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The relationship between theory and practice in Islamic law can be examined in several ways. With regard to the substance of Islamic law one could ask in which way are or can the rulings of the sharī'a be applied. Another question concerning the external aspects of the sharī'a could be, to what extent do the political situation, the judicial administration, the education system and other socio-political factors allow a sharī'a conforming jurisdiction. Qāḍis who are not qualified, whose competence is reduced by the political rulers or whose judgements are influenced by political interests, are not able to exercise qādā' in the frame of the sharī'a. The examination at hand therefore aims to reconstruct the socio-political background of a number of qāḍīs in eighth/fourteenth century Syria. On the basis of several biographical works containing detailed and authentic descriptions of more than 200 Syrian qāḍīs it shall be demonstrated that there existed the essential preconditions for exercising qādā' ' in that time and region. As a result of this study, which possibly throws light on a new aspect of qādā' ' in the Mamluk Empire, one may propose that the qāḍīs, along with other 'ulamā' form a separate body within the Mamluk state system which on one side appears to be strong enough to resist political encroachments and, on the other, provides for and profits from a high level of legal education. ; La relación entre la teoría y la práctica en el derecho islámico puede ser examinada desde distintos puntos de vista. Por lo que se refiere a la sustancia del derecho islámico, se puede plantear la pregunta de cómo las normas de la šarī'a son o pueden ser aplicadas. Otra pregunta relativa a los aspectos externos de la šarī'a es hasta qué punto la situación política, la administración judicial, el sistema educativo y otros factores sociopolíticos permiten la existencia de una jurisdicción conforme a la šarī'a. Los cadíes que no tienen las cualificaciones necesarias, cuya competencia se ve limitada por los gobernantes o cuyos juicios se ven influidos por los intereses políticos, no pueden ejercer el cadiazgo en el contexto de la šarī'a. El análisis llevado a cabo en este artículo tiene como objetivo reconstruir el contexto socio-político de los cadíes en Siria durante los siglos VIII/XIV. A partir de los datos de varios diccionarios biográficos que contienen descripciones auténticas y detalladas de más de doscientos cadíes sirios, se demuestra que existían las pre-condiciones esenciales para ejercer el cadiazgo en aquella época y región. Se argumenta que los cadíes, junto con otros ulemas, formaban un cuerpo específico dentro del sistema estatal mameluco que, por una parte, era lo suficientemente fuerte como para resistir intervenciones políticas y, por otro lado, suministraba un alto nivel de formación legal y se beneficiaba al tiempo de él.

Rogendorf, whose family came from Styria and settled in Lower Austria in the middle of the XVth Century. Serving the Hapsburgs from chilhood, he was page to Phillip the Fair in the Low Countries and filled various offices under Emperors Maximilian I, and Charles V, to whom he was linked by a special relationship, and Ferdinand L Military and diplomatic missions took the Austrian nobleman all over Europe, defending the interests of the Hapsburgs against the Venetians, the French, the Valencian Moriscos and the Turks. Unpublished sources show that he stayed in Spain between 1522 and 1528, which enabled him to get to know the country very well. For this, he travelled to where the Emperor was. His stay at the fortress of Calatrava la Nueva to obtain the habit of the Order, granted by Charles V together with the Commandery of Otos, made him part of the institutions most representative of the mentality of the Crown of Castile. On his return to Central Europe, Wilhelm von Rogendorf formed —under Ferdinand I— the core of a native nobility which found, in the habits of the Spanish Military Orders, the outward expression of an ideological identity in the secular struggle against the Moslems taking place at that time on the Peninsula and against the Turks on the other extreme the Hapsburg empire, as well as in the struggle against the Protestants during the transition from the Mediaeval to the Modern world. ; [fr] L'article essaie de tracer un bref profil biographique de Wilhelm von Rogendorf, noble dont la famille, originaire de Styrie, s'est établie en Basse-Autriche au milieu du XVIème siècle. Depuis son enfance au service des Habsbourg, il fut page de Philippe Le Beau dans les Pays-Bas, et exerça des charges importantes auprès des empereurs Maximilien l", Charles Quint, avec qui il était très lié, et Ferdinand l". Les missions militaires et diplomatiques l'amenèrent à voyager dans toute l'Europe, defendant les intérêts dès Habsbourg contre les Vénitiens, les Français, les Mauresques de Valence et les Turcs. Des sources inédites nous permettent d'assurer qu'il est resté en Espagne de 1522 à 1528, et qu'il acquit une grande connaissance du pays, quand il voyagea partout où se trouvait l'Empereur. Son séjour dans la forteresse de Calatrava la Nueva, pour accéder à l'Ordre concédé par Charles Quint ainsi qu'au titre de Commandeur de Otos, l'ont fait participer aux institutions les plus représentatives de la Couronne de Castille. De retour en Europe centrale, Wilhelm von Rogendorf fut le précurseur d'une noblesse autochtone qui trouva dans les Ordres Militaires espagnols, l'expression externe d'une identité idéologique dans la lutte séculaire contre les Musulmans, soit dans la Péninsule, soit contre les Turcs à l'autre extrême des pays habsbourgeois, et dans le passage du Moyen Âge à une période Moderne dans la lutte contre les protetants.

