Suchergebnisse

Background There is considerable variability in COVID-19 outcomes amongst younger adults—and some of this variation may be due to genetic predisposition. We characterized the clinical implications of the major genetic risk factor for COVID-19 severity, and its age-dependent effect, using individual-level data in a large international multi-centre consortium. Method The major common COVID-19 genetic risk factor is a chromosome 3 locus, tagged by the marker rs10490770. We combined individual level data for 13,424 COVID-19 positive patients (N=6,689 hospitalized) from 17 cohorts in nine countries to assess the association of this genetic marker with mortality, COVID-19-related complications and laboratory values. We next examined if the magnitude of these associations varied by age and were independent from known clinical COVID-19 risk factors. Findings We found that rs10490770 risk allele carriers experienced an increased risk of all-cause mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 1·4, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1·2–1·6) and COVID-19 related mortality (HR 1·5, 95%CI 1·3–1·8). Risk allele carriers had increased odds of several COVID-19 complications: severe respiratory failure (odds ratio [OR] 2·0, 95%CI 1·6-2·6), venous thromboembolism (OR 1·7, 95%CI 1·2-2·4), and hepatic injury (OR 1·6, 95%CI 1·2-2·0). Risk allele carriers ≤ 60 years had higher odds of death or severe respiratory failure (OR 2·6, 95%CI 1·8-3·9) compared to those > 60 years OR 1·5 (95%CI 1·3-1·9, interaction p-value=0·04). Amongst individuals ≤ 60 years who died or experienced severe respiratory COVID-19 outcome, we found that 31·8% (95%CI 27·6-36·2) were risk variant carriers, compared to 13·9% (95%CI 12·6-15·2%) of those not experiencing these outcomes. Prediction of death or severe respiratory failure among those ≤ 60 years improved when including the risk allele (AUC 0·82 vs 0·84, p=0·016) and the prediction ability of rs10490770 risk allele was similar to, or better than, most established clinical risk factors. Interpretation The major common COVID-19 risk locus on chromosome 3 is associated with increased risks of morbidity and mortality—and these are more pronounced amongst individuals ≤ 60 years. The effect on COVID-19 severity was similar to, or larger than most established risk factors, suggesting potential implications for clinical risk management. ; AG has received support by NordForsk Nordic Trial Alliance (NTA) grant, by Academy of Finland Fellow grant N. 323116 and the Academy of Finland for PREDICT consortium N. 340541. The Richards research group is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) (365825 and 409511), the Lady Davis Institute of the Jewish General Hospital, the Canadian Foundation for Innovation (CFI), the NIH Foundation, Cancer Research UK, Genome Quebec, the Public Health Agency of Canada, the McGill Interdisciplinary Initiative in Infection and Immunity and the Fonds de Recherche Quebec Sante (FRQS). TN is supported by a research fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists. GBL is supported by a CIHR scholarship and a joint FRQS and Quebec Ministry of Health and Social Services scholarship. JBR is supported by an FRQS Clinical Research Scholarship. Support from Calcul Quebec and Compute Canada is acknowledged. TwinsUK is funded by the Welcome Trust, the Medical Research Council, the European Union, the National Institute for Health Research-funded BioResource and the Clinical Research Facility and Biomedical Research Centre based at Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London. The Biobanque Quebec COVID19 is funded by FRQS, Genome Quebec and the Public Health Agency of Canada, the McGill Interdisciplinary Initiative in Infection and Immunity and the Fonds de Recherche Quebec Sante. These funding agencies had no role in the design, implementation or interpretation of this study. The COVID19-Host(a)ge study received infrastructure support from the DFG Cluster of Excellence 2167 Precision Medicine in Chronic Inflammation (PMI) (DFG Grant: EXC2167). The COVID19-Host(a)ge study was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the framework of the Computational Life Sciences funding concept (CompLS grant 031L0165). Genotyping in COVID19-Host(a)ge was supported by a philantropic donation from Stein Erik Hagen. The COVID GWAs, Premed COVID-19 study (COVID19-Host(a)ge_3) was supported by Grupo de Trabajo en Medicina Personalizada contra el COVID-19 de Andalucia and also by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBERehd and CIBERER). Funding comes from COVID-19-GWAS, COVID-PREMED initiatives. Both of them are supported by Consejeria de Salud y Familias of the Andalusian Government. DMM is currently funded by the the Andalussian government (Proyectos Estrategicos-Fondos Feder PE-0451-2018). The Columbia University Biobank was supported by Columbia University and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, NIH, through Grant Number UL1TR001873. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH or Columbia University. The SPGRX study was supported by the Consejeria de Economia, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad #CV20-10150. The GEN-COVID study was funded by: the MIUR grant Dipartimenti di Eccellenza 2018-2020 to the Department of Medical Biotechnologies University of Siena, Italy; the Intesa San Paolo 2020 charity fund dedicated to the project NB/2020/0119; and philanthropic donations to the Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena for the COVID-19 host genetics research project (D.L n.18 of March 17, 2020). Part of this research project is also funded by Tuscany Region Bando Ricerca COVID-19 Toscana grant to the Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese (CUP I49C20000280002). Authors are grateful to: the CINECA consortium for providing computational resources; the Network for Italian Genomes (NIG) (http://www.nig.cineca.it) for its support; the COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative (https://www.covid19hg.org/); the Genetic Biobank of Siena, member of BBMRI-IT, Telethon Network of Genetic Biobanks (project no. GTB18001), EuroBioBank, and RD-Connect, for managing specimens. Genetics against coronavirus (GENIUS), Humanitas University (COVID19-Host(a)ge_4) was supported by Ricerca Corrente (Italian Ministry of Health), intramural funding (Fondazione Humanitas per la Ricerca). The generous contribution of Banca Intesa San Paolo and of the Dolce&Gabbana Fashion Firm is gratefully acknowledged. Data acquisition and sample processing was supported by COVID-19 Biobank, Fondazione IRCCS Ca Granda Milano; LV group was supported by MyFirst Grant AIRC n.16888, Ricerca Finalizzata Ministero della Salute RF-2016-02364358, Ricerca corrente Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, the European Union (EU) Programme Horizon 2020 (under grant agreement No. 777377) for the project LITMUS- Liver Investigation: Testing Marker Utility in Steatohepatitis, Programme Photonics under grant agreement 101016726 for the project REVEAL: Neuronal microscopy for cell behavioural examination and manipulation, Fondazione Patrimonio Ca' Granda Liver Bible PR-0361. DP was supported by Ricerca corrente Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, CV PREVITAL Strategie di prevenzione primaria nella popolazione Italiana Ministero della Salute, and Associazione Italiana per la Prevenzione dell'Epatite Virale (COPEV). Genetic modifiers for COVID-19 related illness (BeLCovid_1) was supported by the Fonds Erasme. The Host genetics and immune response in SARS-Cov-2 infection (BelCovid_2) study was supported by grants from Fondation Leon Fredericq and from Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (FNRS). The INMUNGEN-CoV2 study was funded by the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas. KUL is supported by the German Research Foundation (LU 1944/3-1) SweCovid is funded by the SciLifeLab/KAW national COVID-19 research program project grant to Michael Hultstrom (KAW 2020.0182) and the Swedish Research Council to Robert Frithiof (2014-02569 and 2014-07606). HZ is supported by Jeansson Stiftelser, Magnus Bergvalls Stiftelse. The COMRI cohort is funded by Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany. Genotyping for the COMRI cohort was performed and funded by the Genotyping Laboratory of Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland FIMM Technology Centre, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. ; No

