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A powerful personal narrative of recovery and an illuminating philosophical exploration of traumaOn July 4, 1990, while on a morning walk in southern France, Susan Brison was attacked from behind, severely beaten, sexually assaulted, strangled to unconsciousness, and left for dead. She survived, but her world was destroyed. Her training as a philosopher could not help her make sense of things, and many of her fundamental assumptions about the nature of the self and the world it inhabits were shattered.At once a personal narrative of recovery and a philosophical exploration of trauma, this bravely and beautifully written book examines the undoing and remaking of a self in the aftermath of violence. It explores, from an interdisciplinary perspective, memory and truth, identity and self, autonomy and community. It offers imaginative access to the experience of a rape survivor as well as a reflective critique of a society in which women routinely fear and suffer sexual violence.As Brison observes, trauma disrupts memory, severs past from present, and incapacitates the ability to envision a future. Yet the act of bearing witness, she argues, facilitates recovery by integrating the experience into the survivor's life's story. She also argues for the importance, as well as the hazards, of using first-person narratives in understanding not only trauma, but also larger philosophical questions about what we can know and how we should live

Evidence from developed country data suggests that cognitive and non-cognitive skills contribute to improved labor market outcomes. This paper tests this hypothesis in a developing country by using an individual-level data set from Peru that incorporates modules to measure cognitive and non-cognitive skills. The paper estimates a structural latent model with unobserved heterogeneity to capture full ability rather than just measured skill. It also applies standard ordinary least squares techniques for comparison. The analysis confirms that cognitive and non-cognitive skills are positively correlated with a range of labor market outcomes in Peru. In particular, cognitive skills positively correlate with wages and the probability of being a wage worker, white-collar, and formal worker, with verbal fluency and numeric ability playing particularly strong roles. The results are robust to methodology. The patterns are less uniform for non-cognitive skills. For instance, perseverance of effort (grit) emerges strongly for most outcomes regardless of methodology. However, plasticity—an aggregation of openness to experience and emotional stability—is only correlated with employment, and only when using the structural latent model. The ordinary least squares method also finds that the disaggregated non-cognitive skills of kindness, cooperation, emotional stability, and openness to experience emerge significantly, mostly for the wage estimates. The different results derived from the ordinary least squares and the structural model with latent skills suggest strong measurement bias in most non-cognitive skills measurement. These findings, although only correlational because of the use of a single cross-section, suggest that recent efforts by the Peruvian government to incorporate non-cognitive skill development into the school curriculum are justified.

How to Cite This Article: Ahmadi Doulabi M, Sajedi F, Vameghi R, Mazaheri MA, Akbarzadeh Baghban AR. Socioeconomic Status Index to Interpret Inequalities in Child Development. Iran J Child Neurol. Spring 2017; 11(2):13-25.AbstractObjectiveThere have been contradictory findings on the relationship between Socioeconomic Status (SES) and child development although SES is associated with child development outcomes. The present study intended to define the relationship between SES and child development in Tehran kindergartens, Iran.Materials & Methods This cross-sectional survey studied 1036 children aged 36-60 month, in different kindergartens in Tehran City, Iran, in 2014-2015.The principal factor analysis (PFA) model was employed to construct SES indices. The constructed SES variable was employed as an independent variable in logistic regression model to evaluate its role in developmental delay as a dependent variable.Results The relationship between SES and developmental delay was significant at P=0.003. SES proved to have a significant (P<0.05) impact on developmental delay, both as an independent variable and after controlling risk factors.Conclusion There should be more emphasis on developmental monitoring and appropriate intervention programs for children to give them higher chance of having a more productive life. 1. Haghdoost AA. Complexity of the Socioeconomic Status and its Disparity as a Determinant of Health. Int J Prev 2012; 3(2):75. 2. Behavioral and social sciences research. Measuring Socioeconomic Status. e-Source 2013; Available from:http://www.esourceresearch.org 3. Bradley RH, Corwyn RF. Socioeconomic status and child development. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53(1):371-99. 4. de Moura DR, Costa JC, Santos IS, Barros AJ, Matijasevich A, Halpern R, et al. Risk factors for suspected developmental delay at age 2 years in a Brazilian birth cohort. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2010;24(3):211-21. 5. Feinstein L. Inequality in the early cognitive development of British children in the 1970 cohort. Economica 2003;70(277):73-97. 6. Anderson LM, Shinn C, Fullilove MT, Scrimshaw SC, Fielding JE, Normand J, et al. The effectiveness of early childhood development programs: A systematic review. Am J Prev Med 2003;24(3):32-46. 7. Health CoSDo. Early child development: a powerful equalizer: final report for the World Health Organization's Commission on the Social Determinants of Health. 2007. 8. Sadock BJ, Sadock VA. Kaplan and Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011. 9. Vameghi R, Hatamizadeh N, Sajedi F, Shahshahanipoor S, Kazemnejad A. 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Comparing the Results of Developmental Screening of 4-60 Months Old Children in Tehran Using ASQ & PDQ. Iran Rehab J 2011;9:3-7. 31. Shaahmadi F, Khushemehri G, Arefi Z, Karimyan A, Heidari F. Developmental Delay and Its Effective Factors in Children Aged 4 to12 Months. Int J Pediatr 2015;3(1.1):396-402. 32. Karami K AL, Moridi F, Falah F, Bayat Z, Pourvakhshoori N. Evaluation criteria and factors associated with the development of one year old children in Khorramabad. J Pediatr Nurs 2015. 2015;1(3):57-64. 33. Dorre F, Fattahi Bayat G. Evaluation of children's development (4-60mo) with history of NICU admission based on ASQ in Amir kabir Hospital, Arak. J Ardabil Univ Med Sci 2011;11(2):143-50. 34. Sajedi F,Doulabi M, Vameghi R, Baghban A, Mazaheri MA, Mahmodi Z, Ghasemi E. Development of Children in Iran: A Systematic Review andMeta-Analysis. Glob J Health Sci 2016; 8(8): 145–161. 35. Tervo RC. 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ABSTRAKPertumbuhan ekonomi memegang peranan penting dalam menentukan keberhasilan pembangunan sebuah negara, oleh karena itu setiap negara selalu menetapkan target pertumbuhan ekonomi yang stabil dalam tujuan pembangunan. Dalam prosesnya pertumbuhan ekonomi dipengaruhi oleh berbagai factor yang dapat mendorong atau bahkan menghambat laju pertumbuhan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pertumbuhan penduduk, keterbukaan perdagangan, inflasi, nilai tukar dan investasi terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi 40 negara anggota Organisasi Kerjasama Islam (OKI) pada tahun 2005-2019 menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan teknik analisis regresi data panel fixed effect model dan menggunakan aplikasi Eviews 11dalam mengelola data penelitian. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel pertumbuhan penduduk dan nilai tukar memiliki hubungan signifikan dan negatif terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi, sedangkan keterbukaan perdagangan dan investasi berpengaruh signifikan dan positif. Sedangkan investasi tidak berpengaruh signifikan pada pertumbuhan ekonomi di Negara OKI. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini pemerintah dan pihak terkait diharapkan dapat mengendalikan tingkat pertumbuhan penduduknya serta mendorong sektor perdagangan internasional untuk meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi mengingat tingkat keterbukaan perdagangan di Negara OKI masih dibawah potensinya.Kata Kunci: Pertumbuhan Ekonomi, Pertumbuhan Penduduk, Keterbukaan Perdagangan, Organisasi Kerjasama Islam. ABSTRACTEconomic growth plays an important role in determining the success of a country's development; therefore, each country always sets a target for stable economic growth in its development goals. In the process, economic growth is influenced by various factors that can encourage or even hinder the growth rate. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of population growth, trade openness, inflation, exchange rates and investment on the economic growth of 40 member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in 2005-2019 using a quantitative approach with a fixed effect model panel data regression analysis technique and using the Eviews application. 11 in managing research data. The results of this study indicate that the variables of population growth and exchange rates have a significant and negative relationship to economic growth, while trade openness and investment have a significant and positive effect. Meanwhile, investment has no significant effect on economic growth in the OIC Country. Based on the results of this study, the government and related parties are expected to control the rate of population growth and encourage the international trade sector to increase economic growth considering that the level of trade openness in the OIC is still below its potential.Keywords: Economic Growth, Population Growth, Trade Openness, Organization of Islamic Cooperation REFERENCESAbbas, Q., Nurunnabi, M., Alfakhri, Y., Khan, W., Hussain, A., & Iqbal, W. (2020). The role of fixed capital formation, renewable and non-renewable energy in economic growth and carbon emission: A case study of Belt and Road Initiative project. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(36).Abubakar, A. B. (2015). Impact of International trade on economic growth in India. International Journal of Financial Research, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.5430/ijfr.v6n3p163Ali, S., Ali, A., & Amin, A. (2013). The impact of population growth on economic development in Pakistan. 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In the rapid changing academic setting, language teachers are facing different issues and realities that require drastic and immediate measures for the improvement of language instruction. Gone are the days when traditional approaches and methods were being employed. Learners follow the trends and developments in technology and their attention spans keep on changing dramatically. It is not enough that language teachers will just provide assessment on grammar and speaking skills to evaluate the performances of the students, rather, they have to explore and uncover different factors that are pivotal in the teaching and learning process. The reviewers have decided to evaluate the book "The Impact of Multilingualism on Global Education and Language Learning" having the belief that in the contemporary period, multilingualism is such a formidable phenomenon that has tremendous impact on the lives of students, global education, and language learning and teaching. The ideas and insights crystalized from this review will help academicians, curriculum developers, language teachers, and educational leaders launch new projects for new directions in the field of education and language teaching. In a bigger world, people can see the effects of multilingualism due to spread of cultures, speedy communication, and diversity of learning climate. At the end of this book, the readers are able to imagine the power and influence of multilingualism and plurilingualism in changing educational landscape. The First Section is Multilingualism and Plurilingualism. In here, multilingualism is defined and explained. It brings abundant ideas and realities to people on the concepts and events they witness related to multilingualism and plurilingualism. Indeed, the rise of globalism and diffusion has led to interculturalism. Peoples around the globe have embraced common beliefs, fashion, ideas, and culture. Plurilingualism has been defined in this section with relevance to multilingualism. From this part, different ideas and insights are being offered. It brings and connects readers to possible existence of the phenomena such as multilingualism and plurilingualism in a diverse region or country. Also, the attitude of a group of people and community is being examined and described here. Through clear illustration, linguists and language teachers can get a picture of the phenomena and the ways they can do to revise and update their instructional materials and teaching methods. Further, the importance of having a lingua franca is clearly expounded here. Recent studies were explored on how new technologies can help spread English as a lingua franca. The section concludes the fact that because of the prevalence of multilingualism and plurilingualism, there is a great chance that multiculturalism also exists rapidly as it is occurring now. The Second Section of this book is the multilingual landscape. This section delves on how the concept of multilingualism significantly entered the world of sociolinguistics. It narrates the beginning of multilingualism, and how it was before monolingualism became a norm, from the beginning in the Old Testament to the rise of Roman Empire in the 7th century. The discussion is deemed to be very important for linguistics enthusiasts and researchers as it gives in-depth insights on historical foundation of multilingualism. We can no longer deny the fact that multilingualism is an important consideration in language policies and curriculum development. For instance, here in the Philippines, many linguists claim that learning English effectively is always attributed to the learner's mother tongue and how it highly influences the learners' second language acquisition. It is interesting to discover in the narrative that aside from many European nations like India, China, and Africa multilingualism is a norm. Nowadays, different countries have different official languages spoken on the record. We come to think about how these countries develop, plan, and implement their English language policies. The diversity of language all over the world is very evident. The world has 195 countries, but language spoken is several thousands more. Although languages are diverse, it not a hindrance in globalization. In this case, the role of English language plays a very important role in the aspiration of all the nations to globalize their citizens. The third section is the role of English. English plays an important role in communicating to different places. This section of the book highlights that all languages are mandatory in various places in the world; hence, English language cannot be an exemption. This portion somehow made us realize that proficiency in English is of utmost importance especially if a person wants to land on a high paying job. Moreover, English is already integrated in the various curricula from early childhood education up to high standards of entrance examination in different universities. The author cited different excerpts of several studies as evidences for a notion that English has been becoming more dominant while the world is getting more multilingual. Compared to Latin-Greek languages as discussed in the narrative of the second section, English is not the language of the elites, but an aspirational language for all. Since English plays a very important role in a person's life, English as a national language is pushed by the government officials. However, lack of preparation for materials is a big problem to teachers. For instance, in a case study by Rwanda, the French Government mandated that a switch from French to English, with only a year of preparation; thus, the proficiency to use English will of course may be compromised and cause a bigger problem, since some teachers are not as well proficient in French let alone another language. The lack of preparedness and English Proficiency will only multiply the problems which will make their life miserable as claimed in the excerpts shown. In addition to that, they claim that it could be more challenging as some students feel embarrassed and failure because of the mistakes they made using the English language. This section is concluded with a realization that English is not really a threat for establishing identity; instead, a powerful tool to enrich one's cultural uniqueness. The fourth section is the trends and issues in multilingual education. This portion talks about how English was viewed as just a subject by some, and in reality, is used in the learning process throughout the curriculum. This part scrutinizes reasons why English has been tagged as an important tool in a student's life. Many believe that students must possess higher order thinking skills such as hypothesizing, evaluating, inferring, generalizing, predicting or classifying. Through this, student's cognition will be developed and thus, they will not forget English. One example is the Tower Hamlets, a school in London who was reported to be the worst performing schools and now one of the best performing schools in the country. This was evident in their National Curriculum Test. During this test, students' grades in reading and writing surpasses Kent. This book also mentioned how learning English is not only limited to the educational establishment, but outside it through daily conversations and the use of internet. Since the diversity of the culture of European Union (EU), is very evident, the aim of the EU. To conclude this section, the author clearly explains about EU's language policy. He states that the main goal of Language Policy is that every European shall be able to speak at least two (2) more languages in addition to their mother tongue. This is due to the fact that in EU acquiring foreign language competence is a basic skill the citizen needs to improve their educational and employment opportunities. The last section is the recommendations for national systemic change. In this juncture, the author discusses the societal change to support multilingualism and educational change. We believe in the two main propositions made by the author here. The firs one being the overall societal context that is wider in scope than education; and lastly being the specific direction of educational provision and resource allocation. He explains it by mentioning Comenius (1657) and Piaget (1993). The former believed that the society's fate is dependent in the quality of education, while the latter claimed that education is not dependent to the action of school and family; instead, an essential building block of life in general. Human society is an educational society. The school system is constantly improved throughout the world to accommodate the demands of English proficiency. With this, the researcher suggested to the policy makers three (3) areas that they should consider: Validation, Practical Encouragement, and Specific Planning. This requires different language goals rather than one size fits all. Since each language require different approaches, in addition to that not all languages are learned formally. Anyone can learn language through listening to music, playing games, and watching films and of course communicating electronically. The new integrated language policies have lots of consideration. With this, the magnitude of these effects pale into insignificance compared with class/teacher effects. Since the teacher plays a very important role in the implementation of these policies. Conclusion The reviewers recommend this book because of its functional, practical, and authentic value. The sections are extensively and intensively discussed. They offer practical and theoretical examples that are felt and visualized by any reader who has growing interest in the field of linguistics and language education. Through this scholarly work, more language teachers can better understand the complex and dynamic transitions and developments in language teaching and learning. They can better design effective and appropriate materials and books that can address issues, challenges and problems in language education. In the years to come, more and more constructs will be discovered in relation to multilingualism and plurilingualism but language teachers and linguists have to do introspections on how education and stakeholders can remain attuned to global changes.

