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To understand the persistence of racial disparities across multiple domains (e.g., residential location, schooling, employment, health, housing, credit, and justice) and to develop effective remedies, we must recognize that these domains are reciprocally related and comprise an integrated system. The limited long-run success of government social policies to advance racial justice is due in part to the ad hoc nature of policy responses to various forms of racial discrimination. Drawing on a systems perspective, I show that race discrimination is a system whose emergent properties reinforce the effects of their components. The emergent property of a system of race-linked disparities is über discrimination—a meta-level phenomenon that shapes our culture, cognitions, and institutions, thereby distorting whether and how we perceive and make sense of racial disparities. Viewing within-domain disparities as part of a discrimination system requires better-specified analytic models. While the existence of an emergent system of über discrimination increases the difficulty of eliminating racial disparities, a systems perspective points to strategies to attack that system. These include identifying and intervening at leverage points, implementing interventions to operate simultaneously across subsystems, isolating subsystems from the larger discrimination system, and directly challenging the processes through which emergent discrimination strengthens within-subsystem disparities.

Racial Discrimination — Overview and History Racism is and always has been a part of life in the United States. In various degrees and forms, it is a component of day‐ to‐day American society. Racism is both overt and covert. It takes two, closely related forms: institutional whites acting against blacks, acts by the total white community against the black community, and acts by individual whites against individual blacks. These are termed acts of institutional racism and acts of individual racism. Individual racism consists of overt acts by individuals, which cause death, injury, or the violent destruction of property. It can be reached by television cameras; it can frequently be observed in the process of commission. Institutional racism is less overt, far more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts. But it is no less destructive of human life. Institutional racism originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society and thus receives far less public condemnation than individual racism.(5, p.1)

What is the relationship between 'racism' and 'race discrimination'? The paper explores this question. It shows that once we look beyond racism understood colloquially as individual bigotry, to racism understood in a structural sense as embedded in the social, economic, cultural and political dimensions of the State itself, it is possible to locate racism in the practice of discrimination law, within the category of race discrimination. Yet, discrimination law frequently fails to grasp structural racism. The paper reveals how this happens and in turn shows how race discrimination can be infiltrated with a structural view of racism. The overall purpose is to establish that discrimination law fails to be relevant in the face of contemporary forms of racism in the absence of a structural view.

1. Introduction to race matters -- 2. Race matters in race relations -- 3. Race matters in the United nation's -- 4. Race matters in Australia and New Zealand -- 5. Race matters in Africa and South Africa -- 6. Race matters in Canada, Mexico and the United States -- 7. Race matters in the North American free trade agreement -- 8. Race matters in the United Kingdom and Ireland -- 9. Race matters in the European Union -- 10. Conclusion to race matters.

"Loaded Dice: Race & Risk in the United States presents the historical relationship between statistical risk assessment and race in the United States. It illustrates how, through a reliance on the variable of race, actuarial science transformed the nature of racism and, in turn, helped usher racial disparities in wealth, incarceration, and housing from the nineteenth century into the twentieth. The monograph begins by investigating the development of statistical risk assessment explicitly based on race in the late-nineteenth-century life insurance industry. It then traces how such risk assessment migrated from industry to government, becoming a guiding force in sentencing and parole decisions and in federal housing policy. Finally, it concludes with an analysis of "proxies" for race-statistical variables that correlate significantly with race--in order to demonstrate the persistent presence of race in risk assessment even after the anti-discrimination regulations won by the Civil Rights Movement. Offering readers a new perspective on the historical importance of actuarial science in structural racism, Loaded Dice is a particularly timely contribution as Big Data and algorithmic decision making increasingly pervade American life"--

Immigrant-origin minorities are underrepresented in many democratic legislatures. This paper evaluates the direct effects of voter discrimination on the electoral performance of minority political candidates in Germany. Using evidence from both a survey experiment and actual election data, the paper tests two mechanisms of discrimination-negative attitudes toward minority groups and assumptions about candidate ideology-and shows that neither results in a substantial penalty for the small numbers of minority candidates who actually compete for office. Minority candidates in Germany typically run for political parties that discriminating voters would not have supported in any case. Adapted from the source document.

This study investigates the effects of race and gender on perceived employment discrimination using the 2016 General Social Survey that provides new data on perceived employment discrimination that aligns more closely with the legal definition of employment discrimination. It is found that 19% of the American adults self-reported the experience of employment discrimination in job application, pay increase, or promotion in the past 5 years. The results of logistic regression analysis show that either controlling or not controlling for other factors, Blacks were much more likely to perceive being discriminated in employment than Whites, but other races were not significantly different from Whites in perceived employment discrimination after holding other variables constant. While gender did not have a significant independent effect on perceived job discrimination, it did interact with race to influence perceived job discrimination. Regardless of race, women were somewhat less likely than men to perceive job discrimination, but Black women were significantly even less likely than White women to self-report job discrimination, and Black men were much more likely to self-report employment discrimination than White men. These findings have implications for combating employment discrimination and addressing social inequalities.

"The following employment study is divided into three parts. The first part describes in detail the situation of foreign employees on the German labour market. Furthermore, possible causes for the situation of migrants on the labour market are discussed and prognoses on the further development are given. Both of the second and third parts of the employment analysis focus on a more specific topic: As education and qualification are the most important conditions for integration in the labour market, different possibilities of qualification especially for young people with a migrant background are described in more detail first. Although the relatively poor positioning of migrants in the labour market is mostly explained by references to human capital factors, it cannot be denied that cases of discrimination do occur, both upon entering the labour market and in the workplace. Therefore, in the third part of the following study, several qualitative studies and also court cases were analysed to examine cases of discrimination in the labour market, too." (author's abstract)