Актуальність. Накопичення величезних обсягів хімічної зброї у світі, продовження наукових робіт щодо її вдосконалення і випадки застосування в терористичній діяльності роблять питання захисту військовослужбовців Збройних сил України від бойових отруйних речовин вкрай актуальними. Мета дослідження: оцінити сучасний стан медичного захисту та забезпечення антидотами військовослужбовців Збройних сил України від бойових отруйних речовин нервово-паралітичної дії. Матеріали та методи. Проведено аналіз забезпечення антидотами військовослужбовців у Збройних силах України за останні 20 років. Розглянуто накази Міністерства оборони і Міністерства охорони здоров'я України, що стосуються комплектно-табельного оснащення медичної служби Збройних сил України. Застосовані методи дослідження: історичний, бібліосемантичний і системного підходу. Результати. Установлено, що в кінці 90-х — на початку 2000-х років у переліку і змісті сумок і комплектів медичної служби Збройних сил України перебували в достатній кількості всі необхідні медикаменти військового призначення. На жаль, сьогодні серед індивідуальних комплектів медичного захисту профілактичні антидоти до речовин нервово-паралітичної дії відсутні. Також відсутні необхідні антидоти і засоби фармакологічної корекції при впливі отруйних речовин в інших сумках і комплектах, що застосовуються в підрозділах і частинах. Слід враховувати, що сьогодні на сході України під контроль терористів потрапило багато промислових підприємств, терористичні диверсії на яких можуть спричинити надзвичайні ситуації техногенного та військового характеру, які за масштабами і наслідками близькі до застосування хімічної зброї. Висновки. Виявлена повна відсутність оснащення медичної служби Збройних сил України медичними засобами профілактики, надання допомоги і лікування уражених отруйними речовинами. Сьогодні в умовах сучасного збройного конфлікту, де ймовірність застосування зброї масового ураження, в тому числі отруйних речовин нервово-паралітичної дії, вкрай висока, наявність антидотів до бойових отруйних речовин є критично важливою умовою для збереження життя і боєздатності особового складу. ; Актуальность. Накопление огромных объемов химического оружия в мире, продолжение научных работ по его совершенствованию и случаи применения в террористической деятельности делают вопросы защиты военнослужащих Вооруженных сил Украины от боевых отравляющих веществ крайне актуальными. Цель исследования: оценить современное состояние медицинской защиты и обеспечение антидотами военнослужащих Вооруженных сил Украины от боевых отравляющих веществ нервно-паралитического действия. Материалы и методы. Проведен анализ обеспечения антидотами военнослужащих в ­Вооруженных силах Украины за последние 20 лет. Рассмотрены приказы Министерства обороны и Министерства здравоохранения Украины, касающиеся комплектно-табельного оснащения медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины. Применены методы исследования: исторический, библиосемантический и системного подхода. Результаты. Установлено, что в конце 90-х — начале 2000-х годов в перечне и содержании сумок и комплектов медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины находились в достаточном количестве все необходимые медикаментозные препараты военного назначения. К сожалению, сегодня среди индивидуальных комплектов медицинской защиты профилактические антидоты к веществам нервно-паралитического действия отсутствуют. Также отсутствуют необходимые антидоты и средства фармакологической коррекции при воздействии отравляющих веществ в других сумках и комплектах, применяемых в подразделениях и частях. Следует учитывать, что сегодня на востоке Украины под контроль террористов попало много промышленных предприятий, террористические диверсии на которых могут повлечь чрезвычайные ситуации техногенного и военного характера, которые по масштабам и последствиям близки к применению химического оружия. Выводы. Обнаружено полное отсутствие оснащения медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины медицинскими средствами профилактики, оказания помощи и лечения пораженных ­отравляющими веществами. В настоящее время в условиях современного вооруженного конфликта, где вероятность применения оружия массового поражения, в том числе ядовитых веществ нервно-паралитического действия, крайне высокая, наличие антидотов к боевым отравляющим веществам является критически важным условием для сохранения жизни и боеспособности личного состава. ; Background. The accumulation of huge quantities of chemical weapon in certain countries of the world, the continuing research work on its improvement and cases of use in terrorist activities make the problem of the protection of military personnel of the Armed Forces of Ukraine from toxic warfare agents extremely relevant. The research aimed to assess the current state of medical protection and provision of antidotes from toxic warfare agents of neuro-paralytic action to servicemen of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Material and methods. The provision of antidotes to servicemen in the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the past 20 years has been analyzed. The orders of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Health of Ukraine regarding the full-board equipment of the medical service of the Armed Forces of Ukraine are considered. The research methods applied were as following: historical, bibliosemantic and systematic approaches. Results. The authors review the historical aspects of the development and use of chemical weapons. The global danger of the use of nerve agents such as Novichok is defined. The characteristic of losses from the use of organophosphorus toxic substances depending on the level of the organization of medical care at different stages of its delivery was given. The main directions of the development of medical protection means from organophosphorus toxic substances are analysed. The last orders of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Health of Ukraine regarding the complete and standard equipment of the medical service for the Armed Forces of Ukraine are considered. The authors conducted a comparative analysis of the individual kit (different sets) used in Ukraine and the USA. The first-aid medical kit of the general medical personnel was found to be intended for reducing the impact of the striking factors of firearms and first aid through self-help and mutual assistance. There are no means for preventing or reducing the damaging effect of military toxicants and for the provision of medical care in case of injury by them (therapeutic antidote). In the serviceman's individual first-aid kit of the Special Operations Forces, there are no medicines (antidotes) for the provision of medical assistance in case of damage due to the paralytic action of toxicants. Only in the first-aid kit for the group of Special Operations Forces, there is atropine sulphate (solution for injection 0.1% ampoule 1.0). The authors emphasize that in the US Armed Forces a serviceman has the individual medical tools. These tools include the MARK I Kit, a set of therapeutic antidotes for nerve agents Nerve Agent Antidote Kit. It is a double container, in which two auto-inverters with antidotes are inserted. The newer model, ATNNA (Antidote Treatment Nerve Agent Auto-Injector), contains both preparations — atropine and pralidoxime chloride in a single injector, which simplifies the injection. The most important requirement for individual sets of medical protection is the presence of preventive use that eliminates the effects of mass destruction weapons or significantly reduces them. The preventive antidotes for organophosphorus substances have been developed based on the reversible inhibitors of cholinesterase. Such antidote in the United States is pyridostigmine — a pill (30 mg) used before the contact with an organophosphorus substance, and repeatedly, if necessary, after 6–8 hours. Authors stated that in the late 1990s and early 2000s, all the necessary medical preparations for military use were scarce in the kits of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Today, there are no prophylactic antidotes for organophosphorus agents in the individual medical kits. Also, there are no necessary antidotes. The authors note that today in the East of Ukraine, many industrial enterprises have been taken by the terrorists. Terrorist diversion can cause man-made and war-time emergencies with after-effects close to those of chemical weapons. Therefore, the medical protection of the personnel of the armed forces is one of the key factors determining the ability to conduct combat in the context of a modern war that has the risk of using mass destruction weapons. Conclusions. The complete absence of the medical equipment of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the medical prophylaxis, assistance, and treatment of the people affected by the toxic agents was revealed. Today, in the context of a modern armed conflict, where the probability of using mass destruction weapons including toxic nerve agents is extremely high, the presence of antidotes to toxic warfare agents is a critical condition for the preservation of life and combat capability of the personnel.