Background. Increasing the number of mass casual­ty incident such as traffic accidents or terrorist attacks which causes significant number of victim needs the medical assistance, so several chapters of health response plan to be revived. The term "event with mass casualty incident" (for healthcare institution) in the article presents the situation, because of which there is a mismatch between the simultaneous admission of a large number of victims and the possibility of provi­ding medical assistance without introducing changes in everyday forms and methods of work. Unlike the "emergency situation", the need to involve external resources by the health care institution is absent or minimal. The purpose of the study was the improving management system of medical assistance for the victims after the mass casualty incident. Materials and methods. The work is based on the own experience of the authors on the organization and the direct provision of medical assistance to victims after mass casualty incident in Ukraine and outside, participation in international projects and exercises, in parti­cular under the auspices of the European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations. The research uses bibliographic and semantic methods of cognition. The organizational aspects of medical support in 46 cases of mass casualty incident that occurred in the world during 1979–2015 are summarized, of which 33 (71.7 %) — as a result of terrorist attacks using explosive devices, 6 (13 %) — using firearms against an unprotected civilian population, fires in recreation facilities — 3 (6.5 %), strong poisonous substances — 2 (4.3 %) and due to transport accidents — 2 (4.3 %). Results. The organization of medical care for those who suffered because of mass casualty incident should be based on the principles of 4C crisis management in accordance with the level of the introduced regime of functioning. In the health care system of Ukraine, it is advi­sable to introduce the modes of operation of the system that are used in the European Union countries: 1) readiness for the possible admission of a large number of victims ("Green Level"), 2) partial mobilization of available resources of the health care institution ("Yellow Level"), 3) complete mobilization ("Red Level"). The primary medical triage of victims at the prehospital stage provides for dividing into two groups: "urgent" and "non-urgent". "Non-urgents" to be sent to hospitals that are geographically located near the scene of the incident, but not to the nearest, which should be ready to provide emergency medical care to "urgent" patients and applied independently — "self-reported", the number of which significantly exceed those who are delivered by ambulance team. The management group of health facilities includes responsible on — duty surgeon and anesthesiologist. The forms of information support of health care management system at the prehospital stage include: 1) the forces and facilities at the scene, 2) the triage of the victims at the scene, and 3) the need to strengthen the prehospital stage. At the hospital stage, the possibilities of conducting surgeries and the number of free hospital beds are determined: 1) the ope­rating unit, 2) hospital beds. Conclusions. In the health care system of Ukraine, it is advisable to introduce appropriate levels of functioning in mass casualty incident which applied in the European Union countries. Redistribution of available health care resources when providing medical care to the victims after mass casualty incident at prehospital and hospital stages is critically necessary to save the life and health of people. The medical response requires the adequate information support for the prehospital and hospital stages, and the introduction of sectoral and interagency cooperation. ; Актуальность. Увеличение количества чрезвычайных ситуациях с массовым поражением людей, в том числе вследствие аварий на транспорте или террористических актов, приводит к одновременному поступлению значительного количества пострадавших в учреждения здравоохранения и требует увеличения готовности системы здравоохранения к медицинскому реагированию через постоянный пересмотр и обновление Плана реагирования и взаимодействия при возникновении чрезвычайных ситуаций и ликвидации их последствий. Под понятием «события с массовым поражением людей» (для учреждения здравоохранения) в представленной статье понимают ситуацию, при которой возникает несоответствие между одновременным поступлением значительного количества пострадавших и возможностями оказания им медицинской помощи без внедрения изменений в повседневную форму и методы работы, в отличие от чрезвычайной ситуации, при которой потребность привлечения внешних ресурсов учреждением здравоохранения отсутствует или минимальна. Цель. Оптимизация информационного обеспечения системы управления медицинской помощью пострадавшим при событиях с массовым поражением людей. Материалы и методы. Работа основывается на собственном опыте авторов организации и непосредственного оказании медицинской помощи пострадавшим при событиях с массовым поражением людей и чрезвычайных ситуациях в Украине и за ее пределами, участия в международных проектах и учениях, в частности под эгидой Европейской комиссии гуманитарной помощи и защиты. При проведении исследования применены библиографический и семантический методы познания. Обобщены организационные аспекты медицинского обеспечения 46 случаев массового поражения людей, произошедших в мире на протяжении 1979–2015 гг., из них в результате террористических нападений с использованием взрывных устройств — 33 (71,7 %), огнестрельного оружия против незащищенного гражданского населения — 6 (13 %), пожаров в учреждениях отдыха — 3 (6,5 %), сильнодействующих ядовитых веществ — 2 (4,3 %) и в результате транспортных аварий — 2 (4,3 %). Результаты. Организация медицинской помощи пострадавшим в результате событий с массовым поражением должна основываться на принципах 4С кризисного менеджмента в соответствии с уровнем введенного режима функционирования. В системе здравоохранения Украины целесообразно внедрить режимы функционирования системы, которые используют в странах Европейского союза: 1) готовность к возможному поступлению значительного количества пострадавших («зеленый уровень»); 2) частичная мобилизация имеющихся ресурсов учреждения здравоохранения («желтый уровень»); 3) полная мобилизации («красный уровень»). Первичная медицинская сортировка пострадавших на догоспитальном этапе предусматривает деление на две группы: срочные и несрочные. Пострадавших, которые отнесены к группе несрочных, доставляют в больницы, которые географически расположены недалеко от места происшествия, но не в ближайшую, которая должна быть готова к оказанию экстренной медицинской помощи срочным больным и обратившимся самостоятельно (самообращение), количество которых может существенно превышать тех, кого доставляют бригады экстренной (скорой) медицинской помощи. В группу управления учреждения здравоохранения включают ответственных дежурных — врача-хирурга и врача-анестезиолога. К формам информационного обеспечения системы управления оказания медицинской помощи догоспитального этапа относятся: 1) силы и средства на месте происшествия; 2) распределение пострадавших соответственно на месте происшествия; 3) потребность усиления догоспитального этапа. На госпитальном этапе применяют: 1) операционный блок; 2) больничные койки. Выводы. В систему здравоохранения Украины целесообразно внедрить соответствующие уровни функционирования при событиях с массовым поражением людей, использующиеся в странах Европейского союза. Перераспределение имеющихся ресурсов здравоохранения при оказании медицинской помощи пострадавшим при событиях с массовым поражением людей на догоспитальном и госпитальном этапах критически необходимо для сохранения жизни и здоровья пострадавших. Управление оказанием медицинской помощи при массовом поражении людей требует соответствующего информационного обеспечения догоспитального и госпитального этапов, внедрения отраслевого и межведомственного взаимодействия. ; Актуальність. Збільшення кількості надзвичайних ситуацій із масовим ураженням людей, зокрема через аварії на транспорті або терористичні напади, призводить до одночасного надходження значної кількості постраждалих осіб до закладів охорони здоров'я та потребує збільшення готовності системи охорони здоров'я до медичного реагування через постійний перегляд і опрацювання Плану реагування та взаємодії під час виникнення надзвичайних ситуацій і ліквідації їх наслідків. Під поняттям «події з масовим ураженням людей» (для закладу охорони здоров'я) у поданій статті розуміють ситуацію, через яку виникає невідповідність між одночасним надходженням значної кількості постраждалих і можливостями надання їм медичної допомоги без впровадження змін у повсякденні форми та методи роботи, на відміну від надзвичайної ситуації потреба залучення зовнішніх ресурсів закладом охорони здоров'я відсутня або мінімальна. Мета. Оптимізація інформаційного забезпечення системи управління медичною допомогою постраждалим при подіях із масовим ураженням людей. Матеріали та методи. Робота ґрунтується на власному досвіді організації та безпосередньому наданні медичної допомоги постраждалим при подіях із масовим ураженням людей і надзвичайних ситуаціях в Україні та за її межами, участі у міжнародних проектах і навчаннях, зокрема під егідою Європейської комісії гуманітарної допомоги та цивільного захисту. Під час проведення дослідження застосовано бібліографічний і семантичний методи пізнання. Узагальнено організаційні аспекти медичного забезпечення 46 випадків масового ураження людей, які відбулись у світі впродовж 1979–2015 рр., із них унаслідок терористичних нападів з використанням вибухових пристроїв — 33 (71,7 %), вогнепальної зброї проти незахищеного цивільного населення — 6 (13 %), пожежі в закладах відпочинку — 3 (6,5 %), сильнодіючих отруйних речовин — 2 (4,3 %) і внаслідок транспортних аварій — 2 (4,3 %). Результати. Організація медичної допомоги постраждалим внаслідок подій із масовим ураженням має ґрунтуватись на принципах 4С кризового менеджменту відповідно до введеного режиму функціонування органів і закладів охорони здоров'я. В системі охорони здоров'я України доцільно впровадити режими, що існують в країнах Європейського Союзу: 1) готовність до можливого надходження значної кількості постраждалих («зелений рівень»); 2) часткова мобілізація («жовтий рівень»); 3) повна мобілізації («червоний рівень»). Первинне медичне сортування постраждалих на догоспітальному етапі передбачає розподіл на дві основні групи: термінові та нетермінові. Нетермінових постраждалих слід доставити до лікарень, які географічно розташовано недалеко від місця події, але не до найближчого закладу, який має бути готовим до надання екстреної медичної допомоги терміновим хворим і тим, хто звернувся самостійно (самозвернення), кількість яких може суттєво перевищувати тих, кого доставлено бригадами екстреної (швидкої) медичної допомоги. До групи управління закладу охорони здоров'я включають відповідальних чергових — лікаря-хірурга та лікаря-анестезіолога. До форм інформаційного забезпечення системи управління надання медичної допомоги на догоспітальному етапу належать: 1) сили та засоби на місці події; 2) розподіл постраждалих на місці події; 3) потреба підсилення догоспітального етапу. На госпітальному етапі визначають можливості проведення хірургічних операцій та кількість вільних лікарняних ліжок: 1) операційний блок; 2) лікарняні ліжка. Висновки. В систему охорони здоров'я України при подіях із масовим ураженням людей доцільно впровадити відповідні рівні функціонування, що використовують в країнах Європейського Союзу. Перерозподіл наявних ресурсів охорони здоров'я при наданні медичної допомоги постраждалим при подіях із масовим ураженням людей на догоспітальному та госпітальному етапах критично важливе для збереження життя та здоров'я постраждалих. Управління надання медичної допомоги при масовому ураженні людей потребує відповідного інформаційного забезпечення догоспітального та госпітального етапів, впровадження галузевої та міжвідомчої взаємодії.

