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This research is conducting a study of the subject of proceedings: victim and their evolution over legislation and doctrine Peruvian and treatment internationally, specifically focuses on studying their rights at the level of doctrine and legislation, to establish whether the rights possessed by the victim, who in addition to being touched in their legal right by the commission of the offense, is also affected by the consequences of the criminal proceedings (secondary victimization); however the State despite recognize rights expressly enshrined in Article 95 of the Criminal Procedure Code does not give sufficient mechanisms to exercise their rights, unlike the defendant, in favor of which have been issued garantistas rules of their rights and has been established, among other procedural mechanisms, the figure of protection of rights that can be used when in the criminal proceedings do not have their rights respected, so the effective enforcement of the principle of equality in the Peruvian legal system is not guaranteed, although it is recognized constitutional and legal level, to suggest that both victim and accused are equal in criminal proceedings. This research aims to determine the current situation in which the victim in criminal proceedings both substantive, procedural and case-level in accordance with the principle of equality and study is whether the guarantees provided by the procedural system they are sufficient to ensure that principle is of vital importance in national law, to what has been discussed doctrine, legislation and performed the analysis of fiscal folders that have corroborated our hypothesis that in fact the principle is not guaranteed equality of arms because not enough regulation of express powers in the Criminal Procedure Code but need to be granted the necessary mechanisms for the exercise of their rights such as the active entitled to seek protection of rights and respect for their physical and psychological integrity in the criminal proceedings would be achieved by the implementation of protection measures for the victim and the appointment of public defenders greater number of victims, especially minors; having concluded that the failure to confront the victim the criminal proceedings after suffering the injury to his legal right, it generates a new victimization, nevertheless, it is not given the necessary resources to address this situation, especially in the cases where the victims are minors, victims of rape, sexual exploitation, trafficking and domestic violence. The study material of this study consisted of the sample of 50 tax folders processed in the Second Provincial Prosecutor Corporate Criminal Huaraz in the period January 2015 to December 2015, using the methods: Historical, by which it was made a study of the evolution of the regulation of the powers granted to the victim in the Peruvian justice system, hermeneutical method for national and international regulation was analyzed with regard to the protection of the rights of victims in criminal proceedings, method descriptive as the current situation of the victim described, regarding their rights during the pendency of the criminal proceedings and finally the inductive method as party analysis of individual cases (50 fiscal folders) where we discuss is whether the rights of the victim in criminal proceedings are being exercised and respected by the criminal justice system. Also in this study it was concluded that much remains to be done in our national system, compared with European legislation have been analyzed in this thesis, and we can redeem positive contributions as the establishment of the right to non-victimization and the establishment of funds for victims and others. ; El presente trabajo de investigación realiza un estudio del sujeto procesal: víctima y su evolución a lo largo de la legislación y doctrina peruana así como su tratamiento a nivel internacional, específicamente se centra en estudiar sus derechos a nivel de doctrina y legislación, a fin de establecer si efectivamente los derechos que posee el agraviado, quien además de haber sido afectado en su bien jurídico por la realización del delito, también es afectado por las consecuencias del trámite del proceso penal(victimización secundaria); sin embargo el Estado pese a reconocerle derechos consagrados expresamente en el artículo 95 del Código Procesal Penal, no le otorga los mecanismos suficientes para el ejercicio de sus derechos, a diferencia del imputado, a favor de quien se han dictado normas garantistas de sus derechos y se ha establecido, entre otros mecanismos procesales, la figura de tutela de derechos que puede ser utilizada cuando dentro del proceso penal no se respeten sus derechos, de esta manera no se garantiza la vigencia efectiva del Principio de igualdad procesal en el ordenamiento jurídico peruano, pese a que se encuentra reconocido a nivel constitucional y legal, que permita afirmar que tanto victima e imputado se encuentren en igualdad de condiciones dentro del proceso penal. La presente investigación tiene como objetivos determinar la situación actual en la que se encuentra la víctima en el proceso penal tanto a nivel sustantivo, procesal y casuístico, de conformidad con el Principio de Igualdad Procesal así como estudiar si las garantías que le otorga el sistema procesal son suficientes para garantizar el referido Principio que es de vital importancia en el ordenamiento nacional, para lo que se ha analizado doctrina, legislación y se ha realizado el análisis de carpetas fiscales que han permitido corroborar nuestra hipótesis de que efectivamente no se garantiza el principio de igualdad procesal ya que no resulta suficiente la regulación de atribuciones expresas en el Código Procesal Penal sino hace falta que se le conceda los mecanismos necesarios para el ejercicio de sus derechos tales como la legitimidad activa para solicitar la tutela de derechos así como el respeto a su integridad física y psicológica en el proceso penal que se lograría con la implementación de las medidas de protección a favor de la víctima así como la designación de mayor número de defensores públicos a las víctimas, en especial a los menores de edad; habiéndose concluido de que el hecho de enfrentarse la víctima al proceso penal luego de haber sufrido la lesión a su bien jurídico, le genera una nueva victimización, no obstante ello, no se le brinda los recursos necesarios para enfrentar dicha situación, en especial en los casos en que las víctimas son menores de edad, víctimas de violación sexual, explotación sexual, trata de personas y violencia familiar. Que el material de estudio de la presente investigación ha consistido en la muestra de 50 carpetas fiscales tramitadas en la Segunda Fiscalía Provincial Penal Corporativa de Huaraz en el periodo de enero 2015 a diciembre del 2015, utilizándose los métodos: Histórico, mediante el que se realizó un estudio de la evolución de la regulación de las atribuciones otorgadas a la víctima en el sistema procesal peruano, método Hermenéutico pues se analizó la regulación nacional e internacional en lo que respecta a la protección de los derechos de la víctimas en el proceso penal, método descriptivo pues se describió la situación actual del agraviado, respecto a sus derechos, durante la tramitación del proceso penal y finalmente el método inductivo pues se ha partido del análisis de casos singulares(50 carpetas fiscales) en las que analizaremos si los derechos del agraviado en proceso penal están siendo ejercidos y son respetados por el sistema de justicia penal. Asimismo en el presente trabajo se ha concluido que aún falta mucho por hacer en nuestro ordenamiento nacional, a comparación de legislaciones europeas que han sido analizadas en la presente tesis, y de la que podemos rescatar aportes positivos como el establecimiento del derecho a la no victimización y el establecimiento de fondos a favor de las víctimas entre otras.

International law in general — Sources — Diplomatic law — Evolution of — Contrasted with other aspects of international law Relevance of universal sourcesStates as international persons — Succession of governments — Upon termination of a rebellion — Regime overthrown by revolution — Revolutionary government bound by treaties entered into by predecessor — Whether special allowance should be made for revolutionary circumstancesState responsibility — Nature and kind of State responsibility — For breaches of treaty obligations — Effect of breaches of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, and Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 by receiving State — International responsibility — Whether responsibility in any way mitigated by alleged activities of diplomatic mission and policies of sending States — Duty to end continuing breach — Duty make reparationState responsibility — Nature and kinds of State responsibility — For Wrong unconnected with contractual obligations — Acts and omissions of State officials — Executive action inaction — Seizure of embassy and diplomatic staff by rioters — Security forces taking no to steps to prevent seizure — Whether State responsible for failure to protect embassy — Subsequent approval of rioters' actions — Whether state responsible for continued detention of staff as hostagesState responsibility — Nature and kinds of State responsibility — For wrongs unconnected with contractual obligations — Acts of insurgents, rioters and private individuals in general — Seizure of embassy and diplomatic staff by rioters — Whether imputable to State — Seizure following inflammatory statements by members of Government — Subsequent Government approval of seizure and continued detention of hostages by rioters — Rioters as "agents" of the StateState responsibility — Damage — Award of damage in general — Violation of treaty obligations leading to injury — Duty to make reparationThe individual in international law — Extradition — In general — Demands by revolutionary government for extradition of deposed ruler — Taking of diplomatic hostages in support of demandDiplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Position and functions of diplomatic envoys — Duty of receiving State to protect envoys and their staff in the discharge of their functions — Function of gathering information by lawful means — Difference between this function and espionage — Duty of non — interference in the affairs of the receiving State — Sanctions for violation of this duty — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, Articles 9, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 39 and 41Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Privileges and immunities — Subordinate members of the diplomatic staff — Entitlement to protection in discharge of functions — Inviolability and immunity from jurisdiction — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961, Articles 22, 29, 30 and 31Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Privileges and immunities — Diplomatic premises — Inviolability of diplomatic premises, property, archives and documents — Seizure of hostages on diplomatic premises — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961, Articles 22 and 24Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Consuls — Position and functions of consuls — Consular function of assisting nationals — Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Consuls — Privileges and immunities of consuls — Inviolability of consuls and consular premises, archives and documents — Immunity of consular staff from jurisdiction — Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Miscellaneous — Members of embassy's technical and administrative staff — Entitlement to diplomatic privileges and immunities — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, Article 1 (d) and 37 (2)Treaties — Termination — By act of party — Non-performance by one party — Acts allegedly inconsistent with Treaty of Amity — Whether debarring State responsible from relying on Treaty in respect of matters taking place prior to these actsInternational organization and administration — The United Nations — The Security Council — Dispute referred to Security Council and International Court of Justice — Whether Court entitled to hear case — Whether appropriate for Court to indicate interim measures of protection — Different roles of Court and Security