group interviews and informal interviews in villages within and around the surveyed sites. The occurrence of about 44 large and medium-sized mammal species from 15 families was confirmed in the coastal area of Guinea Bissau. Some species of high conservation value, particularly Chimpanzees P. troglodytes verus, Western pied Colobus C. p. polykomos and Red Colobus P. badius temminckii, still occur in restricted areas within and outside Of existing protected areas. However, there is evidence of the degradation of most mammals conservation status, mostly due to hunting and habitat loss. A few mammal species has benefited from local and traditional conservation practices and measures, for their role in local culture. Further opportunities for community-based wildlife management include increasing awareness in local communities on wildlife conservation need and benefits, existent traditional regulating mechanisms, valuable local knowledge on natural resources and increasing official recognition and integration of participatory management principles. Important constraints still remain, among which increasing pressure and rapid decline in wildlife resources, lack of information on specific wildlife and ecological issues and rapid weakening of traditional management structures and regulating mechanisms, which are usually not officially recognised. There is a need of developing cost-effective wildlife monitoring programmes and long-term detailed studies in order to regularly update information on most endangered species and to provide in this way scientific basis to management measures. Additionally, the legal measures must be urgently reinforced, in order to improve the conservation status of some threatened species and ecosystems with high conservation value. Locally adapted strategies, including political/legal support to local and traditional management structures, economic and other incentives and scientific support to decision making are the key to successful implementation of viable community-based wildlife management schemes in Guinea-Bissau.
Северо-Монгольская горная лесостепь, переходная зона между тайгой и открытой степью, имеет богатый животный и растительный мир. Для сельского хозяйства это самая продуктивная часть страны и имеет плотность населения выше средней по Монголии. Древостои светлой тайги, в которых преобладает лиственница (Larix sibirica Ledeb.), представляют основу монгольских продуктивных лесов и поставляются все больше в соответствии с растущим спросом на деловую древесину и дрова. В лесах Монгольской горной лесостепной зоны и таежной зоны наблюдается, особенно с конца прошлого века, заметное сокращение площади леса. Основными факторами этого сдвига растительности являются изменения в землепользовании, частота пожаров, появление вредителей и изменение климата. На видовой состав, прирост и структуру древостоев оказывают сильное влияние различные природные и антропогенные режимы воздействия и климатические факторы. Понимание влияния климатических факторов на эти воздействия и экологическое влияние от воздействий на древостои и их реакцию с точки зрения структуры, прироста и обновлений необходимо для развития экологически и регионально соответствующих программ ведения лесного хозяйства. Частые, интенсивные, обширные воздействия, прежде всего лесозаготовки и лесные пожары, способствовали появлению сукцессионных лесов (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev), в которых преобладает береза. Несмотря на предпринимаемые усилия по созданию альтернативных подходов к управлению лесами в Монголии существует недостаток знаний о влиянии основных факторов и воздействий на структуру лесов и лесной растительности и недостаточная мощность. Одной из областей с традиционно сильным землепользованием является аймак Селенги, расположенный к северу от Улан-Батора. В 2009 году Монгольский Университет естественных наук в Дархане и группа лесопользователей в исследовательском районе Альтансумбэр создали исследуемые площади и провели экспериментальные опыты выборочной рубки. Эта инициатива в области была поддержана в рамках проекта UNFAO «Укрепление потенциала и институциональное развитие для совместного управления природными ресурсами и сохранения лесов в лесных районах Монголии» (GCP / MON / 002 / NET), финансируемого правительством Нидерланды. Большинство исследуемых площадей имеет размер 2500 м². Исследовательский район Альтансумбэр расположен к западу от Дархана и является ярким примером монгольской горной лесостепной зоны. Исследовательский район Бугант расположен к востоку от Дархана в западных горах Хенти и является частью густой таежной зоны. Изучалось влияние климатических факторов и выборочной вырубки на рост и структуру поврежденных от пожара березовых и лиственничных древостоев светлой тайги в исследовательском районе Алтансумбэр (горная лесостепная зона, северные склоны). В исследовательском районе Бугант (таежная зона, южные и восточные склоны) изучено влияние климатических факторов на прирост березы и проведено сравнение с результатами Алтансумбэр. Различия в отношении повреждений от пожара между березой и сосной (Pinus sylvestris L.) оценивались отдельно. Во всех исследованных древостоях обоих исследуемых районов были обнаружены признаки лесных пожаров, и большинство древостоев также показали признаки предыдущих мелкомасштабных лесозаготовок. Посредством дендрохронологических методов были рассмотрены отношения климата и роста и проведен анализ экстремальных годов. В районе исследований Алтансумбэр непространственная и пространственная структура леса была проанализирована как до, так и непосредственно после прореживания и после трех лет. Анализы произведены в форме анализа прореживания с использованием L-функции и радиальной функции распределения. Влияние снижения конкуренции на прирост остальных деревьев было описано и проанализировано с помощью линейных смешанных моделей. Подрост был зафиксирован на всех площадях в Алтансумбэр в 2012 и в Бугант в 2011 году и возобновился на некоторых площадях в Бугант в 2013 году. Для обоих видов, лиственницы и березы, осадки во время позднего лета и ранней осени предыдущего года и непосредственно перед началом вегетационного периода текущего года были решающим климатическим фактором, определяющим рост деревьев. Анализ экстремальных годов сильного и слабого роста показал значительное сходство между обоими видами. Достаточные осадки перед началом вегетационного периода были для роста молодых деревьев важнее, чем для старых. В более сухой и высококонтинентальной горной лесостепной зоне (Алтансумбэр) по сравнению с более влажной таежной зоной (Бугант) связь между осадками и ростом березы была более выраженной. Признаки повреждения насекомыми были найдены только в Бугант (таежная зона). Все хронологии берез показали высокую чувствительность к более высоким температурам, как правило, весной, и взаимосвязь между временным возникновением негативного соотношения температуры и роста и направления склона. На северных склонах в Алтансумбэр статистические отрицательные соотношения температуры и роста березы произошли в мае. На южных склонах в Буганте это отрицательное соотношение возникло раньше по времени, в апреле. Это отрицательное соотношение температуры и роста в хронологии лиственницы в Алтансумбэр не было установлено. В обоих исследуемых районах среднегодовые показатели роста хвойных пород были выше, чем у березы. Наблюдаемое различие в отношении показателей роста и чувствительности к весенним температурам может быть связано с различной защитной способностью березы и хвойных пород от очень распространенных низкоинтенсивных поверхностных пожаров, которые имеют свой пиковый сезон весной и частично управляются климатическими факторами. Количество видимых поврежденных огнем берез с тонкой корой в Буганте было более, чем в восемь раз выше, чем сосны с толстой корой из того же древостоя. В древостоях, где береза смешана со светлыми хвойными породами, малоинтенсивный режим пожаров имеет более негативное и длительное влияния на рост берез, чем на рост хвойных пород с толстой корой. С другой стороны, разрушение древостоя интенсивными пожарами или сокращение площади вследствие повторяющейся интенсивной вырубки может благоприятствовать преобладанию березы из-за ее способности прорастания – поросль от пня. Характеристики структуры леса и реакции на воздействия изучались исключительно в исследовательском районе Алтансумбэр и могли быть связаны с процессами сукцессии, пожарами и нерегулируемыми вырубками. Агрегированное размещение деревьев было подтверждено для всех лиственничных древостоев и большинства березовых древостоев в Алтансумбэр до выборочной рубки. Вследствие прорастания береза часто встречается агрегировано в очень узких, небольших группах. Лиственница, напротив, появилась в более свободных кластерах, где деревья распределены на более дальнем расстоянии. Вследствие того, что березы имеют меньшую продолжительность жизни и интенсивнее конкурируют друг с другом, у березовых древостоев имеется способность развиваться к случайному размещению деревьев раньше, чем у лиственничных древостоев. Конкуренция сыграла значительную роль в исследуемых древостоях светлой тайги. В исследовательском районе Алтансумбэр соотношение между конкуренцией и ростом оценивалось до, непосредственно после и через три года после прореживания. Прореживания проводились с различной интенсивностью (5,4% - 52,4% площадь сечения). Основными критериями отбора деревьев для рубки были относительно низкое состояние здоровья и способность к росту, на что указывало повреждения ствола и развитие кроны, форма ствола, а также расстояние между отдельными деревьями. Этот отбор привел в значительной мере к низовому прореживанию. Как и ожидалось, прореживание способствовало регулярному размещению деревьев. Тем не менее, дальнейший рост новых стволов привело к тому, что распределение деревьев древостоя менялось обратно в направлении агрегированного. Прирост был в значительной степени вызван ослаблением конкуренции как результат прореживания, и ответ прироста был действительным в абсолютном и относительном выражении. Относительное увеличение прироста по сравнению с периодом до прореживания было немного выше для березы, чем для лиственницы, несмотря на сравнительно поздний средний возраст древостоев на момент прореживания в 2009 году, особенно для березы. Данные были полученны из анализа годичных колец деревьев ( средний возраст лиственница: 22-61 год, березы - 44-68 лет). Основываясь на региональных данных недавней национальной инвентаризации лесов (MPNFI) как норме, количество подроста во всех древостоях в Алтансумбэр относительно низко, тогда как число подроста в Бугант выше среднего. В целом результаты показали, что более методическая стратегия управления лесами является возможной с научной точки зрения. Вместе с тем местное управление лесами должно служить многофункциональным целям регионального лесопользования. Потенциал лесов обеспечивать такие экосистемные услуги, как защита водного режима и почвы, постоянный растительный покров, биоразнообразие, внесение вклада в снижение негативных последствий изменения климата должен быть гарантирован. Это, принимая во внимание длительное изменение климата, усиление воздействий и развитие требований общества, особенно сложно. Основная цель лесоводства должна заключаться в повышении устойчивости и жизнестойкости лесных экосистем к различным воздействиям и одновременно делать возможным использование древостоев. Две модели использования представляются возможными: промышленное производство изделий из дерева (в основном из лиственницы и сосны) или производство энергии на базе древесины (в основном береза), заготовка дров. Плотные древостои светлой