[First paragraph]Decolonizing the Text: Glissantian Readings in Caribbean and African-American Literatures. DEBRA L. ANDERSON. New York: Peter Lang, 1995. 118 pp. (Cloth US$46.95)L'Eau: Source d'une ecriture dans les litteratures feminines francophones. YOLANDE HELM (ed.). New York: Peter Lang, 1995. x + 295 pp. (Cloth US$ 65.95)Postcolonial Subjects: Francophone Women Writers. MARY JEAN GREEN, KAREN GOULD, MICHELINE RICE-MAXIMIN, KEITH L. WALKER & JACK A. YEAGER (eds.). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. xxii + 359 pp. (Paper US$ 19.95)Statue cou coupe. ANNIE LE BRUN. Paris: Jean-Michel Place, 1996. 177 pp. (Paper FF 85.00) Although best remembered as a founding father of the Negritude movement along with Aime Cesaire, Leopold Senghor was from the very outset of his career equally committed - as both a poet and a politician - to what he felt were the inseparable concepts of la francophonie and metissage. Senghor's has been an unabashedly paradoxical vision, consistently addressing the unanswerable question of how one can be essentially a "black African" and at the same time (in Homi Bhabha's words) "something else besides" (1994:28). In his "Eloge du metissage," written in 1950, Senghor ably described the contradictions involved in assuming the hybrid identity of a metis (an identity that offers none of the comforting biological and/or cultural certainties - about "rhythm," "intuition," and such like - upon which the project of Negritude was founded): "too assimilated and yet not assimilated enough? Such is exactly our destiny as cultural metis. It's an unattractive role, difficult to take hold of; it's a necessary role if the conjuncture of the 'Union francaise' is to have any meaning. In the face of nationalisms, racisms, academicisms, it's the struggle for the freedom of the Soul - the freedom of Man" (1964:103). At first glance, this definition of the metis appears as dated as the crude essentialism with which Senghor's Negritude is now commonly identified: in linking the fate of the metis to that of the "Union francaise," that imperial federation of states created in the years following upon the end of the Second World War with the intention of putting a "new" face on the old French Empire, Senghor would seem to have doomed the metis and his "role ingrat" to obsolescence. By the end of the decade, the decolonization of French Africa had deprived the "Union franchise" of whatever "meaning" it might once have had. The uncompromisingly manichean rhetoric of opposition that flourished in the decolonization years (and that was most famously manipulated by Fanon in his 1961 Wretched of the Earth) had rendered especially unpalatable the complicities to which Senghor's (un)assimilated metis was subject and to which he also subjected himself in the name of a "humanism" that was around this same time itself becoming the object of an all-out assault in France at the hands of intellectuals like Foucault.

Regions do not exist in a prescribed, actual sense, they are constructed. This also applies for regions in traditional geography, which itself was convinced of the opposite. A good example of this is "Central Europe". At the end of the 18th century, the transition was made in geography towards dividing Europe into major regions. In a typical sense of the ideals used, three various schemes can be differentiated, these being a North-South, a West-East and a Diagonal Scheme. The first two also left space for "Central urope", either in the form of a strip running from est to East or from North to South. If one combines these schemes, then the possibilities for division are increased manifold. It would then be possible to consider "Central Europe" as being a centre, surrounded by a periphery. The "Central Europe" would fuse (first outside of, then inside of geography) with a different construction, the "natural Germany". This concealed the idea that nature contained a type of genetic code in the form of "natural borders", by means of which the scope of the nations, at least the larger ones, could be determined permanently. Science was intended to develop and politics to realise this scope. This therefore meant that, in the course of the 19th century, the originally cognitive "Central Europe" construction had become a normative construction. The ideas of "natural borders" first acted as a state doctrine in revolutionary France, where the claim was made that the Rhine had been the border with Germany, intended by nature. As a reaction to this, German scholars attempted to prove the general unsuitability of rivers to act as "natural borders". They propagated that, unless they regarded the language as being the sole permissible criterion of delimitation, instead river basin systems and watersheds should be taken as being nature's hint for politics. It goes without saying that their "natural Germany" was always larger than its political counter part. This also applies for the comparatively moderate versions proposed within traditional geography, which was a part of this entire border discourse. The concept of "natural Germany" and subsequent "Central Europe" became all the more explosive through the oldest component of German self-conception, the Centralist Motive, which was reinterpreted to serve nationalist intentions. Germany, located in the "centre" of Europe, had the inherent task of reconciling the conflicts with in Europe and therefore the world. This sense of mission, which is also to be fo und in other national ideologies, which originally and primarily denoted an intellectual-cultural superiority, was transformed in t he course of the 19th century to become an imperial claim to the throne. The attempt which took place at times to legitimise Bismarck's establishment of the "Reich" (Empire) in a geographic sense and to define the German nation as a territorially saturated, sovereign nation, failed. The insight that delimitations are always also ex clusions is important for today's world. If similarities are disregarded, then xenophobic reactions are pre-programmed.