Councillntemational organization and administration — The United Nations — Other Organs — Secretary — General of the United Nations — Whether appropriate for International Court of Justice to adjudicate upon dispute in respect of which the Secretary — General has established a fact — finding commission — Different roles of Court and commissionDisputes — International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Competence — Unilateral application to Court — Whether Court possessing jurisdiction under Optional Protocols to Vienna Conventionon Diplomatic and Consular Relations — Whether Court possessing jurisdiction under treaty which does not expressly provide for unilateral application — Application allegedly referring only to one part of wider dispute — Whether Court may consider that part alone — Whether appropriate for Court to hear case which is also being considered by Security Council and in respect of which the Secretary — General of the United Nations has established a factfinding commission — Difference between adjudication and mediation — Justiciability of disputeDisputes — International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Procedure — Absence of Respondent State from proceedings Indication of provisional measures — Responsibility of Court to protect interests of both parties when indicating provisional measures — Scope of provisional measures — Inevitability of overlap with claim on the meritsDisputes — Conciliation — Fact — finding commission — Complementary roles of commission and International Court of JusticeDisputes — Unilateral means of redress short of war — Economic sanctions — Attempt to rescue hostages by military operation — Legality — Effect of these measures upon consideration of taking of hostages by International Court — Whether calculated to undermine respect for judicial process — Whether legitimate self — defenceDisputes — Negotiation — Complementary roles of negotiation and adjudication in settlement of dispute — Whether International Court should encourage negotiation by advising parties as to form and content of negotiationsDiplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Privileges and immunities of diplomatic envoys and their staff — Members of technical and administrative staff — Inviolability of diplomatic staff — Immunity from criminal proceedings — Duty of receiving State to protect members of diplomatic staff in the discharge of diplomatic functions — Diplomatic premises — Inviolability of diplomatic premises, archives and documents — Duty of receiving State to protect — Seizure of embassy and taking of diplomatic hostages — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961503Consuls — Privileges and immunities of consular staff and premises — Duty of receiving State to protect — Consular function of assisting nationals — Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 1963Nature of diplomatic and consular law — Importance in the international community — Contributions made to development of diplomatic law by all States and streams of legal thought — Diplomatic law a self-contained body of rules with its own sanctions for cases of abuse — Alleged acts of espionage by members of diplomatic staff to be dealt with only in accordance with Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Alleged acts of espionage incapable of justifying violation of diplomatic immunityState responsibility — For acts of rioters — Rioters seizing embassy after inflammatory statements by members of Government — Action not imputable to State — Government subsequently approving rioters' acts and encouraging detention of hostages — Rioters becoming agents of State — Violation of treaty obligations — Whether engaging international responsibility of State — Duty to make reparationInternational Court of Justice — Competence — Optional Protocols to Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Consular Relations — Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights, 1955, between United States and Iran — Indication of provisional measures of protection — Scope of such measures — Whether fact that dispute under consideration by United Nations Security Council debars Court from pronouncing upon it — Establishment of fact-finding commission by United Nations Secretary-General — Whether Court precluded from considering application because it represents only one aspect of a disputeUnilateral action by Applicant — Economic sanctions — Military operation in attempt to rescue hostages — Whether undermining respect for judicial process — Whether affecting legality of initial actions by RespondentTreaties — Breach — Whether hostile acts by Applicant prevent it from relying upon compromissory clause in Treaty of Amity

In Hidden Depths, Professor Penny Spikins explores how our emotional connections have shaped human ancestry.
Focusing on three key transitions in human origins, Professor Spikins explains how the emotional capacities of our early ancestors evolved in response to ecological changes, much like similar changes in other social mammals. For each transition, dedicated chapters examine evolutionary pressures, responses in changes in human emotional capacities and the archaeological evidence for human social behaviours.
Starting from our earliest origins, in Part One, Professor Spikins explores how after two million years ago, movement of human ancestors into a new ecological niche drove new types of collaboration, including care for vulnerable members of the group. Emotional adaptations lead to cognitive changes, as new connections based on compassion, generosity, trust and inclusion also changed our relationship to material things. Part Two explores a later key transition in human emotional capacities occurring after 300,000 years ago. At this time changes in social tolerance allowed ancestors of our own species to further reach out beyond their local group and care about distant allies, making human communities resilient to environmental changes. An increasingly close relationship to animals, and even to cherished possessions, appeared at this time, and can be explained through new human vulnerabilities and ways of seeking comfort and belonging. Lastly, Part Three focuses on the contrasts in emotional dispositions arising between ourselves and our close cousins, the Neanderthals. Neanderthals are revealed as equally caring yet emotionally different humans, who might, if things had been different, have been in our place today.
This new narrative breaks away from traditional views of human evolution as exceptional or as a linear progression towards a more perfect form. Instead, our evolutionary history is situated within similar processes occurring in other mammals, and explained as one in which emotions, rather than 'intellect', were key to our evolutionary journey. Moreover, changes in emotional capacities and dispositions are seen as part of differing pathways each bringing strengths, weaknesses and compromises. These hidden depths provide an explanation for many of the emotional sensitivities and vulnerabilities which continue to influence our world today.

In Hidden Depths, Professor Penny Spikins explores how our emotional connections have shaped human ancestry. Focusing on three key transitions in human origins, Professor Spikins explains how the emotional capacities of our early ancestors evolved in response to ecological changes, much like similar changes in other social mammals. For each transition, dedicated chapters examine evolutionary pressures, responses in changes in human emotional capacities and the archaeological evidence for human social behaviours. Starting from our earliest origins, in Part One, Professor Spikins explores how after two million years ago, movement of human ancestors into a new ecological niche drove new types of collaboration, including care for vulnerable members of the group. Emotional adaptations lead to cognitive changes, as new connections based on compassion, generosity, trust and inclusion also changed our relationship to material things. Part Two explores a later key transition in human emotional capacities occurring after 300,000 years ago. At this time changes in social tolerance allowed ancestors of our own species to further reach out beyond their local group and care about distant allies, making human communities resilient to environmental changes. An increasingly close relationship to animals, and even to cherished possessions, appeared at this time, and can be explained through new human vulnerabilities and ways of seeking comfort and belonging. Lastly, Part Three focuses on the contrasts in emotional dispositions arising between ourselves and our close cousins, the Neanderthals. Neanderthals are revealed as equally caring yet emotionally different humans, who might, if things had been different, have been in our place today. This new narrative breaks away from traditional views of human evolution as exceptional or as a linear progression towards a more perfect form. Instead, our evolutionary history is situated within similar processes occurring in other mammals, and explained as one in which emotions, rather than 'intellect', were key to our evolutionary journey. Moreover, changes in emotional capacities and dispositions are seen as part of differing pathways each bringing strengths, weaknesses and compromises. These hidden depths provide an explanation for many of the emotional sensitivities and vulnerabilities which continue to influence our world today.

In 2010, the Municipality of Cuenca, through its environmental management commission (EMC), and the World Bank, through the environment and natural resources department, started a collaboration targeted towards strengthening EMC's capacity to better manage Cuenca's environmental assets and to provide EMC with hard evidence and data that will serve as departing point for decision-makers towards the formulation of public policy. Two main areas of focus were chosen: (i) costs of environmental degradation for Cuenca; and (ii) climate change impacts and resilience measures for Cuenca. This report describes the findings of the first area of focus. This report tries to capture the main results and to describe the assumptions and input data utilized, through a detailed step-by-step description of an internationally-accepted and validated methodology, an explanation of input data needs, equations used, assumptions made, and alternative calculation streams; and through the demonstration of this methodology as it is applied to the real case of air pollution in Cuenca. Analyses about the cost of environmental degradation are often used as an environmental priority-setting tool, because it gives the estimated socio-economic costs of environmental degradation (air pollution, inadequate water supply, sanitation, hygiene, and others). In this report, the methodology was used only for air pollution; similar studies can be replicated for other areas in order to have a full description of the different sources of pollution and the subsequent costs that Cuenca is subject to. Economic analysis (cost-benefit analysis) can be applied as a useful tool to prioritize among these interventions options with respect to their efficiency and cost effectiveness. Some policy reforms may also require to understand the political economy of reforms, for example, when taxi technology or bus technology of private firms is to be changed.

How are resources allocated within extended families in developing economies? This question is investigated using a unique social experiment: the South African pension program. Under that program the elderly receive a cash transfer equal to roughly twice the per capita income of Africans in South Africa. The study examines how this transfer affects the labor supply of prime-age individuals living with these elderly in extended families. It finds a sharp drop in the working hours of prime-age individuals in these households when women turn 60 years old or men turn 65, the ages at which they become eligible for pensions. It also finds that the drop in labor supply is much larger when the pensioner is a woman, suggesting an imperfect pooling of resources. The allocation of resources among prime-age individuals depends strongly on their absolute age and gender as well as on their relative age. The oldest son in the household reduces his working hours more than any other prime-age household member.