тайги, отведенные под производственные леса, могут быть подвергнуты прореживанию или выборочной рубке от одного до двух раз в первые 50-60 лет. в соответствии с вышеназванными критериями. При выборочной рубке в форме небольших групп (Femel) в этих древостоях происходит способствование регенерации и переход в окончательное пользование. Подсадка подроста должна рассматриваться только в том случае, если желаемая регенерация недостаточна или если древостой должен быть изменен на другой древесный состав. Часть сукцессивных березовых древостоев рядом с поселениями могла бы управляться как низкоствольный лес для получения дров. Директивы лесоводства должны принимать во внимание различные специфические экологические и климатические условия, различный возраст древостоев, цели в области лесоводства и реалистические варианты управления. Управленческие меры должны быть усилены путем национального и регионального управления лесами. Рекомендуется также анализировать экономическую эффективность лесохозяйственных операций, таких, как различные системы заготовки древесины. Результаты и выводы проекта охватывают лишь относительно короткие временные рамки. Необходимо продолжить наблюдение долгосрочного влияния выборочной рубки, особенно с точки зрения стабильности древостоя, почвы и спорадической вечной мерзлоты. ; Die nordmongolische Gebirgswaldsteppe, die Übergangszone zwischen Taiga und offener Steppe, besitzt eine reiche Tier- und Pflanzenwelt. Für die Landwirtschaft ist diese Region der produktivste Landesteil und weist für die Mongolei eine überdurchschnittlich hohe Siedlungsdichte auf. Helle Taigabestände, die von Lärche (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) dominiert werden, stellen das Rückgrat der mongolischen Wirtschaftswälder dar und sind zunehmend einer wachsenden Nachfrage an Industrie- und Brennholz ausgesetzt. Die borealen Wälder der mongolischen Gebirgswaldsteppenzone und der Taigazone sind, vor allem seit dem Ende des letzten Jahrhunderts, sichtbar zurückgegangen. Die hauptsächlichen Triebkräfte dieser Vegetationsverschiebung sind Änderungen in Bezug auf Landnutzung, Waldbrandhäufigkeit und das Auftreten von Schädlingen und Klimawandel. Artenzusammensetzung, Zuwachs und Bestandesstruktur werden stark von den verschiedenen natürlichen und anthropogenen Störungsregimen und auch Klimafaktoren beeinflusst. Ein Verständnis zum Einfluss von Klimafaktoren auf diese Störungen und den ökologischen Einfluss von Störungen auf Waldbestände und ihre Reaktion in Bezug auf Struktur, Zuwachs und Verjüngung ist essentiell für die Entwicklung von ökologisch und regional angepassten Waldbewirtschaftungsprogrammen. Häufigere intensive großflächige Störungen, vor allem Holzeinschlag und Waldbrände, förderten das Auftreten von Sukzessionswäldern, die oft von Birken (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev) dominiert werden. Trotz laufender Bemühungen zur Etablierung alternativer Waldbewirtschaftungsansätze in der Mongolei, fehlt es an Wissen über die Auswirkungen der wichtigsten Einflussfaktoren und Störungen auf Waldstruktur und Waldwachstum und an ausreichenden Kapazitäten. Eine der Provinzen mit traditionell intensiver Landnutzung ist der Selenge Aimag, nördlich von Ulaanbaatar. Im Jahr 2009 wurden von der Mongolischen Universität für Lebenswissenschaften in Darchan und der Waldnutzergruppe Altansumber Referenzflächen und experimentelle Durchforstungsversuche eingerichtet. Die Mehrzahl der Forschungsflächen weist eine Größe von jeweils 2500m² auf. Diese Initiative wurde durch das UNFAO-Projekt " Capacity Building and Institutional Development for Participatory Natural Resources Management and Conservation in Forest Areas of Mongolia" (GCP / MON / 002 / NET) unterstützt, welches durch die niederländische Regierung finanziert wurde. Das Forschungsgebiet Altansumber liegt westlich von Darchan und ist ein Paradebeispiel für die mongolische Gebirgswaldsteppenzone. Das Forschungsgebiet Bugant liegt östlich von Darchan im westlichen Khentii-Gebirge und ist Teil der dicht bewaldeten Taigazone. Die Auswirkungen von Klimafaktoren und selektiver Holznutzung auf Waldstruktur und Wachstum von Birke und Lärche wurden in feuergestörten Beständen der hellen Taiga des Forschungsgebietes Altansumber (Gebirgswaldsteppenzone, Nordhänge) untersucht. Im Forschungsgebiet Bugant (Taigazone, Süd- und Osthänge) wurde der Einfluss von Klimafaktoren auf den Zuwachs der Birke untersucht und mit den Ergebnissen von Altansumber verglichen. Unterschiede in Bezug auf Brandschäden zwischen Birke und Kiefer (Pinus sylvestris L.) wurden separat in einer kleinen Fallstudie erfasst. In allen untersuchten Beständen beider Forschungsgebiete wurden Anzeichen von Waldbränden gefunden, und die meisten Bestände zeigten auch Spuren von ehemaliger, kleinräumiger Holznutzung. Mittels dendrochronologischer Methoden wurden die Klima-Wachstums-Beziehungen untersucht und Weiserjahranalysen durchgeführt. Im Forschungsgebiet Altansumber wurde die nicht-räumliche und räumliche Waldstruktur sowohl vor, als auch direkt nach der Durchforstung und drei Jahre später analysiert. Die Analysen wurden in Form von Eingriffsanalysen unter Verwendung von L-funktionen und Paarkorrelationsfunktionen durchgeführt. Die Auswirkung von Konkurrenzverringerung auf den Zuwachs der verbleibenden Bäume wurde mittels linear gemischter Modelle beschrieben und analysiert. Die Verjüngungsschicht wurde auf allen Flächen in Altansumber 2012 und in Bugant 2011 aufgenommen und auf einigen Flächen in Bugant 2013 wiederaufgenommen. Für beide Arten, Lärche und Birke, war Niederschlag während der Zeit des Spätsommers und Frühherbstes des Vorjahres und direkt vor der Vegetationsperiode des laufenden Jahres, ein entscheidender Klimafaktor und bestimmend für das Baumwachstum. Die Weiserjahranalyse zeigte eine weitgehend gute Übereinstimmung zwischen beiden Arten. Ausreichend Niederschlag vor dem Beginn der Vegetationsperiode war für das Wachstum junger Birken wichtiger als für ältere. Die Beziehung zwischen Niederschlag und Zuwachs der Birke war in der trockeneren und hochkontinentalen Gebirgswaldsteppenzone (Altansumber), im Vergleich zu der feuchteren Taigazone (Bugant), ausgeprägter. Anzeichen für Insektenschäden konnten nur in Bugant (Taigazone) gefunden werden. Alle Birkenchronologien zeigten eine hohe Empfindlichkeit gegenüber höheren Temperaturen, typischerweise im Frühjahr, sowie eine Beziehung zwischen dem zeitlichen Auftreten der negativen Temperatur-Wachstums-Beziehung und Hangexposition. Auf den Nordhängen in Altansumber trat eine signifikante negative Korrelation zwischen Temperatur und Zuwachs der Birke im Mai auf. Auf den Südhängen in Bugant trat diese negative Korrelation zeitlich früher, im April, auf. Diese signifikant negative Temperatur-Wachstums-Beziehung konnte für die Lärchen-Chronologie in Altansumber nicht bestätigt werden. In beiden Forschungsgebieten war die durchschnittliche jährliche Zuwachsleistung der Nadelbäume höher als die der Birke. Die beobachtete Differenz, bezüglich der Zuwachsleistung und der Empfindlichkeit gegenüber der Frühjahrstemperatur, könnte zu einem gewissen Grad mit unterschiedlichen Schutzmechanismen von Birken- und Nadelbäumen, gegenüber den sehr häufig auftretenden niedrig intensiven Bodenfeuer zusammenhängen, welche im Frühjahr ihre Hauptsaison haben und teilweise durch Klimafaktoren gesteuert werden. Die Anzahl von sichtbar feuergeschädigten Bäumen war in Bugant für die dünnborkigen Birken bis über achtmal so hoch wie die für die dickborkigen Kiefern aus dem gleichen Bestand. In aus Birken und Nadelbäumen gemischten Beständen hat ein niedrig intensives Bodenfeuerregime einen negativeren und länger anhaltenden Einfluss auf das Wachstum der Birke als auf das Wachstum von dickborkigen Nadelbäumen. Auf der anderen Seite fördern intensive Brände oder intensiver Einschlag oder Kahlschlag die Dominanz von Birkensukzession aufgrund ihrer Fähigkeit zum Stockausschlag. Charakteristika der Waldstruktur und Störungsreaktion wurden ausschließlich im Forschungsgebiet Altansumber untersucht und konnten mit Sukzessionsprozessen, Waldbränden und ungeregeltem Holzeinschlag in Verbindung gebracht werden. Eine signifikant unregelmäßige ("geklumpte") Baumverteilung konnte für alle Lärchen- und die meisten Birkenbestände in Altansumber vor der Durchforstung bestätigt werden. Aufgrund von Stockausschlag traten junge Birken häufig in sehr engen, kleinen Trupps auf. Lärchen hingegen tauchten in lockereren Clustern verteilt über größere Distanzen auf. Da Birken geringere Lebensspannen aufweisen und intensiver untereinander konkurrieren, könnten sie in reinen Beständen eine zufällige räumliche Verteilung früher als die Lärche erreichen. Konkurrenz spielte eine signifikante Rolle in den untersuchten hellen Taigabeständen. Im Forschungsgebiet Altansumber wurde die Beziehung zwischen Konkurrenz und Zuwachs vor, direkt nach und drei Jahre nach der Durchforstung ausgewertet. Die Eingriffe wurden in verschiedenen Durchforstungsstärken durchgeführt (5,4% - 52,4% G). Hauptkriterien für die Auswahl von zu entfernenden Bäumen waren relativ niedrigerer Gesundheitszustand und Wachstumspotenzial, angedeutet durch Stammschäden, Kronenentwicklung und Stammform sowie Abstand zwischen den einzelnen Bäumen. Diese Auswahl führte weitgehend zu Niederdurchforstungen. Wie erwartet förderte Durchforstung eine regelmäßige Baumverteilung. Allerdings führte das Einwachsen von neuen Stämmen die Waldstruktur zurück in Richtung geklumpter Baumverteilung. Der Zuwachs wurde signifikant durch die, von der Durchforstung ausgelösten, Konkurrenzverringerung gesteuert und die Zuwachsreaktion war in absoluter und relativer Betrachtung gültig. Die relative Zuwachssteigerung gegenüber der Periode vor der Durchforstung war für die Birke etwas höher als für die Lärche, trotz der relativ hohen durchschnittlichen Bestandesalter zum Zeitpunkt der Durchforstung im Jahr 2009, insbesondere für die Birken. Die Daten wurden aus Jahrringanalysen abgeleitet (mittleres Alter der Lärchenbestände: ca. 22 und 61 Jahre; Birkenbestände: ca. 44 und 68 Jahre). Basierend auf den regionalen Daten aus der aktuellen nationalen Waldinventur (MPNFI) als Referenzwert, ist die Anzahl in der Verjüngungsschicht in Altansumber in allen Beständen nach der Durchforstung relativ niedrig, wohingegen die Anzahl in der Verjüngungsschicht in Bugant überdurchschnittlich ist. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass eine mehr methodisch fundierte Waldbewirtschaftungsstrategie möglich ist. Jedoch müssen die örtlichen waldbaulichen Maßnahmen den multifunktionalen regionalen Waldbewirtschaftungszielen dienen. Die Kapazität der Wälder weiterhin Ökosystemleistungen, wie Wasser- und Bodenschutz, kontinuierliche Vegetationsabdeckung und Biodiversität zur Verfügung zu stellen, und zur Minderung von negativen Effekten durch den Klimawandel beizutragen, muss gesichert werden. Dies ist angesichts des anhaltenden Klimawandels, der zunehmenden Häufigkeit von Störungen und der Entwicklung gesellschaftlicher Bedürfnisse besonders schwierig. Das wichtigste waldbauliche Ziel sollte die Verbesserung der Stabilität und Resilienz der Waldökosysteme gegenüber unterschiedlichen Störungen sein und dabei simultan die Nutzung einiger Bestände ermöglichen. Zwei Nutzungsmodelle könnten möglich sein: Industrieholzproduktion (hauptsächlich Lärche und Kiefer) oder Energieholzproduktion (hauptsächlich Birke). Dichte helle Taigabestände, die als Wirtschaftswälder ausgewiesen sind, könnten in den ersten 50-60 Jahren ein bis zwei Mal, entsprechend den oben genannten Kriterien, durchforstet oder selektiv eingeschlagen werden. Zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt könnten diese Bestände dann in Femelschlagsysteme zur Förderung der Verjüngung und zur endgültigen Nutzung überführt werden. Unterpflanzen von Jungwuchs sollte nur in Betracht gezogen werden, wenn die gewünschte Verjüngung nicht ausreicht oder wenn der Bestand in eine andere Baumartenzusammensetzung überführt werden soll. Ein Teil der Sukzessionsbirkenbestände in der Nähe von Siedlungen könnte als Niederwälder zur Energieholzgewinnung bewirtschaftet werden. Waldbaurichtlinien müssen erarbeitet werden und die unterschiedlichen speziellen ökologischen und klimatischen Bedingungen verschiedener Bestandesalter, die waldbaulichen Ziele und realistische Bewirtschaftungsoptionen berücksichtigen. Kontrollmechanismen müssen von der nationalen und regionalen Forstverwaltung verstärkt werden. Es wird empfohlen, auch die ökonomische Effizienz von waldbaulichen Operationen, z. B. verschiedene Erntesysteme zu analysieren. Die Ergebnisse und Schlussfolgerungen des Projektes stammen aus einem relativ kurzen Beobachtungszeitraum. Die Langzeitwirkungen von verschiedenen selektiven Einschlagsintensitäten müssen untersucht werden, insbesondere in Bezug auf Bestandesstabilität, Boden und sporadischen Permafrost. ; The northern Mongolian mountain forest steppe, the transition zone between taiga and open steppe, is rich in plant and animal life. It is the most productive region in the country in terms of agriculture and, as a result, exhibits settlement density above average for Mongolia. Light taiga stands, dominated by larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.), are the backbone of Mongolian production forests and become increasingly opened to the growing demand for timber and firewood. The boreal forests of the Mongolian mountain forest steppe and taiga zones have experienced a visible decline in forest area and quality, especially since the end of the last century. The main drivers of this vegetation shift are changes in land use, fire frequency, pest occurrence and climate change. Species composition, growth and stand structure are strongly affected by the different natural and anthropogenic disturbance regimes and climate factors. Understanding the impact of climate factors on these disturbances and the ecological impact of disturbances on forest stands and their response in terms of structure, growth and regeneration is essential for the development of ecologically and regionally adapted forest management programs. Increasingly intensive large-scale disturbances, especially logging and forest fires, have boosted the presence of succession forests, often dominated by birch (Betula platyphylla Sukaczev). Despite ongoing initiatives for the establishment of alternative forest management approaches in Mongolia, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the influence of the main impact factors and disturbances on forest structure and forest growth, as well as a lack of capacity. One of the provinces with traditionally intense land use is the Selenge Aimag located to the north of Ulaanbaatar. Reference plots and experimental thinning trials were established in 2009 by the Mongolian University of Life Sciences in Darkhan and the forest user group Altansumber. The majority of the plots exhibit a size of 2500 m² each. This initiative was supported by the UNFAO-Project "Capacity Building and Institutional Development for Participatory Natural Resources Management and Conservation in Forest Areas of Mongolia" (GCP/MON/002/NET), which was financed by the government of the Netherlands. The research area Altansumber is situated west of Darkhan and is a prime example of the Mongolian mountain forest steppe zone. The research area Bugant is situated east of Darkhan in the western Khentii Mountains and is part of the densely forested taiga zone. The effects of climate factors and selective cutting on forest structure and growth of birch and larch were studied in the fire disturbed light taiga stands of the research area Altansumber (mountain forest steppe zone, north-facing slopes). In the research area Bugant (taiga zone, south- and east-facing slopes), the impact of climate factors on the growth of birch was studied and compared with the results from Altansumber. Differences concerning fire damage between birch and pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were assessed separately in a small case study. Signs of fire were found in all researched stands in both research areas, and most stands also showed traces of previous small-scale logging activities. Using dendrochronological methods, the climate-growth relationships were examined and pointer year analyses conducted. In the research area Altansumber non-spatial and spatial forest structure was analysed before, directly after the thinning and three years later. The analyses were conducted in form of harvest event analyses and using L-functions and pair correlation functions. The effect of competition relief on the growth of the remaining trees was modelled with linear mixed-effects models. Regeneration was assessed in all plots in Altansumber in 2012 and in Bugant in 2011 and re-assessed in some plots in Bugant in 2013. For both, larch and birch, precipitation during the late summer and early autumn of the previous year and directly before the growing season of the current year was a decisive climatic factor determining tree growth. Pointer year analysis showed good agreement between the two species. Sufficient precipitation prior to the start of the growing season was more relevant for the growth of younger birch trees than for older ones. The relationship between precipitation and the growth of birch was more pronounced in the drier and highly continental mountain forest steppe zone (Altansumber) than in the more humid taiga zone (Bugant). Indication of insect damage was found only in Bugant (taiga zone). All birch chronologies showed a strong sensitivity to higher temperatures, typically during spring, and a relationship between the timing of the negative temperature-growth relation and slope exposition. On the north-facing slopes in Altansumber, the significant negative correlation between temperature and growth of birch occurred in May. On the south-facing slopes in Bugant, this negative correlation occurred earlier, in April. This negative temperature-growth relation was not confirmed for the larch chronology in Altansumber. In both research areas, the average annual growth performance was higher for conifers than for birch. The observed difference concerning growth performance and sensitivity to spring temperature may be to some extend related to the different protection capacities of birch and conifers against the very common low-intensity surface fires, which peak during spring and are partly driven by the climate factors. The number of obviously fire damaged trees in Bugant was up to over eight times higher for the thin-barked birches than for the thick-barked pine trees. In conifer-birch mixed stands, a low intensity surface fire regime has a more negative and longer-lasting influence on the growth of birch than on the growth of thick-barked conifers. However, intensive stand-replacing fires and repeated intensive cutting or clear cutting favour the dominance of birch succession due to their re-sprouting capacity. Forest structure characteristics and disturbance response were studied exclusively in Altansumber and could be linked to succession processes, fire and unregulated logging. A significantly irregular ("clumped") tree distribution was confirmed for all larch stands and the majority of the birch stands in Altansumber before the thinning. Due to coppicing, young birch often occurred in very small, tight clusters. Larch, in contrast, occurred in looser clusters spread over greater distances. Because birches have shorter life spans and compete more intensely with one another, they may have the capacity to develop in pure stands a random spatial distribution sooner than larch. Competition played a significant role in the light taiga stands monitored in this study. In Altansumber, the relationship between competition and growth was evaluated before, directly after and three years after the thinning. The thinnings were carried out with different thinning intensities (removal: 5.4% - 52.4% G). The main criteria for selecting trees for removal were relatively lower health status and growth capacity, as indicated by damages at the stem and crown development, by stem shape, as well as spacing between trees. This selection largely lead to thinnings from below. As expected, thinning promoted regular tree distribution. However, the ingrowth of new stems redirected stand structure towards clumped tree distribution. Growth was significantly triggered by the thinning-induced competition relief, and growth response was valid in absolute and relative terms. Compared to the period before the thinning, relative growth increase was slightly higher for birch than for larch despite the relatively late average stand age at the time of thinning in 2009, especially for the birch trees. Data were derived from tree-ring analyses (average age of the larch stands: ca. 22 and 61 years; birch stands: ca. 44 and 68 years). Based on the regional data of the recent national forest inventory (MPNFI) as reference values, regeneration in Altansumber was relatively low in all stands after thinning, whereas regeneration in Bugant was over average. Overall, the results indicate that a more methodical forest management strategy is feasible. Local silvicultural actions, however, need to serve multifunctional regional forest management objectives. The capacity of the forests to provide ecosystem services such as water and soil protection, continuous vegetation cover, and biodiversity and to contribute to the mitigation of negative effects of climate change has to be ensured. This is particularly challenging in the face of ongoing climate change, increasing disturbance frequency and the development of societal needs. The main silvicultural objectives should be to improve the stability and resilience of forest ecosystems against different disturbances while simultaneously enabling the utilization of some stands. Two utilization models may be possible: timber production (predominantly larch and pine) or energy wood production (predominantly birch). Dense light taiga stands designated as production forests could be thinned or selectively cut one to two times in the first 50-60 years of growth according to the criteria mentioned above. At a later stage, these stands could be transformed to shelterwood cutting systems for promotion of regeneration and for final utilization. Underplanting of regeneration should only be considered if the desired regeneration is not sufficient or if the stand shall be transformed to another tree species composition. Some of the succession birch stands close to settlements could be managed as coppice forests for energy wood production. Forest management guidelines need to be elaborated and take into account the special ecological and climatic conditions, different stand conditions, silvicultural objectives and realistic management options. Control mechanisms need to be reinforced by the national forest administration. It is recommended to analyze also the economic efficiency of silvicultural operations, e.g. different harvest systems. The results and conclusions of the project are derived from a relatively short study period. Long term effects of different selective cutting intensities need to be studied, especially with regard to stand stability, soil and sporadic permafrost.