Background: Given the increasing number of military deployments in modern forces and the high individual and social costs of substance use disorders, the risk of substance use (alcohol, nicotine, illegal drugs) and substance use disorders (abuse, dependence) associated with deployment and deployment-related stressful experiences is an important area of research. Main questions in this area are: Are deployment and deployment-related stressful experiences associated with problematic substance use patterns and substance use disorders? Are there high-risk groups for deploymentrelated increases in substance use and the occurrence of substance use disorders? Do other mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder play a role for the risk of substance use disorders? This dissertation thesis aims to contribute to these questions. The thesis is based on a research program in German military personnel deployed to Afghanistan. The program includes a crosssectional and a prospective-longitudinal study component. In the cross-sectional component, a random, stratified sample of 1483 was assessed twelve months after return from deployment. As a control group, 889 never deployed soldiers were also assessed. In the prospective-longitudinal component, another sample of 358 male soldiers was assessed directly before and twelve months following deployment. Information about substance use and substance use disorders was obtained using a standardized diagnostic interview. Deployment-related stressful experiences and other relevant variables were assessed with additional scales and questionnaires. Based on this study program, the following research questions were addressed: (1) Do deployed and never deployed soldiers differ regarding the prevalence of problematic substance use patterns (alcohol, nicotine, illegal drugs) and substance use disorders (alcohol, nicotine)? (2) How are soldiers with deployment-related changes in alcohol use characterized? (3) Are posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms related to the risk for substance use disorders (alcohol, nicotine)? (4) Are soldiers with prior mood and anxiety disorders at higher risk for the onset of substance use disorders (alcohol, nicotine) following deployment-related stressful experiences? Main results: Regarding these research questions, the following main results were observed: (1) Deployed and never deployed do not differ considerably regarding the prevalence of substance use and substance use disorders. (2) There was evidence for both deployment-related increases and decreases in alcohol use in specific subgroups. Compared to soldiers with a stable consumption, soldiers with increased alcohol use were characterized by lower ranks, less acceptance, less social support, more sleeping problems after deployment and more deployment-related negative cognitions. Soldiers with deployment-related decreases in alcohol use were characterized by fewer posttraumatic stress disorders symptoms prior deployment and less childhood emotional neglect. (3) Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms were related to the risk for substance use disorders. These associations were partially attributable to other comorbid mental disorders. However, several posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms were related to substance use disorders above the contribution of comorbidity. (4) Specific constellations of prior mood and anxiety disorders and high degrees of certain deploymentrelated stressful experiences predicted the onset of alcohol use disorders. Conclusions: Based on these findings it can be concluded that German soldiers deployed to Afghanistan do not have an overall elevated risk for substance use and substance use disorders. However, several subgroups with a deployment-related increase in substance use and substance use disorders could be identified for specific substances. These subgroups include soldiers with low ranks, low social support and other mental disorders, of which several posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms might be particularly relevant. In addition, soldiers who experience mood and anxiety disorders prior to deployment as well as high degrees of specific deployment-related stressful experiences might be at higher risk for the onset of alcohol use disorders. It is also noteworthy that some soldiers show a deployment-related decrease in alcohol consumption. These findings might contribute to an improved identification of high-risk groups and suggest targets for possible interventions and preventive efforts. Because of some limitations, mainly regarding crosssectional designs and limited statistical power, some observed associations have to be interpreted with caution. Further prospective studies in high-risk populations or larger samples are necessary to replicate and extend the suggested findings. Moreover, the generalizability of findings to non-military samples and other types of stressful experiences should be investigated. These investigations might help to further reduce the prevalence of excessive substance use and substance use disorders.:Content Zusammenfassung 10 Summary 13 0 Preface 15 1 General introduction 16 1.1 Substance use and substance use disorders 16 1.2 Stressful experiences 23 1.3 Stressful experiences and substance use in deployed military personnel 28 2 Aims 34 3 Methods 36 3.1 Design 36 3.2 Sampling 37 3.3 Study instruments 38 4 Substance use and substance use disorders in recently deployed and never deployed soldiers 40 4.1 Abstract 40 4.2 Introduction 41 4.3 Methods 43 4.4 Results 47 4.5 Discussion 52 5 Predictors of changes in daily alcohol consumption in the aftermath of military deployment 57 5.1 Abstract 57 5.2 Introduction 58 5.3 Methods 60 5.4 Results 64 5.5 Discussion 68 6 Associations between lifetime PTSD symptoms and current substance use disorders using a five-factor model of PTSD 73 6.1 Abstract 73 6.2 Introduction 74 6.3 Methods 78 6.4 Results 80 6.5 Discussion 85 7 Stress exposure and the risk for the onset of alcohol use disorders and nicotine dependence: The role of prior internalizing disorders 89 7.1 Abstract 89 7.2 Introduction 90 7.3 Methods 92 7.4 Results 96 7.5 Discussion 103 7.6 Conclusions 105 8 General discussion 106 8.1 Summary of main findings 106 8.2 Discussion of main findings 109 8.3 Critical discussion of methodology 117 8.4 Practical implications 120 8.5 Directions for future research 122 9 Conclusion 125 10 References 126 11 Appendix 157 ; Hintergrund: Das Risiko für den Konsum psychotroper Substanzen (Alkohol, Nikotin, illegale Drogen)und das Auftreten von Substanzstörungen (Missbrauch, Abhängigkeit) im Zusammenhang mit Belastungen in militärischen Einsätzen ist angesichts der Zunahme militärischer Einsätze sowie der hohen individuellen und sozialen Kosten von Substanzstörungen ein Forschungsthema von hoher Relevanz. Wichtige Fragen sind dabei: Stehen Auslandseinsätze generell im Zusammenhang mit problematischen Konsummustern und Substanzstörungen? Gibt es bestimmte Risikogruppen für Anstiege im Substanzkonsum und das Auftreten von Substanzstörungen? Welche Rolle spielen andere psychische Störungen, wie z.B. die posttraumatische Belastungsstörung (PTBS), für das Auftreten einer Substanzstörung? Diese Dissertationsschrift behandelt verschiedene Aspekte dieser Fragestellungen auf der Grundlage eines Forschungsprogramms zur psychischen Gesundheit bei in Afghanistan eingesetzten deutschen Soldaten. Das Programm umfasste eine querschnittliche und eine prospektiv-longitudinale Studie. In der Querschnittstudie wurde eine randomisierte, stratifizierte Stichprobe von 1483 Soldaten zwölf Monate nach Rückkehr aus einem Einsatz in Afghanistan untersucht. Als Kontrollgruppe wurden zudem 889 Soldaten untersucht, welche niemals im Einsatz waren. In der prospektiv-longitudinalen Studie wurde eine weitere Stichprobe von 358 männlichen Soldaten unmittelbar vor und zwölf Monate nach Einsatzrückkehr aus Afghanistan untersucht. Information zu Substanzkonsum und Substanzstörungen nach DSM-IV wurden mittels standardisierter diagnostischer Interviews erfasst. Einsatzbezogene belastende Ereignisse und andere relevante Variablen wurden mit zusätzlichen Skalen und Fragebögen erhoben. Auf Basis dieses Studienprogramms wurden unter anderem die folgenden Fragestellungen bearbeitet: (1) Unterscheiden sich Soldaten mit und ohne Auslandseinsatz hinsichtlich der Prävalenz von kritischen Konsummustern (Alkohol, Nikotin, illegale Drogen) und Substanzstörungen (Alkohol, Nikotin)? (2) Durch welche Merkmale sind Soldaten mit einsatzbezogenen Veränderungen im Alkoholkonsum gekennzeichnet? (3) Sind Symptome der PTBS mit dem Risiko für Substanzstörungen (Alkohol, Nikotin) assoziiert? (4) Haben Soldaten mit bereits vor dem Einsatz bestehenden Angst- und affektiven Störungen ein höheres Risiko für das Auftreten einer Substanzstörung (Alkohol, Nikotin) nach belastenden Einsatzereignissen? Hauptergebnisse: In Bezug auf diese Fragestellungen ergaben sich folgende Ergebnisse: (1) Soldaten mit und ohne Auslandseinsatz unterschieden sich kaum hinsichtlich der Prävalenz von Substanzkonsum und Substanzstörungen. (2) Allerdings ergaben sich Hinweise auf Zu-, wie auch Abnahmeeffekte im Alkoholkonsum in unterschiedlichen Subgruppen. Soldaten mit einem Anstieg im Alkoholkonsum waren im Vergleich zu Soldaten mit stabilem Konsum durch einen niedrigeren Dienstgrad, ein geringeres Ausmaß an Akzeptanz, weniger soziale Unterstützung, mehr Schlafprobleme nach Einsatzrückkehr sowie ein höheres Ausmaß an negativen einsatzbezogenen Bewertungen gekennzeichnet. Bei Soldaten mit einer einsatzbezogenen Reduktion im Alkoholkonsum fanden sich weniger PTBS-Symptome vor dem Einsatz sowie ein geringeres Ausmaß an emotionaler Vernachlässigung in der Kindheit. (3) Es gab Zusammenhänge zwischen PTBS-Symptomen und Substanzstörungen, die jedoch teilweise durch andere komorbide psychische Störungen erklärt werden konnten. Allerdings blieben einige PTBS-Symptome über andere komorbide Störungen hinaus mit Substanzstörungen assoziiert. (4) Bestimmte Konstellationen von bereits vor dem Einsatz bestehenden Angst- und affektiven Störungen sagten bei hohem Ausmaß an einigen einsatzbezogenen Belastungen das Auftreten einer Störung durch Alkoholkonsum vorher. Schlussfolgerungen: Auf Grundlage dieser Befunde lässt sich schlussfolgern, dass in Afghanistan eingesetzte Bundeswehrsoldaten kein generell erhöhtes Risiko für kritische Konsummuster und das Auftreten von Substanzstörungen aufweisen. Allerdings konnten Subgruppen identifiziert werden, die in Bezug auf bestimmte Substanzen ein erhöhtes Risiko für einen erheblichen Anstieg im Substanzkosum oder das Auftreten einer Substanzstörung haben. Dazu gehören unter anderem Soldaten mit niedrigen Dienstgrad, geringer sozialer Unterstützung und anderen psychischen Störungen, wobei bestimmte Symptome der posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung von besonderer Relevanz sein könnten. Zudem scheint das Risiko für Störungen durch Alkoholkonsum bei Soldaten erhöht, bei denen bereits vor dem Einsatz Angst- und affektive Störungen auftraten und die gleichzeitig ein hohes Ausmaß an bestimmten Einsatzbelastungen erleben. Bemerkenswert ist aber auch, dass einige Soldaten nach dem Einsatz eine erhebliche Reduktion des Alkoholkonsums aufweisen. Die Befunde könnten zu einer verbesserten Identifikation von Risikogruppen beitragen und Ansatzpunkte für mögliche Interventionen und präventive Maßnahmen liefern. Aufgrund einiger Limitationen, die vor allem querschnittliche Designs und eine eingeschränkte statistische Power betreffen, sollten einige der beobachteten Zusammenhänge vorsichtig interpretiert werden. Weitere prospektive Untersuchungen an größeren Stichproben sowie Hochrisikokohorten sind nötig, um die Befunde zu replizieren und zu erweitern. Weiter sollte die Übertragbarkeit der Befunde auf nichtmilitärische Stichproben unter Einbezug anderer Arten von belastenden Ereignissen untersucht werden. Diese Untersuchungen könnten langfristig zur Senkung von problematischen Substanzkonsum und Substanzstörungen beitragen.:Content Zusammenfassung 10 Summary 13 0 Preface 15 1 General introduction 16 1.1 Substance use and substance use disorders 16 1.2 Stressful experiences 23 1.3 Stressful experiences and substance use in deployed military personnel 28 2 Aims 34 3 Methods 36 3.1 Design 36 3.2 Sampling 37 3.3 Study instruments 38 4 Substance use and substance use disorders in recently deployed and never deployed soldiers 40 4.1 Abstract 40 4.2 Introduction 41 4.3 Methods 43 4.4 Results 47 4.5 Discussion 52 5 Predictors of changes in daily alcohol consumption in the aftermath of military deployment 57 5.1 Abstract 57 5.2 Introduction 58 5.3 Methods 60 5.4 Results 64 5.5 Discussion 68 6 Associations between lifetime PTSD symptoms and current substance use disorders using a five-factor model of PTSD 73 6.1 Abstract 73 6.2 Introduction 74 6.3 Methods 78 6.4 Results 80 6.5 Discussion 85 7 Stress exposure and the risk for the onset of alcohol use disorders and nicotine dependence: The role of prior internalizing disorders 89 7.1 Abstract 89 7.2 Introduction 90 7.3 Methods 92 7.4 Results 96 7.5 Discussion 103 7.6 Conclusions 105 8 General discussion 106 8.1 Summary of main findings 106 8.2 Discussion of main findings 109 8.3 Critical discussion of methodology 117 8.4 Practical implications 120 8.5 Directions for future research 122 9 Conclusion 125 10 References 126 11 Appendix 157

