Suchergebnisse

Die European Values Study ist ein groß angelegtes, länderübergreifendes und längsschnittliches Umfrage-Forschungsprogramm zu der Frage, wie Europäer über Familie, Arbeit, Religion, Politik und Gesellschaft denken. Die Umfrage wird alle neun Jahre in einer wachsenden Zahl von Ländern wiederholt und bietet Einblicke in die Ideen, Überzeugungen, Präferenzen, Einstellungen, Werte und Meinungen der Bürger in ganz Europa.

Die EVS 2008 Erhebung konzentriert sich weiterhin auf ein breites Spektrum von Werten. Die Fragen sind zwischen den Wellen und Regionen in hohem Maße vergleichbar, so dass sich der EVS für Forschungsarbeiten zur Untersuchung von Trends im Zeitverlauf eignet. Eine wesentliche Verbesserung in dieser vierten Welle ist der umfangreiche Satz an soziodemografischen Hintergrundvariablen, der dem Fragebogen hinzugefügt wurde und weitreichende Analysen der Determinanten von Werten ermöglicht.


Moralische, religiöse, gesellschaftliche, politische, ökonomische und
soziale Wertvorstellungen der Europäer.

Themen: 1. Wahrnehmung des Lebens: Wichtigkeit der Lebensbereiche:
Arbeit, Familie, Freunde und Bekannte, Freizeit, Politik und Religion;
Häufigkeit von politischen Gesprächen mit Freunden; Glücksempfinden;
Selbsteinschätzung der eigenen Gesundheit; Mitgliedschaften in
Vereinigungen und Ableisten unbezahlter Arbeit (ehrenamtliche
Tätigkeit) in Sozialeinrichtungen, religiösen oder kirchlichen
Organisationen, Bildung oder kulturellen Aktivitäten, Gewerkschaften,
politischen Parteien, lokalen politischen Maßnahmen, Menschenrechts-
oder Umweltschutzgruppen, Berufsverbänden, Friedensbewegung,
Jugendarbeit, Sportvereinen, Frauengruppen, freiwillige Verbände des
Gesundheitswesens; Toleranz (soziale Distanz) gegenüber Minderheiten
(Personen mit Vorstrafen bzw. anderer Rasse, linke bzw. rechte
Extremisten, Alkoholabhängige, kinderreiche Familien, emotional
instabilen Menschen, Muslime, Einwanderer, Aidskranke, Drogensüchtige,
Homosexuelle, Juden, Zigeuner und Christen); Personenvertrauen;
Einschätzung des Verhaltens der meisten Menschen als fair und
hilfsbereit; interne oder externe Kontrolle; Lebenszufriedenheit
(Skalometer).

2. Arbeit: Wichtigste Ursache für die Bedürftigkeit von Menschen;
Bedeutung ausgewählter Aspekte der betrieblichen Arbeit; Erwerbsstatus;
allgemeine Arbeitszufriedenheit; selbstbestimmtes Arbeiten im Job;
Arbeitsorientierung (Arbeits-Ethik-Skala); wichtige Aspekte von
Freizeit; Einstellung zur kritiklosen Befolgung von Arbeitsanweisungen;
Arbeitsplätze vorrangig für Landsleute vor Ausländern sowie für Männer
vor Frauen.

3. Religion: Individuelle oder allgemeingültige klare Leitlinien für
Gut und Böse; Konfession; aktuelle und ehemalige Konfession; derzeitige
Kirchgangshäufigkeit sowie im Alter von 12 Jahren; Bedeutung von
religiösen Feiern bei Geburt, Heirat und Begräbnis; Selbsteinschätzung
der Religiosität; Kirchen geben adäquate Antworten auf moralische
Fragen, bei Problemen des Familienlebens, auf spirituelle Bedürfnisse
und soziale Probleme des Landes; Glaube an Gott, ein Leben nach dem
Tod, Hölle, Himmel, Sünde und Wiedergeburt; persönlicher Gott versus
Geist oder Lebenskraft; persönliche Verbindung mit dem Göttlichen ohne
Kirche; Interesse am Übernatürlichen; Einstellung zur Existenz einer
einzigen wahren Religion; Bedeutung von Gott im eigenen Leben
(10-Punkte-Skala); Erlebnis von Wohlbefinden und Kraft aus Religion und
Glauben; Momente des Gebetes und der Meditation; Häufigkeit von
Gebeten; Glaube an Glücksbringer oder Talisman (10-Punkte-Skala);
Haltung gegenüber der Trennung von Kirche und Staat (ungläubige
Politiker gehören nicht in die Regierung, religiöse Führer sollten
Entscheidungen der Regierung nicht beeinflussen).

4. Familie und Ehe: Wichtigste Kriterien für eine erfolgreiche Ehe
(Skala); Einstellung zur Kinderbetreuung (ein Kind braucht ein Zuhause
mit Vater und Mutter, eine Frau braucht Kinder zur eigenen Erfüllung,
Ehe ist eine veraltete Institution, Frau als Alleinerziehende);
Einstellung zur Ehe, zu Kindern, zur traditionellen Familienstruktur,
Kinder als gesellschaftlicher Auftrag, Elternpflege, Adoption für
homosexuelle Paare (Skala); Haltung gegenüber dem traditionellen
Rollenverständnis von Mann und Frau in Beruf und Familie (Skala)
Respekt und Liebe für die Eltern; Verantwortung der Eltern für ihre
Kinder und Verantwortung erwachsener Kinder für ihre Eltern, wenn diese
der Langzeitpflege bedürfen; Wichtigkeit von Erziehungszielen für
Kinder in der Familie; Haltung gegenüber Abtreibung (außerehelich und
in der Ehe).

5. Politik und Gesellschaft: politisches Interesse; politische
Partizipation (Skala); Präferenz für individuelle Freiheit oder soziale
Gleichheit; Selbsteinschätzung auf einem Links-Rechts-Kontinuum
(10-Punkte-Skala); Präferenz für mehr Eigenverantwortung oder
staatliche Lenkung; freie Entscheidung eines Arbeitslosen für die
Akzeptanz eines angebotenen Arbeitsplatzes; Wettbewerb stimuliert den
Willen zur Arbeit; Freiheit von Unternehmen oder staatliche Kontrolle
(Neoliberalismus); Präferenz für Einkommensangleichung oder Anreize für
individuelle Bemühungen; Präferenz für Marktwirtschaft oder
Staatswirtschaft; Postmaterialismus; gewünschte gesellschaftliche
Entwicklung (Schwerpunkt auf materiellen Besitztümer, mehr Respekt vor
Autorität); Institutionenvertrauen (Skala); Demokratiezufriedenheit;
Bewertung des politischen Systems des Landes als gut oder schlecht
(10-Punkte-Skala); bevorzugte Art des politischen Systems (starke
Führungspersönlichkeit, Expertenentscheidungen, Armee sollte das Land
regieren oder Demokratie); Einstellung zur Demokratie (Skala).

6. Moralische Haltungen und Wertorientierungen (Skala: Einstellung zu
unberechtigter Inanspruchnahme staatlicher Leistungen,
Steuerhinterziehung, unbefugte Nutzung eines fremden Fahrzeugs, Konsum
weicher Drogen, Lügen, Ehebruch, Bestechung, Homosexualität,
Abtreibung, Scheidung, Euthanasie, Selbstmord, Schwarzarbeit,
Gelegenheitssex, Schwarzfahren, Prostitution, Experimente mit
menschlichen Embryonen, genetische Veränderung von Lebensmitteln,
Insemination oder In-vitro-Fertilisation und Todesstrafe).

7. Nationale Identität: geografische Gruppe, der der Befragten sich
zugehörig fühlt (Stadt, Region, Land, Europa, Welt);
Staatsangehörigkeit; Nationalstolz; mit der Europäischen Union
assoziierte Ängste (Verlust der sozialen Sicherheit und der nationalen
Identität, wachsende Ausgaben des eigenen Landes, Machtverlust des
eigenen Landes in der Welt und den Verlust von Arbeitsplätzen);
Einstellung zu einer Erweiterung der Europäischen Union (Skalometer);
Wahlabsicht bei der nächsten Wahl und Parteipräferenz; Partei, die am
meisten zusagt; präferierte Einwanderungspolitik; Einstellung zu
Terrorismus; Haltung gegenüber Einwanderern und ihren Bräuchen sowie
Traditionen (nehmen Arbeitsplätze weg, untergraben das kulturelle Leben
des Landes, verschlimmern Kriminalitätsprobleme, belasten das
Wohlfahrtssystem des Landes, Bedrohung für die Gesellschaft,
unterschiedliche Bräuche und Traditionen aufrechterhalten);
Fremdheitsgefühl im eigenen Land; zu viele Einwanderer; wichtige
Aspekte der nationalen Identität (im Land geboren sein, Respektieren
der politischen Institutionen und Gesetze des Landes, Abstammung,
Sprechen der Landessprache, lange Zeit im Land gelebt haben); Interesse
an Politik in den Medien; Informieren der Behörden um der Gerechtigkeit
willen; Kümmern um eigene Angelegenheiten; Nähe zu: Familie,
Nachbarschaft, den Menschen in der Region, Landsleuten, Europäern und
zur Menschheit; Besorgnis über die Lebensbedingungen von älteren
Menschen, Arbeitslosen, Migranten und kranken oder behinderten Menschen
sowie Kindern in armen Familien.

8. Umwelt: Einstellung zum Umweltschutz (Skala: Bereitschaft zur
Abgabe eines Teils des eigenen Einkommens für die Umwelt,
Überbevölkerung, verheerende Konsequenzen menschlicher Eingriffe in die
Natur, menschlicher Scharfsinn erhält die Erde bewohnbar, das
Gleichgewicht der Natur ist stark genug, um die Auswirkungen der
modernen Industrienationen zu bewältigen, Menschen sind dazu bestimmt,
über den Rest der Natur zu herrschen, eine ökologische Katastrophe ist
unvermeidlich).

Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsjahr); geboren im Land des
Interviews; Geburtsland; Jahr der Einwanderung in das Land;
Herkunftsland des Vaters und der Mutter; Familienstand; Zusammenleben
mit dem Partner vor der Ehe oder vor der Eintragung der Partnerschaft;
Zusammenleben mit einem Partner derzeit bzw. in der Vergangenheit;
fester Partner; verheiratet mit dem früheren Partner; Ende der
Beziehung; Kinderzahl; Geburtsjahr des ersten Kindes; Haushaltsgröße
und Haushaltszusammensetzung; traumatische Ereignisse: der Tod eines
Kindes, von Vater oder Mutter, Scheidung eines eines Kindes, Scheidung
der Eltern oder anderer Verwandter; Alter des Befragten zum Zeitpunkt
dieser Ereignisse; Alter bei Schulabschluss; höchster erreichtes
Bildungsniveau; Beschäftigungsstatus; Arbeitnehmer oder Selbständige im
letzten Job; Beruf (ISCO-88) und berufliche Stellung; Leitungsfunktion
und Kontrollspanne.

Soziale Herkunft und Charakteristik des Partners: Partner des
Befragten oder Ehegatte: Partner ist im Land geboren bzw. Herkunftsland
des Partners; höchster Bildungsabschluss; Erwerbsstatus des Partners;
Beschäftigung oder selbständige Erwerbstätigkeit der Partner in seinem
bzw. ihrem letzten Job; Beruf des Partners (ISCO-88) und berufliche
Stellung; Leitungsfunktion des Partners und Kontrollspanne;
Arbeitslosigkeit und Abhängigkeit von sozialer Sicherung des Befragten
und seines Partners länger als drei Monate in den letzten fünf Jahren;
Höhe des Haushaltseinkommens; Zusammenleben mit den Eltern, als der
Befragte 14 Jahre alt war; höchstes Bildungsniveau von Vater und
Mutter; Beschäftigungsstatus von Vater und Mutter, als der Befragte 14
Jahre alt war; Beruf von Vater und Mutter (ISCO-88); Anzahl der
Beschäftigten (Unternehmensgröße bei Selbständigen); Leitungsfunktion
und Kontrollspanne von Vater und Mutter, Charakterisierung der Eltern
als der Befragte 14 Jahre alt war (Skala: gerne Bücher gelesen,
politische Diskussionen zu Hause mit ihrem Kind, gerne die Nachrichten
verfolgt, Probleme über die Runden zu kommen, Probleme Unbrauchbares zu
ersetzen); Region, in der der Befragten im Alter von 14 Jahren lebte;
derzeitiger Wohnort; Ortsgröße; Region.

Interviewerrating: Interesse des Befragten am Interview.

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Interviewernummer; Interviewdatum;
Interviewlänge; Zeitpunkt des Interviews: Interviewbeginn
(Stunde und Minute) und Interviewende (Stunde und Minute); Sprache,
in der das Interview durchgeführt wurde.

Zusätzliche länderspezifische Variablen sind in den nationalen
Datensätzen enthalten.