Актуальність. Накопичення величезних обсягів хімічної зброї у світі, продовження наукових робіт щодо її вдосконалення і випадки застосування в терористичній діяльності роблять питання захисту військовослужбовців Збройних сил України від бойових отруйних речовин вкрай актуальними. Мета дослідження: оцінити сучасний стан медичного захисту та забезпечення антидотами військовослужбовців Збройних сил України від бойових отруйних речовин нервово-паралітичної дії. Матеріали та методи. Проведено аналіз забезпечення антидотами військовослужбовців у Збройних силах України за останні 20 років. Розглянуто накази Міністерства оборони і Міністерства охорони здоров'я України, що стосуються комплектно-табельного оснащення медичної служби Збройних сил України. Застосовані методи дослідження: історичний, бібліосемантичний і системного підходу. Результати. Установлено, що в кінці 90-х — на початку 2000-х років у переліку і змісті сумок і комплектів медичної служби Збройних сил України перебували в достатній кількості всі необхідні медикаменти військового призначення. На жаль, сьогодні серед індивідуальних комплектів медичного захисту профілактичні антидоти до речовин нервово-паралітичної дії відсутні. Також відсутні необхідні антидоти і засоби фармакологічної корекції при впливі отруйних речовин в інших сумках і комплектах, що застосовуються в підрозділах і частинах. Слід враховувати, що сьогодні на сході України під контроль терористів потрапило багато промислових підприємств, терористичні диверсії на яких можуть спричинити надзвичайні ситуації техногенного та військового характеру, які за масштабами і наслідками близькі до застосування хімічної зброї. Висновки. Виявлена повна відсутність оснащення медичної служби Збройних сил України медичними засобами профілактики, надання допомоги і лікування уражених отруйними речовинами. Сьогодні в умовах сучасного збройного конфлікту, де ймовірність застосування зброї масового ураження, в тому числі отруйних речовин нервово-паралітичної дії, вкрай висока, наявність антидотів до бойових отруйних речовин є критично важливою умовою для збереження життя і боєздатності особового складу. ; Актуальность. Накопление огромных объемов химического оружия в мире, продолжение научных работ по его совершенствованию и случаи применения в террористической деятельности делают вопросы защиты военнослужащих Вооруженных сил Украины от боевых отравляющих веществ крайне актуальными. Цель исследования: оценить современное состояние медицинской защиты и обеспечение антидотами военнослужащих Вооруженных сил Украины от боевых отравляющих веществ нервно-паралитического действия. Материалы и методы. Проведен анализ обеспечения антидотами военнослужащих в ­Вооруженных силах Украины за последние 20 лет. Рассмотрены приказы Министерства обороны и Министерства здравоохранения Украины, касающиеся комплектно-табельного оснащения медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины. Применены методы исследования: исторический, библиосемантический и системного подхода. Результаты. Установлено, что в конце 90-х — начале 2000-х годов в перечне и содержании сумок и комплектов медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины находились в достаточном количестве все необходимые медикаментозные препараты военного назначения. К сожалению, сегодня среди индивидуальных комплектов медицинской защиты профилактические антидоты к веществам нервно-паралитического действия отсутствуют. Также отсутствуют необходимые антидоты и средства фармакологической коррекции при воздействии отравляющих веществ в других сумках и комплектах, применяемых в подразделениях и частях. Следует учитывать, что сегодня на востоке Украины под контроль террористов попало много промышленных предприятий, террористические диверсии на которых могут повлечь чрезвычайные ситуации техногенного и военного характера, которые по масштабам и последствиям близки к применению химического оружия. Выводы. Обнаружено полное отсутствие оснащения медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины медицинскими средствами профилактики, оказания помощи и лечения пораженных ­отравляющими веществами. В настоящее время в условиях современного вооруженного конфликта, где вероятность применения оружия массового поражения, в том числе ядовитых веществ нервно-паралитического действия, крайне высокая, наличие антидотов к боевым отравляющим веществам является критически важным условием для сохранения жизни и боеспособности личного состава. ; Background. The accumulation of huge quantities of chemical weapon in certain countries of the world, the continuing research work on its improvement and cases of use in terrorist activities make the problem of the protection of military personnel of the Armed Forces of Ukraine from toxic warfare agents extremely relevant. The research aimed to assess the current state of medical protection and provision of antidotes from toxic warfare agents of neuro-paralytic action to servicemen of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Material and methods. The provision of antidotes to servicemen in the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the past 20 years has been analyzed. The orders of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Health of Ukraine regarding the full-board equipment of the medical service of the Armed Forces of Ukraine are considered. The research methods applied were as following: historical, bibliosemantic and systematic approaches. Results. The authors review the historical aspects of the development and use of chemical weapons. The global danger of the use of nerve agents such as Novichok is defined. The characteristic of losses from the use of organophosphorus toxic substances depending on the level of the organization of medical care at different stages of its delivery was given. The main directions of the development of medical protection means from organophosphorus toxic substances are analysed. The last orders of the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Health of Ukraine regarding the complete and standard equipment of the medical service for the Armed Forces of Ukraine are considered. The authors conducted a comparative analysis of the individual kit (different sets) used in Ukraine and the USA. The first-aid medical kit of the general medical personnel was found to be intended for reducing the impact of the striking factors of firearms and first aid through self-help and mutual assistance. There are no means for preventing or reducing the damaging effect of military toxicants and for the provision of medical care in case of injury by them (therapeutic antidote). In the serviceman's individual first-aid kit of the Special Operations Forces, there are no medicines (antidotes) for the provision of medical assistance in case of damage due to the paralytic action of toxicants. Only in the first-aid kit for the group of Special Operations Forces, there is atropine sulphate (solution for injection 0.1% ampoule 1.0). The authors emphasize that in the US Armed Forces a serviceman has the individual medical tools. These tools include the MARK I Kit, a set of therapeutic antidotes for nerve agents Nerve Agent Antidote Kit. It is a double container, in which two auto-inverters with antidotes are inserted. The newer model, ATNNA (Antidote Treatment Nerve Agent Auto-Injector), contains both preparations — atropine and pralidoxime chloride in a single injector, which simplifies the injection. The most important requirement for individual sets of medical protection is the presence of preventive use that eliminates the effects of mass destruction weapons or significantly reduces them. The preventive antidotes for organophosphorus substances have been developed based on the reversible inhibitors of cholinesterase. Such antidote in the United States is pyridostigmine — a pill (30 mg) used before the contact with an organophosphorus substance, and repeatedly, if necessary, after 6–8 hours. Authors stated that in the late 1990s and early 2000s, all the necessary medical preparations for military use were scarce in the kits of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Today, there are no prophylactic antidotes for organophosphorus agents in the individual medical kits. Also, there are no necessary antidotes. The authors note that today in the East of Ukraine, many industrial enterprises have been taken by the terrorists. Terrorist diversion can cause man-made and war-time emergencies with after-effects close to those of chemical weapons. Therefore, the medical protection of the personnel of the armed forces is one of the key factors determining the ability to conduct combat in the context of a modern war that has the risk of using mass destruction weapons. Conclusions. The complete absence of the medical equipment of the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the medical prophylaxis, assistance, and treatment of the people affected by the toxic agents was revealed. Today, in the context of a modern armed conflict, where the probability of using mass destruction weapons including toxic nerve agents is extremely high, the presence of antidotes to toxic warfare agents is a critical condition for the preservation of life and combat capability of the personnel.