Most people spend much of their lives working. By working, I mean "wage labor": activity undertaken in exchange for money in a society where money is necessary for survival. This has not always been the case, and it is not the case universally, in all places, or for everyone. But it is now a fact of life so foundational in most parts of the world as to seem a feature of nature rather than history. I begin with truism because I think that the fact of work, in all its bluntness, has never been accorded proper importance in literary criticism or cultural criticism in general. There is, of course, a convenient explanation for the absence: historically, art has been either the province of the leisured classes or something made and experienced outside of the bounds of the workday. Art is, therefore, an exception to the rule of work. And even Marxist critics – those whom one would expect to believe, as Marx did, that production and labor were foundational in capitalism –tend to approach the painting or the poem from the side of the market, consumption, and everyday life, for the understandable reasons outlined above. If they tell a story about capitalism's determinative effect on art, it is usually a story about the penetration of market logics into the realm of art, a story about commodification. Few ask what the work of art might share with work in general or how the constant technological and social refashioning of the workplace might affect the horizon of possibility for artworks.My dissertation, "The Work of Art in the Age of Deindustrialization," attempts to provide one answer to these questions, a historical answer, by a reading of important literary and artistic works from the 1960s and 1970s. These are decades in which twin political and economic crises – the political militancy we associate with 1968, on the one hand, and the crisis of profitability and the dollar we associate with 1973 on the other – force a profound restructuring of capitalism and class relations. In particular, the multiple transformations of the labor process – deindustrialization, the rise of the service sector, the introduction of information technologies into the burgeoning managerial and white-collar sectors – provide a useful vantage from which to investigate the rapid changes in art and writing. Whereas the much-documented aesthetics of objects, things and facticity associated with modernism took its bearings from the factory-system (or, in a variant, anti-industrial form, from the artisanal and craft forms industrialization was in the process of destroying) such a cultural mode becomes increasingly anachronistic in the postwar era. As I argue, the productivist aesthetic of modernism gives way to an aesthetic of administration and distribution that takes signs and social relations rather than physical matter as its primary "material." Instead of the factory or workshop, such a mode draws from the routinized cognitions of office work and the forced conviviality of the service sector.The relationship between the economic and the cultural is not, as it might seem, a case of simple synchronicity or one-to-one correspondence. Experimental poetry, for example, is avant-garde in the sole sense that it is speculative, a laboratorial mode which runs ahead of the work-a-day world rather than simply reflecting it. Such experimental modes elaborated critical responses and forms of technical imagination which aimed to respond to the rigid hierarchies of 1960s society and yet, via a kind of "cunning of reason," laid some of the foundations for the new work relations which became dominant in the 1980s and 1990s. Indeed, part of my argument is that some of the most recognizable of avant-garde devices – erasing, replacing, counting, sorting, arranging by chance or rule – have been thoroughly integrated into the very office machinery (now generalized into the home) which writers use to produce their works.Such recuperation builds upon an uneasy affinity between left- and right-wing critiques of postwar capitalism. If leftists, countercultural figures and artists took aim at the rigid, bureaucratic and hierarchical nature of the corporate form and worklife in postwar society, targeting the managerial layer in particular, they found strange bedfellows in a class of business management theorists and economists who saw in that same layer a hindrance to profitability. In response to the artistic and countercultural critique, businesses concoct a new, flexible, "flattened" and adaptive corporate form that trims the middle-managerial layer by imposing upon workers a set of pseudo-democratic work relations under the sign of such corporate shibboleths as teamwork, flexibility, participation, creativity and self-management. Rather than the industrialization of culture that Adorno and Horkheimer famously bemoan, my dissertation describes the same operation in reverse – the "culturization" (or aestheticization) of industry, where the workday absorbs the resources, faculties and affects associated with the aesthetic. This operation is designed to produce more highly-productive, motivated workers but also to ward off and absorb the countercultural and artistic critiques that might lead to disaffection. The aesthetic, in this regard, becomes a mechanism for the establishment of a pseudo-democracy and a pseudo-autarky. If "self-management" – the ideal of labor militants, communists and anarchists since the 19th century – once meant freedom from the imperatives of the boss it now means, increasingly, in light of this reorganization, an internalization of such imperatives.My first chapter traces the thematics of "management" and "self-management" as they appear in the early poetry of John Ashbery, and in his controversial book The Tennis-Court Oath (1962) in particular. Numerous poems in this collection – developed from an earlier poem, "The Instructional Manual" – take up the position of the midlevel employee, who is both the object of commands and the producer of commands. The contradictions in this standpoint – examined in C. Wright Mills' White Collar and many subsequent studies of "the new middle class"provide insight into this transitional moment in capitalism, in which the extensive growth of deskilled white-collar work created, for large firms and the post-war bureaucracy, a crisis of management. One of the ways in which this appears in Ashbery's poetry is through a subtle and inventive play with free indirect discourse and point of view, in which individual moments and voices manifest as antagonistic fragments in an intersubjective field, requiring the "managerial" intervention of the arranging, organizing poetic voice or mind, a mind that is itself fragmented by its multiple allegiances and responsibilities. The experimental collages of The Tennis Court Oath illuminate the curious ambiguity of that special commodity, labor-power, which is at once object and subject: a thinking object, a commodity that speaks.As I discuss in my second chapter, one site where all of these meanings are contested – a site that again attracts the interest of both artists and business management theorists – is the emergent discourse of cybernetics, Through the central notion of "feedback," cybernetics presents an image of social self-regulation based upon reciprocal, horizontal relations rather than explicit hierarchies. Writers and conceptual artists borrow from this discourse to model utopian social forms, ones where form is embedded less in explicit command than in something like a changeable grammar or syntax – cybernetics calls this "information" – which can be revealed and manipulated by art. To give just two examples, both Hannah Weiner in her Code Poems and Dan Graham in his Works for Magazine Pages follow the founder of cybernetics, Norbert Wiener, by treating information – and by extension, the formative powers of cultural labor – as a kind of anti-entropic, organizing force. Following Benjamin Buchloh, I describe this development as an "administrative aesthetic," since the cultural artifact comes to see its vocation as one of regulating social relations. Though I treat only a handful of figures in this chapter, the list of writers and artists influenced by this conception of information (and its close cousin, entropy) provides a remarkable cross-section of the period. A partial list of figures who help forge these new aesthetic values would include, in fiction, William Burroughs, William Gass, Kurt Vonnegut, Philip K. Dick and Thomas Pynchon; in poetry, Charles Olson, John Ashbery, A.R. Ammons, Hannah Weiner and Bernadette Mayer; and in art, Hans Haacke, Robert Smithson, Dan Graham and Martha Rosler.One of the reasons why it has been difficult to approach the cultural transformations of the 1960s and 1970s from the side of labor rather than, say, consumption– from the side of the workday rather than leisure time – is that increasingly these two spheres commingle, and the values associated with leisure time are invoked to make the workday more tolerable, at the same time as the protocols and routines associated with work colonize the space of leisure time. This crossing of spheres bears in particular upon the relations between unpaid "reproductive" or domestic labor (the housework associated with women) and waged labor. The subject of my third chapter, Bernadette Mayer's project Memory (1972) – performance, installation and epic poem – investigates the crossing and blurring of these spheres, as everyday life is increasingly subsumed by the protocols of office work, and as office work is increasingly colored in the shades and hues of the street or the home. Memory models this process of merger and blurring through its incorporation of multiple media (type, photography, audio recording), artistic genres and techniques. In this sense, Mayer's elaboration of a "total" artwork which merges different technologies into one single apparatus prefigures the coming reorganization of office work around the personal computer.