On Wednesday, Erik Hurst presented a lovely paper, "The Distributional Impact of the Minimum Wage in the Short and Long Run," written with Elena Pastorino, Patrick Kehoe, and Thomas Winberry, at the Hoover Economic Policy Working Group seminar. Video (a great presentation) and slides here. This is a beautiful and detailed model, which won't try to summarize here. I write to pass on one central graph and insight. Suppose there is some "monopsony power," at the individual firm level. Don't argue about that yet. Erik and coauthors  put it in, so that there is a hope that minimum wages can do some good, and it is the central argument made by minimum wage proponents. In the paper it comes because people are uniquely suited to a particular job for personal reasons. Professors don't like to move, they've figured out the ropes at their current university, so the dean can get away with paying less than they could get elsewhere. Why this applies to MacDonalds relative to the Taco Bell next door is a good question, but again, the point is to analyze it not to argue about it. "Labor demand" here is the marginal product of labor. (\(f'(N)\) It's what labor demand would be in a competitive market. The monopsnists' demand is lower). Monopsony means that the "marginal cost of labor" rises with the number of employees. There is a core of people that really love the job that you can hire at low cost. As you expand, though, you have to hire people who aren't that attached to this particular job, so you have to pay more. And you have to pay everyone else more too, (by reasonable assumption -- no individually negotiated wages), so the average cost of labor rises. Thus, the monopsonies firm chooses to hire fewer people \(N_m\),  produce less, and pay them a wage \(W_n\) below their marginal product.  ("Average cost of labor" is really the labor supply curve, call it \(w=L(N)\). Then \(\max (f(N)-wN\) s.t. \(w=L(N)\) yields \(f'(N)=w+NL'(N)\). The "marginal cost of labor" in the graph is this latter quantity: the wage you pay the last worker, plus all workers times the extra wage you must pay them all. Disclaimer: the equations are me reverse-engineering the graph.) Now, add a minimum wage. As the minimum wage rises above \(W_m\), we initially see a rise in the number of workers, and their incomes. The firm moves along the arrow as shown. (\(\max f(N)-wN\) s.t. \( w \ge L(N)\), \( w \ge w^\ast\) gives \(w^\ast = L(N)\) .) Keep raising the minimum wage, though. Once we get past the point that labor supply ("average cost of labor") requires a wage greater than the marginal product of labor, the firm turns around and hires fewer people: (Really, the problem all along was \(\max_{w,N} f(N)-wN\) s.t. \( w \ge L(N)\), \( w \ge w^\ast\). Once the minimum wage rises enough, the solution \(w^\ast=L(N) \) has \(f'(N)<w^\ast\). The firm does better by hiring fewer people than are willing to work at that wage. With the second constraint slack, \(f'(N)=w^\ast\) is the optimum.) So, in this best case, minimum wages do first raise employment, and income. But if you keep going, they eventually turn around and lower employment and raise unemployment (people between the equilibrium and the "average cost of labor" curve want jobs but can't get them.)  We join the local "monopsony" view with the latter "neoclassical" view. The actual model is way more realistic, with multiple kinds of workers, firms that can substitute between workers, dynamics that include capital investment in worker-specific technologies, a search model for unemployment and more. Each seems to me just complicated enough to capture an important effect. Multiple kinds of workers is really important: a big part of the "labor demand" is not just a fixed marginal product of a given kind of worker, but the firm's ability to substitute other kinds of workers and machines for a given task. It's nicely calibrated to match the US economy. A bottom line: Start raising the minimum wage from $7.50.  At first, this raises employment of low-skilled workers, but the above mechanism. It does nothing to medium and high skill workers, since they are already being paid more than the minimum wage. (I'm not sure why we don't see substitution toward higher skills here.) As the minimum wage rises toward $10, however, we hit the neoclassical part of the low-skill curve, and it starts hurting low-skill employment. In their calibration, "monopsony" lowers wages by about 25%, so once the minimum wage has cured that, i.e. about $10 an hour, workers are being paid their marginal products, so requiring even more just quickly lowers their employment. Bit by bit the minimum wage starts to help each group as it hits the point between what they are actually paid and their marginal product. People whose marginal products are less than $7.50 an hour are missing from the picture. They were already driven out of the market by the current minimum wage.  (The conclusions about the optimum minimum wage are potentially flawed by this omission. It could be even less!) This is a lovely story. An obvious implication: Don't quickly generalize too far from local estimates or small interventions.  Big minimum wage changes can have the opposite effects as small ones! The big question of minimum wages is always which workers are helped vs hurt, not overall labor. Much of the other work on minimum wages (Jeff Clemens, for example) emphasizes that it helps a few, who can work the hours employers want, are already skilled, speak English, etc., at the cost of many others, who tend to be less well off to start. The dynamic part of the paper is great too. Minimum wages are like rent controls: the damage takes time to show up. In the model, dynamics show up as firms have structured their capital to the current employment mix. It takes time to put in, say, video screens to substitute away from order-takers. The shaded part is the duration of typical studies. Studies that examine the short run reactions to small minimum wage changes completely miss the long-run effect of large changes. Finally, once again, the minimum wage like so many other policies, is an answer in search of a question. If the issue is "how does policy address labor market monopsony," the minimum wage is a very ineffective answer to that question.  Once you spell out the nature of the actual problem, all sorts of other policies are more effective. If you fix the monopsony, wage subsidies are better. But starting with figuring out why there is monopsony in the first place and what policies are inadvertently supporting it is better still.  ****Update: "Minimum Wages, Efficiency and Welfare" by David Berger, Kyle Herkenhoff and Simon Mongey is a similar paper along these lines -- careful modeling of minimum wages with heterogeneity of workers and firms.  This paper adds different kinds of firms: From Simon:"when you start accounting for firms also being heterogeneous... a similar logic carries over. A small minimum wage lifts employment at the small firm with a slither of monopsony power before tanking them, while it's tanking them it starts raising employment at the slightly bigger firm, then tanks that. By the time you get up to the wages paid by any firm that might have considerable market power you've blown up employment at a whole load of firms. A perturbation argument essentially leads you to never increase the minimum wage."Put another way, a minimum wage increase from $7.50 to $9.00 might actually increase employment at McDonalds... because it puts all the taco stands out of business. Then at $12.00, McDonalds goes out of business but Applebees expands, and so forth. (Or, "corner store" and "supermarket" in Simon's beautiful slides with lots of great supply and demand graphs.) They find that the efficiency maximizing minimum wage is close to where we are now. "Efficiency" means "offsetting monopsony." As in Hurst et al, only a small sliver of people are actually hurt by monopsony and helped by the minimum wage. Everyone whose productivity is below $7.50 an hour is already out of the labor force, and everyone whose productivity is higher than the proposed minimum wage is largely unaffected:  Again, "raise the minimum wage to offset labor monopsony" is an answer in search of a question. (They go on to evaluate redistribution, which I didn't look at. But I will ask the same question. "raise the minimum wage to redistribute income" sounds to me like an answer in search of a question; if the question is "redistribute income with minimum economic disincentive" I bet there are better answers.) ****Update 2. Now, let's think a bit about this "monopsony" business. Both papers include monopsony really for good rhetorical reasons: Let's give the model some reason for minimum wages. Both cite long literatures. Hurst et al summarize that wages are about 25% less than marginal products. Really? At McDonalds? Without getting in to the weeds, think for a minute just how hard this is. What is the marginal product of workers at your job? The marginal product of an extra professor in your department? That's awfully hard to measure! Kudos to those who try. It's easier to measure average products: how much the company makes, divided by number of employees. But wages should be below average products. Someone has to pay for the other inputs and a competitive return to capital. Did we really tease out average vs. marginal products? Well, build a model, add lots of assumptions, and here we go. That's the best we can do, but recognize how hard it is. Pervasive monopsony means two things, both suspicious. First, it means that each company would have to pay more to hire more people, to do the exact same job as current people, and then it has to pay everyone more. The labor supply curve to the company is upward sloping. That's key in the graph above. Really? Do a restaurant really have to pay everyone more in order to get one more employee? Second, it means there are substantial "rents." Where does the extra 25% go? Not just to an ordinary return to capital, but to extraordinary profits. Together with the view that price markups over marginal costs are large, it's just hard to see large monopoly and oligopoly rents spewing out of businesses. I think this illustrates two problems in our general economic discourse. First, econ 101 tends to be a week of how a hypothetical free market works, and then a 9 week litany of market failures, each remediable by an omniscient "planner" -- monopoly, monopsony, externality, asymmetric information, and so on. Our students, like two year olds with hammers, go out and see those nails. But are they really there, and are the available instruments actually able to fix them? Second, there is a pervasive tendency for answers to search for questions. Clearly the minimum wage came first, a centuries old idea, long before monopsony. Monopsony is only the latest item in the shopping cart of reasons for a pre-exiting policy idea. As above, if the question is monopsony, however, the answer is not a minimum wage. This problem abounds. (If the question is how to raise GDP 5% in 100 years, there are 99 answers better than force everyone to buy electric cars today, for example.) Let's be honest. The idea behind minimum wages is to try to transfer income from businesses -- and thus from their customers, investors, and high-wage workers -- to low-wage employees. Mongey et al. explicitly consider "redistribution" as an objective, and this is the objective. The many unintended consequences -- more unemployment, lower employment, favoring the better off at the expense  of the most precarious of low-wage employees, etc. -- bear on that issue. Here to, though,  if the question is "how should we redistribute income to low-wage workers" or even "how should we improve the lot of low-skill workers," there are 100 better answers. The EITC looks better in Hurst et al, though it too has many problems including a very high marginal tax rate as it phases out. Economic discourse would be a lot more productive if instead of focusing on answers that have been around a long time -- let's find a new reason for minimum wages -- we focused on the question and the mechanisms. 

In sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture contributes up to 50% of the GDP. The increase in agricultural output in the region is predominantly from area expansion instead of improvements in productivity per unit area. In the past, cultivation was, for the most part, done in the upland areas. However, with changing climate and rising population pressure, cultivation has extended into wetlands. Prolonged periods of water supply and relatively fertile soils provide wetlands with great potential for expansion and intensification of agriculture production, thus contributing to food security. The Kilombero floodplain, one of the largest rice-producing areas, was the focus of the BMBF funded project "GlobE Wetlands". The Wetlands project was poised to assess the potential of transforming lowland wetlands into a breadbasket of East Africa, and provide science-based guidelines, tools and policy advice to facilitate the process. The knowledge gains obtained by different project groups within the GlobE-Wetlands project shaped the design of the agronomic experiments and guided the choice of treatments and their application in this thesis. In Kilombero, smallholder farmers produce rainfed lowland rice mainly in floodplain environments that are characterised by low soil nitrogen contents of the predominant Fluvisols and highly variable hydrological conditions, resulting in low yields and large yield variations. This thesis's studies were designed to compare farmers' management practices, evaluate the effects of alternative management options on lowland rice performance, and define key contributing factors towards improved site-specific management. Field experiments were carried out near Ifakara, Tanzania, in three hydrological zones of Kilombero floodplain, namely the potentially drought-prone fringe, the favourable middle and the submergence-prone center positions over four years. Treatments on varying land, water and fertilizer management were implemented in researcher-managed plots, following hierarchical yield gap procedures. Grain yields of rice (averaged over the four treatments) were higher in the fringe (6.5 t/ha) and the middle (5.7 t/ha) than in the center positions (4.6 t/ha). Farmers' practice with no field bunding and land levelling and no fertilizer application resulted in the lowest yield (3.0 t/ha) and highest yield variability, with an adjusted coefficient of variation of up to 91% between years and positions. Simple soil and water management such as land levelling and the building of water-retaining field bunds significantly increased rice grain yields beyond farmers' practice in the fringe and middle positions, where grain yields were generally higher than in the submergence-prone center position. Also, yield variability and hence the production risks were highest in the center and lowest in the fringe positions. Depending on the position within the floodplain, organic treatments increased rice grain yields by >60%. Sole green or farmyard manure applications had similar effects on grain yield. In contrast, a combination of green and farmyard manure led to a significant increase in grain yield beyond both the control and sole application of organic amendments. Despite partial N balances being mostly negative, we observed positive residual effects on the non-amended rice in the fourth year of the study. Manure applications significantly increase soil C and N contents, hence enhancing soil fertility and increasing rice grain yields. On average across years and positions, the potential, attainable, and farmers' actual yields were 11.5, 8.5, and 2.8 t/ha, respectively. Most management options tested contributed substantially to closing sizeable prevailing yield gaps. Thus, simple field bunds combined with land levelling closed up to 35% of the exploitable yield gap. Mineral N and organic amendments contributed up to 60% of the potential yield. Combinations of improved land, water management, and mineral N application closed up to 80% of the exploitable yield gap. Mineral N tended to be more effective in closing the yield gap than green or farmyard manure. While fertilizer strategies improved soil fertility and reduced yield gaps, their relative benefits showed a high site-and system-specificity. Thus, this thesis provides insights on the rice performance at different hydrological positions and in different years, highlighting the potential for a sustainable increase in rice yield in highly variable floodplain wetlands. Combined with recommendations from other groups of the Wetlands consortium, these findings contribute to guiding policy formulation and agronomic recommendations for Kilombero floodplain, and possibly beyond, to environments with similar climatic, edaphic and socio-economic conditions. ; Im Afrika südlich der Sahara trägt die Landwirtschaft mit bis zu 50% zum BIP bei. Der Anstieg der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion in der Region ist überwiegend auf die Ausweitung der Fläche und nicht auf die Verbesserung der Produktivität pro Einheit zurückzuführen. In der Vergangenheit erfolgte der Anbau von Kulturpflanzen vorwiegend im Trockenfeldbau. Mit Klimawandel und steigendem Bevölkerungswachstum dehnt sich der Anbau jedoch zunehmend in Feuchtgebiete aus. Mit längeren Perioden der Wasserverfügbarkeit und relativ fruchtbaren Böden eröffnen Feuchtgebiete ein großes Potenzial für die Ausweitung und Intensivierung der landwirtschaftlichen Erzeugung und können so zur Ernährungssicherheit beitragen. Die Kilombero-Überflutungsebene, eines der größten Reisanbaugebiete Tansanias, stand im Mittelpunkt des vom BMBF-geförderten Projekts "GlobE-Wetlands". Das Projekt untersuchte die Möglichkeiten einer Umwandlung von Feuchtgebieten in landwirtschaftliche Nutzflächen und deren zukünftige Bedeutung als mögliche Kornkammer Ostafrikas. Hierfür wurden empirische und Modell-gestütze Untersuchungen durchgeführt und wissenschaftlich fundierte Leitlinien und Instrumente für die Politikberatung entwickelt. Die von verschiedenen Gruppen im Rahmen des GlobE-Wetlands Projektes gewonnenen Erkenntnisse flossen in die Gestaltung der agronomischen Experimente ein und leiteten die Wahl der Behandlungen und deren Anwendung im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit. Kleinbauern in Ostafrika produzieren Nassreis im Regenfeldbau vor allem in den großen Überschwemmungsgebieten der Region. Diese zeichnen sich durch niedrige Stickstoffgehalte der vorherrschenden Fluvisole und stark schwankende hydrologische Bedingungen aus, die zu niedrigen Erträgen und großen Ertragsschwankungen führen. Die vorliegenden Studien verglichen die Bewirtschaftungsweisen der Landwirte, bewerteten die Auswirkungen alternativer Praktiken auf Reiserträge, und analysieren Schlüsselfaktoren, welche zu einer standort-spezifischen Bewirtschaftung im Hinblick auf künftige Ertragssteigerungen beitragen. Die Untersuchungen erfolgten in der Nähe der Stadt Ifakara und wurden über einen Zeitraum von vier Jahren in drei hydrologischen Zonen der Kilombero Überschwemmungsebene durchgeführt (potenziell dürregefährdete Randgebiete, günstige mittlere und überflutungsgefährdete Zentralpositionen). Die Kornerträge von Reis (gemittelt über die vier Behandlungen) waren in den Randbereichen (6,5 t/ha) und in der Mitte (5,7 t/ha) höher als in den zentralen Positionen (4,6 t/ha). Die übliche Praxis der Landwirte (keine Eindeichung, keine Düngereinsatz) führte zu den niedrigsten Erträgen (3,0 t/ha) und der höchsten Ertragsvariabilität, mit einem angepassten Variationskoeffizienten von bis zu 91% zwischen Jahren und Positionen. Einfaches Boden- und Wassermanagement, wie die Nivellierung des Bodens und der Bau von wasserrückhaltenden Felddeichen, steigerte die Erträge deutlich, besonders in den Rand- und Mittelpositionen. Auch die Ertragsvariabilität und damit die Produktionsrisiken waren am höchsten im Zentrum and am geringsten in den Randpositionen der Überstauungsebene. Abhängig von der Lage der Felder innerhalb der Überschwemmungsebene erhöhte organische Düngung die Reiskornerträge um >60%. Die Einarbeitung von Gründünger und die Ausbringung von Stallmist hatte vergleichbare Effekte auf den Kornertrag, während eine Kombination beider Dünger den Kornertrag gegenüber der ungedüngten Kontrollvariante signifikant erhöhte. Obwohl die partiellen N-Bilanzen meist negativ waren, beobachteten wir bei organischer Düngung positive Effekte auf den Ertrag einer ungedüngten Reiskultur. So erhöhten drei Jahre kontinuierlicher organischer Düngung signifikant die C- und N-Gehalte des Bodens, was mittelfristig die Bodenfruchtbarkeit verbesserte und sich in deutlich höheren Erträgen im vierten Untersuchungsjahr niederschlug. Im Durchschnitt der Jahre und Positionen, lag der potentielle (simulierte), der erzielbare und der tatsächliche Ertrag der Landwirte bei 11,5, 8,5 und 2,8 t per ha. Die meisten getesteten Bewirtschaftungsoptionen trugen wesentlich zur Schließung der großen bestehenden Ertragslücken bei. So konnte durch einfache Feldanpflanzungen in Kombination mit einer Nivellierung des Bodens bis zu 35% der nutzbaren Ertragslücke geschlossen werden. Mineralische N und organische Düngerapplikationen trugen mit bis zu 60% zum potenziellen Ertrag bei. Eine Kombination aus verbessertem Land- und Wassermanagement sowie einer mineralischen N-Düngung vermochte 80% der nutzbaren Ertragslücke zu schließen. Insgesamt war mineralischer N wirksamer als Gründünger oder Stallmist. Während beide Düngungsvarianten ertragswirksam waren, ergaben sich deutliche standortspezifische Unterschiede in deren Wirksamkeit in Abhängigkeit der Jahre (Niederschlagsmenge) und der Feldpositionen (Wasserverfügbarkeit). Diese Arbeit gibt Einblicke in die Ertragsleistung von Reis an verschiedenen hydrologischen Positionen und in unterschiedlichn Jahren innerhalb der Überschwemmungsebene und unterstreicht das hohe Potential einer system- und standortspezifischen Landwirtschaft für eine nachhaltige Intensivierung der Reisproduktion unter solchen hydrologisch hochgradig variablen Umweltbedingungen. Kombiniert mit Ergebnissen anderer Arbeitsgruppen im "Wetlands" Konsortium tragen die hier gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Formulierung von Nutzungsempfehlungen und zur Politikberatung in Kilombero und an anderen vergeichbaren Standorten der Region bei.