Perspectives from worldwide experts on how major cities across the globe are responding to the major environmental threats of our time, including global climate change Over half of the world's population now lives in cities, and this share is expected to increase in the coming decades. With growing urbanization, cities and their residents face substantial environmental challenges such as higher temperatures, droughts, wildfires, and increased flooding. In response to these pressing challenges, some cities have begun to develop local environmental regulations that supplement national and environmental laws. In so doing, cities have stepped into a role that has been historically dominated by higher levels of government.Global Sustainable Cities takes stock of the policies that have been implemented by cities around the world in recent years in several key areas: water, air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate adaptation. It examines the advantages—and potential drawbacks—of allowing cities to assume a significant role in environmental regulation, given the legal and political constraints in which cities operate.The contributors present a series of case studies of the actions that seven leading cities—Abu Dhabi, Beijing, Berlin, Delhi, London, New York, and Shanghai—are taking to improve their environments and adapt to climate change. The first volume of its kind, Global Sustainable Cities is a critical comparative assessment of the actions that major cities in the global North and South are taking to advance sustainability
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Large-scale irrigation systems have emerged in Africa as a response to increasing the challenges of seeking food sovereignty and strengthening the livelihoods of people in rural areas. Decades later, the enthusiasm towards these systems is still present, while their real effects are becoming the subject of many controversies. Despite theimprovement they contribute to agricultural production, large irrigated systems generate risks concerning the social, economic, and ecological domains, which question their real impacts on the economic and food situation of the rural populations located in the project areas. This thesis is seeking the answer to the issues related to the impacts of large irrigated systems on beneficiaries by focusing on the specific case of the Bagré irrigation scheme in Burkina Faso. Specifically, it seeks to analyze how the irrigation scheme can contribute to reducing poverty, food insecurity, and the vulnerability of the irrigating households by comparing them to the rainfed households in the surrounding area. To achieve this, we first analyze the resource endowments of different farm household types and assess their state of poverty, economic and food insecurities by comparing economic indicators to usual thresholds and those defined with the communities in a participatory way. Then, we identify and prioritize the risks on the resources, estimate their occurrences as well as their ex-ante impacts on household income and consumption to assess their vulnerability to economic and food insecurities. In addition, the analysis by the economic indicators is confronted with the perception of the participants.Problems related to the sale ofpaddy rice are ranked by the workshop participants as the major constraints. The causes of these difficulties are analyzed, both by an economic reflection on the competitiveness of the local rice (value for money, eating habits, etc.) and by a multi-stakeholder workshop seeking to identify the main causes and to propose improving solutions. A mixed contribution of the irrigation scheme to improving the living conditions of the populations is highlighted: food security has improved thanks to the increase in rice productivity, but poverty remains a concern in the whole area where it affects more than half of the families. The lack of access to land and non-agricultural jobs and the high gap between the observed and expected yields are the main factors hindering the improvement of the living conditions of the poor irrigators. These poor are in permanent economic insecurity due to the high costs of intensive rice production and limited access to credit. They are also more vulnerable than the rainfed households to the economic and food insecurities because of the high risks of accessing to the production factors and the sale of their rice at a stable and profitable price. These results raise questions about the interest of the future extensionsof the irrigation scheme, given the fact that under the current conditions of land compensation, their impacts on the economic situation of the rainfed households (future beneficiaries) would not be significantly positive. Besides, the rainfed populationsexpress fears about new extensions (availability of water downstream). Better coordination and partnership between the stakeholders could reduce the local problems related to the sale of rice, but further analysis at the national level is needed to address the issue connected to the competitiveness of the local rice. Furthermore, the use of pesticides and their impacts on health and ecology, as well as the distribution of land resources, and the possibility of alternative crops are among the important questions to be explored as their results could contribute to the change in the mixed trajectory of the irrigation scheme. ; Les grands systèmes irrigués ont émergé sur le continent africain pour répondre aux enjeux de souveraineté alimentaire et renforcer les moyens d'existence des populations en milieu rural. Plusieurs décennies après, l'engouement autour de ces systèmes est toujours présent, alors que leurs effets réels sont au cœur de nombreuses controverses. Malgré l'amélioration qu'ils apportent à la production agricole, les grands périmètres irrigués génèrent des risques sociaux, économiques et écologiques importants qui questionnent leurs impacts effectifs sur la situation économique et alimentaire des populations bénéficiaires. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans cette problématique et étudie le cas particulier du périmètre irrigué de Bagré au Burkina Faso. Elle cherche précisément à analyser comment le périmètre contribue à réduire la pauvreté, l'insécurité alimentaire et la vulnérabilité des ménages irrigants en les comparant aux ménages pluviaux de la zone alentour. Pour y parvenir, les dotations en ressources de différents ménages types sont d'abord analysées et leur état de pauvreté, d'insécurité économique et d'insécurité alimentaire évalué, en confrontant des indicateurs économiques à des seuils usuels et définis avec les communautés de façon participative. Ensuite, les risques sur les ressources mobilisées sont identifiés et hiérarchisés, leurs occurrences et leurs impacts ex ante sur le revenu et la consommation estimés afin d'évaluer la vulnérabilité économique et alimentaire des ménages. De nouveau, l'analyse par les indicateurs économiques est confrontée à la perception des participants. Les problèmes d'écoulement de la production sont classés par les participants aux ateliers, parmi les contraintes majeures. Les causes de ces difficultés sont analysées, à la fois par une réflexion économique sur la compétitivité du riz local (rapport qualité/prix, habitudes alimentaires, .) et par un atelier multi-acteurs cherchant à identifier les causes essentielles et à proposer des solutions d'amélioration. Une contribution mitigée du périmètre à l'amélioration des conditions de vie des populations est mise en évidence: la sécurité alimentaire s'est améliorée grâce à la hausse de la productivité rizicole, mais l'état de la pauvreté demeure préoccupant dans l'ensemble de la zone où elle touche plus de la moitié des familles. L'accès limité au foncier et aux emplois non agricoles, l'écart élevé entre les rendements observés et espérés sont les facteurs principaux qui entravent l'amélioration des conditions de vie des irrigants pauvres. Ces derniers sont en insécurité économique permanente, générée par les coûts élevés des cultures intensives et l'accès limité au crédit, et sont plus vulnérables que les pluviaux à l'insécurité économique et à l'insécurité alimentaire en raison des risques d'accès aux facteurs de production et de vente de la production à un prix stable et rentable. Ces résultats questionnent l'intérêt des extensions futures du périmètre irrigué, d'autant plus que dans les conditions actuelles de compensation foncière, leurs impacts sur la situation économique des ménages pluviaux (futurs bénéficiaires) ne seraient pas significativement positifs. Par ailleurs, les populations pluviales émettent des craintes sur de nouvelles extensions (disponibilité de l'eau en aval). Une meilleure coordination et un partenariat entre les acteurs pourraient réduire les problèmes locaux liés à l'écoulement du riz, mais une analyse complémentaire au niveau national est nécessaire pour traiter de la question liée à la compétitivité du riz local. Par ailleurs, l'usage des pesticides et leurs impacts sur la santé et l'écologie, ainsi que la répartition des ressources foncières, la possibilité de cultures alternatives sont autant de questions à approfondir, dont les résultats pourraient contribuer à changer la trajectoire mitigée du périmètre irrigué.