En este artículo se analiza la normativa de la UE y del Consejo de Europa, así como la jurisprudencia del TEDH, sobre la penalización de la negación o justificación de los genocidios, concretamente del Holocausto de los judíos a manos de los nazis en la II Guerra Mundial. A la vista de la creciente oleada de partidos neonazis y de la violencia nazi en otros ámbitos, como el del futbol, se concluye que es pertinente la inclusión de la penalización de la justificación del genocidio nazi en los códigos penales europeos, cuando ésta se realiza con intención racista y con ánimo de reinstaurar en el presente prácticas similares o de incitar públicamente a la discriminación y a usar la violencia contra personas por razón de su raza, religión o por su origen nacional o étnico. Examinada la legislación existente en el ámbito del derecho internacional europeo se señalan algunas de sus deficiencias y se propone unas pautas de lege ferenda, en la línea de lo indicado en las Recomendaciones n.º 7 y n.º 15 de la ECRI, que no son textos normativos, sugiriendo en opinión de la autora que el delito debería reducirse a la justificación del Holocausto nazi, según la jurisprudencia sentada en el Tribunal militar de Nuremberg, establecido por el Acuerdo de Londres del 8 de abril de 1945, o como mucho estrictamente a los genocidios reconocidos por Tribunales Internacionales, y que el tipo penal no debería hacerse extensivo ni a los crímenes contra la humanidad, ni a los crímenes de guerra. Se apunta que el término «genocidio», en relación con la penalización de su justificación en la actualidad, debería usarse según su concepción jurídica, referida sólo a los genocidios declarados como tales por Tribunales Internacionales, a partir del Tribunal de Nuremberg, de manera que el delito penal de negacionismo y/o justificación de genocidio no debiera ser aplicado a hechos históricos anteriores a esa fecha. Por un lado el bien jurídico protegido sería la igual dignidad de cada persona humana, en conjunción con otros derechos como la libertad de expresión y de opinión. En este contexto de actuación penal, las recomendaciones de la ECRI distinguen entre el discurso del odio con sus diferentes formas delictivas y la negación del genocidio como un delito encuadrado dentro de los anteriores, pero con un tipo penal específico. El hecho lesivo que se quiere prevenir es la discriminación racial o la lesión de la dignidad de la persona. Se sugiere que los discursos de negación y/o justificación del genocidio se afronten dentro de los delitos de discriminación racial y se consideren como una forma especial de discurso del odio los supuestos en los que dicho discurso adquiera la forma de una negación pública, trivialización, justificación o condonación del crímenes de genocidio, cuya existencia haya sido reconocida por los tribunales, debiendo responder a la intencionalidad de denigrar o estigmatizar a personas o grupos actuales por razón de su raza, religión nacionalidad o por su origen étnico u nacional. La criminalización de este discurso está relacionado con su objetivo, que es herir a individuos o grupos. De lo que se deriva que debe haber incitación o provocación de denigrar a personas o grupos, que se exige dolo con intención racista y que el discurso se realice de modo público. El contenido del injusto es que se genere un peligro cierto de actos ilícitos contra las personas o grupos. Otras dos características que deben confluir para dar lugar a delito de discurso de odio es que ese discurso refleje o promueva una asunción injustificada de que quien lo emite se considera superior a una persona o a un grupo que son objeto de esa crítica. Además ese discurso debe tener como intención el incitar o esperar razonablemente el efecto de incitar a otros a cometer actos de violencia, intimidación, hostilidad o discriminación contra quienes va dirigido el discurso crítico, ya que de este modo esto constituye una forma especialmente seria de discurso de odio. In this paper are analyzed the rules of the EU and the Council of Europe and the jurisprudence of the ECHR, on criminalization of denial or justification of genocide, specifically the Holocaust of the Jews to the Nazis in the Second War World. In view of the rising of neo-Nazi parties and Nazi violence in other areas, such as football, it is concluded that it is appropriate to include the criminalization of justification of Nazi genocide in the European criminal codes, when this is done with racist intent and seeking to reopen these similar practices or publicly inciting to discrimination or to use violence against people because of their race, religion or national or ethnic origin. It is examined existing legislation in the field of international and European law and it has been identified some of its deficiences and it is proposed some guidelines as lege ferenda in line as they are indicated in the Recommendation No. 7 of the ECRI, which is not a legislative text, suggesting according to the author''s opinion that the criminal offense of negationism of genocide should be reduced to the justification of the Nazi Holocaust, according to the jurisprudence of the Nuremberg military Tribunal, established by the London Agreement of 8 April 1945, or at most strictly to the genocides recognized by International Courts, and that the crime should not be extended to the crimes against humanity or war crimes. Finally, it is noted that the term «genocide» in relation to the criminalization of their justification nowdays, should be used as a legal concept, referred only to genocide declared as such by international tribunals, since the Nuremberg Tribunal, so that the criminal offense of denial of genocide should not be applied to previous historical events before that date. On the one hand, the legally protected good would be the equal dignity of every human person, in conjunction with other rights such as freedom of expression and opinion. In this context of criminal proceedings, the recommendations of the ECRI distinguish between hate speech with different forms of crime and genocide denial as a crime framed within the previous, but with a specific offense. The wrongdoer that wants to be prevented is racial discrimination or injury to the dignity of the person. It is suggested that discourses of denial and/or justification of genocide will be addressed within the crimes of racial discrimination and considered as a special form of hate speech cases in which such discourse takes the form of a public denial, trivialization, justification or condoning crimes of genocide, whose existence has been recognized by the courts. It must respond also to the intention of denigrating or stigmatizing individuals or current groups because of their race, religion, nationality or ethnic or national origin. The criminalization of this speech is related to its objective, which is hurting individuals or groups. What follows is that there must be incitement or provocation to denigrate individuals or groups, which requires willful misconduct with racist intent and that the speech is made in public. The content of the unjust is that a certain danger of unlawful acts against persons or groups is generated. Two other features that must come together to give rise to crime of hate speech is that speech reflects or promotes an unjustified assumption that emits who is considered superior to a person or a group who are subject to that criticism. Besides that speech shall be intended to incite or reasonably expect the effect of inciting others to commit acts of violence, intimidation, hostility or discrimination against those targeted by the critical discourse, since so this is a particularly serious form of speech of hate.