Inhaltsangabe: Zusammenfassung: Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag zur psychologischen Entscheidungsforschung, indem das Ausmaß der Verwendung der Anciennitätsheuristik (AH), die auch Seniority-Heuristic (SH) genannt wird, abhängig vom Alter empirisch untersucht wird. Die Vorstellung eines rational handelnden Individuum sowie das ökonomische Modell des Homo Oeconomicus werden von KritikerInnen als unzureichend angesehen, um menschliches Entscheidungsverhalten zu beschreiben. Der Mensch führt keine komplizierten Rechenaufgaben in der Suche nach einer Entscheidung durch, noch stehen ihm unbegrenzte Ressourcen von Zeit, Wissen und Verarbeitungskapazität zur Verfügung. Es sind vielmehr die einfachen und schnellen Heuristiken, die den menschlichen Entscheidungsprozess in unsicheren Umwelten treffend zu beschreiben scheinen und den Optimierungsmodellen den Kampf ansagen. Heuristiken basieren auf dem Postulat der begrenzten Rationalität sowie der Satisficingregel von Simon. Vitouch ist der Begründer der AH, die ebenfalls auf dem Konzept von Simon aufbaut. Die AH ist eine Entscheidungsregel, die die Präferenz für das Ältere beinhaltet (z. B. das Gründungsjahr einer Institution) und in Situationen der Unsicherheit Anwendung findet. Vitouch postuliert, dass die AH besonders häufig verwendet wird, wenn mit Informationen über das Alter (Gründungsjahr) von unbekannten Optionen der Eindruck des Sich-Bewährt-Habens verbunden ist (Standing the Test of Time). In der vorliegenden Studie wird untersucht, ob ältere Menschen (45–60 Jahre) eher dazu tendieren Informationen über die Anciennität einer Institution im Entscheidungsprozess zu verwenden, als jüngere Menschen (20–35 Jahre). Die vorgeschlagene Prominenz von Altershinweisen wird erörtert, indem die entsprechende Verwendungshäufigkeit des Gründungsjahres (Seniority-Cue) mit der von weiteren, rivalisierenden und validen Cues verglichen wird. In einem intuitiven Wissensspiel werden den TeilnehmerInnen (N = 160) 136 Entscheidungsaufgaben aus vier Wissensdomänen vorgelegt. Die Verwendung bestimmter Cues wird mit Hilfe des Mouselab (ML), einer prozessorientierten Methode, erfasst. Die Aufgabe besteht darin zu schätzen, welche von zwei Domänen den höheren Wert auf einem Kriterium hat. Die Namen der Domänen sind in kyrillischer Schrift dargeboten, um Effekte der Wiedererkennung (Rekognitionsheuristik) auszuschließen. Nach dem intuitiven Wissensspiel folgt ein Online-Fragebogen (OFB), der zusätzlich Rückschlüsse darüber geben soll, welche Hinweise bei der Entscheidungsfindung als besonders hilfreich bzw. nicht hilfreich empfunden wurden. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die Hypothese, dass ältere Personen das Gründungsjahr zur Entscheidungsfindung effektiv häufiger verwenden als jüngere Personen. Zudem stellt sich das Gründungsjahr als domänenunabhängiger Hinweis dar. Somit wird der Seniority-Cue von Vitouch zurecht als Universal-Cue bezeichnet. Im Vergleich mit den anderen Hinweisen wird der Seniority-Cue weniger oft zur Entscheidungshilfe herangezogen. Vergleicht man die Häufigkeit wie oft ein Hinweis im ML gewählt wurde mit seiner anschließenden Bewertung im OFB, zeigen sich keine ausgeprägten Zusammenhänge. Abstract The present work offers a contribution to human decision-making with the use of Seniority Heuristic (SH), also called Anciennitätsheuristik (AH), on the basis of a process oriented investigation method. The conception of rational decision making models and the economic model of the homo oeconimicus are being criticized for their inability to explain human decision making in the real world. The idea that people are making decisions in an uncertain environment on having all information available, having endless time and cognition ressources, and having a more sophisticated algorithm becomes less important. However, there is a currently change in research of decision making. Fast and frugal heuristics are the more effective and realistic concepts as the optimizing models to analyse and understand human decision behavior. Heuristics are decision rules based on the concept of satisficing strategies and on the postulate of bounded rationality, designed by the economist Simon. Vitouch is the originator of the SH, which is also based on the model of bounded rationality. This decision-rule describes the idea of priority of age (seniority) in a decision process. A person favours the older option in making a decision under uncertainty, because the older one is the better. Vitouch postulates that the SH works effectively if the founding year (seniority-cue) of an unknown option gives the impression that the option or the organisation is the better one, because of its older founding year (standing the test of time). This study analyses the hypothesis whether older people (age 45–60) tend to use information of the founding year in a decision-process more often than younger ones (age 20–35). The use of the founding year will be compared to the use of different valid and competing cues. In an intuitive knowledge game 136 decision problems were presented to the probands (N = 160). These passes includes four domains. The application of certain cues has been recorded with the mouselab design (ML). This method is often used in decision theory, because it makes it possible to record precisly the decision process. The probands´ task was to assume, which of two options has the higher value on a criterium. The titels of the domains were presented in cyrillic lettering. This was necessary to eliminate recognition effects (recognition heuristic). After the intuitive knowledge game the probands have to complete an online questionnaire (OFB). This OFB provides results about the importance of the chosen cues in the game. The results support the hypotheses that older people are using the seniority-cue more often in the decision process than younger ones. A further insight shows that the seniority-cue is independent of domains. Therefore Vitouch´s assumption that the seniority-cue is an universal-cue insofar as it allows a person to make a fast and efficient choice and inferences is evidenced. In contrast to the other cues, the founding year is used fewer times. A comparison between evaluation of the cues in the game and in the OFB shows no pronounced coherence.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.Persönlicher Zugang1 2.Zusammenfassung / Abstract2 2.1Zusammenfassung2 2.2Abstract3 3.Einleitung5 3.1Herleitung des Themas5 3.2Überblick über die vorliegende Diplomarbeit8 THEORETISCHER TEIL12 4.Grundlegende Konzepte der Entscheidungsforschung12 4.1Definition des Begriffs Entscheidung12 4.2Module einer Entscheidungssituation13 4.2.1Handlungsoptionen und ihre Charakterisierung14 4.2.2Ziele und Präferenzen15 4.2.3Umwelteinflüsse und Konsequenzen17 4.3Theorien zur Entscheidungsforschung21 5.Entstehungsgeschichte der Entscheidungsforschung23 5.1Beiträge aus der Philosophie und der Mathematik23 5.2Rationalitätskonzepte31 5.2.1Homo Oeconomicus31 5.2.2Bounded Rationality34 6.Entscheidungsregeln und Suchmuster39 6.1Kompensatorische Entscheidungsregeln40 6.2Nicht-kompensatorische Entscheidungsregeln42 7.Heuristiken45 7.1Schnelle und einfache Heuristiken47 7.1.1Rekognitionsheuristik52 7.1.1.1Weniger-ist-mehr-Effekt57 7.1.1.2Studien zur Rekognitionsheuristik59 7.2Heuristiken aus dem adaptiven Werkzeugkasten im Überblick61 7.3Anciennitätsheuristik bzw. Seniority Heuristic66 7.3.1Alltagsnahe Domänen der Anciennität71 7.3.1.1Der Senat71 7.3.1.2Erbfolgeordnungen72 7.3.1.3Unternehmen und Hersteller73 7.3.1.4Universitäten77 7.3.2Aktueller Forschungsstand der Anciennitätsheuristik80 7.4Zusammenfassung83 8.Methodologische Zugänge in derEntscheidungsforschung84 8.1Der strukturorientierte Zugang84 8.2Der prozessorientierte Zugang85 8.3Prozessorientierte Untersuchungsmethoden88 8.3.1Die Informationstafel89 8.3.2Das Mouselab91 8.3.3Das verbale Protokoll93 8.3.4Die Methode der Blickaufzeichnungen95 8.3.5Untersuchungen anhand der prozessorientierten Methoden96 8.3.6Informationsbeschaffung und kognitiver Aufwand100 8.4Zusammenfassung104 EMPIRISCHER TEIL106 9.Methodenwahl und empirische Fragestellungen106 9.1Forschungsmethoden106 9.2Explikation der Fragestellung und Hypothesen109 9.2.1Herleitung der Fragestellungen109 9.2.2Hypothesenbildung110 10.Versuchsmaterial und -aufbau117 10.1Inferenzentscheidungen118 10.2Erstellung der Domänen119 10.2.1Domäne russische Universitäten120 10.2.2Domäne russische Aktiengesellschaften120 10.2.3Domäne russische Wodkahersteller121 10.2.4Domäne russische Rechtsanwaltskanzleien122 10.3Auswahl der Cues124 10.4Erstellung der Cue-Werte126 10.5Versuchsplan131 10.6Abhängige und Unabhängige Variablen133 10.7Kontrolle der Störvariablen134 10.8Pilottestung137 10.8.1Durchführung der Pilottestung138 10.8.2Adaptierung138 11.Ergebnisse142 11.1Stichprobe142 11.1.1Rekrutierung142 11.1.2Demographische Stichprobenbeschreibung144 11.2Deskriptiver Datenüberblick145 11.3Unterschiede in der Informationssuche in den einzelnen Domänen148 11.3.1Hypothesenprüfung der aufgedeckten Informationen150 11.3.2Zusammenfassung der Anzahl der aufgedeckten Cues auf der Domänenebene155 11.4Wahl der älteren Option156 11.4.1Inferenzstatistische Prüfung der Hypothesen159 11.4.2Zusammenfassend die Ergebnisse bei der Wahl der älteren Option162 11.5Datenauswertung auf der Cueebene162 11.5.1Inferenzstatistische Prüfung der Hypothesen auf der Cueebene165 11.5.2Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse auf der Cueebene171 11.6Bewertung der Cues nach ihrer Wichtigkeit172 11.7Wahl des Seniority-Cue bei Wahl der älteren Option178 11.8Analyse und Interpretation184 12.Diskussion und offene Fragen187 V.ResumeeVII VI.LiteraturIX VII.AbbildungsverzeichnisXVIII VIII.AnhangXXTextprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 4, Methodologische Zugänge in der Entscheidungsforschung: Autoren wie Svenson oder Harte und Koele teilen methodologische Zugänge in der psychologischen Entscheidungsforschung in einen strukturorientierten ('structural modelling' und in einen prozessorientierten ('process tracing') Ansatz ein. Beide Zugänge haben die psychologische Entscheidungsforschung in den letzten 40 Jahren bedeutend geprägt. Der strukturorientierte Zugang: Zuerst hat sich die psychologische Entscheidungsforschung hauptsächlich am Entwurf der subjektiven Wahrscheinlichkeit orientiert. WissenschaftlerInnen erhoben dazu numerische Wahrscheinlichkeitsurteile, die dann anhand der Axiome der Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie geprüft wurden. Dieser Zugang wird in der psychologischen Entscheidungsforschung auch als struktur-orientierter Zugang definiert, da der Fokus primär auf das Ergebnis einer Entscheidung gelegt wird. Input- und Output-Variablen werden aktiv manipuliert und können mit Hilfe statistischer Modelle menschliches Entscheidungsverhalten prognostizieren. Svenson definiert diesen Zugang folgend: (...) a structural research approach relates choices and ratings to input variables (e.g., the maximum amount that can be gained, the variability across alternatives in gains and/or probabilities). Psychological intervening variables are derived from psychological theory and behavioral patterns in decision tasks. However, no attempts are made in strucutral approaches to assess the psychological process at different stages from problem presentation to final decision. Hier sind die normativen und präskriptiven Entscheidungstheorien sowie die SEU-Theorie und der Homo Oeconomicus einzureihen. Modelle, die im strukturorientierten Zugang verwendet werden, sind die algebraischen Modelle 'additive or nonadditive' (additive oder nicht-additive) und 'linear or nonlinear' (lineare und nicht-lineare Modell). Svenson führt an, dass im strukturorientierten Ansatz der Prozess einer Entscheidung noch weitgehend ignoriert wird. Seiner Meinung nach erfordert eine Entscheidung mehr Aufmerksamkeit als nur für den Moment, in dem die Wahl erfolgt, um eine Vorhersage einer bestimmte Präferenz zu ermöglichen. Im nächsten Kapitel werden AutorInnen angeführt, die nicht nur das Ergebnis, sondern den Entscheidungsprozess, wie es zu einer Entscheidung kommt, untersuchen. Der prozessorientierte Zugang: Für Svenson kann eine Entscheidung nicht mit der Beschreibung des finalen Ergebnisses abgeschlossen sein, weil eine Entscheidung von Emotionen, Wahrnehmungen und und weitere kognitiven Fähigkeiten beeinflusst wird. Um Einflüsse und das Zustandekommen einer Entscheidung besser zur verstehen, wird die Entscheidung als Prozess verstanden und in verschiedene Phasen eingeteilt. Nach Adam beinhaltet der Entscheidungsprozess eine (i) Anregungsphase, (ii) Suchphase, (iii) Entscheidungsfindungsphase und eine (iv) Durchsetzungsphase. Die Abgrenzungen der einzelnen Phasen erklärt Heinen wie folgt: (i) In der ersten Phase analysiert und bewertet der/die EntscheiderIn die Situation. (ii) Die Suchphase beinhaltet das Suchen von adäquaten Informationen und ihren Konsequenzen sowie das Suchen nach Optionen oder Handlungen. Es werden dazu Informationen aus der Umwelt aufgenommen oder auf Erfahrung zurückgegriffen. In weiterer Folge werden Bewertungen vorgenommen. (iii) In der nächsten Phase versucht der/die EntscheiderIn zwischen den Problemen und Variablen Zusammenhänge zu finden und eine optimale Entscheidung zu planen. Die Entscheidung wird vorbereitet. (iv) Die letzte Phase ist der Vollzug der Entscheidung. Ab hier kann die Entscheidung nicht mehr rückgängig gemacht werden. Nach der Entscheidung beginnt die Phase, in welcher der/die EntscheiderIn Erfahrungen für die nächste Entscheidung gesammelt und/oder gelernt hat, wie er/sie sich in der nächsten ähnlichen Situation verhalten wird. Nach Mag laufen die Phasen nicht unbedingt linear ab, sondern sie können öfters durchlaufen werden. Der Entscheidungsprozess kann von vorne beginnen, wenn die Person z.B. einen Sachverhalt falsch interpretiert hat oder neue Informationen zur Verfügung stehen. Payne und Svenson sehen einen Entscheidungsprozess differenzierter, da mit der Wahl einer Option der Prozess nicht abgeschlossen ist. Die Autoren kontrastieren den Entscheidungsprozess in einen Pre- und Post-Decision Process oder Phase (Vor- und Danach-Phase). In der Phase vor der Entscheidung sind für die Forschung Fragen wie 'werden Handlungsoptionen generiert, wie wird das Problem kognitiv strukturiert, welches Wissen wird herangezogen?' relevant. Die der Phase nach der Entscheidung analysieren WissenschaftlerInnen, wie gut der/die EntscheiderIn die Entscheidung erinnert, wie er/sie die Informationen aufgenommen hat, oder wie die Entscheidung im Nachhinein bewertet wird. Nach Svenson sind nicht nur die verfügbaren Informationen, die vor einer Wahl gesammelt werden, für die Entscheidungsforschung essentiell. Der Prozess nach einer Wahl ist ebenfalls von Bedeutung. Die Post-Phase bei einer Entscheidung gibt nach Svenson und Benthorn über die Qualität der bereits gemachten Entscheidung Aufschluss und zeigt, welche Erfahrungen der/die EntscheiderIn aus dieser Wahl für zukünftige Entscheidungen ableiten kann. Svenson schlägt die 'Differentiation and Consolidation Theory' vor,welche die Phasen nicht nur getrennt untersucht, sondern deren Ergebnisse in Zusammenhang bringt: Differentiation and Consolidation Theory explicitly links pre- and post-decision processes and considers pre-decision processes as a preparation for the post-decision future. Svenson und Benthorn zeigen, wie sich die Attraktivität eines Produktes für den/die EntscheiderIn während des Prozesses und nach einer Entscheidung ändern kann. Sie gaben TeilnehmerInnen eine Option mit jeweils vier Attributen vor, welche die TeilnehmerInnen während des Prozesses und anschließend (nach fünf Minuten oder nach einer Woche) anhand einer Ratingskala bewerten mussten. Fünf Minuten nach einer Entscheidung wurden keine signifikanten Veränderungen in der Bewertung wahrgenommen. Eine Woche später zeigten sich Unterschiede, indem gute und schlechte Attribute verstärkt bewertet wurden: die guten Attribute fielen in der Bewertung nach einer Woche noch besser aus als bei der Entscheidung und die schlechten noch schlechter. Dieses Ergebnis entspricht der Dissonanze-Theorie von Festinger und zeigt ein konträres Bild zur Self-Perception Theory von Bem. Nach dieser Theorie sind sich Menschen nicht über ihre Grundeinstellungen und Bewertungen bewusst, und der Mensch erinnert sich eher an zweideutige oder labile Merkmale. Die Studie beweist, wie bedeutend die Post-Phase in der Entscheidungsforschung ist, da sich die Wichtigkeit eines Attributes während und nach einer Entscheidung ändern kann. Anhand der Phasen hat sich der Fokus erweitert, indem eine Entscheidung betrachtet wird. Im Kontrast zum strukturorientierten Ansatz stehen hier der kognitive Prozess sowie die Informationssuche während des Entscheidungsprozesses im Mittelpunkt. Für AutorInnen dieses Zuganges ist der Mensch ein 'information processor with limited capabilities which, in turn, could explain the deviations form theoretical expectations' und basiert auf den Annahmen der begrenzten Rationalität von Simon. In den Jahren um 1980 beklagten die Autoren Slovic, Fischhoff und Lichtenstein noch den Mangel an Studien, in denen der Entscheidungsprozess untersucht wird. Mittlerweile gibt es viele Methoden, mit deren Hilfe die kognitiven Prozesse in einer Entscheidung analysiert werden können. Im nächsten Kapitel werden die prozessorientierten Methoden näher beleuchtet.