Book reviewed in this article:Ann Hagen, A second handbook of Anglo‐Saxon food and drink: production and distributionRichard H. Britnell and Bruce M. S. Campbell, eds., A commercialising economy: England, 1086 to c. 1300T. M. Devine and G. Jackson, eds., Glasgow, I: beginnings to 1830Amy Louise Erickson, Women and property in early modern EnglandS. Roberts, ed., Evesham borough records of the seventeenth century, 1605–1687John Smail, The origins of middle‐class culture: Halifax, Yorkshire, 1660–1780Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., The economic history of Britain since 1700C. Nicholson, Writing and the rise of finance: capital satires of the early eighteenth centuryAnne Digby, Making a medical living: doctors and patients in the English market for medicine, 1720–1911Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland: a new economic history, 1780–1939Linda Croft, John Fielden's TodmordenRuth‐Ann M. Harris, The nearest place that wasn't Ireland: early nineteenth‐century Irish labor migrationE. H. H. Green, The crisis of Conservatism: the politics, economics and ideology of the British Conservative Party, 1880–1914Kent Fedorowich, Unfit for heroes: reconstruction and soldier settlement in the empire between the warsRobert Millward and John Singleton, eds., The political economy of nationalisation in Britain, 1920–1950James Hinton, Shop floor citizens: engineering democracy in 1940s BritainJames Obelkevitch and Peter Catterall, eds., Understanding post‐war British societyCaroline Barron and Nigel Saul, eds., England and the Low Countries in the late middle agesB. Lepetit, The pre‐industrial urban system: France, 1740–1840Patricia Skinner, Family power in southern Italy: the duchy of Gaeta and its neighbours, 850‐1139A. Teichova, T. Gourvish, and A. Pogany, eds., Universal banking in the twentieth century: finance, industry and the state in north and central EuropeRoderick A. McDonald, The economy and material culture of slaves: goods and chattels on the sugar plantations of Jamaica and LouisianaRobert Tracy McKenzie, One South or many?: plantation belt and upcountry in Civil War‐era TennesseeDean L. May, Three frontiers: family, land and society in the American West, 1850–1900Lance E. Davis and Robert J. Cull, International capital markets and American economic growthDesmond King, Actively seeking work? The politics of unemployment and welfare policy in the United States and Great BritainJeremy Adelman, Frontier development: land, labour and capital on the wheat lands of Argentina and Canada, 1890–1914W. G. Huff, The economic growth of Singapore: trade and development in the twentieth centuryKären Wigen, The making of a Japanese periphery, 1750–1920Graeme D. Snooks, Portrait of the family within the total economy: a study in longrun dynamics, Australia 1788–1990Bronislaw Geremek, Poverty: a historyJohn Brewer and Susan Staves, eds., Early modern conceptions of propertyTimothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, eds., Migration and the international labour market, 1850–1939Graeme Donald Snooks, ed., Was the industrial revolution necessary?Geoffrey Jones and Nicholas J. Morgan, eds., Adding value: brands and marketing in food and drink

During the XIVth century, the Isle of Cyprus occupied a privileged position, mainly after the fall of the last Roman cities of the Holy Land. The island became a centre of international commerce. During the XVth century, on the contrary, a change in commercial routes provoked a less brilliant situation. We can find the reason of this decline in the change of the political framework that takes place in the Middle West and Orient. The aim of this essay -based on 39 unedited notarial acts, mainly redacted in Famagosta, by a lawyer from Genoa- is to analyze the demographical and economic structure of Famagosta in 1453, when Constantinople fell in the hands of the Turks. It is in fact a very dense moment of changes that profoundly transformed the history of Europe. We analyze in this study the situation of arts and crafts, the different profes­sions of the Ligures and the emigrants of the Greek basin, the wide camp of construction and public charges of the administrations of Genoa. We should also stress the attention on the religious situation: in fact, in this island, greco-orthodox, latin and hebrew traditions live together. W e also underline, in this article, the framework of the organisation of the daily familiar life and, by and large, the whole Cyprus socio-institutional panorama, just at the moment when the Greek Empire disappeared. ; Au XIVmc siècle, l'île de Chypre occupait une position privilégiée. Tout particu­lièrement après la chute des dernières villes romaines de Terre Sainte, période è laquelle elle était devenue une plaque tournante du commerce international. Au XVeme siècle, par contre, la situation ne fut pas aussi brillante. La cause en est de l'éloignement des itinéraires commerciaux qui s'explique dans le changement du cadre politique qui s'opère en Orient et au Moyen Orient. L'essai, qui se base sur les 39 actes notariaux inédits, principalement rédigés a Famagosta, par un notaire génois, a pour but d'analyser la structure démographique et économique de Famagosta en 1453, année de la chute de Constantinople aux mains des cures, c'est-à-dire, au moment le plus fort d'un processus de changement qui transforma profondément l'histoire de l'Europe. On analyse dans cet essai la situation des arts et métiers, les différentes professions qu'occupaient les Ligures et les émigrés du bassin grec, le domaine de la construction et les charges publiques des administrations génoises. Un point impor­tant est celui de la situation religieuse. En effet, dans l'île, se côtoient les traditions gréco-orthodoxes, la tradition latine et, en même temps, un nombre notable d,hé­breux. On prête aussi, dans cet article, une attention toute particulière au cadre de l'organisation de la vie familiale quotidienne et, en substance, à tout le panorama socio-institutionnel chypriote au moment de la disparition de l'Empire Grec.