This research is conducting a study of the subject of proceedings: victim and their evolution over legislation and doctrine Peruvian and treatment internationally, specifically focuses on studying their rights at the level of doctrine and legislation, to establish whether the rights possessed by the victim, who in addition to being touched in their legal right by the commission of the offense, is also affected by the consequences of the criminal proceedings (secondary victimization); however the State despite recognize rights expressly enshrined in Article 95 of the Criminal Procedure Code does not give sufficient mechanisms to exercise their rights, unlike the defendant, in favor of which have been issued garantistas rules of their rights and has been established, among other procedural mechanisms, the figure of protection of rights that can be used when in the criminal proceedings do not have their rights respected, so the effective enforcement of the principle of equality in the Peruvian legal system is not guaranteed, although it is recognized constitutional and legal level, to suggest that both victim and accused are equal in criminal proceedings. This research aims to determine the current situation in which the victim in criminal proceedings both substantive, procedural and case-level in accordance with the principle of equality and study is whether the guarantees provided by the procedural system they are sufficient to ensure that principle is of vital importance in national law, to what has been discussed doctrine, legislation and performed the analysis of fiscal folders that have corroborated our hypothesis that in fact the principle is not guaranteed equality of arms because not enough regulation of express powers in the Criminal Procedure Code but need to be granted the necessary mechanisms for the exercise of their rights such as the active entitled to seek protection of rights and respect for their physical and psychological integrity in the criminal proceedings would be achieved by the implementation of protection measures for the victim and the appointment of public defenders greater number of victims, especially minors; having concluded that the failure to confront the victim the criminal proceedings after suffering the injury to his legal right, it generates a new victimization, nevertheless, it is not given the necessary resources to address this situation, especially in the cases where the victims are minors, victims of rape, sexual exploitation, trafficking and domestic violence. The study material of this study consisted of the sample of 50 tax folders processed in the Second Provincial Prosecutor Corporate Criminal Huaraz in the period January 2015 to December 2015, using the methods: Historical, by which it was made a study of the evolution of the regulation of the powers granted to the victim in the Peruvian justice system, hermeneutical method for national and international regulation was analyzed with regard to the protection of the rights of victims in criminal proceedings, method descriptive as the current situation of the victim described, regarding their rights during the pendency of the criminal proceedings and finally the inductive method as party analysis of individual cases (50 fiscal folders) where we discuss is whether the rights of the victim in criminal proceedings are being exercised and respected by the criminal justice system. Also in this study it was concluded that much remains to be done in our national system, compared with European legislation have been analyzed in this thesis, and we can redeem positive contributions as the establishment of the right to non-victimization and the establishment of funds for victims and others. ; El presente trabajo de investigación realiza un estudio del sujeto procesal: víctima y su evolución a lo largo de la legislación y doctrina peruana así como su tratamiento a nivel internacional, específicamente se centra en estudiar sus derechos a nivel de doctrina y legislación, a fin de establecer si efectivamente los derechos que posee el agraviado, quien además de haber sido afectado en su bien jurídico por la realización del delito, también es afectado por las consecuencias del trámite del proceso penal(victimización secundaria); sin embargo el Estado pese a reconocerle derechos consagrados expresamente en el artículo 95 del Código Procesal Penal, no le otorga los mecanismos suficientes para el ejercicio de sus derechos, a diferencia del imputado, a favor de quien se han dictado normas garantistas de sus derechos y se ha establecido, entre otros mecanismos procesales, la figura de tutela de derechos que puede ser utilizada cuando dentro del proceso penal no se respeten sus derechos, de esta manera no se garantiza la vigencia efectiva del Principio de igualdad procesal en el ordenamiento jurídico peruano, pese a que se encuentra reconocido a nivel constitucional y legal, que permita afirmar que tanto victima e imputado se encuentren en igualdad de condiciones dentro del proceso penal. La presente investigación tiene como objetivos determinar la situación actual en la que se encuentra la víctima en el proceso penal tanto a nivel sustantivo, procesal y casuístico, de conformidad con el Principio de Igualdad Procesal así como estudiar si las garantías que le otorga el sistema procesal son suficientes para garantizar el referido Principio que es de vital importancia en el ordenamiento nacional, para lo que se ha analizado doctrina, legislación y se ha realizado el análisis de carpetas fiscales que han permitido corroborar nuestra hipótesis de que efectivamente no se garantiza el principio de igualdad procesal ya que no resulta suficiente la regulación de atribuciones expresas en el Código Procesal Penal sino hace falta que se le conceda los mecanismos necesarios para el ejercicio de sus derechos tales como la legitimidad activa para solicitar la tutela de derechos así como el respeto a su integridad física y psicológica en el proceso penal que se lograría con la implementación de las medidas de protección a favor de la víctima así como la designación de mayor número de defensores públicos a las víctimas, en especial a los menores de edad; habiéndose concluido de que el hecho de enfrentarse la víctima al proceso penal luego de haber sufrido la lesión a su bien jurídico, le genera una nueva victimización, no obstante ello, no se le brinda los recursos necesarios para enfrentar dicha situación, en especial en los casos en que las víctimas son menores de edad, víctimas de violación sexual, explotación sexual, trata de personas y violencia familiar. Que el material de estudio de la presente investigación ha consistido en la muestra de 50 carpetas fiscales tramitadas en la Segunda Fiscalía Provincial Penal Corporativa de Huaraz en el periodo de enero 2015 a diciembre del 2015, utilizándose los métodos: Histórico, mediante el que se realizó un estudio de la evolución de la regulación de las atribuciones otorgadas a la víctima en el sistema procesal peruano, método Hermenéutico pues se analizó la regulación nacional e internacional en lo que respecta a la protección de los derechos de la víctimas en el proceso penal, método descriptivo pues se describió la situación actual del agraviado, respecto a sus derechos, durante la tramitación del proceso penal y finalmente el método inductivo pues se ha partido del análisis de casos singulares(50 carpetas fiscales) en las que analizaremos si los derechos del agraviado en proceso penal están siendo ejercidos y son respetados por el sistema de justicia penal. Asimismo en el presente trabajo se ha concluido que aún falta mucho por hacer en nuestro ordenamiento nacional, a comparación de legislaciones europeas que han sido analizadas en la presente tesis, y de la que podemos rescatar aportes positivos como el establecimiento del derecho a la no victimización y el establecimiento de fondos a favor de las víctimas entre otras.