The main idea of this paper refers to the resumption of torture as a phenomenon in ХХ century and also the spread of this undoubtedly disgusting phenomenon in the new Millennium. It is it linked to the category of «security», which has become a pagan cult of modern society. We believe that the views of Michel Foucault and Stanley Cohen on «net widening» can explain expansion of the phenomenon of torture in the XXI century through increased variations of classes and types ofdeviants for the aims of «security». On the one hand, national criminal justice systems cannot cope with dealing with numerous deviants within the framework of formal national legal procedures. On the other hand, citizens born at the time of III and, more importantly, IV modulation of social control demand more «security», so the ways and methods of achieving the appropriate level of security do not longer matter. This is confirmed by numerous sociological studies and surveys in Europe and North America showing that one third to one half of citizens allow the use of torture against terrorists forthesake of «security». All this happens in a context of total social control over space and thoughts. However, the main danger is that the practical possibility of torturing «terrorists» opens a «Pandora's box» to a wide prospect of torture against other «dangerous criminals» – sex offenders, members oforganized crime groups, etc. And this list tends to be expanded. It can be concluded that the «fight against torture» in XXI century is a reflection of a dualistic process: anattempt to develop «secure society» with a simultaneous fiasco of the nature of such «security». The use of torture on suspects is unfortunately happens even in Western democracies, but the extensive system of legal safeguards established in the second half of XX century has helped to make the use oftorture and inhuman treatment as rare as possible. It becomes possible due to activities of the Council of Europe, the CPT and the ECtHR (including through the expansion of the concepts of «torture» and«inhuman treatment»). It is worth emphasizing that torture is not a legal category, but primarily a political and economic one. Analysis of the phenomenon of torture within the formal framework of national criminal justice systems only is dangerous given also the highly questionable effectiveness and efficiency of torture. Recalling E. Durkheim and R. Merton on indicators of deviance and crime, which indicate the state ofanomie in society of the XXI century, it should be emphasized that the state of anomie largely depends on the saturation of the political body of modern society with the phenomenon of torture. In case of other types of crimes, the state tries to reduce the appropriate level of crime to a certain normal rate, influencing relevant individuals. However, in case of torture, we must point out that torture itself is one ofthe most dangerous forms of crime, committed mostly by agents of a state, on behalf of a state, using the powers granted by a state to achieve what they claim is in the public interest. That is why the fight against torture is often when, unfortunately, «the snake bites itself on the tail». And this is quite important problem for future researches. Therefore, the fight against torture should not be narrowly linked to policemen, prosecutors, judges orpunishments. The fight against torture is not also linked to crime detection rates. This should be considered, first of all, in a context of anti-discrimination, human rights, protection of social diversity andthe rights of relevant social groups, migration and social policy, transparency of public administration and accountability of law enforcement agencies, fair redistribution of income in society, state support forvictims of violent crimes. Today it is a common view that «torture is committed in an atmosphere of secrecy and does not like light». Therefore, prevention of torture starts with the policy of maximum openness of law enforcement agencies and complete, comprehensive, constantly updated state statistics on torture (unfortunately, it is almost non-existent in Ukraine). It is no coincidence that the European Parliament's resolution on torture by the CIA in Europe placed special emphasis on accountability: «Accountability for extraordinary renditions, abductions, illegal secret detentions and torture is essential in order to protect and promote human rights effectively, and to ensure legitimate and effective security policies based on the rule of law». In addition, zero tolerance for torture culture and careful selection of law enforcement officers should be paramount, where moral categories need to be an important part of professional compliance. Moreover, «moral» must be supported by message that torture does not work for the purpose of investigating crimes and also has great negative psychological effect, both for victims of torture and for state agents who open this «Pandora's box». Numerous studies show that only moral arguments are effective in motivating people to resist torture. An important question must be put: can torture be considered necessary to perform any of the tasks facing modern states to protect societies? Given the moral and ethical issues, we can express a strong negative answer. Given the more pragmatic arguments put forward by proponents of so called «enhanced interrogation techniques», it should be emphasized that even the alleged pragmatism is broken down into facts that indicate that information obtained under torture is often not, in fact, reliable information, and the price of such information will be too high both for the perpetrators themselves and for the taxpayers who internally support torture. ; Стаття присвячена дослідженню феномену тортур у ХХІ столітті. Головна теза, яка пояснює не лише відновлення тортур як феномену у ХХ столітті, проте й на додаток поширення цього феномену уновому тисячолітті, пов'язана з категорією «убезпечення». Так, для цілей пояснення феномену тортур у ХХІ столітті особливого значення набуває концепція розкидування мереж соціального контролю та, як наслідок, збільшення класів, типів та видів девіантів, яких потрібно контролювати для цілей «убезпечення». З одного боку, національні системи кримінальної юстиції не можуть впоратися з таким завданням – поводитися з девіантами у рамках формальних процедур, закріплених у національному законодавстві. З іншого боку, самі громадяни, народжені у часи III та, що є більш важливим, IV модуляції соціально-контрольних практик, в обмін на свою споживацьку свободу вимагають більшого «убезпечення», де вже не мають значення шляхи та методи досягнення відповідної «концентрації безпеки». Підтвердженням цього є дані численних досліджень та опитувань населення країн Європи та Північної Америки, де від третини до половини громадян допускають застосування тортур до терористів з метою того самого «убезпечення». Причому це все відбувається на фоні тотального соціального контролю за простором і думками. Практична можливість застосування тортур до «терористів» відкриває «скриньку Пандори», де відкривається широка перспектива застосування катувань проти інших «небезпечних злочинців» – колаборантів, sex-offenders, членів організованих злочинних угруповань тощо. Причому цей список має небезпеку піддаватися розширенню. Можна зробити висновок, що «боротьба з катуванням» уХХІ столітті – це відображення дуалістичного процесу: спроба ще більшого «убезпечення суспільства» з одночасним фіаско такого «убезпечення». Застосування тортур до підозрюваних, нажаль, є поширеною практикою навіть у західних демократіях, але розгалужена система правових гарантій, створена у другій половині ХХ століття, допомогла зробити застосування катувань та нелюдського поводження максимально рідким явищем, наскільки це можливо, у чому на регіональному рівні це – велика заслуга Ради Європи, КЗК та ЄСПЛ.

The main idea of this paper refers to the resumption of torture as a phenomenon in ХХ century and also the spread of this undoubtedly disgusting phenomenon in the new Millennium. It is it linked to the category of «security», which has become a pagan cult of modern society. We believe that the views of Michel Foucault and Stanley Cohen on «net widening» can explain expansion of the phenomenon of torture in the XXI century through increased variations of classes and types ofdeviants for the aims of «security». On the one hand, national criminal justice systems cannot cope with dealing with numerous deviants within the framework of formal national legal procedures. On the other hand, citizens born at the time of III and, more importantly, IV modulation of social control demand more «security», so the ways and methods of achieving the appropriate level of security do not longer matter. This is confirmed by numerous sociological studies and surveys in Europe and North America showing that one third to one half of citizens allow the use of torture against terrorists forthesake of «security». All this happens in a context of total social control over space and thoughts. However, the main danger is that the practical possibility of torturing «terrorists» opens a «Pandora's box» to a wide prospect of torture against other «dangerous criminals» – sex offenders, members oforganized crime groups, etc. And this list tends to be expanded. It can be concluded that the «fight against torture» in XXI century is a reflection of a dualistic process: anattempt to develop «secure society» with a simultaneous fiasco of the nature of such «security». The use of torture on suspects is unfortunately happens even in Western democracies, but the extensive system of legal safeguards established in the second half of XX century has helped to make the use oftorture and inhuman treatment as rare as possible. It becomes possible due to activities of the Council of Europe, the CPT and the ECtHR (including through the expansion of the concepts of «torture» and«inhuman treatment»). It is worth emphasizing that torture is not a legal category, but primarily a political and economic one. Analysis of the phenomenon of torture within the formal framework of national criminal justice systems only is dangerous given also the highly questionable effectiveness and efficiency of torture. Recalling E. Durkheim and R. Merton on indicators of deviance and crime, which indicate the state ofanomie in society of the XXI century, it should be emphasized that the state of anomie largely depends on the saturation of the political body of modern society with the phenomenon of torture. In case of other types of crimes, the state tries to reduce the appropriate level of crime to a certain normal rate, influencing relevant individuals. However, in case of torture, we must point out that torture itself is one ofthe most dangerous forms of crime, committed mostly by agents of a state, on behalf of a state, using the powers granted by a state to achieve what they claim is in the public interest. That is why the fight against torture is often when, unfortunately, «the snake bites itself on the tail». And this is quite important problem for future researches. Therefore, the fight against torture should not be narrowly linked to policemen, prosecutors, judges orpunishments. The fight against torture is not also linked to crime detection rates. This should be considered, first of all, in a context of anti-discrimination, human rights, protection of social diversity andthe rights of relevant social groups, migration and social policy, transparency of public administration and accountability of law enforcement agencies, fair redistribution of income in society, state support forvictims of violent crimes. Today it is a common view that «torture is committed in an atmosphere of secrecy and does not like light». Therefore, prevention of torture starts with the policy of maximum openness of law enforcement agencies and complete, comprehensive, constantly updated state statistics on torture (unfortunately, it is almost non-existent in Ukraine). It is no coincidence that the European Parliament's resolution on torture by the CIA in Europe placed special emphasis on accountability: «Accountability for extraordinary renditions, abductions, illegal secret detentions and torture is essential in order to protect and promote human rights effectively, and to ensure legitimate and effective security policies based on the rule of law». In addition, zero tolerance for torture culture and careful selection of law enforcement officers should be paramount, where moral categories need to be an important part of professional compliance. Moreover, «moral» must be supported by message that torture does not work for the purpose of investigating crimes and also has great negative psychological effect, both for victims of torture and for state agents who open this «Pandora's box». Numerous studies show that only moral arguments are effective in motivating people to resist torture. An important question must be put: can torture be considered necessary to perform any of the tasks facing modern states to protect societies? Given the moral and ethical issues, we can express a strong negative answer. Given the more pragmatic arguments put forward by proponents of so called «enhanced interrogation techniques», it should be emphasized that even the alleged pragmatism is broken down into facts that indicate that information obtained under torture is often not, in fact, reliable information, and the price of such information will be too high both for the perpetrators themselves and for the taxpayers who internally support torture. ; Стаття присвячена дослідженню феномену тортур у ХХІ столітті. Головна теза, яка пояснює не лише відновлення тортур як феномену у ХХ столітті, проте й на додаток поширення цього феномену уновому тисячолітті, пов'язана з категорією «убезпечення». Так, для цілей пояснення феномену тортур у ХХІ столітті особливого значення набуває концепція розкидування мереж соціального контролю та, як наслідок, збільшення класів, типів та видів девіантів, яких потрібно контролювати для цілей «убезпечення». З одного боку, національні системи кримінальної юстиції не можуть впоратися з таким завданням – поводитися з девіантами у рамках формальних процедур, закріплених у національному законодавстві. З іншого боку, самі громадяни, народжені у часи III та, що є більш важливим, IV модуляції соціально-контрольних практик, в обмін на свою споживацьку свободу вимагають більшого «убезпечення», де вже не мають значення шляхи та методи досягнення відповідної «концентрації безпеки». Підтвердженням цього є дані численних досліджень та опитувань населення країн Європи та Північної Америки, де від третини до половини громадян допускають застосування тортур до терористів з метою того самого «убезпечення». Причому це все відбувається на фоні тотального соціального контролю за простором і думками. Практична можливість застосування тортур до «терористів» відкриває «скриньку Пандори», де відкривається широка перспектива застосування катувань проти інших «небезпечних злочинців» – колаборантів, sex-offenders, членів організованих злочинних угруповань тощо. Причому цей список має небезпеку піддаватися розширенню. Можна зробити висновок, що «боротьба з катуванням» уХХІ столітті – це відображення дуалістичного процесу: спроба ще більшого «убезпечення суспільства» з одночасним фіаско такого «убезпечення». Застосування тортур до підозрюваних, нажаль, є поширеною практикою навіть у західних демократіях, але розгалужена система правових гарантій, створена у другій половині ХХ століття, допомогла зробити застосування катувань та нелюдського поводження максимально рідким явищем, наскільки це можливо, у чому на регіональному рівні це – велика заслуга Ради Європи, КЗК та ЄСПЛ.