Book reviewed in this article:Peter Brandon and Brian Short, The south east from AD 1000Felicity Heal, Hospitality in early modern EnglandF.J. Fisher, London and the English economy, 1500‐1700, eds. P.J. Corfield and N.B. HarteJohn Chartres and David Hey, eds., English rural society, 1500‐1800: essays in honour of Joan ThirskIan Archer, Caroline Barron, and Vanessa Harding, eds., Hugh Alley's Caveat: the markets of London in 1598, Folger Ms V.a.318Lawrence Stone, Road to divorce: England, 1530‐1987Kenneth Fincham, Prelate as pastor: the episcopate of James IMaurice Beresford, East end, west end: the face of Leeds during urbanisation, 1684‐1842A.M. Urdank, Religion and society in a Cotswold vale: Nailsworth, Gloucestershire, 1780‐1865David Spadafora, The idea of progress in eighteenth‐century BritainRoger Swift and Sheriden Gilley, eds., The Irish in Britain, 1815‐1939Peter Bosley, Light railways in England and WalesMalcolm Falkus, The Blue Funnel legend: a history of the Ocean Steam Ship Company, 1865‐1973Rob Sindall, Street violence in the nineteenth centuryAnne Orde, British policy and European reconstruction after the First World WarBill Luckin, Questions of power: electricity and environment in inter‐war BritainCharles Harvey and John Turner, eds., Labour and business in modern BritainLiam Kennedy, The modern industrialisation of Ireland, 1940‐88Joel Mokyr, Twenty‐five centuries of technological change: an historical surveyLéopold Génicot, Rural communities in the medieval westKees Gispen, New profession, old order: engineers and German society, 1815‐1914Paul M. Johnson, Redesigning the communist economy: politics of economic reform in eastern EuropeDiane P. Koenker and William G. Rosenberg, eds., Strikes and revolution in Russia, 1917James D. Tracy, ed., The rise of merchant empires: long‐distance trade in the early modern world, 1350‐1750Derek Massarella, A world elsewhere: Europe's encounter with Japan in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuriesJohannes Menne Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic slave trade, 1600‐1815Patrick Manning, Slavery and African life: occidental, oriental and African slave tradesJoseph W. Esherick and Mary Backus Rankin, eds., Chinese elites and patterns of dominancePhilip C.C. Huang, The peasant family and rural development in the Yangzi delta, 1350‐1988Edward R. Beauchamp and Akira Iriye, eds., Foreign employees in nineteenth‐century JapanMichael Cusumano, The Japanese automobile industry: technology and management at Nissan and ToyotaDonald R. Hoke, Ingenious Yankees: the rise of the American system of manufactures in the private sectorJoel Mokyr, The lever of riches: technological creativity and economic progressClaudia Goldin, Understanding the gender gap: an economic history of American womenStuart B. Kaufman and Peter J. Albert, eds., The Samuel Gompers papers, 3: unrest and depression, 1891‐94Sydney Checkland, Voices across the water: an Anglo‐Canadian boyhoodBarry Dyster and David Meredith, Australia in the international economy in the twentieth centuryG. Tortella, ed. Education and economic development since the industrial revolutionJames C. Riley, Sickness, recovery and death: a history and forecast of ill healthT.R. Slater, ed. The built form of western citiesCyril Ehrlich, The piano: a history, revised editionBarry Eichengreen and Peter H. Lindert, eds., The international debt crisis in historical perspectiveDavid W. Galenson, ed., Markets in history: economic studies of the past

International audience ; The ubiquity of the merveilleux in the historiography of the roman Empire cannot be explained away as the ravings of a so-called "primitive mentality". Historiographers submitted marvellous events to rational critique. They distinguished processes conforming to causal relations from those phenomena whose supernatural origins were manifested by a sudden interruption of the normal course of events. Historiographers acknowledged the possibility of illusion, of hallucination, and worked out a psycho-sociology of public rumour. Reactions to all that was marvellous evinced a tension between scepticism and belief. The merveilleux nevertheless retained a fundamental place in the works of historiographers, because it was felt to have a sense and filled a positive function. It was an instrument in the transformation of events, whose substance was raised to the status of myth. The merveilleux illustrated a hero's prestige, made the aberrations of men appreciable. Through prodigies, a political leader's authority was grounded. The merveilleux enabled readers to decipher events. It magnified reality, presenting the values it incarnates in striking fashion. Along with the merveilleux, the sacred entered Roman history : the city and its destiny escaped the contingency of things human, bore the seal of transcendence. Through the merveilleux, historiographers exorcised the spectre of banality. ; L'omniprésence du merveilleux dans l'historiographie romaine de l'Empire ne s'explique pas par