2006/2007 ; Il pensiero che ha fatto da guida ed ha sostenuto la scelta del campo di studio - il tema della povertà, delle azioni e degli strumenti di contrasto alla stessa – fa riferimento alla necessità che siano individuate modalità di intervento diverse rispetto a quelle tradizionalmente poste in essere fino ad oggi. La problematica della povertà si intreccia con l'immagine che il povero suscita nel contesto sociale. La rappresentazione che la società ha di un fenomeno e dei soggetti che lo interpretano è fortemente connessa alle scelte di politica sociale che vengono (o non vengono) messe in atto. Nel percorso di studio si è voluto approfondire tali aspetti e pertanto il lavoro di tesi si pone l'interrogativo se interventi di contrasto alla povertà come il reddito minimo di inserimento (RMI) possano realmente innescare processi virtuosi di empowerment e modificare la posizione del soggetto: da assistito a cittadino attivo compartecipe e co-responsabile di un percorso volto alla sua autonomia. Particolare riferimento è stato fatto al Reddito di base per la cittadinanza (RdB) misura realizzata nella Regione Friuli Venezia Giulia a seguito della L.R. 6/2006 e del D.P.Reg. 278/2007. Il motivo della scelta di tale strumento è connesso al fatto che si tratta di una misura a carattere monetario - e pertanto comparabile con le erogazioni assistenziali – integrativa al reddito ma non è una misura di tipo categoriale bensì universale pur essendo selettiva in quanto condizionata alla prova dei mezzi. La prospettiva teorica che ha fatto da guida al percorso di riflessione e che è trasversale ad esso fa riferimento all'orientamento di pensiero di Simmel, in particolare per quanto riguarda il significato del denaro non solo nella sua funzione materiale ma soprattutto simbolica. Tale prospettiva è stata integrata da altri paradigmi: l'interazionismo simbolico e l'approccio fenomenologico di Schütz per quanto riguarda l'immagine dei poveri e le aspettative di comportamento, quindi la relazione Ego-Alter; nonché quella drammaturgica (Goffman 1959/1969; 1961/2003) e del costruttivismo sociale (Berger e Luckmann 1966/1969). Si è ritenuto, inoltre, che l'analisi compiuta da Bourdieu sulla base di un importante e corposo lavoro di ricerca sul tema della miseria (Bourdieu, 1993) potesse fornire supporti utili a sostenere l'argomentazione. Il percorso di tesi si è articolato in due parti: una a carattere empirico e l'altra teorico. Per quanto riguarda la parte empirica ci si è interrogati sulle seguenti dimensioni: a) le rappresentazioni delle persone rispetto: alla loro condizione di povertà; al processo (eventi, esperienze, ecc.) che per loro costituisce la svolta nella povertà; alle risorse soggettive che attivano per contrastare la situazione di disagio; alla percezione di sé come soggetti beneficiari degli interventi economici; b) le rappresentazioni degli assistenti sociali del Servizio Sociale dei Comuni (SSC) sugli aspetti sopra evidenziati e sulle aspettative relative all'introduzione del RdB. Si è ritenuto importante approfondire tali aspetti raccogliendo i vissuti e le opinioni dei diretti interessati: persone che sono in assistenza economica ed assistenti sociali del SSC che eroga la prestazione monetaria. Ciò appare essere utile nella riflessione circa le potenzialità della misura RdB. La scelta metodologica compiuta per il lavoro di ricerca è quella non standard. Sono state effettate delle interviste a osservatori privilegiati finalizzate alla mappatura del contesto (Gianturco 2004; del Zotto 1998) e 15 interviste in profondità, sulla base di un campionatura a scelta ragionata e avvalendosi di una griglia di intervista che è stato utilizzata nella fase rielaborativa. Inoltre, per rilevare la rete relazionale delle persone oltre che attraverso la narrazione delle stesse si è utilizzato lo strumento della rete egoica (Maguire 1983/1989, 26-28). Tale strumento è stato adottato per ciascuna intervista. Oltre a ciò è stato svolto un focus group con un gruppo di assistenti sociali che vi hanno aderito su base volontaria. I temi guida trattati hanno interfacciato gli argomenti affrontati con le persone in sede di intervista. L'analisi dei risultati è stata operata su due dimensioni. La prima dimensione coglie elementi trasversali a tutte le interviste, elementi che fanno riferimento ai contenuti dello schema guida dell'intervista e che vengono qui raggruppati in grandi aree tematiche: il reddito inteso sia come esito di un'attività (presente o passata) che attribuisce alla persona un ruolo sociale sia per la funzione simbolica che esso rappresenta; la rete relazionale in quanto numerosi studi e ricerche rilevano che la povertà percepita è diversa in base allo spessore della rete relazionale e una rete relazionale più o meno densa può influenzare lo stato di povertà; la dimensione della domesticità cioè il rapporto con l'abitazione quale luogo di vita e di espressione di sé e il rapporto con il quartiere; il rapporto con il servizio sociale inteso nella sua dimensione istituzionale, rispetto a questo punto, l'interesse è stato focalizzato a cogliere come le persone percepiscono l'intervento assistenziale, se cioè l'erogazione economica connota la persona che la può percepire come uno stigma o, viceversa, come un aiuto per un cambiamento. Nella seconda dimensione si sono comparate le interviste utilizzando due categorie di pensiero: quella proposta dalla social cognition (Heider 1958/1972; Weiner 1974) in merito ai processi di attribuzione causale messi in atto dalle persone e quella che si riferisce all'orientamento teorico proposto da Merton (1949/2000) riguardo alle modalità di adattamento sociale. Ciò ha consentito di costruire degli ideal-tipo (Weber 1922/1958) denominati: tenaci, smarriti e rassegnati. Ognuno di questi ideal-tipo ha delle caratteristiche specifiche rispetto all'immagine di sé e del proprio futuro. Tale analisi è stata integrata anche con quanto emerso nel focus group. La parte teorica è stata sviluppata sul tema della povertà e dello strumento di contrasto del reddito minimo di inserimento e del reddito di base per la cittadinanza. Il tema della povertà è stato considerato sotto la prospettiva dell'essere e del sentirsi poveri in quanto segnano l'esperienza della persona in modo diverso. Dopo una breve analisi sull'entità del fenomeno in Europa ed in Italia, si è messo in rilievo la questione inerente il concetto di povertà la cui definizione risulta essere complessa perché la povertà assume oggi tanti volti e tante espressioni. Il tema della povertà si intreccia con quelli dell'esclusione sociale, delle disuguaglianze e delle dinamiche di impoverimento. Il permanere in uno stato di povertà non è solo connesso alla precarietà economica ma anche all'indebolirsi delle altre sfere di vita del soggetto: famiglia, rete relazionale, sistema di welfare (Ranci, C. 2002; Giaccardi, Magatti 2005) ed alla trasformazione dei codici culturali in codici che valorizzano il consumo (Bauman 1998/2004). Inoltre, anche le attese del contesto sociale nei confronti del povero (Simmel 1906/2001) influiscono su tale stato. L'attribuzione della responsabilità di essere povero è presente nella storia dell'assistenza ed ha connotato le risposte del sistema sociale nei confronti di queste persone. Essa è spesso accompagnata implicitamente dalla scarsa o assente fiducia nei confronti di queste persone ritenute incapaci di gestire la propria vita e di permanere in un contesto sociale connotato da competitività ed individualismo (Donati, 2000). Al problema di come fronteggiare la povertà si associa anche quello di come evitare la dipendenza dal sistema assistenziale. Il sistema assistenziale stesso sembra, per le logiche che lo sottendono, implementare questo rapporto di dipendenza, rapporto che deresponsabilizza entrambe le parti. Passare da un'ottica riparativa ad una emancipativa comporta vedere la persona come soggetto con abilità, competenze d'agire e capacità di autodeterminazione. Per assumere questo approccio è necessario rifondare il rapporto con la persona in termini di fiducia; ciò da un lato offre la possibilità di rafforzare ed implementare le relazioni ma dall'altro lato impegna la persona nel presentarsi come degno di fiducia (Luhmann 1968/2002). In questo senso i diritti ed i doveri del cittadino nei confronti della comunità vanno ri-considerati anche in relazione al fatto che la base della vita della società è costituita dalle interazioni e dal loro carattere di reciprocità (Simmel 1906/2001). È necessario allora pensare a degli strumenti che possano favorire processi di autonomia. Dopo una breve storia della misura del reddito di cittadinanza, si è messo in evidenza come la stessa abbia assunto denominazioni diverse, denominazioni che presentano aspetti di trasversalità e di specificità. In particolare l'attributo che viene affiancato al termine reddito (di base, di inserimento, di cittadinanza, ecc.) connota la misura ed esprime le finalità della stessa. Si è proposta una lettura della misura secondo un'ottica individualista ed una relazionale, utilizzando come strumento di analisi il modello proposto da Parsons e rielaborato da Donati (1991, 1999, 2006). Si è, inoltre, descritta una sintetica panoramica dell'esperienza europea e si è, quindi, analizzata, nei suoi punti salienti, la sperimentazione avvenuta in Italia alla fine degli anni '90, nonché l'attuale esperienza realizzata nelle regioni Campania, Basilicata e Friuli Venezia Giulia. Particolare riferimento è stato fatto a quest'ultima esperienza ed anche di tale esperienza si è proposta una lettura secondo il paradigma relazionale. La riflessione si interroga criticamente circa l'effettiva rispondenza degli obiettivi che la misura persegue: innescare processi di empowerment e promuovere la cittadinanza attiva. In relazione a questi aspetti si sono messi in evidenza alcune criticità, contraddizioni e potenzialità dell'intervento.