[spa] La presente tesis doctoral, constituida como un compendio de tres publicaciones, aborda el fenómeno de la carrera dual adoptando enfoques teóricos y metodológico plurales, fundamentados en disciplinas tales como la sociología, la gestión y la psicología del deporte. El primer trabajo se centra en analizar la medida en la que el colectivo de deportistas de élite hace uso de diferentes servicios académicos de apoyo a la carrera dual, así como describir su relación con el nivel de éxito deportivo internacional y el nivel educativo alcanzado. En este estudio, enmarcado en el proyecto SPLISS 2.0 y fundamentado en el modelo de los nueve pilares de De Bosscher et al. (2006), 2160 deportistas de élite de 13 estados/naciones respondieron el cuestionario estandarizado Elite Sport Climate Survey. El examen de los datos y la identificación de relaciones entre las variables investigadas se realizó por medio de análisis descriptivos y de correlaciones, tanto a nivel global como a nivel nacional/estatal. Los resultados globales muestran una relación positiva débil entre el nivel educativo y el nivel de éxito deportivo, y una relación positiva mínima entre la disponibilidad de servicios académicos de apoyo a la carrera dual y el nivel de estudios. Sin embargo, el análisis por naciones/estados no muestra relaciones significativas en la mayoría de los casos. La investigación concluye que la promoción de las carreras duales es una responsabilidad moral de las naciones, y aconseja llevar a cabo más estudios similares en territorios que dispongan de contextos parecidos a nivel socioeconómico y cultural. La segunda investigación realizada se propone conocer las características organizativas de los programas universitarios de apoyo al colectivo de deportistas de élite en el sistema universitario de Cataluña. Partiendo de la teoría de sistemas abiertos de Katz & Kahn (1978), se analizaron diez programas universitarios de apoyo a la carrera dual por medio de dos técnicas complementarias. Por un lado, se llevaron a cabo entrevistas semiestructuradas a 13 coordinadores y coordinadoras. Por otro lado, se analizó el contenido existente en los sitios web de cada universidad. Los resultados exponen diferentes perfiles de estudiantes-deportistas de élite inscritos en los programas. Por otro lado, se describen carencias en ámbitos como la disponibilidad de recursos, la planificación o la legislación existente. Además, se aprecia una destacable influencia por parte de elementos como el profesorado o el sistema europeo de grados universitarios. El trabajo concluye que la voluntad política, un contexto económico favorable y la colaboración privada son elementos a tener en cuenta para el desarrollo de los programas. El tercer estudio busca investigar las principales demandas, barreras y recursos percibidos por estudiantes-deportistas de élite en las distintas fases de su transición de la educación secundaria al grado universitario en ciencias de la actividad física y el deporte. Asimismo, pretende identificar las trayectorias seguidas por este colectivo en función de la importancia subjetiva concedida al deporte y a la educación. Con base en el modelo de transiciones en la carrera deportiva de Stambulova (2003), el modelo holístico de la carrera deportiva de Wylleman, Reints & De Knop (2013), las fases de la transición a la universidad propuestas por Pérez-Rivasés et al. (2017) y las trayectorias descritas por Pallarés et al. (2011) y Miró et al. (2018), 11 estudiantes-deportistas que se encontraban en su segundo y tercer año del grado universitario participaron en entrevistas semiestructuradas. El análisis temático deductivo-inductivo de las transcripciones llevó a la formulación de tres temas: (a) cuestiones generales de la transición a la universidad, (b) cuestiones específicas de la transición al grado en ciencias de la actividad física y del deporte, y (c) trayectorias de la transición. Los resultados muestran que el estrecho vínculo entre el deporte y el contenido del grado universitario se percibe como el principal recurso en esta transición. Sin embargo, esta relación tan próxima entre ambas áreas también se percibe como una barrera importante, en tanto que las asignaturas prácticas implican un riesgo de lesión o de sobreentrenamiento que afecta tanto al desarrollo deportivo como al académico. Asimismo, se observa que la importancia otorgada al deporte y a los estudios es variable a lo largo de los distintos momentos de la transición, fenómeno que denominamos "trayectorias de transición fluidas". El estudio concluye proponiendo el diseño o mejora, por parte de instituciones educativas y/u organizaciones deportivas, de iniciativas orientadas a facilitar la carrera dual en el contexto de un título universitario altamente codiciado por el colectivo de deportistas de élite en España. Tras la exposición de las tres investigaciones que articulan la tesis doctoral, se identifican potenciales implicaciones prácticas de las mismas, y se proponen futuras líneas de investigación que puedan dar continuidad al trabajo desarrollado. ; [eng] The present doctoral dissertation, constituted as a compendium of three publications, addresses the phenomenon of the dual career by adopting plural theoretical and methodological approaches, based on disciplines such as sociology, management and psychology of sport. The first work focuses on analysing the extent to which elite athletes make use of different academic dual career support services, as well as on describing its relationship with the level of international sporting success and the level of education achieved. The study, framed in the SPLISS 2.0 project and based on the nine pillar model by De Bosscher et al. (2006), was conducted with 2160 elite athletes from 13 nations who answered the Elite Sport Climate Survey, a standardized questionnaire. The examination of the data and the identification of relationships between the variables was conducted through descriptive and correlation analyses, both overall and by nations. The overall results show a weak, positive relationship between the level of education and the level of sporting success, as well as a minimal, positive relationship between the availability of academic dual career support services and the level of education. In the analysis by nations, however, no significant relationships were found in most cases. It is concluded that the promotion of dual careers is a moral responsibility of nations, and is recommended to develop further research in nations with similar socio-economic and cultural contexts. The second research aims to identify the organizational characteristics of higher education programs which support elite athletes in the Catalan university system. On the basis of Katz & Kahn's open systems theory (1978), ten dual career support programmes were analysed using two complementary techniques. On the one hand, semi-structured interviews were carried out with 13 coordinators. On the other hand, the content of each university's website was analysed. The results show different profiles of elite student-athletes enrolled in the programs. On the other hand, deficiencies are described in areas such as resource availability, planning or existing legislation. In addition, there is a remarkable influence of elements such as the teaching staff or the European university degree system. The work concludes that political will, a favourable economic context and private collaboration are elements to be taken into account for the development of programmes. The third study aims to investigate the main demands, barriers, and resources perceived by elite student-athletes in various phases of dual career transition to a university degree in physical activity and sport sciences. It also aims to identify the transition pathways pursued depending on the subjective importance they attached to sport and education. On the basis of Stambulova's model of career transitions (2003), Wylleman, Reints & De Knop's holistic career model (2013), the phases of the transition to university proposed by Pérez-Rivasés et al. (2017) and the trajectories described by Pallarés et al. (2011) and Miró et al. (2018), 11 elite student-athletes who were in their second and third year of the university degree participated in semi-structured interviews. Deductive-inductive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts revealed three main themes: (a) general university transition issues, (b) PASS-specific transition issues, and (c) transition pathways. Our results show that the close link between sport and the content of the degree was perceived by the elite student-athletes as their main resource. This link, however, was also perceived as a major barrier as the compulsory practical subjects entailed a risk of injury or overtraining that could affect both athletic and academic development. We noticed how the importance they attached to sport or studies varied at different moments of the transition period, a phenomenon we termed "fluid transition pathways". The study concludes by proposing that educational institutions and/or sports organizations design or improve initiatives which facilitate dual careers in the context of a university degree that is highly sought after by the group of elite athletes in Spain. After the presentation of the three studies that articulate this doctoral dissertation, potential practical implications are identified and future lines of research that could continue the work carried out are proposed.