Large-scale irrigation systems have emerged in Africa as a response to increasing the challenges of seeking food sovereignty and strengthening the livelihoods of people in rural areas. Decades later, the enthusiasm towards these systems is still present, while their real effects are becoming the subject of many controversies. Despite theimprovement they contribute to agricultural production, large irrigated systems generate risks concerning the social, economic, and ecological domains, which question their real impacts on the economic and food situation of the rural populations located in the project areas. This thesis is seeking the answer to the issues related to the impacts of large irrigated systems on beneficiaries by focusing on the specific case of the Bagré irrigation scheme in Burkina Faso. Specifically, it seeks to analyze how the irrigation scheme can contribute to reducing poverty, food insecurity, and the vulnerability of the irrigating households by comparing them to the rainfed households in the surrounding area. To achieve this, we first analyze the resource endowments of different farm household types and assess their state of poverty, economic and food insecurities by comparing economic indicators to usual thresholds and those defined with the communities in a participatory way. Then, we identify and prioritize the risks on the resources, estimate their occurrences as well as their ex-ante impacts on household income and consumption to assess their vulnerability to economic and food insecurities. In addition, the analysis by the economic indicators is confronted with the perception of the participants.Problems related to the sale ofpaddy rice are ranked by the workshop participants as the major constraints. The causes of these difficulties are analyzed, both by an economic reflection on the competitiveness of the local rice (value for money, eating habits, etc.) and by a multi-stakeholder workshop seeking to identify the main causes and to propose improving solutions. A mixed contribution of the irrigation scheme to improving the living conditions of the populations is highlighted: food security has improved thanks to the increase in rice productivity, but poverty remains a concern in the whole area where it affects more than half of the families. The lack of access to land and non-agricultural jobs and the high gap between the observed and expected yields are the main factors hindering the improvement of the living conditions of the poor irrigators. These poor are in permanent economic insecurity due to the high costs of intensive rice production and limited access to credit. They are also more vulnerable than the rainfed households to the economic and food insecurities because of the high risks of accessing to the production factors and the sale of their rice at a stable and profitable price. These results raise questions about the interest of the future extensionsof the irrigation scheme, given the fact that under the current conditions of land compensation, their impacts on the economic situation of the rainfed households (future beneficiaries) would not be significantly positive. Besides, the rainfed populationsexpress fears about new extensions (availability of water downstream). Better coordination and partnership between the stakeholders could reduce the local problems related to the sale of rice, but further analysis at the national level is needed to address the issue connected to the competitiveness of the local rice. Furthermore, the use of pesticides and their impacts on health and ecology, as well as the distribution of land resources, and the possibility of alternative crops are among the important questions to be explored as their results could contribute to the change in the mixed trajectory of the irrigation scheme. ; Les grands systèmes irrigués ont émergé sur le continent africain pour répondre aux enjeux de souveraineté alimentaire et renforcer les moyens d'existence des populations en milieu rural. Plusieurs décennies après, l'engouement autour de ces systèmes est toujours présent, alors que leurs effets réels sont au cœur de nombreuses controverses. Malgré l'amélioration qu'ils apportent à la production agricole, les grands périmètres irrigués génèrent des risques sociaux, économiques et écologiques importants qui questionnent leurs impacts effectifs sur la situation économique et alimentaire des populations bénéficiaires. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans cette problématique et étudie le cas particulier du périmètre irrigué de Bagré au Burkina Faso. Elle cherche précisément à analyser comment le périmètre contribue à réduire la pauvreté, l'insécurité alimentaire et la vulnérabilité des ménages irrigants en les comparant aux ménages pluviaux de la zone alentour. Pour y parvenir, les dotations en ressources de différents ménages types sont d'abord analysées et leur état de pauvreté, d'insécurité économique et d'insécurité alimentaire évalué, en confrontant des indicateurs économiques à des seuils usuels et définis avec les communautés de façon participative. Ensuite, les risques sur les ressources mobilisées sont identifiés et hiérarchisés, leurs occurrences et leurs impacts ex ante sur le revenu et la consommation estimés afin d'évaluer la vulnérabilité économique et alimentaire des ménages. De nouveau, l'analyse par les indicateurs économiques est confrontée à la perception des participants. Les problèmes d'écoulement de la production sont classés par les participants aux ateliers, parmi les contraintes majeures. Les causes de ces difficultés sont analysées, à la fois par une réflexion économique sur la compétitivité du riz local (rapport qualité/prix, habitudes alimentaires, .) et par un atelier multi-acteurs cherchant à identifier les causes essentielles et à proposer des solutions d'amélioration. Une contribution mitigée du périmètre à l'amélioration des conditions de vie des populations est mise en évidence: la sécurité alimentaire s'est améliorée grâce à la hausse de la productivité rizicole, mais l'état de la pauvreté demeure préoccupant dans l'ensemble de la zone où elle touche plus de la moitié des familles. L'accès limité au foncier et aux emplois non agricoles, l'écart élevé entre les rendements observés et espérés sont les facteurs principaux qui entravent l'amélioration des conditions de vie des irrigants pauvres. Ces derniers sont en insécurité économique permanente, générée par les coûts élevés des cultures intensives et l'accès limité au crédit, et sont plus vulnérables que les pluviaux à l'insécurité économique et à l'insécurité alimentaire en raison des risques d'accès aux facteurs de production et de vente de la production à un prix stable et rentable. Ces résultats questionnent l'intérêt des extensions futures du périmètre irrigué, d'autant plus que dans les conditions actuelles de compensation foncière, leurs impacts sur la situation économique des ménages pluviaux (futurs bénéficiaires) ne seraient pas significativement positifs. Par ailleurs, les populations pluviales émettent des craintes sur de nouvelles extensions (disponibilité de l'eau en aval). Une meilleure coordination et un partenariat entre les acteurs pourraient réduire les problèmes locaux liés à l'écoulement du riz, mais une analyse complémentaire au niveau national est nécessaire pour traiter de la question liée à la compétitivité du riz local. Par ailleurs, l'usage des pesticides et leurs impacts sur la santé et l'écologie, ainsi que la répartition des ressources foncières, la possibilité de cultures alternatives sont autant de questions à approfondir, dont les résultats pourraient contribuer à changer la trajectoire mitigée du périmètre irrigué.
Understanding connectivity between estuarine nurseries and marine habitats is fundamental to explore fish population dynamics and to the design of effective conservation and fisheries management strategies. The aim of this work was to provide the first faunistic and ecological baseline of Socotra Island (North-Western Indian Ocean) estuaries and lagoon fishes for governmental coastal managers and decision makers, with a particular focus on the population functioning of a sentinel species: Terapon jarbua. In this study, a multidisciplinary approach was developed to understand the functioning and importance of Socotra estuaries (TOCE's: Temporarily Open / Close Estuaries) and lagoons for marine fishes. Several biological and chemical tools (taxonomy, ecology, phylogenetics, population genetics, otolith microstructure, otolith microchemistry) were used and the main findings of this work are as follows: 1) Socotra estuaries are composed of 64 species in 30 families, a high figure by regional standards. The comparison with faunistic records from South Africa and Yemen mainland provides further support to Socotra's function as a biogeographic "stepping stone" for certain species. Moreover 33 out of the 64 recorded species were considered as relevant species for the local economy. This underscores the paramount importance of these coastal water bodies as spawning and nursery sites and for the sustainability of vital provisioning ecosystem services. 2) The phylogeography and the genetic structure of T. jarbua populations were analyzed considering Cytochrome c Oxidase subunit I and microsatellites and underlined two patterns of genetic structure. A high and significant genetic differentiation was observed at the scale of the Indo-West Pacific. Three population clusters could be drawn, the North-Western Indian Ocean cluster (Socotra, Yemen and Iran), the West Indian Shelf cluster and the Chinese Sea cluster. However, the large number of nucleotide differences raised some issues concerning the species identification as T. jarbua might be a species complex, despite the fact that it shows a characteristic color pattern easily identifiable. At the restricted scale of the North-Western Indian Ocean, recent population expansion after local extinctions during the Pleistocene glaciations might explain small but significant genetic differentiation. Considering microsatellites, genotyping highlighted a relatively high and significant genetic differentiation between estuaries, over the Socotra-Yemen region. Geographical distance is not a major structuring factor for T. jarbua populations in the wider Gulf of Aden region. The strict link between juvenile T. jarbua and TOCE's, and the opening/closing associated with possible demographic bottlenecks, could increase the local differentiation among estuaries. Although the dynamic environment of the region driven by the monsoon system could reduce the genetic differentiation between populations, the short larval stage duration and potential larval retention in particular sectors might reduce homogenization over larger geographical scale. 