Die Nutzung neuer Technologien in der Landwirtschaft spielt eine entscheidende Rolle, um die durch exponentielles Bevölkerungswachstum bedingten Herausforderungen zu bewältigen. Seit der Grünen Revolution der 1960er Jahre haben Forscher Probleme und Herausforderungen, welche mit der Nutzung von neuen Technologien verbunden sind, eingehend untersucht. Diese Probleme sind in Entwicklungsländern aufgrund von Armut und mangelhaften landwirtschaftlichen Versicherungen noch komplexer. Landwirte mit niedrigem Einkommen, die risikoavers sind und eine hohe Diskontrate bevorzugen, nutzen selten innovative Technologien, wodurch sie in Armut gefangen bleiben. Eine erhöhte Aufmerksamkeit gilt in weiter entwickelten Ländern auch der Umweltzerstörung durch landwirtschaftliche Aktivitäten. Dementsprechend werden Landwirte als Produzenten unter Druck gesetzt, nachhaltige Landwirtschaft zu betreiben, besonders wenn sie umstrittene Nutzpflanzen wie Ölpalmen anbauen. Hohe Produktivität und niedrige Produktionskosten im Vergleich zu anderen Pflanzenölen haben dazu geführt, dass Palmöl den Weltmarkt dominiert. Einerseits erhöht die Palmölproduktion das Einkommen der Landwirte und verbessert ihre Ernährungssituation. Auf der anderen Seite bedroht sie Biodiversität und fördert die Abholzung des Regenwaldes. Mangelndes Bewusstsein für den Umweltschutz und mangelnde Informationen über dieses Thema stellen eine weitere Herausforderung dar. Diese Dissertation analysiert die Nutzung neuer Technologien unter Berücksichtigung von Risikoeinstellungen und Zeitpräferenzen. Die der Dissertation zu Grunde liegenden Studien wurden in Jambi durchgeführt, einer Provinz auf der indonesischen Insel Sumatra. Der Fokus liegt auf Kleinbauern, die Ölpalmen und/oder Kautschuk anbauen. Die Dissertation besteht aus drei Kapiteln, die folgende Themen behandeln: (1) Die Teilnahme von Landwirten an Palmölzertifizierung, was eine nachhaltige Produktion von Palmöl bedeutet; (2) Die Kultivierung neuer Nutzpflanzen durch Landwirte; (3) Die Risikoeinstellungen und Zeitpräferenzen von Landwirten, wofür wir Daten von Landwirten aus einem vergleichbaren Entwicklungsland, nämlich Indien, mit einbeziehen. Das erste Kapitel untersucht drei Politikszenarien, die die Teilnahme der Landwirte an Zertifizierungsprogrammen für Palmöl fördern sollen. Die Palmölzertifizierungsprogramme wurden eingeführt, um die Konflikte zwischen ökonomischen Vorteilen für Landwirte und negativen Umweltfolgen des Ölpalmenanbaus zu mindern, zum Beispiel die Abholzung von Regenwald. Bisher zeigen die Landwirte jedoch eine niedrige Beteiligung, obwohl die Zertifizierungsprogramme seit vielen Jahren existieren. In Anbetracht der wachsenden Besorgnis über die Umweltfolgen sind wirksame Interventionen erforderlich, um die Beteiligung der Landwirte an den Zertifizierungsprogrammen zu erhöhen. Um den Effekt der Politikszenarien zu evaluieren, haben wir ein soziales Dilemma-Experiment implementiert. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Preisaufschläge für zertifiziertes Palmöl und Informationen über Landnutzungsänderungen die Landwirte motivieren, den Wald zu erhalten. Das zweite Kapitel diskutiert die rasche Übernahme von Ölpalmenanbau durch die Landwirte, die der in der Literatur beschriebenen langsamen Übernahme neuer Technologien widerspricht. In Jambi ist Kautschuk seit vielen Generationen ein wichtiges Anbauprodukt. Die Landwirte bauen den Kautschuk sowohl in Agroforsten als auch in Monokultur an, wobei die Monokultur höhere Gewinne abwirft als der Agroforst. Demgegenüber wurde der Ölpalmenanbau später von der Regierung in Verbindung mit dem so genannten Transmigrationsprogramm um das Jahr 1900 initiiert. In diesem Programm erhielten die Landwirte Unterstützung von der Regierung für die erste Errichtung von Ölpalmenplantagen. Nach der Reduktion des Programms und der Unterstützung setzten die Landwirte die Einführung von Ölpalmen selbstständig fort. In der Literatur wird beschrieben, dass ein höherer Gewinn pro Kopf bei Ölpalmenplantagen und die Möglichkeit, das Einkommen durch außerlandwirtschaftliche Tätigkeiten zu erhöhen, einige Gründe für die schnelle Akzeptanz der Landwirte sind. Wenn sie jedoch nur höhere Profite anstreben als die, die sie mit den bisherigen Kautschuk-Agroforsten erzielen, sollte die teilweise Umwandlung in eine Kautschuk-Monokultur eine sicherere Wahl sein als die Umwandlung in Palmölplantagen. Kautschuk wird schon länger angebaut, und daher haben die Landwirte mehr Vorkenntnisse in dessen Anbau. Darüber hinaus hat die Kautschuk-Monokultur höhere Erträge pro Hektar als Ölpalmen. Es scheint also, dass die Akzeptanz auch durch die Absicht begründet ist, zwei Nutzpflanzen anzubauen. Wir analysieren die Wahl der Anbaukultur auf Grundlage der Hypothese, dass die Risikoeinstellungen und die Zeitpräferenzen der Landwirte die Diversifizierung des Anbaus beeinflussen. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass risikoaverse Landwirte es vorziehen, beide Nutzpflanzen anzubauen. Kenntnisse über die Richtung und Ausprägung von Risikoeinstellungen und Zeitpräferenzen der Landwirte sind wichtig für die Einführung neuer Technologien. Politische Entscheidungsträger können dieses Wissen nutzen, um fundierte künftige Maßnahmen zur Unterstützung der Technologieübernahme zu planen. Risikoaversion und hohe Diskontraten hindern Landwirte, innovative Technologien anzuwenden und halten sie in Armut gefangen. Das dritte Kapitel analysiert die Risikoeinstellungen und Zeitpräferenzen von Landwirten in Indonesien und Indien und vergleicht sie. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass indische Landwirte im Vergleich zu indonesischen Landwirten eine höhere Risikoaversion haben, jedoch sind Landwirte aus beiden Ländern sehr risikoavers im Vergleich zu Studienergebnissen in anderen Ländern. ; Technology adoption in agriculture plays a vital role in coping with exponential population growth. Since the Green Revolution in the 1960s, researchers have been extensively investigating issues and challenges in technology adoption. These issues are more complex in developing countries due to poverty and shortcomings in agricultural insurances. Poor farmers who are risk-averse and favor a higher discount rate tend to opt-out from adopting the innovations, causing poverty-traps. Emerging attention on environmental degradation from customers in more developed countries also gives pressure to farmers for practicing sustainable farming, especially when they grow controversial crops such as oil palm. High productivity and low production cost in comparison to other vegetable oils have led to palm oil dominating the world market. In one hand, the palm oil production increases farmers' welfare and improves their nutrition intake. In the other hand, palm oil production threatens biodiversity and promotes deforestation. However, achieving farmers' adoption of sustainable farming practices also meets challenges due to lack of awareness and information for environmental conservation. This dissertation proposes a topic of technology adoption under the consideration of risk attitudes and time preferences. The study was conducted in Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. We involved smallholder farmers (in later parts, we refer to them as "farmers"), who cultivated oil palm, rubber, and both. This dissertation consists of three papers covering: (1) farmers' adoption of palm oil certification that indicates sustainable palm oil production; (2) farmers' adoption of a new type of crops; (3) farmers' risk attitude and time preferences, where we broaden our observations by involving farmers from another comparable developing country, namely India. The first paper investigates three policy scenarios to support farmers' participation in palm oil certification. The certification programs were introduced to mediate the trade-offs between the economic benefits and environmental consequences of oil palm cultivation, for example, deforestation. However, farmers' participation rates remain low, even though the certification programs have been introduced since many years. Regarding the escalating concern for environment, effective policies to increase farmers participation in the certification programs are needed. To evaluate the effect of the policy scenarios, we utilized a social dilemma experiment. We found that price premiums for certified palm oil and information about land-use change motivate farmers to conserve the forest. The second paper discusses oil palm adoption by farmers, which happened relatively fast, contradicting the literature that mentions farmers' slow adoption. In Jambi, rubber was an important crop cultivated among generations. The farmers cultivate rubber in both agroforest and monoculture form, where the monoculture gives higher profits than agroforest. Meanwhile, farmers' oil palm cultivation was initiated later, coupled with the transmigration program around the year 1900. In this program, the farmers received supports from the government for early establishment of oil palm plantations. When the program and the support were gradually reduced, farmers continued the adoption independently. Previous literature mentions that higher profit per head of labour working in oil palm plantations and the possibility to add income from off farm activities are some reasons of the farmers' fast adoption. However, if farmers only seek for higher profits than what they already received from agroforest, converting part of the agroforest to a rubber monoculture should be a safer choice than establishing oil palm plantations. Rubber has been cultivated longer. Hence, the farmers have prior knowledge of rubber cultivation. Moreover, rubber monoculture has higher returns per hectare than oil palms. Thus, it seems that the adoption also reasoned by an intention to cultivate two crops. We analyze this crop adoption with the underlying hypothesis that farmers' risk attitudes and time preferences affect crop-diversification. Our findings show that risk-averse farmers prefer to cultivate both crops. Prior knowledge about the direction and strength of farmers' risk attitudes and discount rates is important in technology adoption. The policymaker can use this knowledge to plan informed future policies supporting technology adoption. Risk aversion and high discount rates inhibit farmers from participating in innovations and trap them in poverty. The third paper presents the risk attitudes and time preferences of farmers from India and Indonesia and compares them. Our finding shows that Indian farmers have a higher level of risk aversion compared to Indonesian farmers, but farmers from both countries show extremely high discount rates compared to results from studies in other countries. ; 2021-08-29

Il numero 7 di AGATHÓN raccoglie saggi, studi, ricerche e progetti sul tema dal titolo 'Dal Mega al Nano: la Complessità del Progetto Multiscalare', tema indissolubilmente legato alla sempre maggiore richiesta di trans e multidisplinarietà del progetto. La capacità di effettuare 'salti di scala', di agire su scale diverse e di costruirne di nuove o di mutare il senso di quelle comunemente accettate è una pratica comune dell'approccio al progetto, e riguarda da sempre gli architetti, gli ingegneri, i designer e gli artisti, nei molteplici significati simbolici e reali della misura di un territorio, di una città, di un'architettura e di un oggetto. I concetti di scala e di misura sono indispensabili per correlare, in un'ottica sistemica, il particolare con il generale, il dettaglio con l'insieme, per interpretare e rappresentare, per discretizzare e ricomporre elementi e parti tra loro in un rapporto di gerarchia o di interconnessione, per indagare il fisico e il sociale, per delinearne criticità e potenzialità, ma soprattutto per stabilire l'importanza degli aspetti relazionali fra l'insieme e le sue parti come chiave di lettura della loro identità, della loro natura e organizzazione, dei principi di regolazione e del ruolo svolto nei diversi contesti, ovvero di quei fattori indispensabili per individuare forma e struttura di un territorio, di una città, di un'architettura e di un oggetto. La nozione di scala in Architettura regola la dimensione dello spazio antropico, ponendo sempre come riferimento la dimensione umana. La scelta della scala è inevitabilmente una selezione concettuale di ciò che in effetti il progetto vuole rappresentare. Quando invece si utilizza la rappresentazione multiscalare si cerca di esplicitare la complessità del reale servendosi di un maggior numero di criteri regolatori e di valutazioni specifiche, non solo descrivendone gli aspetti dimensionali e geometrici, ma soprattutto evidenziandone in maniera significativa gli aspetti qualitativi e quelli legati all'identità, alla cultura e alla storia. Ciò significa che non esiste una sola scala per la rappresentazione del territorio, della città, dell'architettura, di un oggetto o di un dettaglio; tuttavia, nella logica della necessaria multiscalarità il progetto seleziona di volta in volta la scala più adeguata allo svolgimento delle pratiche. La scala, quindi, ha un'interferenza logica sul progetto: grazie agli avanzamenti della tecnologia nell'ambito della progettazione a tutti i livelli, essa probabilmente è la componente del progetto su cui maggiormente il progettista agisce coordinando relazioni reali e virtuali in maniera simultanea; queste relazioni non terminano con la concretizzazione della forma, ma continuano nel tempo e modificano la gestione della complessità propria dell'oggetto. I saggi e le ricerche pubblicati dimostrano che, se misurare usando la scala come strumento significa prendere possesso delle cose del mondo stabilendone le differenze, il fuori-misura può costituire la base per nuovi assunti teorici in cui l'infinitamente grande (il 'mega') e l'infinitamente piccolo (il 'nano') concorrono simultaneamente nella definizione di questioni centrali come la sostenibilità ambientale, sociale ed economica, la resilienza, il governo del territorio, la concezione dello spazio, l'estetica, l'uso, lo sviluppo di nuovi prodotti, servizi e materiali, ecc. L'approccio multiscalare può quindi essere considerato un importante strumento progettuale operativo che, in un'ottica sistemica, può favorire la proposizione di adeguate strategie d'azione e di pianificazione degli interventi sostenibili, sviluppando nuove metodiche, tecniche operative e metriche condivise, attraverso ragionate gerarchie di priorità necessarie a ottimizzare le scelte del progetto e a determinare credibili bilanci costi/benefici (soprattutto di natura ambientale). ; AGATHÓN issue number 7 is a collection of essays, studies, research and projects on the subject entitled 'From Mega to Nano: the Complexity of a Multiscalar Project', inextricably linked to the ever-increasing request of trans and multidisciplinarity of the project. The ability of 'change of scales', work on more different scales – multiscalarity – create new ones or change the meaning of the scales commonly accepted, it is common practice in the approach to the project and has always concerned architects, engineers, designers and artists for the multiple symbolic and real meanings of the size of a territory, a city, an architecture and an object. The concepts of scale and size are fundamental to link, in a systemic point of view, the detail with the big picture, the detail with the group, to interpret and represent, to discretize and recompose elements and parts that stand in a hierarchy or interconnection relation, to investigate the physical and social, to outline critical issues and potential, but especially to establish the importance of relational aspects between the group and its component as a way to understand their identity, their nature and organization, their regulation rules and the role played in different contexts, namely the fundamental elements to identify the form and structure of a territory, a city, an architecture and an object. The concept of scale in Architecture regulates the size of the anthropic space, always keeping human dimension as reference. The choice of the scale inevitably becomes a conceptual selection of what the project actually wants to represent. When using multiscalar representation, we try to show the complexity of reality, by using as many regulation criteria and specific evaluations as we can, not only by describing its size and geometric aspects but most of all by significantly highlighting its qualitative aspects and those related to identity, culture and history. This means that there is not just one scale to represent a territory, a city, architecture, an object or a detail; however, in terms of a necessary multiscalarity, the project chooses the most fitting scale to develop practices, on a case-by-case basis. Therefore, logically the scale influences the project: thanks to the progress of technology in the field of design at all levels, it is probably the component of the project on which the designer works the most, simultaneously coordinating real and virtual relations; these relations do not end when the form is created, but continue over time and modify the management of the object's complexity. The essays and research published show that if measuring, using the scale as a tool, means understanding the things in the world by establishing some differences, therefore 'off-size' can be the basis for new theoretical assumptions in which both the infinitely large (mega) and the infinitely small (nano) contribute to defining crucial topics, such as environmental, social and economic sustainability, resilience, territory government, the idea of space, aesthetics, use, development of new products, services and materials, etc. Therefore, the multiscalar approach can be considered as an important design working tool that, in a systemic point of view, can foster the proposal of adequate strategies for action and planning of sustainable actions, developing new methods, working techniques and shared measurements, through well-considered hierarchies of priorities necessary to optimize the choices of the project and to determine the reliable cost/benefit balances (especially of environmental nature).