For most people the transition from childhood/youth to adulthood is a major upheaval – in physiological, cultural and social terms. For young people with a disease that is either congenital or acquired early in life, or with an injury that reduces functional capacity, the transition can involve further challenges – of a health-related nature. The theme of this report is the transition to adulthood within the framework of the habilitation service. Our aim is to shed light on challenges that youngsters needing a combination of coordinated services face in relation to the services established for them, and which are to assist them in childhood, upon transition to adulthood and later in life. Our point of departure is that if functionally impaired young people are to participate successfully in adult society, their need for health-related services must in each case be met in a manner commensurate with the challenges posed by the individual's health situation. This report deals with young people who have entered employment or are completing their education. In addition, they live in their own dwelling away from the parental home. These can be said to be young people whose inclusion in important social arenas has a «success». Hence the report seeks to illuminate the role of habilitation in the process prior to the present situation. This is achieved by means of interviews with two groups of informants. The first group comprises young adults with functional impairments. The second group comprises staff of coordinating units in a selection of Norwegian municipalities or municipal wards. The first chapter is a general introduction to the issues addressed in the report, while the second chapter expounds the habilitation field, its organisation, aim and main tools. Chapter 3 reports on the main findings of an interview survey with heads of coordinating units in a selection of Norwegian municipalities. Our particular focus is on issues related to collaboration within the municipality, between the municipality and the specialist health service and the transition between childhood/youth and adult life. The decision to interview the head of the coordinating unit in the respective municipalities was taken upon the advice of the Norwegian Directorate of Health. Chapter 4 discusses functionally impaired youngsters' experiences with the habilitation service and seeks in particular to elicit experiences from the transition from child habilitation to adult habilitation. Chapter 5 summarises the main findings and proposals some initiatives that may ease the transition from child habilitation to adult habilitation for the individual young person. Habilitation and rehabilitation are defined as: "Time-limited, planned processes with clear-cut aims and instruments, where two or more actors collaborate to provide necessary assistance to the users' own effort to function and cope to the best possible degree, to achieve independence and to participate in social and community life.» This is the definition of (re)habilitation employed today in official documents and which guides policy formulation in this field. The basis in law for habilitation and rehabilitation is set out in various statutes and regulations to ensure that the individual's need for a combination of coordinated services is met. Each municipality is obliged to have in place a coordinating unit with overall responsibility for habilitation service provision, and specialist health services include a rehabilitation unit catering to children and young people that is affiliated to and under the responsibility of a regional health trust. This responsibility can be transferred to a department of the regional health trust at a later stage. Both levels of administration are required to offer services that are: 1. based on a user perspective, 2. coordinated, cross-disciplinary and planned, 3. in or as close as possible to the user's customary environment, and 4. provided in a context meaningful to the user. The empirical part of the project is based on interviews with two different groups. One group comprises managers of the coordinating unit in 22 municipalities or municipal wards. This survey brought to light wide differences between municipalities as regards the organisation of the habilitation service and as regards how they discharged some of the tasks they were expected to perform. All the informants were concerned to improve the service offering to users who fell within the habilitation remit and were thus in need of a number of services the coordination of which was crucial to good service provision, municipal services and second-line services alike. No one was absolutely happy with the situation at the time of reporting although several informants reported an organisational set-up that appeared sound. The informants were clearly preoccupied by the challenges faced by functionally impaired young people upon the transition from youth to adulthood. A majority of the informants made it clear that the quality of the habilitation service, both municipal and second-line, was crucial to young people's ability to tackle the transition to adult life and the challenges they would face in areas such as education and employment, setting up a home and taking on greater responsibility for coordinating social services and health services. An important step in improving the municipal habilitation service would be to assign responsibility for it to a higher level of municipal bureaucracy than is usual at present. Several heads of coordinating units noted a mismatch between responsibilities and work assignments on one hand and the formal power or decision authority available to them in the municipal system. One possible model, to which attention was drawn, was to assign management of the service to a staff function under the chief municipal executive and to draw up guidelines and in the event an authorisation structure for initiatives involving various service performers. It would be important here to clarify responsibilities for and decision authority in relation to services administered by the Labour and Welfare Administration. The second survey comprises interviews with 12 informants in the age range 22 to 31, six females and six males. All have a diagnosis involving varying degrees of impaired physical functioning. Poor balance and reduced mobility are reported by many. Some use a wheelchair all day, others use a wheelchair in particular situations and to move over longer distances. Poor motor function, including poor fine motor control, makes using a keyboard problematic for some. All in all this part of the survey showed wide variation in the informants' experience of how well the habilitation service functioned in terms of coordinating various types of measure and in relation to assuring service continuity. The survey also showed wide variation in the role of the responsible doctors. This is attributable both to the differing priority assigned to habilitation-related work by different doctors and to variations between municipalities in the emphasis given to drawing doctors into this work. The survey also shows that, in the case of a number of informants who are prioritised for residential rehabilitation, the main rationale is to enable medical follow up of their diagnosis. The transition to adult habilitation is an important theme for many. Several of the informants believed they were given insufficient information about various schemes and programmes after they had reached the age of 18 and were no longer in child habilitation. It was now up to them to seek out the programmes and services they needed. Several experienced this situation as difficult. After being in child habilitation, where most of them felt they were taken care of, the transition to adult habilitation was a radical change. They are now personally responsible for applying for and coordinating the health services on which they depend. The situation is most difficult for those whose diagnosis does not place them within the remit of one of the country's competence centres. The report closes with 11 points on which the habilitation service could be improved to bring the range of services offered to users more into line with the legislation and the intentions as regards service quality and scope that are enshrined in central public documents. ; En del mennesker med nedsatt funksjonsevne kan i perioder av livet ha et behov for rehabilitering og habilitering. Barn med en medfødt sykdom eller skade kan trenge koordinerte og sammensatte tjenester innenfor ulike områder gjennom hele livet. Det tjenestetilbudet som gis innenfor habiliteringsfeltet, er både organisert gjennom kommunene og gjennom spesialisthelsetjenesten i de enkelte helseregionene. Det er unge voksnes erfaringer med habiliteringstjenesten som er denne rapportens tema. I første del gis det en fremstilling av mål og virkemidler i habiliteringsarbeidet. Først og fremst konsentrerer fremstillingen seg om den kommunale organiseringen av tjenester. Deretter presenteres erfaringer som leder av koordinerende enhet i 22 kommuner har med samordningen og samhandlingen på habiliteringsfeltet samt de erfaringer 12 unge voksne har med habiliteringstjenesten. Særlig blir utfordringer i forbindelse med overgangen fra barnehabiliteringen til voksenhabiliteringen vektlagt. Som en avslutning på rapporten legges det frem elleve punkter som kan bidra til en forbedring av habiliteringstjenesten.

This article examines the provisions of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Compensation of Damage Resulting from the USSR Occupation (hereinafter -- the Law), which was adopted on 13 June 2000, in the light of customary rules of international law on state responsibility, as codified in the 2001 the UN International Law Commission's Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter -- the ILC Draft Articles). The main aim of the article is to deal with the international legal grounds of the responsibility of the Russian Federation for the Soviet occupation of the Republic of Lithuania and, against this background, to identify the role of the Law. The ground of Russia's responsibility is an internationally wrongful act committed as the aggression against the Republic of Lithuania, which was started by the 15 June 1940 incursion by the Soviet armed forces & subsequently continued in the form of the illegal occupation of Lithuania until the restoration of Lithuania's independence on 11 March 1990, however, the illegal presence of the foreign forces on Lithuania's soil ended only in 1993. The fact of the 1940 Soviet aggression & illegal occupation of the Baltic States has been widely recognized by the international community, it was even acknowledged by the USSR & Russia in 1989-1991. Therefore there is no doubt that under international law from 1940-1990 the Republic of Lithuania had been an occupied State. That is why the illegal occupation with its consequences, as the breach of an international obligation not to resort to aggression having a continuing character, constitutes an objective element of an internationally wrongful act being the ground for Russia's responsibility. That also explains why the title of the Law refers to the occupation. Meanwhile the specific feature of subjective element is addressed in the preamble of the Law. That is the continuity of the Russian State & the corresponding identity of its international legal personality with the Soviet Union, which was claimed by Russia & generally recognized by the international community. Therefore under international law the Russian Federation is the State continuing the rights & obligations of the former USSR (ie., it is the same international legal person). Consequently, internationally wrongful acts of the latter, including the Soviet occupation of Lithuania & the other two Baltic States, should be attributable to the Russian Federation. Apart from the ground for Russia's responsibility, the issue of reparation is addressed in the article. In accordance with international law (the ILC Draft Article), the principle of full reparation should be applied to realize responsibility for an internationally wrongful act. The full reparation for the injury can be provided in the form of restitution, compensation & satisfaction, while any financially assessable damage should be covered by compensation when restitution is not practically possible. Responsibility for the Soviet occupation is the latter case. Therefore in this sense the Law concretizes the claim of Lithuania as it lays down the obligations of the Government of Lithuania to calculate the damage & seek its compensation from Russia. In conformity with the principle of full reparation, the provisions of the Law require to calculate the damage for all period of the Soviet occupation as well as to cover all types of financially assessable damage. The third main issue addressed in this article is admissibility of a claim for reparation, ie., the procedural requirements to be observed by the injured State invoking an international responsibility of other State. The main requirement, as follows from Art. 43 of the ILC Draft Articles, is that the injured State should give a timely & proper notice of its claim to the State responsible for an internationally wrongful act; the claim is admissible when it is waived by the injured State or it can be inadmissible when it is not maintained. However, a mere lapse of time without a claim is being resolved, including delay in its prosecution due to refusal of the respondent State, cannot result in loss of the right of the injured State to invoke responsibility. In this regard the Law is a unilateral act of the State of Lithuania which formulates & concretizes the claim for Russia's responsibility. The form of this act was determined by Lithuanian national rather than international law as the former requires that any compulsory rules or instructions for the Government can be laid down by the Seimas (the Parliament) only in the form of (statutory) law. As it is clear from the preamble of the Law, in continuing & consolidating the previous Lithuanian acts invoking Russia's responsibility the Law demonstrates that the claim for responsibility has been raised without any unreasonable delay a long time ago (the first time Lithuania declared about its claim for reparation in 1991) & Russia is aware of that claim from the very beginning. In such a manner the Law also proves a consistent & unchanging position of Lithuania with regard to Russia's responsibility. Therefore, the Law evidences that the claim of Lithuania remains admissible although still being unresolved & notwithstanding that Russia is rejecting it. Under international law the injured State has the right to waive its claim for responsibility of another State. National law may, however, restrict that right in setting up appropriate duties for the authorities of the injured State. In this regard it follows from the preamble of the Law that under Lithuanian constitutional law no State organ or official can declare a waiver of the claim for Russia's responsibility because the Law is based on & aims at implementation of the corresponding decision by the 14 June 1992 national referendum that demanded to seek reparation for the Soviet occupation. Therefore, the waiver can be declared only by other referendum as well as without a referendum the Seimas cannot abolish the provisions of the Law requiring to seek a compensation (such kind of action could amount to the waiver in the sense of Art. 45(a) of the ILC Draft Articles). To keep the claim for responsibility of another State admissible & valid, when it is being unresolved a long time, the injured State should do everything it can reasonably do to maintain the claim. Otherwise it can be questioned, whether the right to invoke responsibility is lost due to conduct of the injured State in the sense of Art. 45(b) of the ILC Draft Articles. Therefore, to avoid similar doubts the Law obliged the Government to seek constantly the compensation for the damage caused by the Soviet occupation. Since Russia used to reject Lithuania's initiatives to conduct negotiations on the matter & any other way of settlement is not available without Russia's consent, it can be stated that as yet, in particular due to the Law, the conduct of Lithuania has not raised any serious doubts with regard to validity of its claim for compensation. Obviously such doubts would be serious if any kind of moratorium on the claim had been announced. To sum it up, it can be concluded that the Law is based on & is consistent with the rules of international law. It also implements the international legal requirements for the proper declaration & maintenance of the claim for reparation. Therefore both under international law & under Lithuanian constitutional law the Law has been necessary to consolidate & consistently maintain the claim to Russia for the compensation of the damages caused by the Soviet occupation. Lastly, it should be noted that a proper settlement of the problem of Russia's responsibility for the Soviet occupation of Lithuania is not a question of self-interest for Lithuania & it should pursue the claim for compensation not only due to the decision by the 14 June 1992 referendum. Not accidentally Art. 1 of the ILC Draft Articles refers that "every internationally wrongful act of a State entails the international responsibility of that State." It is also not accidentally that the preamble of the 1991 Treaty between Lithuania & Russia states that mutual confidence between the people of both Parties is hard to achieve without elimination of the consequences of the Soviet annexation of Lithuania. Like for national law, rule of law & justice cannot be established without realization & inevitability of responsibility for grave breaches of international law. Therefore the realization of responsibility for the 1940 aggression against the Baltic States & its consequences would undoubtedly contribute to general prevention of such grave breaches as well as would assure that similar tragic events never happen again in the history of Lithuania. Such kind of prevention should be at the focus of attention of the whole international community rather than only Lithuania & the other two Baltic States, since a prohibition of aggression is a long-standing rule of jus cogens character & obligation erga omnes towards international community. Adapted from the source document.

