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The first Generations and Gender Survey in Finland was collected in 2021/2022 as a web-based survey. In addition to the standard GGS-questionnaire, the Finnish survey included two new modules: the Miller Instrument, which captures childbearing motivations, and Global uncertainties, which enquires about perceptions of future threats. To further advance research on family dynamics, data from GGS Finland is linked to administrative records. This allows researchers to explore employment and family trajectories until 2026. Analyses of core socio-demographic characteristics and well-established fertility indicators reveal that the sample, by and large, represents the target population.

AbstractEvolutionary theory predicts that returns on investments in family relations will vary by sex and life stage and that there can be a trade-off between mating and (grand)parenting. Family sociology has shown that whereas couple relations are central to happiness in older age, the effects of grandparenting are more mixed and context dependent. Here, we merge these two perspectives and study how partnership histories over the life course relate to happiness among Europeans aged 50+ and whether grandparental investment moderates these associations. Of particular interest is whether there are signs of trade-offs, cumulative benefits, or compensatory benefits between the type of couple relations and grandparenting in postreproductive age.We employed the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe with data from 26 European countries and Israel for the years 2004–2020. The analyses distinguish between respondents who are in their first, second, or third union through marriage or cohabitation; are divorced; are widowed; are living apart from a partner; or are single. We investigated how quality of life and life satisfaction are associated with these seven types of partnership histories and whether the associations are moderated by grandparental status and provision of grandchild care.Europeans with a partner, and especially those in their first union, were happier than those in other partnership groups, and grandparents were happier than individuals without grandchildren. Grandparental investment was associated with being happier in most partnership groups. The "grandparenting bonus" was greatest among unpartnered respondents, suggesting a compensatory effect. We found no signs of a cumulative effect, nor of costs to happiness from grandchild care.Our results illustrate how reproductive strategies over the life course shape happiness returns to grandparenting. Being a grandparent and, especially, providing care for grandchildren may compensate for the lower happiness associated with the loss or lack of a partner.

PurposeThe purpose of this editorial is to examine sociological research on the possibilities and pitfalls of social policies for mothers' employment participation, and identify research gaps in the existing literature. The paper aims to focus mainly on the implications of parental leave schemes on mothers' employment participation.Design/methodology/approachThe editorial discusses the inconsistencies in the current sociological debate on the impact of social policies on mothers' employment.FindingsThe relationship between parental leave policies and women's participation in the work force is complex. The literature shows a disagreement about whether such policies mitigate family‐related career disadvantages, or in fact, contribute to gender inequality in the labour market. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the interplay between social policies and mothers' labour market participation, and national and cross‐national variation in the consequences of childbirth on women's labour market participation the editorial points at the several aspects that need to be investigated in greater depth by further research. The editorial emphasizes the necessity of conducting in‐depth international comparisons in order to account for between‐country variations as well as within‐country variations. Furthermore, the symbolic nature of family policy must not be neglected.Originality/valueThe editorial identifies research gaps to be addressed by further research.

Es gilt zunehmend als selbstverständlich und ist sozialpolitisch erwünscht, dass Frauen, die ihre Erwerbstätigkeit aufgrund wichtiger gesellschaftlicher Aufgaben, wie der Betreuung und Erziehung von Kindern sowie der Betreuung von Angehörigen, unterbrochen haben, einen Wiedereinstieg in den Arbeitsmarkt anstreben. Der Wunsch, wieder beruflich aktiv zu sein, trifft sich mit den Interessen der Wirtschaft. Denn schon heute ist in einigen Branchen ein höherer Bedarf an Fachkräften spürbar. Im Zuge des demographischen Wandels wird sich dieser noch verstärken. Der Beitrag analysiert die Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf in sieben europäischen Ländern (Dänemark, Deutschland, Frankreich, Finnland, Großbritannien, Schweden und die Schweiz). Der Beitrag untersucht Dauer und Gründe der Erwerbsunterbrechung, betrachtet die Erwerbsarrangements von Paaren und analysiert detailliert die subjektive Wahrnehmung der Vereinbarkeit von Familie und Beruf in den sieben europäischen Ländern. Außerdem betrachtet der Beitrag die allgemeine Ausrichtung der Familienpolitik und die institutionellen Regelungen in diesen Ländern. (ICB2).