les divagations d'une prétendue " mentalité primitive ". Les historiographes ne manquent pas de soumettre les prodiges à une critique rationaliste et de manifester leur scepticisme. Ils distinguent clairement les processus soumis à la régularité et à la continuité des séries causales, des phénomènes dont l'origine surnaturelle se manifeste par une interruption soudaine du cours habituel des choses. Ils admettent la possibilité de l'illusion, voire de l'hallucination, et élaborent une psycho-sociologie de la rumeur publique qui n'épargne pas leurs sources, parfois soumises à un examen suspicieux. Les individus eux-mêmes et la société dans son ensemble apparaissent divisés : loin d'être unanimes, les réactions à l'égard du merveilleux témoignent d'une tension permanente entre le doute et la croyance. Les historiographes conservent toutefois au merveilleux une place essentielle dans leurs œuvres parce qu'il a un sens et qu'il remplit une fonction positive. Il est l'instrument privilégié d'une transformation de la matière événementielle qui se trouve élevée à la hauteur du mythe. Le merveilleux illustre le prestige d'un héros, rend sensibles les égarements d'une époque ou fonde l'autorité politique d'un chef. Il joue le rôle d'un révélateur qui permet de déchiffrer les événements mais aussi de transfigurer la réalité, de la magnifier, et de faire apparaître de façon saisissante les valeurs qu'elle incarne. Avec le merveilleux, le sacré fait irruption dans l'histoire de Rome ; la ville et son destin échappent à la contingence des choses humaines et sont marqués du sceau de la transcendance. C'est enfin par le merveilleux et par la puissance de signification dont il est chargé que les historiographes exorcisent le spectre de la banalité.

International audience ; The ubiquity of the merveilleux in the historiography of the roman Empire cannot be explained away as the ravings of a so-called "primitive mentality". Historiographers submitted marvellous events to rational critique. They distinguished processes conforming to causal relations from those phenomena whose supernatural origins were manifested by a sudden interruption of the normal course of events. Historiographers acknowledged the possibility of illusion, of hallucination, and worked out a psycho-sociology of public rumour. Reactions to all that was marvellous evinced a tension between scepticism and belief. The merveilleux nevertheless retained a fundamental place in the works of historiographers, because it was felt to have a sense and filled a positive function. It was an instrument in the transformation of events, whose substance was raised to the status of myth. The merveilleux illustrated a hero's prestige, made the aberrations of men appreciable. Through prodigies, a political leader's authority was grounded. The merveilleux enabled readers to decipher events. It magnified reality, presenting the values it incarnates in striking fashion. Along with the merveilleux, the sacred entered Roman history : the city and its destiny escaped the contingency of things human, bore the seal of transcendence. Through the merveilleux, historiographers exorcised the spectre of banality. ; L'omniprésence du merveilleux dans l'historiographie romaine de l'Empire ne s'explique pas par les divagations d'une prétendue " mentalité primitive ". Les historiographes ne manquent pas de soumettre les prodiges à une critique rationaliste et de manifester leur scepticisme. Ils distinguent clairement les processus soumis à la régularité et à la continuité des séries causales, des phénomènes dont l'origine surnaturelle se manifeste par une interruption soudaine du cours habituel des choses. Ils admettent la possibilité de l'illusion, voire de l'hallucination, et élaborent une psycho-sociologie de la rumeur publique qui n'épargne pas leurs sources, parfois soumises à un examen suspicieux. Les individus eux-mêmes et la société dans son ensemble apparaissent divisés : loin d'être unanimes, les réactions à l'égard du merveilleux témoignent d'une tension permanente entre le doute et la croyance. Les historiographes conservent toutefois au merveilleux une place essentielle dans leurs œuvres parce qu'il a un sens et qu'il remplit une fonction positive. Il est l'instrument privilégié d'une transformation de la matière événementielle qui se trouve élevée à la hauteur du mythe. Le merveilleux illustre le prestige d'un héros, rend sensibles les égarements d'une époque ou fonde l'autorité politique d'un chef. Il joue le rôle d'un révélateur qui permet de déchiffrer les événements mais aussi de transfigurer la réalité, de la magnifier, et de faire apparaître de façon saisissante les valeurs qu'elle incarne. Avec le merveilleux, le sacré fait irruption dans l'histoire de Rome ; la ville et son destin échappent à la contingence des choses humaines et sont marqués du sceau de la transcendance. C'est enfin par le merveilleux et par la puissance de signification dont il est chargé que les historiographes exorcisent le spectre de la banalité.