Violent crime has emerged as a growing development challenge, affecting large segments of societies, and taking a severe toll on economic development. In many high crime environments, weak institutions, fiscal constraints, and political resistance have undermined the effectiveness of development programs and threatened their sustainability. The World Bank has begun to confront this challenge. The country of Honduras is the most violent in the world as measured by its homicide rate, which reached 90.4 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012. This report presents the findings of a study of crime dynamics and prevention practices focused around a comparison of nine neighborhoods in three of the most violent cities in Honduras: La Ceiba, El Progreso, and Choloma. The research revealed that although the transnational drug trade, economic downturn, and political crisis have deepened the country's vulnerability, some neighborhoods have successfully prevented crime. Drawing from extensive qualitative research in these neighborhoods, the study identified practices that communities pursue to prevent violence through collective responses. It also examined the characteristics of communities, societal factors, and institutional context that have enabled or constrained these responses. The research points to measures that can be built upon, scaled up, and tested through future research and programming to strengthen community-based crime prevention. It illustrates how deep examination of the dynamics of insecurity - and the ways communities manage it - can inform efforts to improve public safety in violence-prone countries.

With most of the global population and capital goods concentrated in urban areas, cities are key to social development and economic prosperity. They are drivers of national economic growth and innovation, and act as cultural and creative centers. Many development partners and other organizations are active on the topic of resilience in cities, and there has been a recent upswing in the development and promotion of innovate programs, tools, and initiatives. Arup International and the Rockefeller Foundation have developed the city resilience framework, which provides a lens through which the complexity of cities and the numerous factors that contribute to a city's resilience can be understood. The framework is being used to facilitate agenda-setting sessions in cities selected to participate in the 100 resilient cities challenge. Within this global context, the city strength diagnostic was developed to help World Bank staff apply this new holistic approach to urban resilience to operations. It was designed to help facilitate a dialogue among stakeholders (for example, government, civil society, residents, and the private sector) about risks, resilience, and the performance of urban systems. The city strength diagnostic results in the identification of priority actions and investments that will enhance the city's resilience as well as increase the resilience building potential of planned or aspirational projects. It stresses a holistic and integrated approach that encourages cross-sectoral collaborations to more efficiently tackle existing issues and to unlock opportunities within the city.

Il presente elaborato è dedicato allo studio della security for costsnell'arbitrato commerciale internazionalee si prefigge come obbiettivo quello di illustrare le numerose problematiche che si presentano per l'organo giudicante adito (sia esso un giudice nazionale o un tribunale arbitrale) e per le parti quando viene presentata un'istanza di cautio pro expensis. Nel capitolo introduttivo si illustrano gli scenari in cui la security for costs può trovare applicazione. In particolare, si evidenzia come gliordinari strumenti utilizzati per il recupero delle spese arbitrali–su tutti, il riconoscimento e l'esecuzione del lodo mediante la Convenzione di New York del 1958 –non sono sempre sufficienti a garantire l'adempimento dalla condanna alla rifusione delle spese dell'arbitrato. In particolar modo, quando la parte soccombente è incapiente, qualsiasi tentativo di exequaturdel lodo si rivelerà infruttuoso e la condanna alle spese resterà insoddisfatta, con il risultato che la parte che ha prevalso in arbitrato non avrà ottenuto giustizia ma soltanto una vittoria pirrica, peraltro al termine di un procedimento arbitrale verosimilmente lungo e, soprattutto, dispendioso. La security for costs, che è definita come una garanzia prestatada una parte (generalmente l'attore) per assicurare alla controparte (generalmente il convenuto) il recupero delle spese di lite in caso di vittoria, permette di scongiurare il verificarsi del suddettoscenario, evitando di posticipare il problema del recupero dei costi fino alla fase di exequaturdel lodo. L'elaborato prosegue analizzando le origini della security for costse la cauzione per le spese exart. 98 c.p.c. che, prima della dichiarazione di incostituzionalità avvenutacon la sentenza no. 67 del1960 della Corte Costituzionale, costituiva l'istituto del nostro ordinamento che più assomiglia alla security for costsoggi in auge nell'arbitrato internazionale. Il Capitolo II si conclude poi con brevi cenni sulle peculiarità della security for costs. Prima di passare all'analisi della competenza delle corti nazionali e dei tribunali arbitrali (CapitoloIV) nonché alle modalità di esercizio di tale potere (Capitolo V), l'elaborato si sofferma sulla qualificazione giuridica della security for costs. In particolare, si distingue tra le operazioni di qualificazioni poste in essere dai giudici togati e non, dando poi risalto alla qualificazione autonoma della cautio pro expensis. Al termine di questa operazione si conclude che la security for costsè una misura cautelare sui generis, per via essenzialmente di alcune peculiarità legate all'analisi del fumus boni iurise alla possibilità degli arbitri di sanzionare direttamente –senza bisogno di ricorrere all'autorità giudiziaria –l'inottemperanza degli ordini di prestare una garanzia per le spese di lite, vuoi mediante la sospensione o estinzione del procedimento arbitrale, vuoi, addirittura, in alcuni casi, mediante il rigetto delle pretese avanzate dalla parte inadempiente. Determinata la natura giuridica della security for costs, l'elaborato procede analizzando la competenza delle corti nazionali e dei tribunali arbitrali, dedicando ampio spazio all'individuazione della legge applicabile per stabilire il poteredell'organo adito di decidere sull'istanza presentata. A conclusione di questa analisi si auspica che i legislatori nazionali e le principali istituzioni arbitrali adottino una disciplina chiara in materia al fine di ridurre le possibilità di ricorso ai giudici togati in materia, evitando così pericolose ingerenze nella procedura arbitrale. L'ultima sezione del Capitolo IV è dedicata agli arbitrati internazionali che si svolgono in Italia, nei quali non pochi dubbi sorgono sull'ammissibilità della security for costsin ragione della dichiarazione di incostituzionalità dell'art. 98 c.p.c. e del disposto contenuto nell'art. 818 c.p.c. L'elaborato suggerisce che, in realtà, nessuno di questi due ostacoli impedisce la concessione di una cautio pro expensis perché le valutazioni svolte dalla Corte Costituzionale nella sentenza no. 67 del 1960 non possono essere importate nel panorama arbitrale e l'art. 818 c.p.c. è una norma derogabile. Il Capitolo V individua quindi le modalità di esercizio del potere degli arbitri di ordinare security for costs. Dopo un'analisi della legge applicabile per determinare i presupposti da considerare per la concessione di questi provvedimenti, l'attenzione viene rivolta –in assenza di precise indicazioni tanto nelle leges arbitri quanto nei regolamenti d'arbitrato– agli standards accettati dalla prassi arbitrale internazionale. Appurata l'assenza di un approccio universalmente accolto dalla prassi arbitrale, la Sezione V.C propone un test di portata generale che, alla luce delle soluzioni più convincenti adottate dalla giurisprudenza, possa essere utilizzato dai tribunali arbitrali come punto di partenza per decidere sulle richieste di security for costs. Infine, l'elaborato analizza il contenuto degli ordini di security for costs, suggerendo possibili soluzioni per la quantificazione della garanzia e le modalitàdi prestazione della medesima. Vengono quindi illustrate le conseguenze derivanti dall'inottemperanza all'ordine del tribunale che impone la prestazione di una cautio pro expensise, nel caso invece in cui la security for costssia stata prestata, le sorti della garanzia al termine della procedura arbitrale. L'elaborato si conclude con alcune riflessioni conclusive. ; This dissertation, which focuses on security for costs in international commercial arbitration, aims at illustrating the numerous issues faced by the adjudicating body (being it a national court or an arbitral tribunal) when dealing with a request for security for costs. The first chapter depicts the scenarios where a security for costs may be granted. In particular, it shows that the ordinary instruments usually relied upon to recoup the costs incurred for the arbitration –i.e.the recognition and enforcement of the cost award under the 1958 New York Convention –may not suffice to ensure that the losing party will actually compensate the winning party for the expensesreasonably incurred by it. Indeed, when the unsuccessful party faces serious financially difficulties or insolvency, any attempt to enforce the cost award may turn out to be worthless and the obligation to repay the winning party's legal costs becomes moot. As a result, the successful party will not obtain justice but merely a Pyrrhic victory. To add insult to injury, suchresult will probably be obtained after a lengthy and costly arbitration. Security for costs, which is generally defined as an assuranceprovided by a party (usually the claimant) for the payment of the opposing party's arbitration costs (usually the respondent's costs) in the event that the latter succeeds, avoids the above scenario, resolving the issue of recovering costs prior to the conclusion of the proceedings. This dissertation further analyses the origin of security for costs and the "cauzione per le spese" pursuant to article 98 of the Italian Code of Civil Procedure, which –before being declared unconstitutional by the Corte Costituzionaledecision no. 67 of 1960 –was the Italian measure that resembled the most security for costs. Chapter II concludes by briefly sketching the peculiarities of security for costs. Before moving to the national courts' and the arbitral tribunal's authority to grant an application for security for costs (Chapter IV) and the conditions for exercising such power (Chapter V), this dissertation lingers on the legal qualification of an order for security for costs. In particular, it distinguished between state courts' and arbitral tribunal's characterization, and focuses on the qualification based on a comparative approach.This "autonomous classification" leads to the conclusion that an order for security for costs is asui generisinterim measure. This isdue to the peculiarities in the analysis of the parties' likelihood to prevail on the merits of the dispute (fumus boni iuris) as well as to the arbitrators' power to sanction the failure to provide security either by suspending or terminating the arbitral proceedings, or –when expressly empowered to do so –by dismissing the breaching party's claims. Once determined the legal nature of security for costs, this dissertation