International law in general — Sources — Diplomatic law — Evolution of — Contrasted with other aspects of international law Relevance of universal sourcesStates as international persons — Succession of governments — Upon termination of a rebellion — Regime overthrown by revolution — Revolutionary government bound by treaties entered into by predecessor — Whether special allowance should be made for revolutionary circumstancesState responsibility — Nature and kind of State responsibility — For breaches of treaty obligations — Effect of breaches of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, and Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 by receiving State — International responsibility — Whether responsibility in any way mitigated by alleged activities of diplomatic mission and policies of sending States — Duty to end continuing breach — Duty make reparationState responsibility — Nature and kinds of State responsibility — For Wrong unconnected with contractual obligations — Acts and omissions of State officials — Executive action inaction — Seizure of embassy and diplomatic staff by rioters — Security forces taking no to steps to prevent seizure — Whether State responsible for failure to protect embassy — Subsequent approval of rioters' actions — Whether state responsible for continued detention of staff as hostagesState responsibility — Nature and kinds of State responsibility — For wrongs unconnected with contractual obligations — Acts of insurgents, rioters and private individuals in general — Seizure of embassy and diplomatic staff by rioters — Whether imputable to State — Seizure following inflammatory statements by members of Government — Subsequent Government approval of seizure and continued detention of hostages by rioters — Rioters as "agents" of the StateState responsibility — Damage — Award of damage in general — Violation of treaty obligations leading to injury — Duty to make reparationThe individual in international law — Extradition — In general — Demands by revolutionary government for extradition of deposed ruler — Taking of diplomatic hostages in support of demandDiplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Position and functions of diplomatic envoys — Duty of receiving State to protect envoys and their staff in the discharge of their functions — Function of gathering information by lawful means — Difference between this function and espionage — Duty of non — interference in the affairs of the receiving State — Sanctions for violation of this duty — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, Articles 9, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 39 and 41Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Privileges and immunities — Subordinate members of the diplomatic staff — Entitlement to protection in discharge of functions — Inviolability and immunity from jurisdiction — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961, Articles 22, 29, 30 and 31Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Privileges and immunities — Diplomatic premises — Inviolability of diplomatic premises, property, archives and documents — Seizure of hostages on diplomatic premises — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961, Articles 22 and 24Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Consuls — Position and functions of consuls — Consular function of assisting nationals — Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Consuls — Privileges and immunities of consuls — Inviolability of consuls and consular premises, archives and documents — Immunity of consular staff from jurisdiction — Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963Diplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Miscellaneous — Members of embassy's technical and administrative staff — Entitlement to diplomatic privileges and immunities — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961, Article 1 (d) and 37 (2)Treaties — Termination — By act of party — Non-performance by one party — Acts allegedly inconsistent with Treaty of Amity — Whether debarring State responsible from relying on Treaty in respect of matters taking place prior to these actsInternational organization and administration — The United Nations — The Security Council — Dispute referred to Security Council and International Court of Justice — Whether Court entitled to hear case — Whether appropriate for Court to indicate interim measures of protection — Different roles of Court and Security Councillntemational organization and administration — The United Nations — Other Organs — Secretary — General of the United Nations — Whether appropriate for International Court of Justice to adjudicate upon dispute in respect of which the Secretary — General has established a fact — finding commission — Different roles of Court and commissionDisputes — International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Competence — Unilateral application to Court — Whether Court possessing jurisdiction under Optional Protocols to Vienna Conventionon Diplomatic and Consular Relations — Whether Court possessing jurisdiction under treaty which does not expressly provide for unilateral application — Application allegedly referring only to one part of wider dispute — Whether Court may consider that part alone — Whether appropriate for Court to hear case which is also being considered by Security Council and in respect of which the Secretary — General of the United Nations has established a factfinding commission — Difference between adjudication and mediation — Justiciability of disputeDisputes — International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Procedure — Absence of Respondent State from proceedings Indication of provisional measures — Responsibility of Court to protect interests of both parties when indicating provisional measures — Scope of provisional measures — Inevitability of overlap with claim on the meritsDisputes — Conciliation — Fact — finding commission — Complementary roles of commission and International Court of JusticeDisputes — Unilateral means of redress short of war — Economic sanctions — Attempt to rescue hostages by military operation — Legality — Effect of these measures upon consideration of taking of hostages by International Court — Whether calculated to undermine respect for judicial process — Whether legitimate self — defenceDisputes — Negotiation — Complementary roles of negotiation and adjudication in settlement of dispute — Whether International Court should encourage negotiation by advising parties as to form and content of negotiationsDiplomatic and consular intercourse and privileges — Permanent diplomatic envoys — Privileges and immunities of diplomatic envoys and their staff — Members of technical and administrative staff — Inviolability of diplomatic staff — Immunity from criminal proceedings — Duty of receiving State to protect members of diplomatic staff in the discharge of diplomatic functions — Diplomatic premises — Inviolability of diplomatic premises, archives and documents — Duty of receiving State to protect — Seizure of embassy and taking of diplomatic hostages — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961503Consuls — Privileges and immunities of consular staff and premises — Duty of receiving State to protect — Consular function of assisting nationals — Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 1963Nature of diplomatic and consular law — Importance in the international community — Contributions made to development of diplomatic law by all States and streams of legal thought — Diplomatic law a self-contained body of rules with its own sanctions for cases of abuse — Alleged acts of espionage by members of diplomatic staff to be dealt with only in accordance with Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Alleged acts of espionage incapable of justifying violation of diplomatic immunityState responsibility — For acts of rioters — Rioters seizing embassy after inflammatory statements by members of Government — Action not imputable to State — Government subsequently approving rioters' acts and encouraging detention of hostages — Rioters becoming agents of State — Violation of treaty obligations — Whether engaging international responsibility of State — Duty to make reparationInternational Court of Justice — Competence — Optional Protocols to Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Consular Relations — Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights, 1955, between United States and Iran — Indication of provisional measures of protection — Scope of such measures — Whether fact that dispute under consideration by United Nations Security Council debars Court from pronouncing upon it — Establishment of fact-finding commission by United Nations Secretary-General — Whether Court precluded from considering application because it represents only one aspect of a disputeUnilateral action by Applicant — Economic sanctions — Military operation in attempt to rescue hostages — Whether undermining respect for judicial process — Whether affecting legality of initial actions by RespondentTreaties — Breach — Whether hostile acts by Applicant prevent it from relying upon compromissory clause in Treaty of Amity

In Hidden Depths, Professor Penny Spikins explores how our emotional connections have shaped human ancestry.
Focusing on three key transitions in human origins, Professor Spikins explains how the emotional capacities of our early ancestors evolved in response to ecological changes, much like similar changes in other social mammals. For each transition, dedicated chapters examine evolutionary pressures, responses in changes in human emotional capacities and the archaeological evidence for human social behaviours.
