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7 pages ; This entry seeks to synthesize the many definitions of journalism. Struggles over defining what qualifies as journalism and who qualifies as a journalist are more than discursive disputes; they are key points of departure for understanding the societal roles as well as social meanings of journalism in the twenty‐first century. In a basic sense, journalism refers to the systematic gathering, filtering, and circulating of information deemed to be news and in the public interest. But, as this entry shows, definitions of journalism are also complex normative, political, and ideological statements that may appear quite differently from different perspectives. This entry reviews how journalism was defined historically, what it came to represent in late modern times, and why it may need to be redefined to capture the complex realities of producing and consuming news in an information environment that challenges supposedly stable notions of what journalism is and why it matters.

The concept of reciprocity, particularly in the pro-social sense of mutually beneficial exchange, presents an opportunity befitting the start of a new journal on social media. Namely, how might a concept of social exchange help us understand a mediascape increasingly dominated by social exchange—where the sharing, receiving, and recirculating of information "gifts" is central to the very social and technical frameworks on which these media function? In essence, what might reciprocity, analyzed more purposefully, reveal about social media and society? The case of "reciprocal journalism" briefly described here is but one of many avenues for studying social (media) interactions and their implications, whether positive or negative.

Professionalism, norms and boundaries. Out of bounds: professional norms as boundary markers / Jane B. Singer -- Nothing but the truth: redrafting the journalistic boundary of verification / Alfred Hermida -- Divided we stand: blurred boundaries in Argentine journalism / Adriana Amado and Silvio Waisbord -- The wall becomes a curtain: revisiting journalism's news-advertising boundary / Mark Coddington -- Creating proper distance through networked infrastructure: examining google glass for evidence of moral, journalistic witnessing / Mike Ananny -- Hard news/soft news: the hierarchy of genres and the boundaries of the profession / Helle Sjøvaag -- Internal boundaries: the stratification of the journalistic collective / Jenny Wiik -- Encountering non-journalistic actors in newsmaking. Journalism beyond the boundaries: the collective construction of news narratives / David Domingo and Florence Le Cam -- Redrawing borders from within: commenting on news stories as boundary work / Sue Robinson -- Resisting epistemologies of user-generated content? cooptation, segregation and the boundaries of journalism / Karin Wahl-Jorgensen -- NGOs as journalistic entities: the possibilities, problems and limits of boundary crossing / Matthew Powers -- Drawing boundary lines between journalism and sociology, 1895-1999 / C.W. Anderson -- Epilogue

Amid a broader reckoning about the role of social media in public life, this article argues that the same scrutiny can be applied to the journalism studies field and its approaches to examining social media. A decade later, what hath such research wrought? In the broad study of news and its digital transformation, few topics have captivated researchers quite like social media, with hundreds of studies on everything from how journalists use Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, YouTube, and Snapchat to how such platforms facilitate various forms of engagement between journalists and audiences. Now, some 10 years into journalism studies on social media, we need a more particular accounting of the assumptions, biases, and blind spots that have crept into this line of research. Our purpose is to provoke reflection and chart a path for future research by critiquing themes of what has come before. In particular, our goal is to untangle three faulty assumptions - often implicit but no less influential - that have been overlooked in the rapid take-up of social media as a key phenomenon for journalism studies: (1) that social media would be a net positive; (2) that social media reflects reality; and (3) that social media matters over and above other factors.

To deal with ever-larger datasets, media scholars are increasingly using computational analytic methods. This article focuses on how the traditional (manual) approach to conducting a content analysis—a primary method in the study of media messages—is being reconfigured, assesses what is gained and lost in turning to computational solutions, and builds on a "hybrid" approach to content analysis. We argue that computational methods are most fruitful when variables are readily identifiable in texts and when source material is easily parsed. Manual methods, though, are most appropriate for complex variables and when source material is not well digitized. These modes can be effectively combined throughout the process of content analysis to facilitate expansive and powerful analyses that are reliable and meaningful.

Journalists and technologists increasingly are organizing and collaborating, both formally and informally, across major news organizations and via grassroots networks on an international scale. This intersection of so-called 'hacks and hackers' carries with it a shared interest in finding technological solutions for news, particularly through open-source software programming. This article critically evaluates the phenomenon of open source in journalism, offering a theoretical intervention for understanding this phenomenon and its potential implications for newswork. Building on the literature from computer science and journalism, we explore the concept of open source as both a structural framework of distributed development and a cultural framework of pro-social hacker ethics. We identify four values of open-source culture that connect with and depart from journalism—transparency, tinkering, iteration, and participation—and assess their opportunities for rethinking journalism innovation.