analyzes the state courts' and the arbitral tribunal's power to grant an application for security for costs. Ample space is devoted to determining the law applicable to this matter. This dissertation suggests that the national legislatures and the main arbitral institutions should adopt clear rules to minimize the opportunities to resort to state courts on this matter, so as to avoid interferences with the arbitral proceedings. The last section of Chapter IV deals with international arbitration proceedings taking place in Italy, where the admissibility of security for costs is doubtful because of theunconstitutionality of article98 of the Italian Code of Civil Procedure and the provision contained in article 818 of the same Code. However, this dissertation suggests that none of these two elements isan impediment to grant an order for security for costs, because the Corte Costituzionaledecision no. 67 of 1960 is not applicable in the arbitration landscape and article 818 of the Italian Code of Civil Procedure is a non-mandatory provision. Chapter V identifies how the power to grant security for costs should be exercised. After a careful analysis of the applicable law, it focuses –in the absence of clear instructions in the leges arbitriand the arbitration rules –on the standards developedby the arbitral jurisprudence. Since no universally accepted test exists, Section V.C recommends a new approach which is based on the most convincing solutions adopted by the arbitral case law and that could be employed by arbitral tribunals as a startingpoint whendealing with a request for security for costs. Finally, this dissertation investigatesthe content of an order for security for costs, recommending how to determine the amount and form of security. Moreover, it illustrates the consequences of the failure to comply with asecurity order and, when security is actually provided, how it should be released at the end of the proceedings. This dissertation concludes with some conclusive remarks.

Todos los días en el Perú, los periódicos dan cuenta de accidentes de tránsito; la gente se queja de la inacción de las autoridades y la falta de políticas y planes para mitigar los efectos de los accidentes de tránsito. Los servicios del transporte terrestre y la circulación en la red vial nacional son afectadas negativamente por la falta de una adecuada normatividad y la informalidad en el servicio, generadora de graves consecuencias como el alto número de personas que sufren accidentes de tránsito. Según la información estadística disponible los accidentes de tránsito presentan una tendencia creciente, pasando de 76,655 accidentes en el año 2000 a 102,762 en el año 2013 y según el informe de la Dirección General de Epidemiología del Ministerio de Salud – MINSA dichos accidentes afectan en mayor número de lesionados a los varones de 15 a 29 años. La mayor pérdida de años de vida saludable (AVISA) se produce en el grupo de edad entre los 15 a 44 años que constituyen conductores jóvenes; así como entre los 5 a 14 años que constituyen peatones u ocupantes de vehículos. El consultor Gustavo Guerra García, estima que el costo económico de los accidentes de tránsito representa para el país aproximadamente el 0.8% del PBI. El Informe Mundial sobre los Traumatismos causados por el Tránsito, elaborado por la Organización Mundial de la Salud – OMS y el Banco Mundial – BM (2004), indica que cada día en el mundo, cerca de 16, 000 personas mueren a causa de todo tipo de traumatismos. Estos representan el 12% de la carga mundial de morbilidad, y la principal causa de muerte en el grupo de edades de 1 a 40 años. Asimismo, los traumatismos causados por el tránsito pueden prevenirse; para tal efecto los países deben designar un organismo coordinador en la administración pública para que oriente las actividades nacionales en materia de seguridad vial; evaluar el problema, las políticas y los marcos institucionales relativos a los traumatismos causados por el tránsito; así como la capacidad para prevenirlos; preparar estrategias y planes nacionales en materia de seguridad vial, asignar recursos financieros y humanos para abordar el problema; ejecutar acciones concretas para prevenir las colisiones en la vía pública, reducir al mínimo los traumatismos y sus consecuencias y evaluar los resultados de esas acciones. En el Perú se creó el Consejo Nacional de Seguridad Vial adscrito al Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones, como el organismo rector de la seguridad vial; la Superintendencia de Transportes Terrestre de Personas, Carga y Mercancías como entidad competente en materia de fiscalización del transporte terrestre por carretera; la Dirección General del Transporte Terrestre responsable de la regulación y promoción del transporte terrestre y el Proyecto Especial de Infraestructura de Transporte Nacional, encargado de la Construcción, Rehabilitación y Mejoramiento de la Red Vial Nacional; sin embargo dichas dependencias realizan acciones no articuladas y los demás actores involucrados en la problemática de la seguridad vial no se identifican con dichas acciones por la ausencia de una Política y Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Vial. En este contexto, la presente investigación tiene por objetivo demostrar que el incumplimiento de las normas del transporte terrestre si influye en los usuarios de la Red Vial Nacional por accidentes de tránsito, para tal efecto se ha diseñado el marco teórico y la matriz de consistencia de la investigación, en donde se determinaron las variables, factores e instrumentos que permitieron validar el modelo de regresión lineal y múltiple para la demostración de las hipótesis respectivas. La Hipótesis General tiene como variable independiente X = Incumplimiento de las normas del transporte terrestre; variable dependiente Y= Afectación de Usuarios de la Red Vial Nacional por Accidentes de Tránsito; las Hipótesis Específicas tienen como variables independientes: X1 = Incumplimiento de las normas del transporte de personas por carretera; X2 = Incumplimiento de las normas del transporte de mercancías por carretera. Como resultado del proceso de modelación, se concluye que la Hipótesis General ES VERDADERA; en consecuencia, se puede afirmar que hay evidencia empírica respecto que: "El incumplimiento de las normas del transporte terrestre influye en los usuarios de la Red Vial Nacional por accidentes de tránsito". De igual modo las hipótesis especificas SON VERDADERAS; en consecuencia hay evidencia empírica para afirmar que: "El incumplimiento de las normas del transporte terrestre de personas y mercancías influye en los usuarios de la Red Vial Nacional por accidentes de tránsito". Finalmente, los resultados de la investigación demuestran que existe correlación entre la fiscalización del transporte terrestre de personas y mercancías y los accidentes de tránsito en la Red Vial Nacional; así mismos se ha comprobado que la problemática expuesta tiene baja prioridad en las políticas públicas, las entidades involucradas realizan acciones no articuladas con escaso alineamiento a los ejes del Plan Mundial Para el Decenio de Acción para la Seguridad Vial 2011-2020 de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas. ; Every day in Peru, newspapers realize traffic accidents; people complain of the failure of the authorities and lack of policies and plans to mitigate the effects of traffic accidents. Land transport services and circulation in the national road network are negatively affected by the lack of adequate regulations and informality in service, generating serious consequences as the high number of people suffering accidents. According to available statistical data traffic accidents show an increasing trend from 76.655 accidents in the year 2000 to 102.762 in 2013 and the report of the General Directorate of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health - MINSA such accidents affect more disabled males of 15-29 years. The greater loss of healthy life years (DALYs) occurs in the age group between 15-44 years are young drivers; and between 5-14 years are pedestrians or occupants of vehicles. The consultant Gustavo Guerra García, estimates that the economic cost of road accidents in the country representing approximately 0.8% of GDP. The World Report on Road Traffic Injury and developed by the World Health Organization - WHO and the World Bank - BM (2004) indicates that every day worldwide, about 16, 000 people die all type of trauma. These represent 12% of the global burden of disease, and the leading cause of death in the age group of 1-40 years. Furthermore, road traffic injuries are preventable; for this purpose countries should designate a lead agency in government to guide the national activities in road safety; evaluate the problem, policies and institutional frameworks for injuries caused by traffic; and the ability to prevent; develop national strategies and plans for road safety, allocating financial and human resources to address the problem; implement specific actions to prevent collisions on public roads, minimize injuries and their consequences and evaluate the results of those actions. In Peru, the National Road Safety Council under the Ministry of Transport and Communications was established as the governing body for road safety; the Superintendent of Land Transport of Persons, Goods Loading and as an entity in the control of land transport by road; the Directorate General responsible for the regulation and promotion of land transport and the Special Land Transport Infrastructure Project National Transportation; however such units perform actions unarticulated and other actors involved in road safety issues do not identify with these actions by the absence of a Policy and National Highway Traffic Safety System. In this context, this research aims to demonstrate that a breach of the rules of the road transport if it affects users of the National Road Network traffic accidents, for this purpose we have designed the framework and matrix consistency research, where the variables and factors that enabled instruments validate the model and multiple linear regression for the demonstration of the respective hypotheses were determined. The General Hypothesis has the independent variable X = Breaches of the rules of land transport; dependent variable Y = User Involvement of the National Road Network by Traffic Accidents; Specific Hypothesis has as independent variables: X1 = Violation of the rules of carriage of passengers by road; X2 = Non-compliance with rules for transport of goods by road. As a result of the modeling process, it is concluded that the General Hypothesis IS TRUE; therefore, it can be said that there is empirical evidence for that: "The breach of the rules of the road transport affects users of the National Road Network traffic accidents." Just as the specific hypotheses ARE TRUE; consequently no empirical evidence to state that: "The breach of the rules of the road transport of people and goods affects users of the National Road Network traffic accidents." Finally, the results of the research show that there is a correlation between the control of land transport of people and goods traffic accidents in the National Road Network; themselves have been found to the problems exposed is a low priority in public policy, the involved entities perform actions not linked with poor alignment to the axes of the Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020 of the Organization United Nations. ; Tesis