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), and other tauopathies, microtubule destabilization compromises axonal and synaptic integrity contributing to neurodegeneration. These diseases are characterized by the intracellular accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau leading to neurofibrillary pathology. AD brains also accumulate amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposits. However, the effect of microtubule stabilizing agents on Aβ pathology has not been assessed so far. Here we have evaluated the impact of the brain-penetrant microtubule-stabilizing agent Epothilone D (EpoD) in an amyloidogenic model of AD. Three-month-old APP/PS1 mice, before the pathology onset, were weekly injected with EpoD for 3 months. Treated mice showed significant decrease in the phospho-tau levels and, more interesting, in the intracellular and extracellular hippocampal Aβ accumulation, including the soluble oligomeric forms. Moreover, a significant cognitive improvement and amelioration of the synaptic and neuritic pathology was found. Remarkably, EpoD exerted a neuroprotective effect on SOM-interneurons, a highly AD-vulnerable GABAergic subpopulation. Therefore, our results suggested that EpoD improved microtubule dynamics and axonal transport in an AD-like context, reducing tau and Aβ levels and promoting neuronal and cognitive protection. These results underline the existence of a crosstalk between cytoskeleton pathology and the two major AD protein lesions. Therefore, microtubule stabilizers could be considered therapeutic agents to slow the progression of both tau and Aβ pathology. ; This study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, co-financed by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI15/00796 and PI18/01557 (both to AG), PI15/00957 and PI18/01556 (both to JV), and CIBERNED (CB06/05/1116 to AG and CB06/05/0094 to JV); by Malaga University grant PPIT.UMA.B1.2017/26 (to RSV). JJFV and CMC were supported by FPU PhD fellowships (Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities). RSV held a postdoctoral contract from Malaga University. IMG is recipient of a senior postdoctoral contract from Ramon y Cajal Program (Spain Government). ; Yes

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of neurodegeneration and dementia. The endocannabinoid (ECB) system has been proposed as a novel therapeutic target to treat AD. The present study explores the expression of the ECB system, the ECB-related receptor GPR55, and cognitive functions (novel object recognition; NOR) in the 5xFAD (FAD: family Alzheimer's disease) transgenic mouse model of AD. Experiments were performed on heterozygous (HTZ) and homozygous (HZ) 11 month old mice. Protein expression of ECB system components, neuroinflammation markers, and β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques were analyzed in the hippocampus. According to the NOR test, anxiety-like behavior and memory were altered in both HTZ and HZ 5xFAD mice. Furthermore, both animal groups displayed a reduction of cannabinoid (CB1) receptor expression in the hippocampus, which is related to memory dysfunction. This finding was associated with indirect markers of enhanced ECB production, resulting from the combination of impaired monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) degradation and increased diacylglycerol lipase (DAGL) levels, an effect observed in the HZ group. Regarding neuroinflammation, we observed increased levels of CB2 receptors in the HZ group that positively correlate with Aβ's accumulation. Moreover, HZ 5xFAD mice also exhibited increased expression of the GPR55 receptor. These results highlight the importance of the ECB signaling for the AD pathogenesis development beyond Aβ deposition. ; This work was supported by grants from the following institutions: European Regional Development Funds-European Union (ERDF-EU) Fondos FEDER "una manera de hacer Europa," and Fatzheimer project EULAC-HEALTH H2020 (EULACH16/T010131). Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Gobierno de España (Grant RTC-2016-4983-1), EU-ERDF-Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Grant PI19/01577 and PI19/00343), and Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento y Universidad, Junta de Andalucía (Grant P18-TP-5194). J.S. (CPII17/00024) holds a ''Miguel Servet II" research contract from the ...

This dissertation aims at investigating thematic and discursive construction of homosexuality through texts published in Kaos GL Magazine, the first and longest-standing alternative gay and lesbian publication in Turkey. More specifically, the research is an attempt to unearth two discursive-linguistic aspects of texts: (1) thematic distribution and thematic relation patterns of the texts; (2) discursive strategies and linguistic means and forms of realisation on which the construction of homosexual movement is based. To this end, 6 texts in the first five-year of the magazine (between the years 1994 and 1999) were purposively selected at the end of a preliminary inventory research, and included into grounded thematic analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). In the former analytical procedure, based on Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Corbin and Strauss, 2008), a systematic coding process was carried out, eventually finding out two most frequent thematic categories which describe the social order and the way homosexuals positioned themselves in the specific period of time. Textual segments pertaining to the categories obtained through the coding process were finally included into CDA. This analysis was based on the framework of the Discourse-Historical Approach, a well-established tradition in CDA studies. In accordance with this model and an added 'insider' perspective (Wodak, 2011), textual segments were diachronically analysed to find out the ways the social actors are represented (van Leeuwen, 1996 & Wodak et al., 2000). The findings of grounded thematic analysis show that, within five years, homosexuals' description of the social order was mostly and consistently based on the themes heterosexism and homophobia while a strong emphasis on constructing a collective and unifying action was observed in the second half of the period as a way of self-description. In a parallel sense CDA findings demonstrate that, in the context of the socio-historical background of the period, homosexuals construct a counter negative-othering discourse to describe the society in the early texts of the period while a positive-self presentation comes to the forefront towards the end of the period based on the goal of forming group solidarity. The study is significant for revealing that it is not always the marginalised groups that are negatively presented in dominant discourses but also marginalised in-groups can identify themselves with out-groups by making use of similar negative-other presentation strategies. In this sense this study has implications for researchers, particularly in the field of Queer Linguistics, who aim at investigating in-group discourses. Also, the findings of the study can serve as a basis for further research on the construction of homosexuality not only through texts but also other discursive practices. Keywords Critical Discourse Analysis, Queer Linguistics, social constructivism, homosexual movement, group identity, Kaos GL Magazine ; TABLE OF CONTENT ACCEPTANCE AND APPROVAL…………………………………………………………….i YAYIMLAMA VE FİKRİ MÜLKİYET HAKLARI BEYANI…………………………………ii ETİK BEYAN………………………………………………………………………………….iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………………………….iv ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………….vi ÖZET………………………………………………………………………………………….viii TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………….x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………….xiv LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………….xv LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………….….xvii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 1. 1. CLEARING THE GROUNDS 1 1. 1. 1. Language and Discourse as a Reflection of Social Reality and Cognition 1 1. 1. 2. Homosexuality, Social Struggle and Some Reflections 5 1. 2. INTRODUCING THE STUDY 9 1. 2. 1. Purpose of the Study 9 1. 2. 2. Research Questions 11 1. 2. 3. Study Design 12 1. 2. 4. Significance of the Study 12 1. 2. 5. Boundaries and Limitations 16 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 18 2. 1. INTRODUCTION: EPISTEMOLOGY OF HOMOSEXUALITY 18 2. 2. HISTORY OF LGBTI LIBERATION MOVEMENTS IN THE WORLD AND TURKEY 21 2. 2. 1. The Concept of Homosexual Movement in the World 21 2. 2. 2. A Socio-Historical Overview of Homosexual Movement in Turkey 23 2. 2. 2. 1. The Situation of Homosexuality after 80 Coup d'état 23 2. 2. 2. 2. Legal status of homosexuals in Turkey 26 2. 2. 2. 3. Heterosexism, Heteronormativity and Homophobia 26 2. 2. 2. 4. Kaos GL Magazine 27 2.3. QUEER LINGUISTICS 33 2.3.1. Early studies: Investigations of Gay and Lesbian Language 33 2.3.2. Queer Linguistic Turn and Basics 38 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 40 3. 1. DATA OF THE STUDY 40 3. 2. STAGES OF DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS 42 3. 2. 1. Sampling the Data: An Inventory Research 43 3. 2. 1. 1. Selection of Text Type: Argumentative Texts 43 3. 2. 1. 2. The Inventory Analysis of Argumentative Texts in Kaos GL Magazine 45 3. 2. 1. 3. Selection of the Category for Research and Sampling the Texts 53 3. 2. 2. Methods of Data Analysis 55 3. 2. 2. 1. Grounded Thematic Analysis as a Content Analytic Approach 55 3. 2. 2. 1. 1. Coding in GTA 57 3. 2. 2. 1. 2. Reliability and Credibility Issues in Categorization 63 3. 2. 2. 1. 3. A Qualitative Data Analysis Tool: MAXQDA Analytics Pro 64 3. 2. 2. 2. CDA: DHA 69 CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS 73 4. 1. PRELIMINARY REMARKS 73 4. 2. GROUNDED THEMATIC AND CRITICAL DISCURSIVE ANALYTIC PROCEDURES 75 4. 2. 1. Grounded Thematic Analysis: Contents 75 4. 2. 1. 1. Text 1 75 4. 2. 1. 1. 1. Categories of Text 1 77 4. 2. 1. 1. 1. 1. Categories of 'Social Order' 79 4. 2. 1. 1. 1. 2. Categories of 'Describing the Self' 81 4. 2. 1. 1. 2. Code Co-occurrences of Text 1 83 4. 2. 1. 2. Text 2 87 4. 2. 1. 2. 1. Categories of Text 2 87 4. 2. 1. 2. 1. 1. Categories of 'Social Order' 90 4. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. Categories of 'Describing the Self' 95 4. 2. 1. 2. 2. Code Co-occurrences of Text 2 96 4. 2. 1. 3. Text 3 105 4. 2. 1. 3. 1. Categories of Text 3 106 4. 2. 1. 3. 1. 1. Categories of 'Social Order' 108 4. 2. 1. 3. 1. 2. Categories of 'Describing the Self' 112 4. 2. 1. 3. 2. Code Co-occurrences of Text 3 113 4. 2. 1. 4. Text 4 119 4. 2. 1. 4. 1. Categories of Text 4 119 4. 2. 1. 4. 1. 1. Categories of 'Social Order' 121 4. 2. 1. 4. 1. 2. Categories of 'Describing the Self' 125 4. 2. 1. 4. 2. Code Co-occurrences of Text 4 131 4. 2. 1. 5. Text 5 139 4. 2. 1. 5. 1. Categories of Text 5 139 4. 2. 1. 5. 1. 1. Categories of 'Social Order' 141 4. 2. 1. 5. 1. 2. Categories of 'Describing the Self' 144 4. 2. 1. 5. 2. Code Co-occurrences of Text 5 150 4. 2. 1. 6. Text 6 154 4. 2. 1. 6. 1. Categories of Text 6 155 4. 2. 1. 6. 1. 1. Categories of 'Social Order' 156 4. 2. 1. 6. 1. 2. Categories of 'Describing the Self' 158 4. 2. 1. 6. 2. Code Co-occurrences of Text 6 162 4. 2. 1. 7. Summary of GTA Findings 169 4. 2. 1. 7. 1. Codes and Code Co-occurrences 169 4. 2. 1. 7. 2. Categories as Discourse Topics 173 4. 2. 2. Tropological Construction Analysis: Strategies and Linguistic Means and Forms of Realisation 176 4. 2. 2. 1. Genericisation 177 4. 2. 2. 2. Assimilation 185 4. 2. 2. 3. Individualisation 192 4. 2. 2. 4. Indetermination 195 4. 2. 2. 5. Association 198 4. 2. 2. 6. Politicisation 203 4. 2. 2. 7. Appraisement 205 4. 2. 2. 8. Sociativisation 211 4. 2. 2. 9. Somatisation 216 4. 2. 2. 10. Personification 218 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 221 5. 1. ANSWER TO RQ 1: 221 5. 2. ANSWER TO RQ 2: 226 5. 3. ANSWER TO RQ 3: 233 5. 4. IMPLICATIONS 238 BIBLIOGRAPHY 241 APPENDIX 1. ARGUMETATIVE TEXT INVENTORY OF KAOS GL MAGAZINE ON HOMOSEXUAL MOVEMENT 256 APPENDIX 2. TEXTS OF ANALYSIS 276 Text 1 276 Text 2 278 Text 3 280 Text 4 282 Text 5 284 Text 6 287 APPENDIX 3. ETHICS COMMISSION FORM 289 APPENDIX 4. THESIS ORIGINALITY REPORT 290 ; Bu doktora tezi, Türkiye'nin ilk ve en uzun soluklu eşcinsel ve lezbiyen yayını olan Kaos GL Dergi'de yayınlanan metinler aracılığıyla eşcinselliğin tematik ve söylemsel olarak nasıl inşa edildiğini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma daha özelde metinlerin iki söylemsel-dilbilimsel yönünü ortaya çıkarmaya yöneliktir: (1) metinlerin tematik dağılımı ve tematik ilişki örüntüleri; (2) eşcinsel hareketin inşasının dayandığı söylem stratejileri ve dilsel gerçekleşme araç ve biçimleri. Bu amaçla, derginin ilk beş yılında (1994-1999) 6 metin envanter ön araştırmasının sonucuna göre amaçlı örnekleme ile seçildi ve gömülü tematik çözümleme ve Eleştirel Söylem Çözümlemesi'ne (ESÇ) dahil edilmiştir. Gömülü Teori (Glaser ve Strauss, 1967; Corbin ve Strauss, 2008) yaklaşımının çözümleme aşamalarının benimsendiği ilk aşamada sistematik bir kodlama işlemi gerçekleştirilmiş ve belirlenen zaman dilimi içinde toplumsal düzeni ve eşcinsellerin bu düzen karşısında kendilerini konumlandırma biçimlerini ortaya çıkaran en sıkla görülen iki tematik kategori belirlenmiştir. Çalışmanın ikinci çözümleme aşamasında, kodlama sürecinden elde edilen kategorilere ait metin parçaları ESÇ geleneği içinde önemli bir yeri olan Söylem-Tarihsel Yaklaşımı ile incelenmiştir. Bu model ve bir "içeriden" bakış açısı (Wodak, 2011) benimsenerek, ilgili tematik kategorilerde toplumsal aktörlerin temsil edilme biçimleri (van Leeuwen, 1996 ve Wodak ve diğerleri, 2000) artsüremli bir çözümlemeyle orataya çıkarılmaya çalışılmıştır. Gömülü tematik çözümlemenin bulguları, beş yıl içinde eşcinsellerin sosyal düzeni çoğunlukla ve tutarlı bir şekilde heteroseksizm ve homofobi temaları çerçevesinde betimlediklerini; bunun yanında, beş yılın ikinci yarısı itibariyle, eşcinsellerin kendilerini tanımlamanın bir yolu olarak kolektif ve birleştirici bir eylemin inşasına güçlü bir vurgu yaptıklarını göstermiştir. Buna parallel olarak, ESÇ bulguları, toplumsal-tarihsel koşullar bağlamında, eşcinsellerin dönemin ilk metinlerinde toplumu tanımlamlarken 'karşı olumsuz-öteki' söylemi inşa ettiklerini; diğer yandan, dönemin sonuna doğru, bireylerin grup dayanışması oluşturma amacı doğrultusunda, olumlu-kendi sunumunun ön plana çıktığını ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışma, ötekileştirilen grupların baskın söylemlerde olumsuz olarak sunulduğu genellemesinin yanında, ötekileştirilen grupların da benzer şekilde olumsuz-öteki sunum yöntemlerini kullanarak kendilerini grup-dışındakiler üzerinden tanımlayabildiklerini ortaya çıkarması açısından önemlidir. Bu bakımdan bu çalışma, özellikle Queer Dilbilimi alanında ötekileştirilen grup-içi söylemleri araştırmayı amaçlayan araştırmacılar için önemli öneriler sumaktadır. Ayrıca, çalışmanın bulguları eşcinselliğin sadece metinlerle değil, diğer söylemsel pratikler aracılığıyla inşası üzerine yapılan araştırmalar için de temel oluşturabilir. Anahtar Sözcükler Eleştirel Söylem Çözümlemesi, Queer Dilbilim, toplumsal inşacılık, eşcinsel hareketi, grup kimliği, Kaos GL Dergisi