Globaalissa kaupassa valmistajan täytyy hallita laaja määrä erilaisia turvallisuusvaatimuksia, sääntöjen-/vaatimustenmukaisuuden hyväksymisiä ja tuotevastuuasioita välttääkseen mahdollisia, ei-toivotuttujen tapahtumien aiheuttamia, tappioita. Väärät tai riittämättömät tiedot eri markkina-alueiden vaatimuksista haittaavat liiketoimintaa ja heikentävät maailmanlaajuisesti toimivien koneenvalmistajien kilpailukykyä. Erityisesti toimittaessa laajemmin kuin Euroopan talousalueella (ETA) eurooppalaisilla yrityksillä voi olla vaikeuksia kerätä ja käsitellä kaikkia paikallisia tietoja ja/tai seurata uusia vaatimuksia. Tässä väitöstutkimuksessa tarkastellaan tuoteturvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimusten hallinnan prosessia maailmanlaajuisessa liiketoiminnassa. Vaatimukset käsittävät tässä ulkoiset vaatimukset, joita yrityksen täytyy noudattaa. Prosessia tutkitaan käytännön tasolla kahdesta näkökulmasta: globaalisti toimivien tuotteita valmistavien yritysten näkökulmasta sekä yritysten ulkopuolisten osapuolien, kuten lainsäätäjät, standardisointiorganisaatiot ja valvontaviranomaiset, jotka vaikuttavat olennaisesti vaatimustenhallintatyöhön yrityksissä. Laadullisen tutkimuksen tulokset perustuvat kirjallisuuskatsaukseen sekä puolistrukturoituihin haastatteluihin yrityksissä ja muissa organisaatioissa. Haasteltavina on kuuden suuren koneenvalmistajayrityksen edustajia (n=37) sekä kahdentoista suomalaisen (n=40) ja kuuden eurooppalaisen (n=13) ulkoisen osapuolen edustajaa. Heiltä selvitetään näkemyksiä käytännöistä ja mahdollisista ongelmista turvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimusten hallinnan käytännöistä. Kirjallisuuskatsauksen ja haastatteluista kerättyjen empiirisiä tulosten avulla tutkija kehitti uusia lähestymistapoja turvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimuksien systemaattisempaan hallintaan. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella Euroopan yhdentyminen on selkeyttänyt merkittävästi yritysten toimintaa Euroopan unionin (EU) sisällä. Unionin eri jäsenmaiden vaihtelevat kansalliset käytännöt, vaatimukset ja niiden toimeenpano tuottavat kuitenkin edelleen vaikeuksia yrityksille. Ulkoisten osapuolten edustajien näkökulmasta erityisesti epäyhtenäinen markkinavalvonta edellyttää kehittämistä EU:n sisällä. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet koneenvalmistajat kokevat kuitenkin enemmän vaikeuksia vaatimustenhallinnassa muilla markkina-alueilla. Tarvittavia tietoja toisista markkinoista kerätään tyypillisesti yrityksen omien paikallisten yksiköiden, asiakkaiden ja jälleenmyyjien avulla sekä lisäksi ulkoisella vertailulla. Yritys päättää vaatimustenhallintaprosessissaan pyrkiikö se noudattamaan kaikkien markkina-alueiden vaatimuksia samanaikaisesti tai mukautetaanko tuotteita eri markkinoille itse tai esimerkiksi oman paikallisen yksikön toimesta. Keskeisenä ongelmana yrityksissä on, että vaatimuksia ei tyypillisesti ole vertailtu kattavasti ja systemaattisesti eri markkina-alueiden välillä ja olemassa olevaa tietoa ei ole tallennettu keskitetysti. Lisäksi yritykset kaipaavat enemmän ulkoista tukea virallisille tulkinnoille vaatimuksista, mutta tällaista tukea ei ole helposti saatavilla. Kaiken kaikkiaan tämän tutkimuksen tulosten perusteella on vielä tarve selventää turvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimuksien hallintaprosessia globaalissa kontekstissa. Olemassa olevat mallit ja ohjeistukset eivät tarjoa riittäviä ratkaisuja tunnistettuihin tarpeisiin ja ongelmiin. Tässä tutkimuksessa kehitetyt uudet menettelytavat tukevat turvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimusten kokonaisvaltaista jäsentämistä eri osapuolten näkökulmista. Menettelytavat koostuvat mallista turvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimusten hallintaan ja turvallisuuden huomioimisesta erilaisissa tuotteen toimitus-strategioissa. Keskeisin osa tuotoksista on vaatimustenhallinnan malli, joka koostuu olennaisista asioista liittyen vaatimustenhallinnan vaiheisiin aina vaatimuksien löytämisestä ja seuraamisesta vaatimustenmukaisuuden arviointiin ja varmistamiseen. Mallin avulla turvallisuuteen liittyviä vaatimuksia voi tarkastella tuoteperusteisesti. Lisäksi mallissa huomioidaan yrityksen ulkopuolisten osapuolien rooli vaatimustenhallintaprosessin eri vaiheissa. Väitöskirjassa painottuvat eurooppalainen lainsäädäntö ja käytännöt, mutta ehdotetut lähestymistavat ovat monelta osin yleispäteviä ja kiinnostavia myös laajemmalle yleisölle. Väitöskirja tuottaa uusia tieteellisiä tuloksia ongelmista ja toimintavoista turvallisuuteen liittyvien vaatimusten hallinnassa sekä kokoaa kattavasti tietoa eri osapuolien odotuksista, roolista ja mahdollisuuksista yritysten vaatimustenhallintatyön tukemisessa. Väitöskirjan tulokset yhdistävät useita tieteellisiä tutkimusalueita liittyen vaatimustenhallintaan, toimitusketjujen hallintaan, tuotevastuuseen ja päätöksentekoon. Turvallisuusnäkökulmaa tarkastellaan sellaisilla tutkimusalueilla, joissa sitä ei ole aiemmissa tutkimuksissa kattavasti huomioitu. ; In global trade, a machine manufacturer must manage a large variety of safety requirements, conformity approvals and product liability issues in order to avoid the possible losses caused by undesired events related to their products. Incorrect or insufficient knowledge of regulations in different market areas may hinder business and weaken competitiveness of machine-manufacturing companies with global operations. Especially outside of European Economic Area (EEA), European manufacturing companies may face difficulties in gathering and managing all local information and anticipating new requirements. This dissertation studies the process of managing compliance with product safetyrelated requirements in a global context. In here, the requirements cover external demands that an organisation has to comply. These may also be defined as external parties'/stakeholder requirements. The existing process of compliance management is studied from two perspectives: from globally operating manufacturing companies' and from external parties', such as legislators, standardisers and supervisory authorities, which have an essential role in effecting, demanding and/or supporting the management of compliance in companies as a whole. The results of the qualitative study base on prior literature and semi-structured interviews of six large machine manufacturing companies' representatives (n=37) as well as twelve Finnish (n=40) and six European (n=13) external parties' views of practices and problems in managing compliance. The results of literature review and the empirical findings of the interviews were applied in the construction of new approaches to manage compliance with safety-related requirements more systematically. The empirical results of this study show that the European integration has clarified the companies' operations significantly within the European Union (EU). However, varying practices, requirements and their enforcement cause difficulties for companies. From the external parties' point of view, the regulatory system requires improvements in the EU. Especially market surveillance is unequal in different EU member countries. Nevertheless, the companies seem to have more difficulties related to achieving compliance in other market areas. The required information about another market is typically gathered with help of company's local units, customers, dealers as well as by external benchmarking. Company makes a decision of whether it strives to comply with the requirements of all the market areas simultaneously or if the products are customised to different markets. The customisation may also be carried out in a local unit. However, central problems for companies are the lacking comparison of the requirements among different market areas and that the existing information does not cumulate to one place in the companies. In addition, the participating companies seem to desire more external help for official interpretations of requirements. However, this kind of advice is not easily available. Overall, according to the findings of this research, there is a need to clarify the process of managing compliance with safety-related requirements in a global context. The existing models and guidelines do not provide appropriate solutions for the identified needs. The constructed new approaches support to structure operations around managing compliance and provide new perspectives for understanding societies' activities. These approaches consist of a model for managing compliance with safety-related requirements and safety concerns in product delivery strategies. The main part of these approaches is the model, which consists of essential issues related to the phases of managing compliance with requirements from discovering and following requirements up to evaluation and ensuring compliance of a product with the valid requirements. The model considers product-based requirements. In addition, it covers issues both from companies' and from specific external parties' perspectives. This dissertation emphasises European legislation and practices. Nevertheless, the proposed approaches are generic and should be of interest for a wider audience. This dissertation produces scientific contribution by providing an overview of the problems and practices in managing safety-related compliance from the industrial perspective. In addition, it provides several external parties' expectations, role and possibilities in supporting and controlling companies' management of compliance. The results and constructed new approaches of this study combine several theoretical areas around compliance management, supply chain management, product liability and decision-making. Further, this study adds a novel aspect of safety in areas where it has not been covered in the earlier studies.

Tesis doctoral presentada para optar al grado de Doctor por la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona (Programa de Doctorado en Análisis Económico).--2019-07-12 ; [EN] In this dissertation, I investigate the causes and consequences of economic inequality along two dimensions: early childhood development for inequality among individuals and ethnic favoritism for inequality among social groups. In three separate essays, I specifically study the consequences on child development of shocks experienced early in life on one hand, and the prevalence and determinants of ethnic favoritism around the world on the other. Chapter 1 studies the impact of conflict risk on child health and it shows that insecurity in conflict-prone areas can affect child health even in absence of immediate violence. Beyond the damage caused to direct victims of iolence, behavioral responses to insecurity can lead to major health setbacks for young children. The fear of exposure to conflict events often triggers such responses even before/without any manifestation of violence in a given area. This generates a treatment status (exposure to conflict risk) that goes beyond violence incidence. In this chapter, I investigate the impact of conflict on child health using a new metric that captures perceived insecurity at the local level through a statistical model of violence. In this model, violence is a space-time process with an unknown underlying distribution that drives the expectations of agents on the ground. Each observed event is interpreted as a random realization of this process, and its underlying distribution is estimated using adaptive kernel density estimation methods. The new measure of violence risk is then used to evaluate the impact of conflict on child health using data from Ivory Coast and Uganda. The empirical evidence suggests that conflict is a local public bad, with cohorts of children exposed to high risk of violence equally suffering major health setbacks even when the risk does not materialize in violent events around them. Chapter 2 of the thesis is joint work with Bruno Conte Leite and Lavinia Piemontese. It investigates the impact on child health of the 2004 locust plague invasion in the Sahel region of Africa. It argues that locust invasions in these agricultural economies generate first a speculative/anticipatory price effect during the plague itself followed by a local crop failure effect that could constitute a food supply shock for local markets and an income shock for farmers. Using a Difference-in-Differences identification strategy, we show that children exposed in utero to the adverse effects of locust plagues suffer major health setback. Exposed children have, on average, a Z-score 0.25 points and 0.48 points lower than non-exposed children in Mali and Senegal respectively. Children exposed to the speculative price effect suffer as much as those exposed to the crop failure effect. Finally, chapter 3 of this thesis is joint work with Hannes Mueller and studies the prevalence and determinants of ethnic favoritism around the world. It uses a dataset which codes executive power for 564 ethnic groups in 130 countries on a seven-point scale to show that ethnic groups that gain political power benefit economically. This effect holds for groups that enter government, the extensive margin, and for groups that concentrate more power onto themselves, the intensive margin. Both these effects disappear in the presence of strong political constraints on executive power. Institutional constraints are even effective in preventing favoritism when groups concentrate all power in the executive onto themselves. ; [ES] En esta disertación, investigo las causas y consecuencias de la desigualdad económica a lo largo de dos dimensiones: desarrollo infantil temprano para la desigualdad entre individuos y favoritismo étnico por la desigualdad entre los grupos sociales. En tres ensayos separados, estudio específicamente las consecuencias sobre el desarrollo infantil de las conmociones experimentadas en una etapa temprana de la vida, y la prevalencia y los determinantes del favoritismo étnico en todo el mundo, por otra. El Capítulo 1 estudia el impacto del riesgo de conflicto en la salud infantil y muestra que la inseguridad en áreas propensas a conflictos puede afectar la salud infantil incluso en ausencia de violencia inmediata. Más allá del daño causado a las víctimas directas de la violencia, las respuestas de comportamiento a la inseguridad pueden llevar a grandes contratiempos de salud para los niños pequeños. El temor a la exposición a los eventos de conflicto a menudo desencadena tales respuestas incluso antes / sin ninguna manifestación de violencia en un área determinada. Esto genera un estado de tratamiento (exposición al riesgo de conflicto) que va más allá de la incidencia de violencia. En este capítulo, investigo el impacto del conflicto en la salud infantil utilizando una nueva métrica que captura la inseguridad percibida a nivel local a través de un modelo estadístico de violencia. En este modelo, la violencia es un proceso espacio-temporal con un desconocido. Distribución subyacente que impulsa las expectativas de los agentes en el terreno. Cada observado evento se interpreta como una realización aleatoria de este proceso, y su distribución subyacente Se estima utilizando métodos de estimación de densidad de kernel adaptativos. La nueva medida del riesgo de violencia se utiliza para evaluar el impacto del conflicto en la salud infantil utilizando datos de Costa de Marfil y Uganda. La evidencia empírica sugiere que el conflicto es un mal público local, con cohortes de los niños expuestos a un alto riesgo de violencia que sufren igualmente importantes contratiempos de salud incluso cuando El riesgo no se materializa en eventos violentos a su alrededor. El capítulo 2 de la tesis es un trabajo conjunto con Bruno Conte Leite y Lavinia Piemontese. Investiga el impacto en la salud infantil de la invasión de la plaga de langosta de 2004 en la región del Sahel de África. Argumenta que las invasiones de langostas en estas economías agrícolas generan primero un efecto de precio especulativo / anticipatorio durante la plaga en sí, seguido de un efecto de falla en los cultivos locales que podría constituir un shock de suministro de alimentos para los mercados locales y un shock de ingresos para los agricultores. Usando una estrategia de identificación de Diferencias en diferencias, mostramos que los niños expuestos en el útero a los efectos adversos de las plagas de langostas sufren un importante revés para la salud. Los niños expuestos tienen, en promedio, una puntuación Z de 0.25 puntos y 0.48 puntos más bajos que los niños no expuestos en Mali y Senegal, respectivamente. Los niños expuestos al efecto del precio especulativo sufren tanto como los expuestos al efecto de fracaso de la cosecha.Finalmente, el capítulo 3 de esta tesis es un trabajo conjunto con Hannes Mueller y estudia la prevalencia y los determinantes del favoritismo étnico en todo el mundo. Utiliza un conjunto de datos que codifica el poder ejecutivo de 564 grupos étnicos en 130 países en una escala de siete puntos para mostrar que los grupos étnicos que obtienen el poder político se benefician económicamente. Este efecto se mantiene para los grupos que ingresan al gobierno, el amplio margen, y para los grupos que concentran más poder en ellos mismos, el margen intensivo. Ambos efectos desaparecen en presencia de fuertes restricciones políticas sobre el poder ejecutivo.