Lower childbearing intentions can stem from a lack of social resources. However, not only actual but also perceived social support might signal that parents and parents-to-be will not be alone after having a child. Using register and GGS-Finland data from 2021-22, we investigate how emotional and instrumental support received from parents and other social network members, as well as a person's subjective feeling that their social network is sufficient (measured as the absence of loneliness), are associated with fertility intentions. Logistic regression models reveal that receiving instrumental support - especially financial support - from parents and other relatives (but not non-kin) is associated with higher childbearing intentions. Not feeling lonely is also associated with higher childbearing intentions, particularly among individuals aged 26-30 years. Gender and partnership status nuance these associations. We conclude that social resources - indicated by both perceived and received support - shape childbearing intentions for those approaching or in prime childbearing age. The lack of perceived social resources among young adults may contribute to relatively low fertility, even in a high-income country with generous family policies such as Finland.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze how employed women perceive the reconciliation of work and family life in Denmark, Germany, France, Finland, Great Britain, Sweden and Switzerland. The paper seeks to explore why women in certain countries are more successful in combining family responsibilities with gainful employment.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on data from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 2005, the questions are addressed by applying country specific linear regression analysis at the individual level, correlations at the country level as well as policy analysis.FindingsThe analysis shows that the most important factors influencing employed women's perception of the reconciliation are work load, the presence of children in the household and part‐time employment. In addition, the findings point at cross‐national differences. In countries where family policies focus on integrating men and women into the labour market, women rate the reconciliation of work and family life higher than in countries whose family policies aim at supporting the family.Research limitations/implicationsBy comparing seven European countries the paper shows that family policies are closely related to employed women's perceptions of the reconciliation. In order to understand the interaction between the individual perception and the institutional framework, the paper suggests that further research is needed on women's perceptions in each country.Originality/valueThe paper explores how employed women perceive the reconciliation of work and family life in seven European countries and explains the differences by means of family policies.

This study explores the associations between receiving social support from network members other than individuals' parents and fertility intentions in Finland. It additionally examines whether support from others can compensate for the lack of parental support or complement their support. Using logistic regression models applied to Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) data on individuals aged 18–45 years enriched with administrative registers, we found that Finns who received instrumental support from others were more likely to intend to have a child. Support from others did not compensate for, nor complement, a lack of parental support or parental geographic remoteness. However, among men with at least one parent deceased or unknown, those receiving emotional support from others were more likely to intend to have a child within three years (and as likely as individuals with both parents alive) than those not receiving this support, suggesting a compensatory mechanism.

Despite tremendous advances in women's educational attainment and employment over time, women still enrol into different fields of study than men and earn less once they enter the labour market. These aspects are interrelated, as fields of study preferred by women are associated with lower wages. This thesis aims to disentangle the process, in which gender differences in field of study choices emerge and transform into gender inequality in the labour market through four steps: occupational expectations in adolescence, field of study choices in higher education, early labour market careers, and subsequent employment trajectories. Empirically, each step is addressed by means of a quantitative analysis, with data sets, key predictors, and modelling strategies accommodating the specific research question at hand. The results confirm previous research and offer new insights on specific explanations. First, gender differences in task-related preferences, i.e., occupational interests, are important for explaining horizontal sex segregation. Occupational interests are strongly related to subject-specific specialization and performance in the secondary educational system, suggesting that young men and women develop gender-specific skill- and interest profiles throughout their educational trajectories. These profiles seem to align with cultural notions of tasks and skills particularly suitable for each gender. The results also show that the labour market and the occupational structure are important institutions embodying such norms of masculinity and femininity. Thus, certain environments seem to strengthen gender differences in occupational preferences. Mechanisms driving educational choices, such as interests, seem to differ from those that foster gender inequality in the labour market. In specific, the extent to which educational and occupational decisions transform into labour market inequality is contingent on the institutional setting. While the results confirm that the sex composition of fields of study and occupation structures gender inequality, it does not evoke disadvantage across all contexts. Finally, horizontal sex segregation does not affect labour market trajectories of men and women similarly. Thus, theoretical explanations need to be adapted to accommodate gender-specific patterns, which, in turn, might be context-dependent. The horizontal sex segregation is resilient to change if the occupational structure supports a realization of 'gender-typical' occupational interests. Meanwhile, gender differences in occupational interests are not necessarily detrimental for employment trajectories, if the labour market enables highly-qualified women to pursue these paths in well-remunerated occupations.

In Germany, the structuring principle connecting the educational system and the labour market is occupations. In theory, this occupational principle is gender-neutral, because both women and men are channelled into jobs according to the occupations for which they are trained. In practice, however, it means that patterns of occupational sex segregation in the education system are reproduced in the labour market. As a consequence, occupational sex segregation has important consequences for the subsequent employment biographies and life courses of women and men. In this chapter, we study the relevance of occupational sex segregation for the (re-)production of gender inequalities in the German labour market. More specifically, we examine long-term trends in occupational sex segregation, how occupational sex segregation is causally linked to other occupational characteristics, how these occupational characteristics translate into gender inequalities regarding non-monetary labour market outcomes, and how these occupational characteristics affect the gender wage gap.