3) The analysis of otolith nucleus elemental composition suggested the existence of several marine spawning grounds, thus confirming the population genetics approach suggesting a regional model of metapopulation composed of open subpopulations (i.e. multiple sources and more or less pronounced mixtures of larval flows displaying a spatio-temporal variability). In addition, transect Sr:Ba ratio analysis along the otolith growth axis showed clear pattern of post larval migrations into estuarine nurseries where individuals remain for two years. Finally, otolith edges elemental fingerprint assignation tests to nurseries were highly accurate and could conduct in the future to the assessment of the contribution level of a particular nursery to the adult population of T. jarbua as well as others ecologically or economically important species. ; La compréhension de la connectivité entre les nourriceries estuariennes et les habitats marins est fondamentale pour l'étude de la dynamique des peuplements et des populations de poissons et pour la conception de stratégies efficaces de conservation et de gestion des pêches. Le but de ce travail était donc de fournir une première référence faunistique et écologique des poissons des estuaires et du lagon de l'île de Socotra (Nord-Ouest de l'Océan Indien) pour les gestionnaires de la zone côtière, avec un accent particulier sur le fonctionnement des populations d'une espèce sentinelle: Terapon jarbua. Dans cette étude, une approche multidisciplinaire a été développée afin de comprendre le fonctionnement et l'importance des estuaires (TOCE's : Temporarily Open / Closed Estuaries) et du lagon de l'île de Socotra pour les poissons marins. Différents outils de la biologie et de la chimie (taxonomie, écologie, phylogéographie, génétique des populations, microstructure et microchimie des otolithes) ont été utilisés et les principales conclusions de ce travail sont les suivantes: 1) Les estuaires de Socotra sont composés de 64 espèces dans 30 familles, un chiffre élevé par rapport aux normes régionales. La comparaison avec les inventaires faunistiques d'Afrique du Sud et du Yémen suggère que Socotra joue le rôle de tremplin biogéographique, en permettant la connexion d'une grande variété de groupes taxonomiques provenant de différentes unités biogéographiques. De plus 33 des 64 espèces recensées sont considérées comme importantes pour l'économie locale, soulignant l'importance primordiale des estuaires comme sites de fraie et nourriceries, pour le fonctionnement durable des services écosystémiques. 2) La phylogéographie et la structure génétique des populations de T. jarbua ont été analysées considérant des marqueurs de type Cytochrome c Oxydase sous-unité I et microsatellites. Une différenciation génétique élevée et significative a été observée à l'échelle de l'Indo-Ouest Pacifique. Trois groupes de populations ont pu être identifiés, le groupe du Nord-Ouest de l'Océan Indien (Socotra, Yémen et Iran), le groupe de l'Ouest de l'Inde et le groupe de la Mer de Chine. Cependant, les grandes différences nucléotidiques observées soulèvent certaines questions concernant l'identification de l'espèce et suggèrent que T. jarbua pourrait être en réalité un complexe d'espèces, en dépit du fait que la coloration caractéristique de T. jarbua facilite son identification. A l'échelle plus restreinte du Nord-Ouest de l'Océan Indien, une expansion récente de la population de T. jarbua après des extinctions locales au cours des glaciations du Pléistocène pourrait expliquer la faible mais significative différenciation génétique. Le génotypage des marqueurs microsatellites souligne une différenciation génétique relativement élevée et significative entre les estuaires, sur le secteur Socotra-Yémen. Si la distance géographique n'est pas un facteur structurant majeur des populations de T. jarbua dans la région du Golfe d'Aden, le lien étroit entre les juvéniles T. jarbua et les TOCE, ainsi que les phénomènes d'ouverture associés à de possibles goulots d'étranglement démographiques dans ces systèmes côtiers, peuvent expliquer la mise en place d'une différenciation génétique locale significative entre les estuaires. Bien que l'environnement dynamique de la région puisse limiter la différenciation génétique, la courte durée du stade larvaire de cette espèce (25 jours estimés par la lecture des microstructures de l'otolithe) et la possible rétention des larves dans certains secteurs peuvent réduire l'homogénéisation à plus grande échelle géographique. 3) Les analyses de la composition élémentaire des nucleus d'otolithes suggèrent l'existence de plusieurs zones de fraie marines ; ces données confrontées aux résultats des investigations en génétique des populations suggèrent un modèle régional de métapopulation composée de sous-populations ouvertes…
Social acceptance is considered to be a decisive factor for the development of wind energy. Surveys repeatedly show that while people support wind energy in general, specific wind farm projects often cause local opposition. Local resistance against wind energy cannot be explained by singular issues such as simple cost-benefit calculations, the public support for renewable energy sources, the implementation strategy of the developer, the number of wind turbines installed, the intensity of the turbine noise, the protection of local birds and animals, or the "not-in-my-backyard"-effect (Stadlober and Hahn 1998; Warren et al. 2005; Wolsink 2000, 2007a), although a very dominant influence seems to be the specific value of the landscape, the familiar surroundings and the habitat (Wolsink 2007b). Hence, the acceptance of wind energy depends on a complex set of individual and societal indicators, perceptions and preferences rooted in institutional and socio-political arrangements.
The project's approach was based on the concept of social acceptance (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007), which is composed of socio-political, market and community acceptance. Wüstenhagen et al. investigated spatial planning and financial procurement systems to assess socio-political acceptance, market innovation, consumer and investors behaviour to explain market acceptance, procedural and distributional justice and trust to contribute to the understanding of community acceptance. The three levels of acceptance do interact, have main actors associated and are influenced by their interactions and contributing expectations.
We recur to this triangle model because it provides a broad holistic framework widely recognised not only in a scientific but also in a practical context. TransWind established a conceptual and methodological reliable participatory integrated assessment in order to test various factors of social acceptance. On a macro scale the integrated assessment was based on semi-structured interviews, participatory workshops and a group discussion (WorldCafé) with the experts from our stakeholder group, an estimation of the theoretical wind area potential in Austria and a participatory modelling approach to analyse the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). On the community level focus groups, semi-structured interviews and presentations/tests of visualisation tools were conducted. Both the integration of results from the macro analyses to the community scale and the use of a mixed-method design ensured the inter- and transdisciplinary character of TransWind.
This approach is needed to gain new, practical and relevant insights, which could not have been obtained merely from scientific or interdisciplinary sources. The conceptual framework of TransWind therefore aimed at integrating in a systematic way the analytical perspectives of the scientists and their approaches with the preferences and perceptions of the persons concerned about the issue (stakeholders) through establishing a reference group, holding workshops and organising interviews and focus groups. The assessment was complemented by a GIS based modelling tool (Where the wind blows - WTWB), which allowed the participatory assessment of optimal locations for wind power, depending on the spatial distribution of wind resources. Inputs from the reference group were summarized in a criteria catalogue to define three scenarios (min, med and max) for potentially suitable wind turbine sites. These three scenarios were complemented by a fourth scenario that reflects the wind energy potential with suitability zones for wind energy already defined by Austrian federal states. For all potential locations we calculated the levelized cost of energy generation (LCOE) to derive wind energy supply curves for each scenario of potentially suitable wind turbine sites. Under the assumptions of the min scenario, only 3.5TWh of wind energy could be produced at relatively high costs of 96 to 243 € MWh-1. Thus, it would not be possible to meet the wind energy targets of 3GW installed capacity (equivalent to about 6.3TWh assuming current capacity factors) of the Austrian Eco-Electricity-Act 2012. The med and max scenario would allow for further expanding the wind energy share at reasonable cost of about 95 EUR MWh-1 even if electricity demand keeps steadily rising. The modelling results raised our understanding of the related costs and benefits and served as a basis for the case study selection.
In the case studies, TransWind worked with interactive 3D visualisation tools based on latest visualisation developments to provide real-time and realistic visualisations for discussing and assessing different planning strategies and siting processes related to the visual impact on the landscape. Our research on technologies for 3D modelling in the context of Wind turbine visualisations has shown that different concepts and methods exist. The simple image visualisations (static images) are state of the art in planning processes but they are increasingly criticised as there is no easy way to prove their reliability and the number of viewpoints is very limited. From a cost perspective it is still the most efficient technology and the images can be easily shared in reports, presentations or websites. Interactive 3D visualisations allow users to change their viewpoints interactively depending on personal motifs. Therefore, personal fears and expectations can be addressed which may lead to more objective discussions and exchange of opinions during planning processes. During the project, two very new technologies entered the stage: Augmented reality (AR) and Virtual reality (VR) applications. Both are driven by the fast spread of mobile phones and may provide some additional insights in the visual impact of wind turbines. Nevertheless there are still some technological barriers that leads to positioning errors or unrealistic views due to the missing masking of 3D objects by real world objects (in AR) or are lacking quality due to low screen resolutions of mobile phones (in VR).
Through the research in the case studies and the preferences expressed by the stakeholders of the reference group TransWind identified different and sometimes contrasting patterns of social acceptance, which enhanced our understanding about the economical, political, ecological and social feasibility of wind power plants. Our empirical results showed that all interview partners and focus group participants consider vertical and horizontal cooperation and coordination across different political levels and parties (stakeholders; experts; local to regional decision makers; citizens) to be important. The problem is that the process of interaction between these actors is often conflictual. Different factors could be highlighted explaining this divergence. Such factors can be seen in the conflict of interests, rationales and beliefs which strengthen the problems of coordination and cooperation. Furthermore, any wind energy project is characterised by the basic systemic conflict between nature conservation (protection of wildlife, habitat and landscape) and narratives of ecological modernisation (e.g. climate protection or energy transition). These moral concepts (core beliefs) and policy cores (general beliefs and perceptions in a specific policy field like wind energy) of the participants are unlikely to change. Only the so called secondary aspects, which relates to the implementation of a policy (e.g. instruments, concrete actions), are most likely to change and are subject to learning processes.
Solutions for local wind energy projects can only be found in coordinated processes of cooperation taking into account all patterns of social acceptance. In order to ensure acceptance, decision-making processes have to be reformed, justice sustained and thereby both input and output legitimacy enhanced. All of these factors were taken into account when TransWind finally established a guideline for various user audiences interested in handling the acceptance and non-acceptance of wind energy.