Abstract: The studies about Abnormal Return had been studied by many researchers in their study. Researchers want to know the factors that driven the existence of Abnormal Return in an investment decision. One of the factor is the investors' overreaction towards the financial report of the company. Therefore, this study was condusted to examine the impact of the accounting information to the Abnormal Return of the company that go public during the period from 2013-2017. This study was aim to describe the effect of the selected accounting information to the Abnormal Return of the company that go public during the period from 2013-2017. The sample that were taken in this study consist of 97 samples which after deleting several outliers, the final sample that were observed consist of 64 samples. The accounting information that were used as the independent variables to determine the Abnormal Return were Price to Earning Ratio, Return on Equity, Firm Size, Book to Market Ratio, and Debt to Equity Ratio. The analysis method that were used was multiple regression analysis and using Microsoft Excel and SPSS as the tool of analysis. The result of the study showed that from the five independent variables, three of them have a significant effect, meanwhile the other two don't have significant effect. Return on Equity, Firm Size, and Book to Market Ratio have a positive effect to the Abnormal Return and significant at the 5% level of significance. Price to Earning Ratio has a positive effect to the Abnormal Return but insignificant and lastly Debt to Equity Ratio has has a negative effect to the Abnormal Return but insignificant.Keywords : Abnormal Return, Accounting Information, Price to Earning Ratio, Return on Equity, Firm Size, Book to Market Ratio, and Debt to Equity Ratio.REFERENCESAbid, Muhammad Talkhisul; Muharam, Harjum. (2013). "Analisis Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Abnormal Return Saham Pada Kinerja Jangka Panjang Penawaran Umum Perdana (IPO)". Diponegoro Journal of Management, Vol.2, No. 3.Altin, Hakan. (2015). "Efficient Market Hypothesis, Abnormal Return, And Election Periods". European Scientific Journal, Vol. 11, No. 34.Ball, Ray; Brown, Philip. (1968). "An Empirical Evaluation of Accounting Income Numbers". Journal of Accounting Research, Page 159-178.Beaver, William H., et al. (1979). "The Association Between Unsystematic Security Returns and the Magnitude of Earning Forecast Errors". Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 7 No. 2.Behbahani, Khalil Bevali; Rezvani, Karim. (2016). "Investigating the Effect Among Size, Growth Opportunity and Cumulative Abnormal Returns of the Companies". International Journal of Advanced Biotechnology and Research, Vol. 7.Botika, Marianna. (2012). "The Use of DuPont Aanalysis in Abnormal Returns Evaluation : Empirical Study of Romanian Market". Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2012, Page 1179-1183. Bou, Juan Carlos; Satorra, Albert. (2003). "The Persistence of Abnormal Return at Industry and Firm Levels : Evidence From Spain". Department of Business Administration and Marketing, Universitat Jaume I, Castello´ , Spain. Department of Economics and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain. Brav, Alon; Geczy, Christopher; Gompers, Paul A. (2000). "Is the Abnormal Return Following Equity Issuances Anomalous?". Journal of Financial Economics 56, Page 209-249. Brokke, Anette Dalen; Osteby, Madeleine. (2016). "Abnormal Stock Market Returns around VIX Volatility Peaks". Department of Economics and Finance, School of Business and Law, Univesity of Agder.Cohen, Gil. (2010). "P/E Versus PEG : Which Better Pedicts Abnormal Returns?". The Max Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel, Emek Yezreel 19300, Israel.Connelly, Brian L., et al. (2011). "Signaling Theory : A Review and Assessment". Journal of Management, Vol. 37, No. 1.Dang, Ngoc Hung, et al. (2017). "The Relationship Between Accounting Information in the Financial Statements and the Stock Returns of Listed Firms in Vietnam Stock Exchange". International Journal of Economics and Finance, Vol. 9, No. 10.Diaraya, et al. (2017). "The Effect of Accounting Information on Abnormal Return of Stock : Assesment by Capital Asset Pricing Model". Journal of Research in Business and Management, Vol. 5, No. 3, Page 25-32.Dupernex, Samuel. (2007). "Why Might Share Price Follow A Random Walk?". Student Economic Review, Vol. 21.Filsaraei, Mahdi; Azarberahman, Alireza; Azarberahman Jalal. (2013). "An Empirical Analysis for Abnormal Returns from Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) : evidence of Iranian oil and chemical industries". International Journal of Accounting and Financial Reporting, 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1.Kai, Qian; Xiaoguang, Lee. (2014). "An Empirical Study on Abnormal Returns of Listed Companies of Chinese Pharmaceutical Industry". Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 2014, 6(6):846-850.Kun, Qian; Xiaojiang, Yuan. (2017). "Financial Leverage and Firm Performance During and After the Financial Crisis". Simon Fraser University, 2017.Lyon, John D.; Barber, Brad M.; Tsai, Chih-Ling. (1999). "Improved Methods for Tests of Long-Run Abnormal Stock Returns". The Journal of Finance, Vol. LIV, No. 1.Martani, Dwi, et al. (2009). "The Effect of Financial Ratios, Firm Size, and Cash Flow From Operating Activities in the Interim Report to the Stock Return". Chinese Business Review, Vol. 8, No. 6.Melgarejo, Mauricio A., et al. (2013). "The Stock Market's Reaction to Accounting Information : The Case of the Latin American Integrated Market Abstract". Scholarship and Professional Work – Business, 276.Muradoglu, Gulnur; Sivaprasad, Sheeja. (2007). "An Empirical Analysis of Capital Structure and Abnormal Returns". Cash Business School, 106 Bunhill Row, London, EC1Y 8TZ, United Kingdom.Mustilli, Mario, et al. (2017). "Abnormal Returns and Fundamental Analysis in Institutional Investors' Decision Making : An Agency Theory Approach". International Business Research, Vol. 11, No. 2.Penman, Stephen H., et al. (2006). "The Book-to Price Effect in Stock Returns : Accounting for Leverage". Columbia University, Department of Accounting, 3022 Broadway, New York.Permana, Sidiq Jati. (2017). "Analisis Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Abnormal Return Saham Pada Perusahaan Perbankan dan Asuransi Yang Terdaftar di Bursa Efek Indonesia". Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 11, No. 1, Page 12-27.Reinganum, Marc R. (1981). "Abnormal Returns in Small Firm Portfolios". Financial Analysis Journal, Page 52-56. Seketer, Ahmet. (2017). "An Analysis of Theories on Stock Returns". International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3.Shah, Priyanka, et al. (2014). "M&A Announcements and Their Effect on Return to Shareholders : An Event Study". Accounting and Finance Research, Vol. 3, No. 2.Viskanta, Tadas. "Abnormal Returns: Winning Strategies from the Frontlines of the Investment Blogosphere". McGraw-Hill Education, May 11th 2012.Whisky, Ayakeme Ebiwarefa, et al. (2014). "Do Investors Make Abnormal Returns Cocsistently? An Econometric Investigation in the Nigerian Capital Market". International Journal of Financial Research, Vol. 5 No. 2.Xia, Zhangliang. (2015). "An Explanation of Factors Related to the Acquiring Firm's Abnormal Returns From M&A Activities". Saint Mary's University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.Ziobrowski, Alan J.; Boyd, James W.; Cheng, Ping; Ziobrowski, Brigitte J. (2011). "Abnormal Returns From the Common Stock Investments of Members of the U.S. House of Representative". Business and Politics, Vol. 13, Article 4.

Transport er en fundamental faktor for den økonomiske udvikling og en af hjørnestenene bag velfærd. Den er yderligt ansvarlig for 28% af det endelige energiforbrug og 23 % af alle energirelaterede CO2 emissioner i verden, og anses som den sværeste sektor at dekarbonisere. For at kunne reducere karbon intensiteten og energiforbruget i transportsektoren er både teknologierne og forbrugsmønster nødvendige at ændre. Energisystemmodeller er et værdifuldt værktøj for langsigtede energiplanlægning. Beslutningstagere verden over har brugt modeller i mere end tre årtier til at analysere alternative retningslinjer for drivhusgas frie energi systemer og til at teste politiske tiltag. Kategorien buttom-up energi-økonomi-miljø-ingeniørarbejde (E4) modeller står for en detaljeret repræsentation af energi systemet. Dog er disse modeller ofte svage til at repræsentere menneskelig adfærd, selvom det er et fundamentalt element for beslutningstagere i transportsektoren. Denne afhandling udfylder dette hul i energisystemmodeller gennem forskellige metoder, der kan repræsentere adfærd inden for transport sektoren, og fremviser dermed retningslinjer til udføre nye transportanalyser og politiske incitament strukturer. Indledningsvist undersøger denne afhandling eksisterende videnskabelig litteratur inden for energi- og transportmodellering. Denne fremhæver manglende modellering af adfærdstendenser hos beslutningstagere og identificerer transportmiddelskift og køretøjs valg, som hovedpunkter, der skal integreres i modellerings værktøjer for at overkomme de eksisterende begrænsninger. Afhandlingen præsenterer metoder udviklet inden for rammerne af dette Ph.d. studie til at modellere transportmiddelskift og køretøjs valg i den danske TIMES energi systems model, TIMES-DK. De udvilkede metoderne kan klassificeres i to underkategorier: værktøjer udviklet med henblik på blive inkorporeret i TIMES-DK med transportspecifikke variabler og de der forbinder TIMES-DK med en ekstern transport-model. Som følge af den omfattende udvikling og test af metoder i dette Ph.d. studie er målet, at afhandlingen skal bruges som en manual for kollegaer og forskere med interesse inden for E4 modeller og forbrugernes adfærdsmønster i transport sektoren. Afhandlingen beskriver hvordan traditionelle E4 buttom-up optimerings modeller kan overkomme begrænsningerne takket være de udvikledet værktøjer. Yderligere, sammenlignes metodernes evne til at skildre adfærdsmæssige hovedtræk med henblik på at besvare politiske spørgsmål og den krævende indsats for at reproducere modellen. De nye metodiske værktøjer leder til en dybere og mere gennemgående analyse af fossil frie scenarier, hvor både adfærdsmønster og teknologiske dimensioner er inkluderet. Resultatet af denne afhandling indikerer at transportmiddelskift potentielt har positiv indvirkning i at dekarbonisere energi systemet og hjælpe med at opnå en fossilfri energi sektor i Danmark inden 2050 og kan sænke dens kumulative CO2 udledning. Undersøgelser udviklet i denne Ph.d.s anvendelsesområde bekræfter at forventes biler fortsat at være det førende transportmiddel i fremtiden. Et transportmiddelskift skal dog stadig suppleres med en Page | 4 elektrificering af bil-sektoren for at sænke drivhusgas udledningen i henhold til de danske klima målsætninger. Analyserne har til formål at informere danske beslutningstagere om energi- og transportplanlægning om det fordelagtige bidrag fra modalskifte og elektrificering af bil-sektoren for at reducere drivhusgasemissionerne. De nordiske erfaringer og model analyser er brugt til at give politiske anbefalinger til incitamentstrukturer som beslutningstagere kan iværksætte i praksis for at opnå et transportmiddelskift væk fra konventionelle biler og til mere klimavenlige transportmidler og indfasning af elbiler. Til slut diskuterer denne Ph.d.-afhandling hvilke forskningsområder, inden for forbrugervalg i BU optimering E4 modeller, der er stadigvæk er svagt belyst og anbefaler interessante energi- og transportanalyser, der bør udføres ved at benytte de nye modeller, som er udviklet i denne Ph.d.- afhandling. ; Transport is a fundamental driver of economic development and a key supporter of welfare. Nonetheless, it is responsible for approximately 28% of global final energy use, 23% of the global energyrelated CO2 emissions and is regarded as the most complicated sector to decarbonise. In order to reduce the carbon intensity and energy consumption of the transportation sector, both technological and behavioural changes are required. Energy system models are a valuable tool for long-term energy planning. Decision makers have been using these models for more than three decades to explore alternative pathways towards greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions free energy systems and to test the potential impact of policy measures. Bottom-up (BU) energy-economy-environment-engineering (E4) models in particular can provide a detailed technological representation of the energy system. However, these models are generally weak at representing human behaviour, despite it is a fundamental aspect of decision making in the transportation sector. This PhD thesis fills this gap by proposing several methodologies that improve the representation of consumers' choice in passenger transport within energy system models, thus paving the way for the possibility to carry out novel transport analyses and to consider a wider array of decarbonisation policies. The first part of this thesis reviews the current scientific literature regarding integrated energy and transport models. It highlights the failing in representing consumers' decision making and identifies modal choice and vehicle choice as key behavioral features to be integrated in the modeling framework to overcome the existing limitation. Following these two findings, this thesis presents the methodologies developed within the scope of this PhD research to incorporate modal choice and vehicle choice in TIMES-DK, the TIMES model of the Danish energy system. The methodologies developed can be classified in two categories: those that extend the structure of the TIMES model to accommodate novel transport-specific variables and those that link the TIMES model with an external transport model. Thanks to the broad spectrum of approaches developed and tested within the scope of this PhD research, this thesis ultimately aims at acting as a guide for fellow researchers interested in including behavioural realism of transport users' choice in E4 models. The thesis describes how traditional limits in the representation of behaviour within BU optimization E4 models can be addressed with the different approaches developed. Then, it compares the various methodologies with respect to the capability to capture key behavioural features, to answer different policy questions and to the modeling efforts required to reproduce the models. The novel methodologies proposed inaugurate the possibility to perform more comprehensive analyses of decarbonisation pathways, which include both the behavioural and technological dimension. The results of the PhD study indicate that modal shift potentially has a positive contribution to the decarbonisation of the energy system, helping to reach carbon-neutral energy system in Denmark in 2050 at faster pace and with lower cumulative emissions. The analyses carried out within the scope of this PhD research find that car transport is likely to maintain the highest modal share also in the future, suggesting that modal shift should be accompanied by the electrification of the car sector to comply with the Danish environmental targets and overarching climate targets. The analyses are intended to inform Danish policy makers dealing with energy and transport planning on the beneficial contribution of modal shift and of the electrification of the car stock to reduce GHG emissions. The Nordic experience and the findings of the modeling analyses are used to give policy recommendations on the measures that the authorities should put in practice to encourage modal shift away from car to more sustainable modes of transport and to promote the deployment of electric cars. Finally, this PhD thesis discusses future research to address the remaining gaps concerning the representation of consumers' choice within BU optimization E4 models and suggests interesting energy and transport analyses that should be performed using the novel models hereby proposed.