The two fragments into which Britain, before its withdrawal from the subcontinent, had split the Indian Empire, carried with them a legacy of mutual distrust. This could not but influence the course of subsequent events in the sub-continent. So have the attitudes of the erstwhile colonial and other powers towards the new states in the light of their respective regional interests. In the comparatively short period of thirty-seven years, short in the life of nations, the two states have been involved in hostilities on three occasions, not counting Pakistan's attack on India in the Kutch sector in April 1965. Time no doubt is a great healer but it takes same time for deep wounds to heal. The healing process would be aided and succeed only if the governments of both countries are convinced that not mutual hostility but at least co-existence, if not mutual amity, is good for both countries and strive to create conditions for peaceful co-existence. If only one side is anxious to maintain peace and the other wishes to maintain tension, the latter will prevail. Public opinion in the two countries, if mobilised far promoting coexistence rather than confrontation, would help. In democratic countries, at least in theory, public opinion is a force to reckon with and no government can for long afford to disregard public opinion. The media, again in theory, reflects public opinion and serves to consolidate and strengthen it, in the process compelling the government of the day to consider carefully the issues raised. In practice, however, governments, even in "liberal" democracies can influence prominent segments of the media to project issues in the manner desired by the former, i.e., the media can and regrettably are being used to misinform the public at home and abroad- Even so, in democracies, ultimately, governmental efforts not withstanding, at least some sections of the media discover facts and fearlessly expose governments' earlier efforts to misinform the public. This is the inherent strength of democracies. In dictatorships this is diffcult. But there are dictatorships and dictatorships! In Pakistan, for example, by all accounts the government of General Zia ul Haq, in its own way, has managed to secure tolerance if not the enthusiastic support of a majority of urban middle and lower middle classes for the martial law regime. A. section—even a large section—of politically conscious urban and rural groups are totally unreconciled to rule by generals for a number of reasons. Another section of the same strata of Pakistani society again for its own reasons, supports the regime. Thus General Zia is secure, provided he continues, with the dexterity he has so amply demonstrated during eight eventful years, to steer his country on a "least risk" course, and there is a good chance of preserving peace, precarious though it may be, in the sub-continent.

Book reviewed in this articleGREAT BRITAINR. A. Dodgshon and R. A. Butlin (Eds.). An Historical Geography of England and Wales.P. Abrams and E. A. Wrigley (Eds.). Towns in Societies: Essays in Economic History and Historical Sociology.Robert S. Gottfried. Epidemic Disease in Fifteenth Century England: The Medical Response and the Demographic Consequences.Charles P. Kindleberger. Manias, Panics and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises.Sheila Marriner (Ed.). Business and Businessmen: Studies in Business, Economic and Accounting History.Francis Hearn. Domination, Legitimation and Resistance: The Incorporation of the Nineteenth‐Century English Working Class.Anne Digby. Pauper Palaces.Peter Bailey. Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Contest for Control, 1830‐85.A. James Hammerton. Emigrant Gentlewomen: Genteel Poverty and Female Emigration, 1830‐1914.Geoffrey Crossick. An Artisan Elite in Victorian Society: Kentish London, 1840‐80.D. R. SarDesai. British Trade and Expansion in Southeast Asia, 1830‐1914.Robert H. Kargon. Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise.Peter Clarke. Liberals and Social Democrats.Brian Bergusson. Fair Wages ResolutionsD. L. Munby (edited and completed by A. H. Watson). Inland Transport Statistics; Great Britain, 1900‐70 Vol. 1.GENERALW. W. Rostow. The World Economy. History and Prospect.Keiighiro Nakagawa (Ed.). The International Conference on Business History. Vol. 1, Proceedings of the First Fuji Conference: Strategy and Structure of Big BusinessK. N. Chaudhuri. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660‐1760.A. R. Disney. Twilight of the Pepper Empire: Portuguese Trade in Southwest India in the Early Seventeenth Century.E. W. Hofstee. De Demografische Ontwikkeling van Nederland in de Eerste Helft van de Negentiende Eeuw: een Historisch‐demografische en Sociologische Studie.Wilhelm Abel. Agrarkrisen und Agrarkonjunktur. Eine Geschichte der Land‐ und Ernährungswirtschaft Mitteleuropas seit dem hohen Mittelalter.W. R. Lee. Population Growth, Economic Development and Social Change in Bavaria, 1750‐1830.Lars Ulrich Scholl. Ingenieure in derFrühindustrialisierung. Staatliche und private Techniker im Königreich Hannover und an der Ruhr (1815‐73).Karlbernhard Jasper. Der Urbanisierungsprozess dargestellt am Beispiel der Stadt Köln.H. Bouhme. An Introduction to the Social and Economic History of Germany. Translated by W. R. Lee.Susan B. Hanley and Kozo Yamamura. Economic and Demographic Change in Preindustrial Japan, 1600‐1868.David D. Buck. Urban Change in China. Politics and Development in Tsinan, Shantung, 1890‐1949.S. J. Butlin and CI. B. Schedvin. War Economy, 1942‐5: Australia in the War of 1939‐45‐Scries 4, Civil, vol. IV.Robert Solomon. The International Monetary System, 1945‐76: An Insider's View.Margaret Garritsen de Vries. The International Monetary Fund, 1976‐71: The System Under Stress.Michael Craton with the assistance of Garry Greenland. Searching for the Invisible Man: Slaves and Plantation Life in Jamaica.Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business.Alice Hanson Jones. American Colonial Wealth: Documents and Methods. 3 vols.Gavin Wright. The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century.R. L. Ransom and R. Sutch. One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation.