The article analyzes the criminal legislation of some European countries and post-Soviet countries to prevent criminal offenses in the field of land relations. The author came to the conclusion that despite belonging to different legal families, all the studied legal systems of the countries (ninety-four in total) are aware of the rules on criminal law protection of land relations. It is concluded that in the criminal codes of the vast majority of European countries there are no rules similar to those that provide criminal protection of land in Ukraine. Instead, the criminal codes of the post-Soviet states provide for liability for crimes similar to those criminalized in Ukraine. It was found that, as in Ukraine, parliamentarians of the continental legal system mostly moved by criminalizing land offenses, taking into account encroachment on property and the environment. The provisions of foreign criminal legislation that can be taken into account when improving the criminal legislation of Ukraine are highlighted. A comparative study showed that, as in Ukraine, the legislators of the continental legal system mostly moved by criminalizing the two groups of land offenses mentioned above. It was found that in most foreign countries the system of criminal punishment includes such an act as unauthorized occupation (seizure) of land. Due to a comprehensive analysis of the constitutional, criminal and land legislation of CIS countries, it has been established that in those of them where the state monopoly on land management remains, unauthorized occupation of the latter is regarded as a crime against the existing system of public administration. On the other hand, in states where the multiplicity and equality of all forms of land ownership have been proclaimed, the unauthorized occupation of a land plot (or other similar acts) is justifiably recognized as a crime against property. At the same time, national criminal law, in contrast to foreign countries, does not define liability for land use violations, as a result, the purpose of agricultural land is unreasonably changed, they are divided into small plots, thus preventing the preservation of targeted agricultural activities on large land . In addition, as those that can be taken into account when improving the Criminal Code of Ukraine, there are provisions of foreign criminal law, according to which: liability for pollution of natural resources is not associated with violation of special rules; differentiates liability for intentional and negligent manifestations of such pollution; increased responsibility for acts of land damage committed in the zone of ecological emergency; illegal possession of a part of a land plot is also recognized as criminally punishable; construction is recognized either as a qualifying feature of illegal occupation of land, or a form of criminal violation of land rights ; У статті проаналізовано кримінальне законодавство окремих європейських держав та країн пострадянського простору щодо запобігання кримінальним правопорушенням у сфері земельних відносин. Авторка дійшла висновку, що, незважаючи на належність до різних правових сімей, усім дослідженим законодавчим системам країн (всього дев'яносто чотири) відомі норми, присвячені кримінально-правовій охороні земельних відносин. Зроблено висновок, що у кримінальних кодексах більшості європейських держав відсутні норми, схожі з тими, що забезпечують кримінально-правову охорону земель в Україні. Натомість кримінальні кодекси держав пострадянського простору передбачають відповідальність за злочини, схожі з тими, що криміналізовано в Україні. З'ясовано, що, як і в Україні, парламентарії держав континентальної системи права здебільшого рухалися шляхом криміналізації земельних правопорушень з урахуванням посягання на власність та екологію. Виокремлено положення зарубіжного кримінального законодавства, які можуть бути враховані під час удосконалення кримінального законодавства України. Проведене компаративістське дослідження продемонструвало, що, як і в Україні, законодавець країн континентальної системи права здебільшого рухалися шляхом криміналізації двох згаданих вище груп земельних правопорушень. Виявлено, що у більшості зарубіжних країн до системи кримінально-караних належить таке діяння, як самовільне зайняття (захоплення) земельної ділянки. Завдяки комплексному аналізу норм конституційного, кримінального та земельного законодавства країн близького зарубіжжя встановлено, що в тих із них, в яких зберігається монополіядержави на розпорядження землею, самовільне зайняття останньої розцінюється як злочин проти наявної системи державного управління. Натомість у державах, в яких проголошено множинність та рівність усіх форм власності на землю, самовільне зайняття земельної ділянки (або інші подібні за змістом діяння) виправдано визнається злочином проти власності. Водночас національним кримінальним законодавством, на відміну від зарубіжних країн, не визначено відповідальність за порушення землекористування, унаслідок цього безпідставно змінюється цільове призначення сільськогосподарських земель, їх дрібнять на невеликі ділянки, унеможливлюючи таким чином збереження для ведення цілеспрямованої сільсько-господарської діяльності на великих земельних площах. Крім того, як такі, що можуть бути враховані під час удосконалення КК України, виділені положення іноземного кримінального законодавства, відповідно до яких: відповідальність за забруднення природних ресурсів не пов'язується з порушенням спеціальних правил; диференціюється відповідальність за умисні та необережні прояви такого забруднення; посилюється відповідальність за прояви псування земель, вчинені в зоні надзвичайної екологічної ситуації; кримінально караним визнається й незаконне заволодіння частиною земельної ділянки; будівництво визнається або кваліфікуючою ознакою незаконного зайняття земельної ділянки, або формою злочинного порушення прав на землю.
This work has been done in the context of fuel reprocessing in the nuclear industry. In fact, the handling of nuclear waste is one of the major issues in the nuclear industry. Its implications reach from economical to political to ecological dimensions. Since used nuclear fuel consists of 97 % of recyclable substances, many countries have chosen to reprocess used fuel, not only for economical reasons but also to limit the quantity of nuclear waste. The most widely employed extraction technique is the PUREX process, where the used fuel is diluted in nitric acid. The recyclable compounds can then be extracted by solvent techniques. Such processes need to be monitored crucially. However, nowadays, the process supervision is carried out by manually sampling the radioactive fluents and analyzing them in external laboratories. Not only prone to potential risks, this approach is little responsive and produces radiotoxic samples that cannot be reintroduced in the nuclear fuel cycle. In this study, we therefore present the development of a microfluidic glass sensor, based on the detection of a photothermal effect induced in the sample fluid. Microfluidics allows fluid handling on a microliter-scale and can therefore significantly reduce the sample volume and thereby the radiotoxcicity of the analyzed fluids. Photothermal spectrometry is well suited for small-scale sample analysis, since its sensitivity does not rely on the length of optical interaction with the analyte. The photothermal effect is a local refractive index variation due to the absorption of photons by the analyte species which are contained in the sample. On the sensor chip, the index refraction change is being sensed by an integrated Young interferometer, made by ion-exchange in glass. The probed volume in the channel was (33.5 ± 3.5) pl. The interferometric system can sense refractive index changes as low as ∆n_min = 1.2 × 10−6 , allowing to detect a minimum concentration of cobalt(II) in ethanol c_min = 6 × 10−4 mol/l, which is equivalent to an absorption coefficient of alpha_min = 1.2 × 10−2 cm−1 . At the detection limit, we could sense an absolute quantity of cobalt(II) of N_min = (20 ± 2) fmol. The interaction length between the excitation light and the sensing zone was li = 14.9 µm leading to a minimum detectable absorbance of K_min = (1.56 ± 0.12) × 10−5 . ; Ce travail s'inscrit dans le contexte du retraitement du combustible irradié dans l'industrie nucléaire. La gestion du combustible usé fait partie des enjeux majeurs de l'industrie nucléaire aujourd'hui. Ses vastes implications sont de nature économique, politique et écologique. Puisque le combustible irradié contient 97 % des matières valorisables, de nombreux pays ont choisi de retraiter le combustible, non tant pour des raisons économiques que pour le besoin de réduire la quantité en déchets radiotoxiques. Le procédé de séparation le plus répandu est connu sous le nom PUREX et consiste à diluer le combustible dans une solution d'acide nitrique afn d'en extraire les matières valorisables, comme notamment l'uranium et le plutonium. Le procédé est soumis à des strictes contrôles qui s'effectuent au présent par prélèvement et analyse manuel des flux radiotoxiques. Il n'existe cependant peu d'outils pour la supervision du procédé en ligne. Ces travaux visent alors à développer un capteur adapté à cet environnement de mesure à la fois acide et ionisant. Les verres borosilicates étant répandus pour leur inertie chimique, nous proposons l'étude d'un capteur optique fondé sur le substrat de verre Borofloat 33 de Schott. Le capteur étudié et réalisé a été fabriqué grâce à deux technologies différentes : l'optique intégrée sur verre par échange d'ions pour la fabrication de fonction de guidage optique, et la microfluidique pour la gestion des flux acides au sein du capteur. L'approche optique permet de répondre aux besoins de polyvalence, de sensibilité et d'immunité au rayonnement électromagnétique. La microfluidique permet, quant à elle, de travailler sur des très faibles volumes d'échantillon, réduisant ainsi la radiotoxicité des flux d'analyse. Le principe de mesure du capteur repose sur l'effet photothermique, induit dans le fluide par absorption optique d'un faisceau laser d'excitation. L'absorption entraîne un changement de l'indice de réfraction du fluide qui est sondé par un interféromètre de Young, intégré sur la puce. Le volume sondé au sein du canal était de (33,5 ± 3,5) pl. Le changement d'indice de réfraction à la limite de détection était de ∆n_min = 1,2 × 10−6 , nous permettant de détecter une concentration minimale de cobalt(II) dans de l'éthanol de c_min = 6 × 10−4 mol/l, équivalent à un coefficient d'absorption de alpha_min = 1,2 × 10−2 cm−1. À la limite de détection du capteur, une quantité de N_min = (20 ± 2) fmol de cobalt(II) peut être détectée. La longueur d'interaction était de li = 14,9 µm et par conséquent l'absorbance minimale détectable égal K_min = (1,56±0,12)×10−5.