Problems of stress itself and the human response to an acute stress play an important role in the prehospital and early hospital stages of administering emergency medical care. This concerns both individual cases, and a large number of victims in emergency situations, various disasters, military actions, etc. Besides, this issue is of a current importance in administe­ring the medical aid in emergencies in the structure of somatic pathology. An acute stress reaction and the reaction of the person to stress when exposed to isolated psychogenic factor and its combination with somatic one occupies a special place. Mentioned above implies a certain training of specialists of somatic profile or managing patients in conjunction with a psychiatrist, clinical psychologist or psychotherapist.The paper presents an analysis of the meanings used in the research and clinical practice terminology on stress problems. There was drawn a distinction between stress reaction itself to the impact of the stress factor in the structure of stress and psychosomatic reaction of the body to stress. It was shown that the response to stress takes a long period of time (in contrast to stress reaction) and has a significant influence on the course and treatment of somatic disorders after exposure of the stress factor. The paper presents the characteristics of the course of psychogenic and somatogenic stress. It is shown that an acute clinical course is peculiar only to somatogenic stress and it ends with recovery, adaptation of the organism to injury or with a death. Isolated psychogenic stress or such in the background of somatogenic one can acquire properties of chronic stress. The following factors can lead to the condition mentioned above: a) mental revival of experienced stress event; b) the features of the reaction of the person who has to endure stress. In the absence of adequate assistance and further treatment by appropriate specialists this can be accompanied by a further development of mental disorders (most often — posttraumatic stress disorder).A detailed analysis of the nosological types of the mental stress reactions has been carried out in terms of ICD-10. A clear distinction between the classes of the mental reaction was given. Particular attention is paid to the manifestations within the psychological reaction, which is often neglected in clinical practice. Neurotic level of violations has not specific signs, it differs little from generally accepted nosological forms, it is necessarily tied to the stress factor. As a rule, it has the nature of an asthenic, depressive, anxiety and depressive neuroses.Particular attention is paid to the acute stress response of psychotic rank, particularly the most common severe affective-shock response. This is important because of an inadequate perception of the reality by the victims; loss of ability to critical assessment of what is going on and, as a consequence, the lack of appropriate behavior; threats from victims to themselves and other people. Manifestations of the reactive psychosis are analyzed within the limits of psychotic rank.The paper presents an analysis of psychopharmacotherapy by the different classes of medications, indications for their use. There are given approximate treatment regimens for syndrome manifestations of acute stress reaction. There are shown tactical options for emergency medical and mental health care in disorders being analyzed, necessity of the further treatment. The necessity of careful attention to this disease is justifies, as in the absence of timely and adequate help it leads to the development of psychiatric disease and disability of victims. Data can be used in the training of paramedical personnel, doctors of emergency medical services, services involved in providing medical help to victims of emergencies, disasters, military operations, general practitioners in the treatment of emergency conditions. ; Проблемы собственно стресса и реакции человека на острый стресс занимают важное место на догоспитальном и раннем госпитальном этапах оказания экстренной медицинской помощи. Это касается как единичных случаев, так и большого числа пострадавших при чрезвычайных ситуациях, различных катастрофах, боевых действиях и т.д. Кроме того, этот вопрос актуален при оказании экстренной медицинской помощи при неотложных состояниях в структуре соматической патологии. Особое место занимают острая стрессорная реакция и реакция личности на стресс при воздействии изолированного психогенного фактора и в его сочетании с соматическим. Последнее предполагает определенную подготовку специалистов соматического профиля или ведение пациентов совместно с психиатром, медицинским психологом или психотерапевтом. В работе представлен анализ смысловой нагрузки используемой в научной и клинической практике терминологии по проблемам стресса. Проведено разграничение между собственно стрессорной реакцией на воздействие стрессорного фактора в структуре стресса и психосоматической реакцией организма на стресс. Показано, что реакция на стресс занимает длительный промежуток времени (в отличие от стрессорной реакции) и оказывает значительное влияние на течение и лечение соматических нарушений после воздействия стрессорного фактора. В работе представлены особенности течения психогенного и соматогенного стресса. Показано, что соматогенному стрессу присуще только острое течение и заканчивается он выздоровлением, адаптацией организма к повреждению или смертью. Психогенный изолированный стресс или таковой на фоне соматогенного может приобретать свойства хронического стресса. К этому приводят: а) ментальное оживление переживаний событий перенесенного стресса; б) особенности реакции личности на перенесенный стресс. При отсутствии адекватной помощи и дальнейшего лечения специалистами соответствующего профиля это сопровождается в дальнейшем развитием психической патологии (наиболее часто — посттравматического стрессового расстройства).Проведен детальный анализ нозологических вариантов психической реакции на стресс в рамках МКБ-10. Дано четкое разграничение рангам психического реагирования. Особое внимание уделено проявлениям в рамках психологического реагирования, которому в клинической практике очень часто не уделяется должного внимания. Невротический уровень нарушений не носит специфических признаков, по проявлениям мало отличается от общепризнанных нозологических форм, обязательно привязан к стрессорному фактору. Как правило, это носит характер астенического, депрессивного, тревожно-депрессивного неврозов.Особое внимание уделено острой реакции на стресс психотического ранга, в частности наиболее часто встречающейся острой аффективно-шоковой реакции, в связи с важностью этих проявлений по причинам: неадекватного восприятия пострадавшими реальной действительности; потери способности критической оценки происходящего, и как следствие — отсутствия адекватного поведения; угроз, которые несут пострадавшие для себя и окружающих. В рамках психотического ранга проанализированы проявления реактивных психозов.В работе представлен анализ психофармакотерапии различными классами препаратов, показания для их использования. Приведены ориентировочные схемы терапии при различных синдромных проявлениях острой реакции на стресс. Показаны тактические варианты оказания экстренной медицинской и психиатрической помощи при анализируемых нарушениях, необходимость дальнейшего лечения. Обоснована необходимость пристального внимания к данной патологии, так как при отсутствии своевременной и адекватной помощи она приводит к развитию психиатрической патологии и инвалидизации пострадавших. Данные могут быть использованы при подготовке среднего медицинского персонала, врачей службы экстренной медицинской помощи, служб, участвующих в оказании медицинской помощи пострадавшим в условиях чрезвычайных ситуаций, катастроф, военных действий, врачей общего профиля при терапии неотложных состояний. ; Проблеми власне стресу й реакції людини на гострий стрес займають важливе місце на догоспітальному та ранньому госпітальному етапах надання екстреної медичної допомоги. Це стосується як пооодиноких випадків, так і великої кількості потерпілих при надзвичайних ситуаціях, різних катастрофах, бойових діях тощо. Крім того, це питання актуальне при наданні екстреної медичної допомоги при невідкладних станах у структурі соматичної патології. Особливе місце займають гостра стресорна реакція й реакція особистості на стрес при впливі ізольованого психогенного фактора та в його комбінації з соматичним. Останнє передбачає певну підготовку фахівців соматичного профілю або ведення пацієнтів разом із психіатром, медичним психологом або психотерапевтом. У роботі представлено аналіз смислового навантаження використовуваної в науковій і клінічній практиці термінології з проблем стресу. Проведено розмежування між власне стресорною реакцією на вплив стресорного фактора в структурі стресу й психосоматичною реакцією організму на стрес. Показано, що реакція на стрес займає тривалий проміжок часу (на відміну від стресорної реакції) і значно впливає на перебіг і лікування соматичних порушень після дії стресорного фактора. У роботі представлено особливості перебігу психогенного й соматогенного стресу. Показано, що соматогенному стресу притаманний тільки гострий перебіг, що закінчується видужанням, адаптацією організму до ушкодження або смертю. Психогенний ізольований стрес або такий на тлі соматогенного може набувати властивостей хронічного стресу. До цього приводять: а) ментальне пожвавлення переживань подій перенесеного стресу; б) особливості реакції особистості на перенесений стрес. При відсутності адекватної допомоги й подальшого лікування фахівцями відповідного профілю це далі призводить до розвитку психічної патології (найбільше часто — посттравматичного стресового розладу).Проведено детальний аналіз нозологічних варіантів психічної реакції на стрес у рамках МКХ-10. Подано чітке розмежування рангам психічного реагування. Особлива увага приділена проявам у рамках психологічного реагування, якому в клінічній практиці дуже часто не приділяється належної уваги. Невротичний рівень порушень не носить специфічних ознак, по проявах мало відрізняється від загальновизнаних нозологічних форм, обов'язково прив'язаний до впливу стресорного фактора. Як правило, це носить характер астенічного, депресивного, тривожно-депресивного неврозів.Особлива увага приділена гострій реакції на стрес психотичного рангу, зокрема гострій афективно-шоковій реакції, що найчастіше зустрічається, у зв'язку з важливістю цих проявів через: неадекватне сприйняття потерпілими реальної дійсності; втрати здатності критичної оцінки того, що відбувається, та як наслідок — відсутності адекватної поведінки; загрози, що несуть потерпілі для себе й навколишніх. У рамках психотичного рангу проаналізовано прояви реактивних психозів.У роботі представлено аналіз психофармакотерапії різними класами препаратів, показання для їхнього використання. Наведено орієнтовні схеми терапії при різних синдромних проявах гострої реакції на стрес. Показано тактичні варіанти надання екстреної медичної й психіатричної допомоги при аналізованих порушеннях, необхідність подальшого лікування. Обґрунтована необхідність пильної уваги до даної патології, тому що при відсутності своєчасної й адекватної допомоги вона призводить до розвитку психіатричної патологіїйності в потерпілих. Дані можуть бути використані при підготовці середнього медичного персоналу, лікарів служби екстреної медичної допомоги, служб, що беруть участь у наданні медичної допомоги потерпілим в умовах надзвичайних ситуацій, катастроф, воєнних дій, лікарів загального профілю при терапії невідкладних станів.