The article is dedicated to a brief analysis of the evolution of the English language in Europe and its unique functions in the European Union. The influence of the various political, economic and social factors on the settling of the English language as lingua franca of the modern world is demonstrated. The preconditions of the special linguistic status of the English language in the EU are determined, together with its influence on intercultural communication and the creation of common Pan-European linguistic and cultural space. The evidence of the English language nativization under the influence of other European languages is analyzed, together with the hypothesis of the European English variant existence – a new variant of the English language, different from the standard one and other existing variants. The illustrative material of the research demonstrates typical forms of lexical nativization of the English language in the European Union. The notion of disoursal nativization and the conditions necessary for its fixation in the English language of the EU are clarified. The article includes analysis of the existing social contexts of the European Union and their influence on the formation of the European variant of the English language. It is defined, that this influence takes place both, on the level of the official institutions (top down influence) like the recommendations of the European Comission on the professional usage of the English language. It also takes place on the level of everyday communication (bottom up influence), programs of language, educational and cultural exchange etc. The changes in the Ukrainian attitude to the study of English language by the population after the signing of the EU Association Agreement are shown.Special attention is paid to the phenomenon of immigration to the European Union and the popularity of the English language among the immigrants. The influence of the probable Brexit on the spread of English in the EU and the formation of the separate European variant of the English language is analyzed. References1. "Brexit SHOCK: Brussels claims agreement 'shows leaving EU will NOT work'". 2019. Express. https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1068898/Brexit-news-EU-Theresa-May-no-deal-video-Martin-Selmayr-Greg-Hands2. Berns, M., Claes M., de Bot, Evers, R. 2007. "English in Europe". In the Presence of English: Media and European Youth 15–42.3. Berns, M. 1995. "English in the European Union". English Today, 11 (3): 3–11.4. Cenoz , Jasone & Jessner, Ulrike (eds.) 2000. English in Europe. The Acquisition of a Third Language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.5. Crystal, David. 2003. English as a global language. Cambridge: CUP. 2nd edition.6. Edwards, J. 2001. "No Good Past Dover". Enlish Today 68 17 (4): 3–13.7. McArthur, T. 2001. "Euro-evolution?" English Today 68 17 (4): 2.8. Melckersson, Jennifer. 2018. English in Europe post-Brexit: An analysis of the post-Brexit discourse surrounding English as a European lingua franca. http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile& recordOId=8946164&fileOId=8946167.9. Modiano, M. 2001. "A new variety of English". English Today 68 17 (4):13–14.10. Simigné, Fenyő Sarolta. 2003. "The Function Of The English Language". The European Union European Integration Studies, 2 (2): 53–64. 11. "Single-use plastics: member states confirm agreement which bans certain throwaway plastic items". 2019. Europa.eu. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/01/18/single-use-plastics-council-confirms-agreement-which-bans-certain-throwaway-plastic-items/ 12. "Foreign Secretary says UK may seek to delay Brexit in bid to secure deal". 2019. Тhe Journal.ie. https://www.thejournal.ie/brexit-extending-article-50-4469235-Jan2019/. ; Статтю присвячено оглядовому аналізу еволюції ролі англійської мови в Європі та її особливим функціям у Європейському Союзі. Продемонстровано вплив зв'язку політичних, економічних та соціальних факторів на становлення англійської мови як lingua franca сучасного світу. Визначено передумови особливого лінгвістичного статусу англійської мови в Європейському Союзі, її вплив на міжкультурну комунікацію та створення спільного, пан'європейського мовно-культурного простору. Проаналізовано ознаки нативізації англійської мови під впливом інших мов Європейського Союзу та гіпотезу виникнення окремого, відмінного від стандартного, варіанту англійської мови – європейської англійської. В ілюстративному матеріалі дослідження репрезентовано типові форми лексичної нативізації англійської мови в Європейському Союзі. Також визначено поняття дискурсивної нативізації та необхідні умови для її закріплення в англійській мові Європейського Союзу. Стаття включає аналіз існуючих у Європейському Союзі соціолінгвістичних контекстів, що впливають на формування європейського варіанту англійської мови. Визначено, що це відбувається як на рівні офіційних інституцій (згори вниз), наприклад, рекомендації Європейської комісії щодо професійного використання англійської мови, так і на рівні побутової комунікації (знизу вгору), програм мовного, освітнього та культурного обміну і т. ін. Зазначено зміни в українському ставленні до вивчення англійської мови населенням після підписання Асоціації з Європейським Союзом. Дослідницьку увагу приділено феномену імміграції до Європейського Союзу та популярності англійської мови серед іммігрантів. Проаналізовано вплив ймовірного виходу Великої Британії із Європейського Союзу на поширеність англійської та становлення окремого європейського варіанту англійської мови. Джерела та література 1. Brexit SHOCK: Brussels claims agreement 'shows leaving EU will NOT work' [Electronic resource] // Express. – Jan 8 2019. – Mode of access : https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1068898/Brexit-news-EU-Theresa-May-no-deal-video-Martin-Selmayr-Greg-Hands. 2. Berns M. English in Europe / М. Berns, М. Claes, de Bot, R. Evers // In the Presence of English: Media and European Youth. – 2007. – P.15–42 3. Berns M. English in the European Union / М. Berns // English Today. – 1995. – Vol. 11 (43). – No. 3. – Р. 3–11. 4. Cenoz J. English in Europe. The Acquisition of a Third Language. / J. Cenoz, J. Ulrike. – Clevedon : Multilingual Matters, 2000. – 86 р. 5. Crystal D. English as a global language: 2nd edition / D. Crystal. – Cambridge : CUP, 2003. – 212 p. 6. Edwards J. No Good Past Dover / J. Edwards // Enlish Today. – 2001. – Vol. 17 (68). – No. 4. – Cambridge : University Press. – Р. 3–13. 7. McArthur T. Euro-evolution? / Т. McArthur // English Today. – 2001. – Vol. 17 (68). – No. 4. – Р. 2. 8. Melckersson J. English in Europe post-Brexit: An analysis of the post-Brexit discourse surrounding English as a European lingua franca [Electronic resource] / J. Melckersson. – 2018. – Mode of access : http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=8946164&fileOId=8946167 9. Modiano M. A new variety of English / М. Modiano // English Today. – 2001. – Vol. 17 (68). – No. 4. – Р. 13–14. 10. Simigné F. S. The Function Of The English Language / F. S. Simigné // The European Union European Integration Studies. – Miskolc, 2003. – Vol. 2. – Nо 2. – Р. 53–64. 11. Single-use plastics: member states confirm agreement which bans certain throwaway plastic items [Electronic resource] // Europa.eu. – 18. 01.2019. – Mode of access : https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/01/18/single-use-plastics-council-confirms-agreement-which-bans-certain-throwaway-plastic-items/ 12. Foreign Secretary says UK may seek to delay Brexit in bid to secure deal [Electronic resource] // Тhe Journal.ie. – Jan 31st 2019. – Mode of access : https://www.thejournal.ie/brexit-extending-article-50-4469235-Jan2019/.

In the practice of restoration, knowledge on the primitive spatiality of buildings, their transformations throughout time and their materiality is crucial to responsibly approach this hard task. This is why the research project entitled "the construction of men's convent temples in the New Kingdom of Granada" contributes to the technical and construction-related knowledge concerning these types of patrimonial buildings. This contribution is made via the analysis of the contents of a large number of secondary sources, a documental and graphical analysis of primary sources from different files and a field exploration of each one of the studied buildings. The historical and geographical context is the so-called Colonial period, between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, when the region located on the western corner of South America (know as Colombia today) was called New Granada. This is why this period is also called the New-granadian era. Although its inception saw the same basic influences, Neogranadine architecture has its distinctive features depending on the region where it was developed. This is the main reason justifying a detailed study of its historical centers. Religious architecture expressed the maximum monumentality of these centers, where the social, political and economic aspects were merged to produce the result we have today. In addition, male religious congregations built their temples as monumentally as possible, which is why this research focuses on this type of buildings. We were able to determine that, in spite of the extensive discussion on religious buildings, there are few publications discussing the technological aspects in depth. Likewise, up to this moment, no relationships have been established which make it possible to know and understand the differences concerning the construction-related knowledge among the religious communities that built those structures. Therefore, this research was motivated by the lack of published information on architectural technology relevant for the history of architecture in Colombia and the interest in treating the subject of religious architecture using another approach. By considering, comparing and analyzing technical studies, unpublished construction logs and all temple-related data obtained from secondary sources for the purposes of this research, we were able to shed some light on the apparently contradictory or incomplete aspects presented by some authors. Likewise, we identified gaps and compiled, in one single text, all the information published to date regarding the studied buildings. Thus we obtained more comprehensive and critical information. The existing publications have never identified the building systems as precisely and comprehensively as we did in this research. This was possible because we consulted different national archives to obtain all the technical studies conducted to completely restore the buildings, the books and manuscript reports describing the interventions, the photographs taken during the restoration process and, in some cases, the reports and photographs of the temples' state of deterioration or collapse by earthquake. This information also made it possible to solve our hypotheses, raise new ones, deny claims from other authors regarding the historical, spatial and technological aspects of the studied temples. In addition, we created a comparison-based analysis process to establish, based on the aforementioned information, the institutional, regional and time-related parameters characterizing the technique used to build men's convent temples in this region of the indies. This is thus an important contribution to the body of knowledge known as "historical construction", which has never been approached for the case of religious New-granadian architecture. ; En la práctica de la restauración, es de vital importancia el conocimiento de la espacialidad primitiva de los edificios, sus transformaciones en el tiempo y su materialidad, para abordar de manera responsable esta ardua tarea. Por eso esta investigación "La Construcción de Templos Conventuales masculinos en el Nuevo Reino de Granada", aporta al conocimiento técnico-constructivo de este tipo de edificios patrimoniales, mediante el análisis de contenido de un gran número de fuentes secundarias, un análisis documental y gráfico de fuentes primarias localizadas en diferentes archivos y una exploración en campo de cada uno de los edificios estudiados. El ámbito temporal y geográfico es el periodo mal llamado Colonial, periodo en el que la región situada en la esquina occidente de Sur América fue llamada Nueva Granada, razón por la cual se le llama periodo Neogranadino, específicamente lo que hoy es Colombia, siglos XVI al XVIII. La Arquitectura Neogranadina aunque se concibe bajo unas mismas influencias básicas, presenta grandes particularidades dependiendo de la región donde se desarrolló. Fundamento básico para la justificación de estudios detallados de sus centros históricos. La arquitectura religiosa fue la expresión de máxima monumentalidad de estos centros, donde los aspectos sociales, políticos y económicos se conjugaron para dar el resultado que hoy tenemos. Adicionalmente en este periodo fueron las congregaciones religiosas masculinas quienes construyeron sus templos con la mayor monumentalidad posible, razón por la cual esta investigación se centra en este tipo de edificaciones. Se pudo determinar que a pesar de lo mucho que se ha tratado los edificios religiosos, existen pocas publicaciones que traten de manera detallada el aspecto tecnológico. Igualmente, no se han establecido hasta el momento relaciones que permitan conocer y entender las diferencias del saber constructivo entre las comunidades religiosas que las construyeron. Por tanto, las motivaciones para el desarrollo de esta investigación están fundamentadas en la falta de información publicada sobre tecnología arquitectónica, importante para la historia de la arquitectura en Colombia, y el interés de tratar el tema de la arquitectura religiosa bajo otro enfoque. Al considerar, comparar y analizar la información presentada en todas las fuentes secundarias sobre los templos utilizadas para esta investigación, y los estudios técnicos y libros de obra inéditos hasta ahora, fue posible aclarar muchos aspectos que aparecen contradictorios o incompletos en algunos autores, como también establecer vacíos y compilar en un solo texto todo lo que hasta el momento se ha publicado sobre los edificios estudiados, logrando una información crítica y más completa. Las publicaciones existentes hasta el momento nunca han hecho una identificación precisa y completa de los sistemas constructivos como se logró en esta investigación. Esto fue posible gracias a la consulta en diferentes archivos nacionales de todos los estudios técnicos realizados para la restauración integral de los edificios, los libros e informes manuscritos de obra de las intervenciones, las fotografías tomadas durante el proceso de restauración y en algunos casos informes y fotografías del estado de deterioro o colapso por sismo de los templos. Información que permitió también resolver hipótesis, plantear otras, desmentir afirmaciones de algunos autores sobre aspectos históricos, espaciales y tecnológicos de los templos estudiados. Adicionalmente mediante la creación de un procedimiento de análisis por comparación, se establece partiendo de la información anterior, los parámetros institucionales, regionales y temporales que caracterizaron la técnica constructiva de los templos conventuales de órdenes masculinas en esta región de las indias. Lo cual constituye un aporte importante al conocimiento de la "construcción histórica", nunca antes abordada para la arquitectura religiosa Neogranadina ; Postprint (published version)