As urban waterfronts around the world de-industrialize, cities are increasingly capitalizing on these opportunities to provide open space and alternative commuting routes along riverbanks, bringing residents and visitors back to the waterfronts. Cairo has remarkable opportunities to reconnect its people with the river that was historically its heart. With a population of over eleven million, Cairo is one of the densest cities in the world. The urban population is underserved by parks and other public open space. The need for open space—and the compelling attraction of the wide river—is put in sharp focus by a common sight on Cairo's traffic snarled bridges: families set up chairs and picnic on the sidewalks, overlooking the river and enjoying the open space, seemingly oblivious to the honking traffic that crawls besides them. Most of the river banks are fenced off from public access, but those that are open to the public are heavily used by Cairenes of all ages and all walks of life. The potential for human use of the river banks as open-space is enormous. In an intensive workshop involving 23 students and seven faculty from Cairo University (CU), The American University in Cairo (AUC), and the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), interdisciplinary teams systematically inventoried existing conditions along a 12-km reach of the Nile from Maadi to Tahrir Square, recording river-bank relations, building heights and conditions, circulation, and land-use. Based on this field work the student teams identified specific opportunities and challenges for interventions along the Nile. The low, wide flood plains along much of the Nile bank have great potential to be reconfigured into accessible and active public spaces. It was also identified as a feasible route for a continuous pedestrian/bicycle trail. Air quality measurements along the river bank showed that particulate matter levels along the flood plain were on average 30% lower than street level measurements. The presence of historic landmarks and tourist attractions along the Nile provides significant opportunities for urban revitalization and economic development. The excellent views of the Nile and the Pyramids of Giza available at many waterfront locations provide a unique opportunity that interventions along the waterfront can capitalize on. While some stretches of the Corniche have wide sidewalks that can be redesigned to function better as public spaces, the Nile bank provides ample opportunities for ecological restoration at many places. The presence of vacant lots along the Corniche provides opportunities for strategic developments and also for better open space connectivity with the rest of the city. The visible public interest in the limited ferry routes along the river illustrates the potential the Nile holds to function as a significant public transportation corridor if the city is able to expand the existing ferry system. There are also significant challenges related to existence of incongruent public and private land-uses along the Nile Corniche. Appropriate institutional and regulatory frameworks would be required to ensure that proposals for public space restructuring are implemented and maintained well. Urban waste management is a significant concern in Cairo and the Nile waterfront is no exception. Building on the identified opportunities and challenges, workshop participants developed a strategic plan for a longitudinally continuous trail network along the Nile with lateral connectivity to important nodes in Cairo. They also developed detailed plans for the revitalization of two key zones (Athur El Nabi and Old Cairo). The workshop ended just one week before the streets of Cairo became the venue for historic political demonstrations that eventually resulted in major political changes. While there have been many past efforts to rehabilitate the city and 'plan' the future growth of Cairo, including the 'Cairo 2050 Vision Plan' (a multi-year planning effort initiated by the Egyptian government and undertaken by international consultants), none of these prior efforts have highlighted the potential to develop the Nilotic riverfront. In the wake of the January events, 'Cairo 2050' quickly became uncertain and outdated. However, the collaborative research and planning process undertaken here could serve as a model for future planning efforts that are more in-touch with local conditions and reflective of real needs of everyday Cairenes. The political changes of January 2011 highlighted public desires, expectations, and demands for major economic changes and improvements in living conditions. Thus, the concept of reconnecting Cairo's urban population with the Nile is unusually timely. Bringing the people to the river banks could significantly improve daily life for millions, and could contribute to democratization of society and strengthening of the social fabric.
Predmet istraživanja ovog rada su modernizacijski razvojni procesi u gradu Splitu i uloga ekoloških stavova i percepcija urbanog okoliša u tim procesima. Rad je utemeljen na kombiniranom pristupu proizašlom iz sociologije okoliša i modernizacijskih teorija. Osnovni je postulat suvremene ekološke sociologije, proizašao iz tradicije "nove ekološke paradigme", da se društvo i okoliš ispituju u interakciji, s povratnim vezama između obje razine. Istraživanje se djelomično temeljilo na ovom pristupu, s obzirom da mu je cilj ispitati na koji se način odnose sociokulturne determinante ekoloških stavova i kvaliteta urbanog okoliša. Ovako orijentirano istraživanje ne zadovoljava strogi Durkheimov postulat o tumačenju društvenih činjenica (isključivo) drugim društvenim činjenicama, ali je usklađen s proširenom istraživačkom paradigmom sociologije okoliša koja teži eksplikaciji međusobnih odnosa društvene i okolišne razine. Drugi dio konceptualnog utemeljenja rada odnosi se na teorijske pristupe koji ekološke orijentacije smještaju u širu sociokulturnu matricu društvenih odnosa. U ovoj su tradiciji posebno prominentna tri pristupa: teorija društva rizika, teorija refleksivne modernizacije i Inglehartova teorija modernizacije. Iz ovih su pristupa proizašle brojne studije o odnosu bogatstva, postmaterijalističkih vrijednosnih orijentacija i okolišnih stavova, koje su se odvijale ili na makro razini nacionalnih država ili na mikro razini individualnih stavova. U posljednjih desetak godina istraživanja proizašla iz ove tradicije bilježe veliki napredak zbog konceptualnih poboljšanja, uz koje slijede i važne metodološke inovacije. U skladu s odgovarajućim nacrtima, istraživanja se provode na individualnoj razini, ali se analiziraju i na individualnoj i na agregiranoj razini, što je urodilo sadržajno bogatijim zaključcima nego studije koje su se zadržale na (odvojenoj) mikro ili makro jedinici analize. U radu opisano istraživanje potaknuto je idejom da se istraživanja odnosa okoliša i stavova moraju baviti i entitetima koji se nalaze između ovih dviju razina. Kao odgovarajuća prostorna mezo-razina nametnuo se prostor opsega srednje velikog grada, a kao reprezentativni primjer ovakvog područja izabran je grad Split. Kvaliteta urbanog okoliša je identificirana kao čimbenik koji je od neposrednog značaja za svakodnevni život stanovnika Splita te se očekuje da će imati moderirajući utjecaj na ekološke stavove, uz prije spomenute sociokulturne čimbenike koji proizlaze iz teorija modernizacije. Cilj je istraživanja bio na odgovarajući način izmjeriti kvalitetu urbanog okoliša i potom utvrditi postoji li interakcija između ekoloških stavova, postmaterijalizma i kvalitete okoliša na individualnoj razini, razini gradske četvrti i razini grada Splita. Istraživanjem provedenim na uzorku građanki i građana Splita utvrđeno je da nema empirijske podrške za tezu o prevlasti sociokulturnih determinanti ekoloških stavova u razvijenim društvima. Raširenost ekoloških orijentacija može se bolje objasniti tezom o njihovom općem prihvaćanju među stanovnicima Splita, u skladu s hipotezom o globalizaciji brige za okoliš. Empirijski uočene varijacije u ekološkim stavovima su više povezane sa sociodemografskim karakteristikama i partikularnim elementima modernizacijskog procesa poput političkog sudjelovanja nego sa širokim konceptom postmaterijalizma. Vezu između ekoloških stavova i modernizacijskih tendencija u gradu Splitu moderira kvaliteta okoliša, čiji je utjecaj na navedenu povezanost analiziran na razini gradskih zona. Istraživanje je pokazalo da u različitim zonama grada postoje bitno različiti obrasci povezanosti percepcije okoliša i ekoloških stavova. U pojedinim je dijelovima grada ova povezanost negativna, a u nekim pozitivna, što implicira da se s razlikama u kvaliteti okoliša pojedinih dijelova grada fundamentalno mijenja i struktura ekoloških stavova. Znanstveni je doprinos provedenog istraživanja detaljni opis strukture ekoloških stavova te utvrđivanje obrazaca veza između ekoloških stavova i (post)modernizacijskih vrijednosti, sociodemografskih varijabli i dodatnih čimbenika poput političke participacije na razini grada Splita. Nalaz da u pojedinim dijelovima grada na ekološke stavove djeluju percepcije okoliša u različitim smjerovima i intenzitetima ne bi bilo moguće utvrditi korištenjem samo uobičajenih - mikro ili makro - analitičkih razina i bez ciljanog prikupljanja podataka na razini urbane cjeline. ; Subject of this thesis are the modernization processes in the city of Split, in the context of environmental attitudes and the perception of urban environment in those processes. The thesis is based on the hybrid approach stemming from the environmental sociology and the modernization theories. Furthermore, it is based on the basic assumption of the modern environmental sociology, that society and the environment should be researched interactively, taking into account the links among both levels. The research was partly based on such approach, as its goal was to describe the links between sociocultural determinants of the environmental attitudes and the urban environmental quality. Such research does not fulfill the strict Durkheim's proposal on the explanations of the social facts using (exclusively) other social facts. It is in line, however, with the extended research paradigm of the environmental sociology which aims to make explicit the interrelations between the social and the environmental aspects. The second part of the conceptualization deals with the theoretical approaches which place the ecological orientations into the wider matrix of the social relations. In this tradition, we find three especially prominent approaches: risk society theory, reflexive modernization theory and Ronald Inglehart's version of modernization theory. Many studies analyzing the interrelations between wealth, postmaterialist values and environmental attitudes were based upon these approaches; they were however based either on the macro level of nation states or the micro level of individuals. In the last ten years, conceptual and methodological advances have been made in the environmental attitudes research. In accordance with the appropriate research designs, data has been collected at the individual level, but they are analyzed simultaneously both on the individual and the aggregated level. This has led to the richer conclusions than have been possible in the studies which dealt with the data analyzed separately on the micro and the macro level. The research design described in the following thesis has been motivated by the need to study entities beyond micro and macro levels. Thus, meso level unit in the form of a middle-sized city of Split was chosen. Urban environmental quality was identified as an important factor in the day-to-day lives of the citizens of Split. It is expected that the environmental quality will have a moderating effect in the link between the sociocultural factors and environmental attitudes. Research goal was thus to measure appropriately urban environmental quality and then determine the extent of the interaction between the environmental attitudes, postmaterialism and environmental quality on the 3 levels: individual-, neighborhood- and city-level. Research results, based on the sample of citizens of Split, indicate that there is no empirical support for the hypothesis of sociocultural factors being the most important predictor of environmental attitudes in the developed societies. Variations in environmental orientations are better explained using the globalization hypothesis. In other words, those variations are more closely linked with sociodemographic variables and some particular modernization elements such as political participation, than with a broad postmaterialism concept. The association between the environmental attitudes and the modernization tendencies in Split is moderated by the environmental quality, which was analyzed at the city-zones level. Study results show that there are markedly different patterns of association among the environmental quality perception and the environmental attitudes. The association is negative in some parts of the city, while it is positive in others, implying that differences in environmental quality fundamentally change the structure of environmental attitudes. Scientific contribution of the study is twofold. First, the structure of environmental attitudes is described in detail. Second, the associations in the city of Split among the environmental attitudes, (post)modernization values, sociodemographic variables and additional factors like political participation are disentangled. The main finding - that the perception of environmental quality affects environmental attitudes differently in various city zones - could not be established using only traditional (micro and macro) levels of analysis and without data gathered at the level of the urban settlement.