David J. Caswell (" Analysis of National Strategies to Counter a Country's Nuclear Weapons Program ") is an officer in the U.S. Air Force and a research affiliate with the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University. David has served in various positions ranging from operational simulation development to operations analysis for national intelligence. He currently serves as an operations analyst in support of regional air and space employment in the Pacific. David received his Ph.D. in management science and engineering at Stanford University. His current research continues to apply computer science and operations research methods for gaining insights for nuclear policy and other international security issues. Address: http://www.stanford.edu/group/ERRG/davidc1.htm ; e-mail: david.caswell33@gmail.com . Kjell Hausken (" Governments' and Terrorists' Defense and Attack in a T-Period Game ") has since 1999 been a professor of economics and societal safety at the University of Stavanger, Norway. His research fields are strategic interaction, risk analysis, reliability, conflict, and terrorism. He holds a Ph.D. (thesis: "Dynamic Multilevel Game Theory") from the University of Chicago (1990–1994), and was a postdoc at the Max Planck Institute for the Studies of Societies (Cologne) from 1995 to 1998 and a visiting scholar at Yale School of Management from 1989 to 1990. He holds a doctorate program degree in administration from the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, and an M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the Norwegian Institute of Technology. He completed military service at the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, has published 110 articles, and is on the editorial board for Theory and Decision and Defence and Peace Economics. Address: Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stavanger, N-4036 Stavanger, Norway; e-mail: kjell.hausken@uis.no . Ronald A. Howard (" Analysis of National Strategies to Counter a Country's Nuclear Weapons Program ") is a professor of management science and engineering in the School of Engineering at Stanford University. Professor Howard directs teaching and research in the Decision Analysis Program of the department, and is the director of the Decisions and Ethics Center, which examines the efficacy and ethics of social arrangements. He defined the profession of decision analysis in 1964 and has supervised more than 80 doctoral theses in decision analysis and related areas. His experience includes dozens of decision analysis projects that range over virtually all fields of application, from investment planning to research strategy, and from hurricane seeding to nuclear waste isolation. He has been a consultant to several companies and was a founding director and chairman of Strategic Decisions Group. He is president of the Decision Education Foundation, which he and colleagues founded to teach decision skills to young people. He has written four books, dozens of technical papers, and provided editorial service to seven technical journals. His society affiliations have included the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (Fellow); The Institute of Management Sciences, which he served as president, and the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS) (Fellow). Continuing research interests are improving the quality of decisions, life-and-death decision making, and the creation of a coercion-free society. In 1986 he received the Frank P. Ramsey Medal "for Distinguished Contributions in Decision Analysis" from the Decision Analysis Special Interest Group of the Operations Research Society of America (the predecessor to the Decision Analysis Society of INFORMS). In 1998 he received from INFORMS the first award for the Teaching of Operations Research/Management Science Practice. In 1999 he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering. Address: Management Science and Engineering, Huang Engineering Center, 475 Via Ortega, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4121; e-mail: rhoward@stanford.edu . Joseph B. ("Jay") Kadane (" Partial-Kelly Strategies and Expected Utility: Small Edge Asymptotics ") is Leonard J. Savage University Professor of Statistics and Social Sciences, Emeritus, at Carnegie Mellon University. He received a B.S. in mathematics from Harvard and a Ph.D. in statistics from Stanford. He was recently elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His theoretical interests center on subjective Bayesian theory. His current applied interests include Internet security, medicine, law, physics, marketing, and air pollution. He serves as an expert witness in legal cases. His most recent book is Principles of Uncertainty, which is scheduled to be released in May 2011 by Chapman and Hall and will be available free on the Web for any noncommercial purpose. Address: Department of Statistics, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213; e-mail: kadane@stat.cmu.edu . Konstantinos V. Katsikopoulos (" Psychological Heuristics for Making Inferences: Definition, Performance, and the Emerging Theory and Practice ") holds a Ph.D. in industrial engineering and operations research from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and is currently a senior research scientist at the Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development. He has been a visiting assistant professor of operations research at the Naval Postgraduate School and of systems engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He has made contributions to the theory of bounded rationality and its applications to decisions "in the wild" in fields such as engineering design and medicine. Address: Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany; e-mail: katsikop@mpib-berlin.mpg.de . L. Robin Keller (" Investment and Defense Strategies, Heuristics, and Games: From the Editor … ") is a professor of operations and decision technologies in the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine. She received her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in management science and her B.A. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles. She has served as a program director for the Decision, Risk, and Management Science Program of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). Her research is on decision analysis and risk analysis for business and policy decisions and has been funded by NSF and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Her research interests cover multiple attribute decision making, riskiness, fairness, probability judgments, ambiguity of probabilities or outcomes, risk analysis (for terrorism, environmental, health, and safety risks), time preferences, problem structuring, cross-cultural decisions, and medical decision making. She is currently Editor-in-Chief of Decision Analysis, published by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). She is a Fellow of INFORMS and has held numerous roles in INFORMS, including board member and chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. She is a recipient of the George F. Kimball Medal from INFORMS. She has served as the decision analyst on three National Academy of Sciences committees. Address: The Paul Merage School of Business, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-3125; e-mail: lrkeller@uci.edu . Jeryl L. Mumpower (" Playing Squash Against Ralph Keeney: Should Weaker Players Always Prefer Shorter Games? ") is Director of the Master of Public Service and Administration Program at the Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University, where he holds the Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Chair in Business and Public Policy. Previously he was at the Nelson A. Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy, State University of New York at Albany, where he was a professor of public administration, public policy, public health, and information science and served in a variety of University-level administrative positions. His previous experience includes six years as a program director and policy analyst at the National Science Foundation. Mumpower received his B.A. from the College of William and Mary and his Ph.D. in social and quantitative psychology from the University of Colorado, Boulder. He is author or editor of nine books and more than 50 book chapters and articles. His research has addressed basic and applied topics in negotiation and bargaining, environmental policy, individual and group decision-making processes, the use of scientific expertise in public policy making, and risk analysis and management. Address: Bush School of Government and Public Service, Texas A&M University, 1092 Allen Building, 4220 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-4220; e-mail: jmumpower@bushschool.tamu.edu . M. Elisabeth Paté-Cornell (" Analysis of National Strategies to Counter a Country's Nuclear Weapons Program ") is the Burt and Deedee McMurtry Professor and Chair, Department of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford University. Her specialty is engineering risk analysis with application to complex systems (including space systems and medical systems). Her research has focused on explicit consideration of human and organizational factors in the analysis of failure risks and, recently, on the use of game theory in risk analysis. Applications in the last few years have included counterterrorism and nuclear counterproliferation problems. She is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and of several boards (Aerospace, Draper, InQtel, etc.). She was a member of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board until December 2008. She holds an engineer degree (Applied Math/CS) from the Institut Polytechnique de Grenoble (France), and an M.S. in Operations Research and a Ph.D. in Engineering-Economic Systems, both from Stanford University. Address: Management Science and Engineering, Huang Engineering Center, 475 Via Ortega, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4121; e-mail: mep@stanford.edu . Jun Zhuang (" Governments' and Terrorists' Defense and Attack in a T-Period Game ") is an assistant professor of industrial and systems engineering at the University at Buffalo, the State University of New York. He has been a faculty member at SUNY Buffalo since he obtained his Ph.D. in summer 2008 from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Dr. Zhuang's long-term research goal is to integrate operations research and game theory to better prepare for, mitigate, and manage both natural and man-made hazards. Other areas of interests include health care, transportation, logistics and supply chain management, and sustainability. Dr. Zhuang's research has been supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation, and by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security through the Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events. Address: Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, 403 Bell Hall, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260; e-mail: jzhuang@buffalo.edu .

Inositols are sugar-like compounds that are widely distributed in nature and are a part of membrane molecules, participating as second messengers in several cell-signaling processes. Isolation and characterization of inositol phosphoglycans containing myo- or d-chiro-inositol have been milestones for understanding the physiological regulation of insulin signaling. Other functions of inositols have been derived from the existence of multiple stereoisomers, which may confer antioxidant properties. In the brain, fluctuation of inositols in extracellular and intracellular compartments regulates neuronal and glial activity. Myo-inositol imbalance is observed in psychiatric diseases and its use shows efficacy for treatment of depression, anxiety, and compulsive disorders. Epi- and scyllo-inositol isomers are capable of stabilizing non-toxic forms of β-amyloid proteins, which are characteristic of Alzheimer's disease and cognitive dementia in Down's syndrome, both associated with brain insulin resistance. However, uncertainties of the intrinsic mechanisms of inositols regarding their biology are still unsolved. This work presents a critical review of inositol actions on insulin signaling, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction, and its potential for either preventing or delaying cognitive impairment in aging and neurodegenerative diseases. The biomedical uses of inositols may represent a paradigm in the industrial approach perspective, which has generated growing interest for two decades, accompanied by clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease. ; This research was funded by the Agencia Estatal de Investigación, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad or Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, and European Regional Development Funds-European Union (ERDF-EU), grant numbers RTC-2016-4983-1 and RTC-2019-007329-1; Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) and ERDF-EU, grant numbers DTS16/00115, PI19/00343, and COV20/00157; Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad and ERDF-EU, grant number P18-TP-5194, and Consejería de Salud y Familia de la Junta de Andalucía (NeuroRECA), grant number RIC-0111-2019. J.S. holds a "Miguel Servet II" research contract from the National System of Health, ISCIII, ERDF-EU, FIMABIS, grant number CPII17/00024. A.J.L.-G. holds an "i-PFIS" predoctoral research contract from the ISCIII, ERDF-EU, grant number IFI18/00042. ; Yes