Starting from our earliest origins, in Part One, Professor Spikins explores how after two million years ago, movement of human ancestors into a new ecological niche drove new types of collaboration, including care for vulnerable members of the group. Emotional adaptations lead to cognitive changes, as new connections based on compassion, generosity, trust and inclusion also changed our relationship to material things. Part Two explores a later key transition in human emotional capacities occurring after 300,000 years ago. At this time changes in social tolerance allowed ancestors of our own species to further reach out beyond their local group and care about distant allies, making human communities resilient to environmental changes. An increasingly close relationship to animals, and even to cherished possessions, appeared at this time, and can be explained through new human vulnerabilities and ways of seeking comfort and belonging. Lastly, Part Three focuses on the contrasts in emotional dispositions arising between ourselves and our close cousins, the Neanderthals. Neanderthals are revealed as equally caring yet emotionally different humans, who might, if things had been different, have been in our place today.
This new narrative breaks away from traditional views of human evolution as exceptional or as a linear progression towards a more perfect form. Instead, our evolutionary history is situated within similar processes occurring in other mammals, and explained as one in which emotions, rather than 'intellect', were key to our evolutionary journey. Moreover, changes in emotional capacities and dispositions are seen as part of differing pathways each bringing strengths, weaknesses and compromises. These hidden depths provide an explanation for many of the emotional sensitivities and vulnerabilities which continue to influence our world today.

In Hidden Depths, Professor Penny Spikins explores how our emotional connections have shaped human ancestry. Focusing on three key transitions in human origins, Professor Spikins explains how the emotional capacities of our early ancestors evolved in response to ecological changes, much like similar changes in other social mammals. For each transition, dedicated chapters examine evolutionary pressures, responses in changes in human emotional capacities and the archaeological evidence for human social behaviours. Starting from our earliest origins, in Part One, Professor Spikins explores how after two million years ago, movement of human ancestors into a new ecological niche drove new types of collaboration, including care for vulnerable members of the group. Emotional adaptations lead to cognitive changes, as new connections based on compassion, generosity, trust and inclusion also changed our relationship to material things. Part Two explores a later key transition in human emotional capacities occurring after 300,000 years ago. At this time changes in social tolerance allowed ancestors of our own species to further reach out beyond their local group and care about distant allies, making human communities resilient to environmental changes. An increasingly close relationship to animals, and even to cherished possessions, appeared at this time, and can be explained through new human vulnerabilities and ways of seeking comfort and belonging. Lastly, Part Three focuses on the contrasts in emotional dispositions arising between ourselves and our close cousins, the Neanderthals. Neanderthals are revealed as equally caring yet emotionally different humans, who might, if things had been different, have been in our place today. This new narrative breaks away from traditional views of human evolution as exceptional or as a linear progression towards a more perfect form. Instead, our evolutionary history is situated within similar processes occurring in other mammals, and explained as one in which emotions, rather than 'intellect', were key to our evolutionary journey. Moreover, changes in emotional capacities and dispositions are seen as part of differing pathways each bringing strengths, weaknesses and compromises. These hidden depths provide an explanation for many of the emotional sensitivities and vulnerabilities which continue to influence our world today.

In 2010, the Municipality of Cuenca, through its environmental management commission (EMC), and the World Bank, through the environment and natural resources department, started a collaboration targeted towards strengthening EMC's capacity to better manage Cuenca's environmental assets and to provide EMC with hard evidence and data that will serve as departing point for decision-makers towards the formulation of public policy. Two main areas of focus were chosen: (i) costs of environmental degradation for Cuenca; and (ii) climate change impacts and resilience measures for Cuenca. This report describes the findings of the first area of focus. This report tries to capture the main results and to describe the assumptions and input data utilized, through a detailed step-by-step description of an internationally-accepted and validated methodology, an explanation of input data needs, equations used, assumptions made, and alternative calculation streams; and through the demonstration of this methodology as it is applied to the real case of air pollution in Cuenca. Analyses about the cost of environmental degradation are often used as an environmental priority-setting tool, because it gives the estimated socio-economic costs of environmental degradation (air pollution, inadequate water supply, sanitation, hygiene, and others). In this report, the methodology was used only for air pollution; similar studies can be replicated for other areas in order to have a full description of the different sources of pollution and the subsequent costs that Cuenca is subject to. Economic analysis (cost-benefit analysis) can be applied as a useful tool to prioritize among these interventions options with respect to their efficiency and cost effectiveness. Some policy reforms may also require to understand the political economy of reforms, for example, when taxi technology or bus technology of private firms is to be changed.

How are resources allocated within extended families in developing economies? This question is investigated using a unique social experiment: the South African pension program. Under that program the elderly receive a cash transfer equal to roughly twice the per capita income of Africans in South Africa. The study examines how this transfer affects the labor supply of prime-age individuals living with these elderly in extended families. It finds a sharp drop in the working hours of prime-age individuals in these households when women turn 60 years old or men turn 65, the ages at which they become eligible for pensions. It also finds that the drop in labor supply is much larger when the pensioner is a woman, suggesting an imperfect pooling of resources. The allocation of resources among prime-age individuals depends strongly on their absolute age and gender as well as on their relative age. The oldest son in the household reduces his working hours more than any other prime-age household member.