Slavery is a historical antecedent, which affected all continents, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes successively; its genesis is the sum of all that happened during an intermediate period of history. Paradoxically, slavery and slave trade still exist today under various pseudonyms: servants, nannies, prostitutes, indentured servants, extremely low paid workers. The examination here is confined to the Atlantic Slave Trade and its implications to Africa and its people, both in Africa and in Diaspora. Various aspects and instruments of law, particularly, international and inter-temporal law were examined to justify or repudiate the demand for compensation vis-à-vis reparation. The Atlantic Slavery, which began in the year 1440 was first abolished in 1787 throughout British Empire and in 1833, the British parliament abolished slavery in its colonies. In 1838, the slaves were emancipated and by 1880, slavery had been abolished in southern United States and across the world an estimated figure of over 14 million blacks was forcibly transported to overseas countries. This figure does not include those who died before they arrived to their various destinations. The thesis that slavery and slave trade contributed to the development of capitalism because slave trade constituted an essential element in the early mercantilist stage of capitalist development and abolition, which was a reflex of the resulting industrialism and its free commercial policies may have adherence here and there. Apparently, the increased demand for slaves not only reallocated resources, but also produced externalities thought to impede long-time development in Africa. These impediments were constraints on the growth of African states, increase in ethnic and socio stratification and sustained a culture of political violence. The history of West Africa will be used as a model for the economic marginalisation and depopulation of Africa. While most scholars agree that the depopulation of Africa was a consequence of Atlantic Slave Trade and must have reduced the aggregate population between 1700 and 1850, nevertheless it is problematic to assess the causal impact of slave population growth and development. The regular slave raiding was a constraint to production, social life obscured the ethnic boundaries and the inability to distinguish insider from outsider as the people scattered to escape the risk of being caught. Between the 16th and 19th centuries more than 14 million slaves were produced in Africa and transported to overseas. Book one Chapter I addresses the term "Slavery" and its concepts in all its ramifications. The instruments of semantics, philology and biology e.t.c. were used to arrive at an acceptable definition of slavery. Chapter II have as its priority the examination of slavery as an ancient institution of all cultures and the subsequent break of this culture by the Europeans. Enough evidence were advanced to prove that almost every continent and country practiced one form or another of slavery and slave trade, but this seemingly established culture and norm were put to question by the Europeans. The practice of the Atlantic triangular slave trade and the colonial Plantation economy with the attendant exploitation of the slave workers were extensively discussed in this chapter. Chapter III have as its priority racism, cultural differences, and above all, economics as the motives for Atlantic slave trade vis-à-vis triangular slave trade. The roles and the works of intellectuals, movies, newspapers, and physical contacts with the Africans contributed to slavery and also to the Atlantic slave trade. Book Two Chapter IV dealt with the examination and analysis of the motives of Atlantic slavery and slave trade using the economic, social and political yardstick as the most compelling factors. Mathematical calculations and economic diagrams were used here to describe the demand and supply of slaves and its effect on African economies. In Book Two, the implications of Atlantic slave trade to Africa and its people in strictly economic and demographical terms were examined. Chapter V presented various definitions of natural law and present its prominent progenitors and contributors. The role of natural law in the examination of the atrocities of the Atlantic slave trade cannot be underestimated considering the fact that during this period, international law or positive law as we understand it today, had hardly existed therefore, the only appropriate yardstick open for the examination of the treatment and trade of the Africans appear to be the instrument of natural law vis-à-vis moral law. Chapter VI examined in detail the merits and demerits of the concept of "Pacta sunt servanda" as applied by the Europeans in trade with his African partners. The unfolding implications that resulted because of the failure of adherence to "Pacta sunt servanda" to the contracting persons, nations, villages also featured here prominently. It is on record that the European expansion over other parts of the world was undertaken by the acts of states and governments and later also private business partners participated in the slave trade. Therefore, the implication of this under international law was evaluated. Chapter VII combined the extent and influence of the Radbruch's Formula of Ratio Juris, its logicality and the nature of legal theory and Robert Alexy's conceptual analysis and the theory about the nature of law to determine the degree of morality and justice embodied in the slave laws enacted in the United States during the Atlantic Slave Trade. For example, Radbruch postulated that the objective of legal philosophy is to appraise the law in terms of congruency with its ultimate goal, i.e. to realize the ideas of law. Chapter VIII highlighted the abolition and emancipation of slavery and emphasized the role of Quakers, Anglicans and most importantly anti-slavery campaigners, like Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson. They initiated, campaigned and fought for the abolition and emancipation of African slavery, without which the history of Africa and its people would have being hitherto be rewritten today. Just as the instruments of publications, sermon, pamphlets, treatise, poems, narratives, newspaper articles, reports and petitions were used to promote and aggravate Atlantic slave trade and slavery so also were these instruments used to fight for the emancipation of slavery. Though the cause of reparation for Africans and Africans in Diaspora cannot be seriously questioned, particularly under natural law and the laws of morality, the conceptual, legal, moral and historical issues were discussed extensively in Chapter IX. The normative arguments for and against reparations and the identity of beneficiaries and those sued for reparations were the object of analysis. Causation and attenuation arguments of reparations, particularly in tort liability, for example, act attenuation, victim attenuation and wrongdoer attenuation will help to determine culpability. Tort law analogy in slavery reparations and more so lawsuits for Jim Crow, constitutional requirements and unjust enrichment are all indispensable legal instruments to ascertain the merits and demerits of reparations. The concepts of restitution and genealogical determinism are also essential parts of this chapter. And finally, the philosophy of Libertarianism also constituted to the evaluation of the case for reparations. Reparation has been a common feature or idea in public international law before the emergence of international human rights law. The various international courts have defined the notion of reparation in relation to the notion of international responsibility of the state in • Art. 31: ILC (s. pages 238, 241) • Art. 3: ILC • Art. 13 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • Art. 11(2) • Art. 7(1) The international law advances that any conduct, which is attributable to the state and which constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the state is an international wrongful act and comes under the state responsibility. The international law that adjudicates on state responsibility stipulates that there must be a link between a past wrong and present claim, consequently any legal claim for reparation at the international level will be confronted with the problem of proving that the present day western countries caused the injury inflicted on slaves. Other bodies of law like restitution, which deals with benefit-based liability or benefit-based recovery, has become an increasingly powerful tool in the case of reparation, particularly for mass wrongs. The merits and demerits were done justice to in this Dissertation. Natural Law has played an important role in the affairs of men through the ages because it entails basic principles of moral law and legislation and is in some cases objective, accessible to reason and based on human nature. Though, the concept of natural law is controversial, however, the Nuremberg War-Crimes trials after World War II, had no foundation in written laws. The prosecutors and judges justified their sentences on the assumption of natural laws binding all human beings and the present insistence on human rights also implies the affirmation of a kind of natural law. Natural law is therefore, a reflection of morality and consequently, legally valid if they conform to morality. He appraised human rights as surpassing all written laws and advanced that the law of nature should be sufficient to address the issue of restitution. Therefore, the kidnappings, the involuntary enslavement, the killings or murder of protesting or rebellious African slaves were an offence and a crime that needed to be addressed. Africa and the Africans in Diaspora can seek for justice albeit post mortem of the slaves.