Those phenomena that are called revolutions, in the conventional sense of the word, are essentially moments of turbulent acceleration following periods of retardation; and such are the phenomena of the révolution tranquille in Québec, which are confused by some with the inclusive events of long duration. In this perspective, and as a prelude to the analysis of current conceptions of the so-called quiet revolution in Québec, the author offers a study of the economic and social history of the United States from 1920 to 1940. He sees no sharp break between the fabulous twenties and the depression decade; nor does he see a gap between the interwar period and the preceding so-called progressive period. This can be seen through the unfolding of social, political, and economic events, provided that care is taken to adopt the mental set of transcending the conflictual in order to assent to the cumulative aspects of the historical process. Seen from this angle, the issues appear more complex, and contemporaries may easily be pardoned for failing to grasp the fundamental questions or for seeing revolutions where there are none. In the freedom of dancing, smoking, and drinking with women or, again, in the freedom of teaching the theory of evolution in schools (freedoms conquered in the twenties and the early thirties), some have seen a revolution. In a like manner, the New Deal has been described as revolutionary, as has the economic theory of J.M. Keynes. But if capitalism really has undergone such trials, how then can it still carry on so vigorously? In fact, it has learned to adapt itself to the changing conditions of its survival without altering its basic character. New regimes arise and the system carries on. The New Deal created a new regime to which capitalism acclimatized itself; and in the new regime capitalism managed so well that it could take advantage of the change in mentality in order to save the system. Under the New Deal, however, capitalism reached an important stage of its politicization, as it did somewhat later, under the new fiscal policies derived from Keynes' general theory. Yet, despite all revolutionary appearances, it continued to operate on the basis of usury, and while taking hold of the new media of information it mobilized resources with a view to profit and in so doing it organized things and men with equal indifference and efficiency. The system has continued to operate on the same basis of usury and, in order to sidetrack violent protest, it has adopted the issue of social justice; it has been willing to substitute assistance for employment, destructive idleness for creative leisure. Those benefits that are labeled social security and are now distributed without much regard for human creativity have the properties of a tranquillizing pill. And so we are reminded of the panem and circenses politics of a declining Empire. Are we really prepared to swallow the tranquillizing pill?

Book Review in this ArticlesR. Welldon Finn, The Domesday Inquest and the Making of Domesday Book.A. W. B. Simpson. An Introduction to the History of the Land Law.R. F. Hunnisett (Ed.). Bedfordshire Coroners' Rolls. Miscellany I. Calendar of the Patent Rolls: Elizabeth I, vol. iii. F. J. Fisher (Ed.). Essays in the Economic and Social History of Tudor and Stuart England.Acts of the Privy Council of England. May 1629 to May 1630.Christopher Hill. The Century of Revolution, 1603‐1714.Richard Pares: The Historian's Business and other Essays.Elizabeth Boody Schumpeter. English Overseas Trade Statistics 1697‐1808.P. M. G. Dickson. The Sun Insurance Office 1710‐1960. The History of Two and a half Centuries of British Insurance.C. Stella Davies, The Agricultural History of Cheshire 1750‐1850.G. W. Hilton. The Truck System, including a history of the British Truck Acts, 1465‐1960.J. D. Chambers. The Workshop of the World: British Economic History from 1820 to 1880.H. P. White. A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain.P. L. Payne. Rubber and Railways in the Nineteenth Century.R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, with A. Denny. Africa and the Victorians.S. Maccoby. English Radicalism: the End?Gino Luzzatto. An Economic History of Italy from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the beginning of the Sixteenth Century.Istituto di storia economica e sociale dell'Università di Napoli, AnnaliG. Quazza, L'industria laniera e cotoniera in Piemonte dal 1831 al 1861M. Abrate. L'industria siderurgica e meccanica in Piemonte dal 1831 al 1861P. Norsa and M. Da Pozzo. Imposte e tasse in Piemonte durante il periodo cavouriano.A. Caracciolo. Stato e società civile. Problemi dell'Unificazione italianaM. Monaco. La situazione della Reverenda Camera Apostolica nell'anno 1525.A. Sapori. Attività manifatturiera in Lombardia dal 1600 al 1914J. Nadal and E. Giralt. La Population Catalane de 1553 à 1717.V. Vasquez de Prada. Lettres marchandes d'Anvers.Edward C. Kirkland. Industry Comes of Age. Business, Labor, and Public Policy, 1860‐97. The Economic History of the United StatesM. A. Jones. American Immigration.Joseph Rayback. A History of American Labor.Paul W. Gates. The Farmer's Age: Agriculture, 1815‐60 (The Economic History of the United States.James Don Edwards. History of Public Accounting in the United States. Trends in the American Economy in the Nineteenth Century. Studies in Income and Wealth. John A. Garraty. Right‐Hand Man: The Life of George W. Perkins.E. Ray Canterbery. The President's Council of Economic Advisers: A Study of its Functions and its Influence on the Chief Executive's Decisions.Douglass C. North. The Economic Growth of the United States, 1790‐1860.Robert Latouche. The Birth of Western Economy.Robert L. Reynolds. Europe Emerges. Transition toward an Industrial World‐Wide Society, 600‐1750.Alan Conway (Ed.). The Welsh in America: Letters from the Immigrants.Gerhard Bry. Wages in Germany 1871‐1945.James Hogan (Ed.). Historical Studies.M. H. Gopal. The Finances of Mysore State, 1799‐1831.