In the practice of restoration, knowledge on the primitive spatiality of buildings, their transformations throughout time and their materiality is crucial to responsibly approach this hard task. This is why the research project entitled "the construction of men's convent temples in the New Kingdom of Granada" contributes to the technical and construction-related knowledge concerning these types of patrimonial buildings. This contribution is made via the analysis of the contents of a large number of secondary sources, a documental and graphical analysis of primary sources from different files and a field exploration of each one of the studied buildings. The historical and geographical context is the so-called Colonial period, between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, when the region located on the western corner of South America (know as Colombia today) was called New Granada. This is why this period is also called the New-granadian era. Although its inception saw the same basic influences, Neogranadine architecture has its distinctive features depending on the region where it was developed. This is the main reason justifying a detailed study of its historical centers. Religious architecture expressed the maximum monumentality of these centers, where the social, political and economic aspects were merged to produce the result we have today. In addition, male religious congregations built their temples as monumentally as possible, which is why this research focuses on this type of buildings. We were able to determine that, in spite of the extensive discussion on religious buildings, there are few publications discussing the technological aspects in depth. Likewise, up to this moment, no relationships have been established which make it possible to know and understand the differences concerning the construction-related knowledge among the religious communities that built those structures. Therefore, this research was motivated by the lack of published information on architectural technology relevant for the history of architecture in Colombia and the interest in treating the subject of religious architecture using another approach. By considering, comparing and analyzing technical studies, unpublished construction logs and all temple-related data obtained from secondary sources for the purposes of this research, we were able to shed some light on the apparently contradictory or incomplete aspects presented by some authors. Likewise, we identified gaps and compiled, in one single text, all the information published to date regarding the studied buildings. Thus we obtained more comprehensive and critical information. The existing publications have never identified the building systems as precisely and comprehensively as we did in this research. This was possible because we consulted different national archives to obtain all the technical studies conducted to completely restore the buildings, the books and manuscript reports describing the interventions, the photographs taken during the restoration process and, in some cases, the reports and photographs of the temples' state of deterioration or collapse by earthquake. This information also made it possible to solve our hypotheses, raise new ones, deny claims from other authors regarding the historical, spatial and technological aspects of the studied temples. In addition, we created a comparison-based analysis process to establish, based on the aforementioned information, the institutional, regional and time-related parameters characterizing the technique used to build men's convent temples in this region of the indies. This is thus an important contribution to the body of knowledge known as "historical construction", which has never been approached for the case of religious New-granadian architecture. ; En la práctica de la restauración, es de vital importancia el conocimiento de la espacialidad primitiva de los edificios, sus transformaciones en el tiempo y su materialidad, para abordar de manera responsable esta ardua tarea. Por eso esta investigación "La Construcción de Templos Conventuales masculinos en el Nuevo Reino de Granada", aporta al conocimiento técnico-constructivo de este tipo de edificios patrimoniales, mediante el análisis de contenido de un gran número de fuentes secundarias, un análisis documental y gráfico de fuentes primarias localizadas en diferentes archivos y una exploración en campo de cada uno de los edificios estudiados. El ámbito temporal y geográfico es el periodo mal llamado Colonial, periodo en el que la región situada en la esquina occidente de Sur América fue llamada Nueva Granada, razón por la cual se le llama periodo Neogranadino, específicamente lo que hoy es Colombia, siglos XVI al XVIII. La Arquitectura Neogranadina aunque se concibe bajo unas mismas influencias básicas, presenta grandes particularidades dependiendo de la región donde se desarrolló. Fundamento básico para la justificación de estudios detallados de sus centros históricos. La arquitectura religiosa fue la expresión de máxima monumentalidad de estos centros, donde los aspectos sociales, políticos y económicos se conjugaron para dar el resultado que hoy tenemos. Adicionalmente en este periodo fueron las congregaciones religiosas masculinas quienes construyeron sus templos con la mayor monumentalidad posible, razón por la cual esta investigación se centra en este tipo de edificaciones. Se pudo determinar que a pesar de lo mucho que se ha tratado los edificios religiosos, existen pocas publicaciones que traten de manera detallada el aspecto tecnológico. Igualmente, no se han establecido hasta el momento relaciones que permitan conocer y entender las diferencias del saber constructivo entre las comunidades religiosas que las construyeron. Por tanto, las motivaciones para el desarrollo de esta investigación están fundamentadas en la falta de información publicada sobre tecnología arquitectónica, importante para la historia de la arquitectura en Colombia, y el interés de tratar el tema de la arquitectura religiosa bajo otro enfoque. Al considerar, comparar y analizar la información presentada en todas las fuentes secundarias sobre los templos utilizadas para esta investigación, y los estudios técnicos y libros de obra inéditos hasta ahora, fue posible aclarar muchos aspectos que aparecen contradictorios o incompletos en algunos autores, como también establecer vacíos y compilar en un solo texto todo lo que hasta el momento se ha publicado sobre los edificios estudiados, logrando una información crítica y más completa. Las publicaciones existentes hasta el momento nunca han hecho una identificación precisa y completa de los sistemas constructivos como se logró en esta investigación. Esto fue posible gracias a la consulta en diferentes archivos nacionales de todos los estudios técnicos realizados para la restauración integral de los edificios, los libros e informes manuscritos de obra de las intervenciones, las fotografías tomadas durante el proceso de restauración y en algunos casos informes y fotografías del estado de deterioro o colapso por sismo de los templos. Información que permitió también resolver hipótesis, plantear otras, desmentir afirmaciones de algunos autores sobre aspectos históricos, espaciales y tecnológicos de los templos estudiados. Adicionalmente mediante la creación de un procedimiento de análisis por comparación, se establece partiendo de la información anterior, los parámetros institucionales, regionales y temporales que caracterizaron la técnica constructiva de los templos conventuales de órdenes masculinas en esta región de las indias. Lo cual constituye un aporte importante al conocimiento de la "construcción histórica", nunca antes abordada para la arquitectura religiosa Neogranadina ; Postprint (published version)

European economic, social and territorial cohesion is one of the fundamental aims of the European Union (EU). It seeks to both reduce the effects of internal borders and enhance European integration. In order to facilitate territorial cohesion, the linkage of member states by means of efficient cross-border transport infrastructures and services is an important factor. Many cross-border transport challenges have historically existed in everyday life. They have hampered smooth passenger and freight flows within the EU. Two EU policies, namely European Territorial Cooperation (ETC) and the Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T), promote enhancing cross-border transport through cooperation in soft spaces. This dissertation seeks to explore the influence of these two EU policies on cross-border transport and further European integration. Based on an analysis of European, national and cross-border policy and planning documents, surveys with TEN-T Corridor Coordinators and INTERREG Secretariats and a high number of elite interviews, the dissertation will investigate how the objectives of the two EU policies were formally implemented in both soft spaces and the EU member states as well as which practical implementations have taken place. Thereby, the initiated Europeanisation and European integration processes will be evaluated. The analysis is conducted in nine preliminary case studies and two in-depth case studies. The cases comprise cross-border regions funded by the ETC policy that are crossed by a TEN-T corridor. The in-depth analysis explores the Greater Region Saar-Lor-Lux+ and the Brandenburg-Lubuskie region. The cases are characterised by different initial situations. The research determined that the two EU policies support cross-border transport on different levels and, further, that they need to be better intertwined in order to make effective use of their complementarities. Moreover, it became clear that the EU policies have a distinct influence on domestic policy and planning documents of different administrative levels and countries as well as on the practical implementation. The final implementation of the EU objectives and the cross-border transport initiatives was strongly influenced by the member states' initial situations – particularly, the regional and local transport needs. This dissertation concludes that the two EU policies cannot remove the entirety of the cross-border transport-related challenges. However, in addition to their financial investments in concrete projects, they promote the importance of cross-border transport and facilitate cooperation, learning and exchange processes. These are all of high relevance to cross-border transport development, driven by member states, as well as to further European integration. The dissertation recommends that the transport planning competences of the EU in addition to the TEN-T network should not be enlarged in the future, but rather further transnational transport development tasks should be decentralised to transnational transport planning committees that are aware of regional needs and can coordinate a joint transport development strategy. The latter should be implemented with the support of additional EU funds for secondary and tertiary cross-border connections. Moreover, the potential complementarities of the transnational regions and transport corridors as well as the two EU policy fields should be made better use of by improving communication. This means that soft spaces, the TEN-T and ETC Policy as well as the domestic transport ministries and the domestic administrations that are responsible for the two EU policies need to intensify their cooperation. Furthermore, a focus of future ETC projects on topics that are of added value for the whole cross-border region or else that can be applied in different territorial contexts is recommended rather than investing in small-scale scattered expensive infrastructures and services that are only of benefit for a small part of the region. Additionally, the dissemination of project results should be enhanced so that the developed tools can be accessed by potential users and benefits become more visible to a wider society, despite the fact that they might not be measurable in numbers. In addition, the research points at another success factor for more concrete outputs: the frequent involvement of transport and spatial planners in transnational projects could increase the relation to planning practice. Besides that, advanced training regarding planning culture could reduce cooperation barriers. ; Eines der grundlegenden Ziele der Europäischen Union (EU) ist der wirtschaftliche, soziale und territoriale Zusammenhalt. Zu diesem Zweck sollen sowohl die innereuropäischen Grenzbarrieren abgebaut als auch die europäische Integration gestärkt werden. Wichtige Faktoren für den territorialen Zusammenhalt der Mitgliedsstaaten sind effiziente grenzüberschreitende Verkehrsinfrastrukturen und öffentliche Verkehrsdienstleistungen. Bis heute erschweren jedoch diverse Hindernisse tagtäglich den reibungslosen grenzüberschreitenden Personen- und Güterverkehr innerhalb der EU. Zwei EU-Politiken, die Europäische Territoriale Zusammenarbeit (ETZ) und die Trans-Europäischen Verkehrsnetze (TEN-V), sollen dem Ausbau des grenzüberschreitenden Verkehrs durch die Zusammenarbeit in sogenannten 'Soft Spaces' dienen. Ziel dieser Dissertation ist es, den Einfluss dieser beiden EU-Politiken auf den grenzüberschreitenden Verkehr und die weitere europäische Integration zu untersuchen. Basierend auf einer Analyse von europäischen, nationalen und grenzüberschreitenden Politik- und Planungsdokumenten, Umfragen unter TEN-V Korridor Koordinatoren und INTERREG Sekretariaten und einer hohen Anzahl von Experteninterviews untersucht und evaluiert die Dissertation, wie die Ziele der EU-Politiken sowohl formell als auch praktisch in 'Soft Spaces' und EU-Mitgliedsstaaten umgesetzt wurden. Auf diese Weise werden die potenziell initiierten Europäisierungs- und europäische Integrationsprozesse bewertet. Im Rahmen der Analyse werden neun Vorstudien und zwei tiefergehenden Fallstudien vorgenommen. Bei den Fallbeispielen handelt es sich um durch unterschiedliche Ausgangslagen geprägte Grenzregionen, die von der ETZ-Politik gefördert und von einem TEN-V Korridor durchquert werden. Dabei werden die Großregion Saar-Lor-Lux+ und die Grenzregion Brandenburg-Lubuskie im Detail untersucht. Die Untersuchung zeigt, dass die beiden EU-Politiken grenzüberschreitenden Verkehr auf unterschiedlichen Ebenen unterstützen. Sie macht darüber hinaus klar, dass die beiden Politiken mehr miteinander verzahnt werden müssen, um sich wechselseitig optimaler ergänzen zu können. Weiterhin wird deutlich, dass die EU-Politiken die politischen und planerischen Dokumente der verschiedenen nationalen administrativen Ebenen sowie deren Umsetzung in die Praxis in differenzierter Art und Weise beeinflussen. Die schlussendliche Umsetzung der EU-Politikziele und der grenzüberschreitenden Verkehrsinitiativen wird stark durch die unterschiedlichen Ausgangslagen in den Mitgliedsstaaten – insbesondere die regionalen und lokalen Verkehrsbedürfnisse – geprägt. Die vorliegende Dissertation zieht die Schlussfolgerung, dass die beiden EU-Politiken nicht alle Herausforderungen des grenzüberschreitenden Verkehrs meistern können. Es zeigt sich jedoch, dass die EU-Politiken die Bedeutung des grenzüberschreitenden Verkehrs hervorheben und neben der finanziellen Unterstützung von konkreten Projekten die Zusammenarbeit sowie Lern- und Austauschprozesse zwischen den EU-Mitgliedsstaaten fördern. Diese Aspekte sind von hoher Relevanz für die von den Mitgliedsstaaten gesteuerte eigenverantwortliche grenzüberschreitende Verkehrsentwicklung sowie für die weitere europäische Integration. Die Dissertation empfiehlt, die Verkehrsplanungskompetenzen der EU, zusätzlich zu den bereits bestehenden Kompetenzen im TEN-V Netz, in Zukunft nicht weiter auszubauen. Stattdessen sollte eine weitere transnationale Verkehrsentwicklungsplanung dezentralisiert in transnationalen Verkehrsplanungskomitees, welche die regionalen und lokalen Verkehrsbedürfnisse besser kennen und gemeinsame Verkehrsentwicklungsstrategien leichter steuern können, organisiert werden. Die Umsetzung dieser Strategien würde von zusätzlichen EU-Fördermitteln für sekundäre und tertiäre grenzüberschreitende Verbindungen profitieren. Zusätzlich müssen die potenziellen Komplementaritäten der transnationalen Kooperationsräume und Verkehrskorridore sowie der zwei EU-Politikfelder durch eine verbesserte Kommunikation stärker genutzt werden. Das heißt, dass sowohl die 'Soft Spaces' als auch die TEN-V und ETZ-Politik sowie die Verkehrsministerien der EU-Mitgliedsstaaten und die nationalen Verwaltungen, die für die Umsetzung der beiden EU-Politiken zuständig sind, ihre Zusammenarbeit intensivieren müssen. Außerdem wird empfohlen, dass sich zukünftige ETZ-Projekte, anstatt in kleinräumig verstreute, teure Infrastrukturen oder öffentliche Verkehrsprojekte zu investieren, welche lediglich einen Mehrwert für einen kleinen Teilraum aufweisen, auf Themen konzentrieren, die entweder für die gesamte Grenzregion von Nutzen sind oder die in unterschiedlichen räumlichen Kontexten angewendet werden können. Die in diesem Zusammenhang erarbeiteten 'Tools' und Ergebnisse sollen - auch wenn sie nicht unmittelbar in Zahlen messbar sind – durch verbesserte Öffentlichkeitsarbeit innerhalb der EU und deren Mitgliedsstaaten sichtbar gemacht und anderen potenziellen Nutzern zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Schließlich zeigt die vorliegende Untersuchung einen weiteren Erfolgsfaktor für konkretere Gewinne auf: Verkehrs- und Raumplaner sollten häufiger in transnationale Projekte eingebunden werden, um den Bezug der Projekte zur Planungspraxis zu erhöhen. Außerdem könnten Barrieren der Zusammenarbeit durch Weiterbildungen im Bereich Planungskultur abgebaut werden.