This article examines the relative value of open innovation principles for digital media, exemplified by the emergence of Open Application Programming Interfaces (Open APIs) at four news organizations: The New York Times, The Guardian, USA Today and NPR. The use of Open APIs represents a shift toward an open innovation paradigm that may help address twin challenges facing the news industry: the need for improved R&D and the need for new revenue streams. This paper extends the interdisciplinary study of open innovation to digital communication. Findings indicate that the use of Open APIs has accelerated R&D through knowledge-sharing with web developers; generated new means of commercializing content by extending a firm's product portfolio; and forged innovation networks that function as external R&D departments. The article discusses the constant negotiation between openness and control, and open and closed paradigms in journalism.

The all-consuming nature of coronavirus news coverage has made the COVID-19 pandemic a unique opportunity to explore the relationship between audience trust in and engagement with news. This study examines that relationship through 60 Zoom-based qualitative interviews conducted with a diverse sample of US adults during the early phase of the pandemic. We find that how people approach the news stems not only from how they perceive the trustworthiness of individual news outlets, but also from their own self-perceptions. News consumers believe journalism generally suffers from issues of bias, but that they are savvy and independent-minded enough to see through those biases to find the truth. Putting the concept of partisan selective exposure into conversation with folk theories of news consumption, we conclude that people's approach to and trust in news is as dependent on what they bring to the news as it is on what news brings to them.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and people's interactions with it—through virtual agents, socialbots, and language-generation software—do not fit neatly into paradigms of communication theory that have long focused on human–human communication. To address this disconnect between communication theory and emerging technology, this article provides a starting point for articulating the differences between communicative AI and previous technologies and introduces a theoretical basis for navigating these conditions in the form of scholarship within human–machine communication (HMC). Drawing on an HMC framework, we outline a research agenda built around three key aspects of communicative AI technologies: (1) the functional dimensions through which people make sense of these devices and applications as communicators, (2) the relational dynamics through which people associate with these technologies and, in turn, relate to themselves and others, and (3) the metaphysical implications called up by blurring ontological boundaries surrounding what constitutes human, machine, and communication.

A fundamental tenet of journalism is that news articles are based on facts, not assumptions or evaluations. A content analysis of recent deceptive news articles found that they contain a lower proportion of report statements (facts) and a higher proportion of both inferential statements (assumptions) and judgment statements (evaluations) than a random sample of ostensibly legitimate articles produced by the same major news organizations during the same timeframe. Implications for the practice and future of journalism are discussed.

This study explored the War on Terror framing process through interviews with journalists at USA Today, testing the presumption that, because frames are organizing principles whose manifestations extend beyond the level of content alone, journalists' personal discourse will reflect and reinforce frames found in the text. Results show that reporters "transmitted" the War on Terror as shorthand for policy, "reified" the frame as concrete and uncontested, and "naturalized" it as a taken-for-granted condition. These findings suggest broader lessons for the U.S. press in becoming more aware of the words and catchphrases that signify the prevailing wisdom of public officials.

Donald Trump's rapid ascension from reality show star to president threw into question many assumptions about how our media & political worlds work. His habit of lying, history of racist statements, & disdain for conventions upended traditional relations between journalists & political elites. Taking an expansive view of the contemporary media & political environment during the Trump years, this book portrays a media culture in transition. As journalism's very relevance comes to be increasingly questioned, we focus on how different actors - from Trump to small-town newspaper editors - use their cultural power to define journalism, assess its value, & question what the news should look like. The chapters chronicle how Trump & his allies turned attacks on journalists into a central component of a right-wing populist formula, with journalists positioned as just one more self-interested, out-of-touch elite.

Developing successful innovations in journalism, whether to improve the quality and reach of news or to strengthen business models, remains an elusive problem. The challenge is an existential concern for many news enterprises, particularly for smaller news outlets with limited resources. By and large, media innovation has been driven by never-ending pivots in the search for a killer solution, rather than by long-term strategic thinking. This article argues for a fresh approach to innovation built around the "jobs to be done" (JTBD) hypothesis developed by the late Clayton Christensen and typically used in business studies of innovation. However, attempts to bring the JTBD framework into the news industry have never taken hold, while scholars, too, have largely overlooked the framework in their study of journalism innovation. We argue that the JTBD approach can foster local journalism that is more responsive and relevant to the needs of local communities. It reorients journalism by focusing on identifying and addressing the underserved needs of communities, as understood by the communities themselves. It suggests that a bottom-up approach to appreciating the "jobs" that community members want done offers a model that supports both the editorial and business imperatives of local news organizations.