It is necessary to distinguish c1earIy between the social and the political principies. The two were confussedin the ancient world, except only in China, where Laotse' s rural social system confronted theurbanpoliticalsystem~of Confucius. The Greeks, on the other hand, did not rnake a true distinction between these two principies and, consequently, between social and political reality. Plato'ssystem irnplies the annulment of Society; Aristotles's State would absorb its existence, In stoicisrn one encounters an occasional glimpse of insight into this distinction, but without a clear, conscious grasp of the matter. So much so, that universal society and the Roman Empire are identified as one. Medieval christianity, however, intuits the social principIe, but fails to develop it adequately. On the contrary, the tendency to affirm the supremaey of the State over Society continues to grow. Althusius took issue with the notion of distinguishing between these terms. He rejects the picture of Society as facing the State but acknowledges the autonomy of the social groups and of the principIe that interrelates them. The triumph of absolutism impeded the progress of his original and significant contribution. During the rSth century, paral1eling the development of the bourgeoisíe, the idea began to make headway of a "civil society", as distinct from the State. It is, however, á society dominated by an individualistic criterion, because, theoreticalIy as wel1 as practicalIy, anything that makes references to corporativeexistence is ruled out. After the French Revolution and as a reaction against it, the reality of Society as a totality opposed to the State is clearIy stated. Saint Simon is a precise exponent of this new attitude. In his judgement, Society administers, whereas the State governs, and, giving priority to Society, he pronounces that as many tasks as possible ought to be transferred from politics to administration. Hegel also perceives the differentiation clearIy, but considers that, by itself, Society is incapable of achieving order and liberty, and that it depends on the State to provide these foc her, Lorenz von Stein thinks along the sarne lines. Marx envisions a victorious Society, free at last at the end of the class struggLe but asserts Society's absolute submission to the State during the time necessary to achieve that goal. After this historical exposition, the author states briefly where he himself stands. Rather than individuals, diverse groups comprise the social community, which makes itself felt through communality of life and thought. Alone, it is incapable of handling alI the conflicts which might arise within it -hence the necessity of the State. Nevertheless, the greatest possible margin of social spontaneity ought tobeallowed. To this end, on the one hand, thé greatest -feasible decentralization, must takeplace. On the other, the administrative, i, e., social management ought to assume many functions which nowadays, are part of thegovernmental process. ; Resumen en inglés.

. Greenland forms an integral part of the Danish kingdom, and its area of 780,000 square miles is about fifty times that of the rest of Denmark put together. . Greenland is the largest island in the world, measuring from south to north more than 1,500 miles, but five-sixths of the area is covered by the vast ice cap, which has a thickness of up to 10,000 feet. Only a narrow coastal fringe is ice-free, and even there arctic conditions prevail and forests are non-existent. . The 25,000 Greenlanders [0.5% of the total Danish population] who inhabit the coasts, in particular the southern part of the west coast, are of mixed Eskimo and Scandinavian extraction. The connection between Greenland and Scandinavia goes back a thousand years to the time of the Vikings . The Greenlanders now all belong to the national Lutheran Church of Denmark, and in every respect enjoy equal status with other members of the Danish population. Politically, Greenland constitutes a part of the Danish democracy. Popularly elected local councils administer local affairs, and two Greenlanders, elected in Greenland, sit in the Folketing, the Danish Parliament. . The economy of Greenland is based primarily on the sea. The land offers few facilities for economic development. . The primitive economy was originally founded on seal-hunting, but the change in world climate, which has taken place during the last generation has forced the Greenlanders to reorganize their economic life as the seal vanished from southern Greenland waters and fish appeared to take its place. . For nearly a hundred years the mineral cryolite, the bulk of which is used in the aluminium industry, has been mined at Ivigtut, in southwest Greenland. . Since the war, an intensive geological survey of the whole of Greenland has been undertaken . Greenland is remarkable for, among other things, the fact that there is no income tax - not yet! But there is other taxation, especially on spirits, tobacco, and various other luxuries. The revenue from these taxes goes to the local councils, which spend the bulk of it on social welfare, especially the care of the aged, invalids, orphans, etc. . the Danish Government has assumed responsibility for the health services. The climate, and the poor housing that still exists in many places have meant that the health conditions in the past have not been good. Tuberculosis, in particular, has always been a scourge. . The work of educating the people of Greenland began over two hundred years ago and it is a hundred years since illiteracy was abolished. . there is at present a great deal of activity in adult education . In a period that has seen the breaking-up of great colonial empires and the attaining of independence by former colonies, the opposite development has taken place in Greenland: a former colony has been integrated into the kingdom. .