[spa] La presente tesis doctoral, constituida como un compendio de tres publicaciones, aborda el fenómeno de la carrera dual adoptando enfoques teóricos y metodológico plurales, fundamentados en disciplinas tales como la sociología, la gestión y la psicología del deporte. El primer trabajo se centra en analizar la medida en la que el colectivo de deportistas de élite hace uso de diferentes servicios académicos de apoyo a la carrera dual, así como describir su relación con el nivel de éxito deportivo internacional y el nivel educativo alcanzado. En este estudio, enmarcado en el proyecto SPLISS 2.0 y fundamentado en el modelo de los nueve pilares de De Bosscher et al. (2006), 2160 deportistas de élite de 13 estados/naciones respondieron el cuestionario estandarizado Elite Sport Climate Survey. El examen de los datos y la identificación de relaciones entre las variables investigadas se realizó por medio de análisis descriptivos y de correlaciones, tanto a nivel global como a nivel nacional/estatal. Los resultados globales muestran una relación positiva débil entre el nivel educativo y el nivel de éxito deportivo, y una relación positiva mínima entre la disponibilidad de servicios académicos de apoyo a la carrera dual y el nivel de estudios. Sin embargo, el análisis por naciones/estados no muestra relaciones significativas en la mayoría de los casos. La investigación concluye que la promoción de las carreras duales es una responsabilidad moral de las naciones, y aconseja llevar a cabo más estudios similares en territorios que dispongan de contextos parecidos a nivel socioeconómico y cultural. La segunda investigación realizada se propone conocer las características organizativas de los programas universitarios de apoyo al colectivo de deportistas de élite en el sistema universitario de Cataluña. Partiendo de la teoría de sistemas abiertos de Katz & Kahn (1978), se analizaron diez programas universitarios de apoyo a la carrera dual por medio de dos técnicas complementarias. Por un lado, se llevaron a cabo entrevistas semiestructuradas a 13 coordinadores y coordinadoras. Por otro lado, se analizó el contenido existente en los sitios web de cada universidad. Los resultados exponen diferentes perfiles de estudiantes-deportistas de élite inscritos en los programas. Por otro lado, se describen carencias en ámbitos como la disponibilidad de recursos, la planificación o la legislación existente. Además, se aprecia una destacable influencia por parte de elementos como el profesorado o el sistema europeo de grados universitarios. El trabajo concluye que la voluntad política, un contexto económico favorable y la colaboración privada son elementos a tener en cuenta para el desarrollo de los programas. El tercer estudio busca investigar las principales demandas, barreras y recursos percibidos por estudiantes-deportistas de élite en las distintas fases de su transición de la educación secundaria al grado universitario en ciencias de la actividad física y el deporte. Asimismo, pretende identificar las trayectorias seguidas por este colectivo en función de la importancia subjetiva concedida al deporte y a la educación. Con base en el modelo de transiciones en la carrera deportiva de Stambulova (2003), el modelo holístico de la carrera deportiva de Wylleman, Reints & De Knop (2013), las fases de la transición a la universidad propuestas por Pérez-Rivasés et al. (2017) y las trayectorias descritas por Pallarés et al. (2011) y Miró et al. (2018), 11 estudiantes-deportistas que se encontraban en su segundo y tercer año del grado universitario participaron en entrevistas semiestructuradas. El análisis temático deductivo-inductivo de las transcripciones llevó a la formulación de tres temas: (a) cuestiones generales de la transición a la universidad, (b) cuestiones específicas de la transición al grado en ciencias de la actividad física y del deporte, y (c) trayectorias de la transición. Los resultados muestran que el estrecho vínculo entre el deporte y el contenido del grado universitario se percibe como el principal recurso en esta transición. Sin embargo, esta relación tan próxima entre ambas áreas también se percibe como una barrera importante, en tanto que las asignaturas prácticas implican un riesgo de lesión o de sobreentrenamiento que afecta tanto al desarrollo deportivo como al académico. Asimismo, se observa que la importancia otorgada al deporte y a los estudios es variable a lo largo de los distintos momentos de la transición, fenómeno que denominamos "trayectorias de transición fluidas". El estudio concluye proponiendo el diseño o mejora, por parte de instituciones educativas y/u organizaciones deportivas, de iniciativas orientadas a facilitar la carrera dual en el contexto de un título universitario altamente codiciado por el colectivo de deportistas de élite en España. Tras la exposición de las tres investigaciones que articulan la tesis doctoral, se identifican potenciales implicaciones prácticas de las mismas, y se proponen futuras líneas de investigación que puedan dar continuidad al trabajo desarrollado. ; [eng] The present doctoral dissertation, constituted as a compendium of three publications, addresses the phenomenon of the dual career by adopting plural theoretical and methodological approaches, based on disciplines such as sociology, management and psychology of sport. The first work focuses on analysing the extent to which elite athletes make use of different academic dual career support services, as well as on describing its relationship with the level of international sporting success and the level of education achieved. The study, framed in the SPLISS 2.0 project and based on the nine pillar model by De Bosscher et al. (2006), was conducted with 2160 elite athletes from 13 nations who answered the Elite Sport Climate Survey, a standardized questionnaire. The examination of the data and the identification of relationships between the variables was conducted through descriptive and correlation analyses, both overall and by nations. The overall results show a weak, positive relationship between the level of education and the level of sporting success, as well as a minimal, positive relationship between the availability of academic dual career support services and the level of education. In the analysis by nations, however, no significant relationships were found in most cases. It is concluded that the promotion of dual careers is a moral responsibility of nations, and is recommended to develop further research in nations with similar socio-economic and cultural contexts. The second research aims to identify the organizational characteristics of higher education programs which support elite athletes in the Catalan university system. On the basis of Katz & Kahn's open systems theory (1978), ten dual career support programmes were analysed using two complementary techniques. On the one hand, semi-structured interviews were carried out with 13 coordinators. On the other hand, the content of each university's website was analysed. The results show different profiles of elite student-athletes enrolled in the programs. On the other hand, deficiencies are described in areas such as resource availability, planning or existing legislation. In addition, there is a remarkable influence of elements such as the teaching staff or the European university degree system. The work concludes that political will, a favourable economic context and private collaboration are elements to be taken into account for the development of programmes. The third study aims to investigate the main demands, barriers, and resources perceived by elite student-athletes in various phases of dual career transition to a university degree in physical activity and sport sciences. It also aims to identify the transition pathways pursued depending on the subjective importance they attached to sport and education. On the basis of Stambulova's model of career transitions (2003), Wylleman, Reints & De Knop's holistic career model (2013), the phases of the transition to university proposed by Pérez-Rivasés et al. (2017) and the trajectories described by Pallarés et al. (2011) and Miró et al. (2018), 11 elite student-athletes who were in their second and third year of the university degree participated in semi-structured interviews. Deductive-inductive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts revealed three main themes: (a) general university transition issues, (b) PASS-specific transition issues, and (c) transition pathways. Our results show that the close link between sport and the content of the degree was perceived by the elite student-athletes as their main resource. This link, however, was also perceived as a major barrier as the compulsory practical subjects entailed a risk of injury or overtraining that could affect both athletic and academic development. We noticed how the importance they attached to sport or studies varied at different moments of the transition period, a phenomenon we termed "fluid transition pathways". The study concludes by proposing that educational institutions and/or sports organizations design or improve initiatives which facilitate dual careers in the context of a university degree that is highly sought after by the group of elite athletes in Spain. After the presentation of the three studies that articulate this doctoral dissertation, potential practical implications are identified and future lines of research that could continue the work carried out are proposed.

For most people the transition from childhood/youth to adulthood is a major upheaval – in physiological, cultural and social terms. For young people with a disease that is either congenital or acquired early in life, or with an injury that reduces functional capacity, the transition can involve further challenges – of a health-related nature. The theme of this report is the transition to adulthood within the framework of the habilitation service. Our aim is to shed light on challenges that youngsters needing a combination of coordinated services face in relation to the services established for them, and which are to assist them in childhood, upon transition to adulthood and later in life. Our point of departure is that if functionally impaired young people are to participate successfully in adult society, their need for health-related services must in each case be met in a manner commensurate with the challenges posed by the individual's health situation. This report deals with young people who have entered employment or are completing their education. In addition, they live in their own dwelling away from the parental home. These can be said to be young people whose inclusion in important social arenas has a «success». Hence the report seeks to illuminate the role of habilitation in the process prior to the present situation. This is achieved by means of interviews with two groups of informants. The first group comprises young adults with functional impairments. The second group comprises staff of coordinating units in a selection of Norwegian municipalities or municipal wards. The first chapter is a general introduction to the issues addressed in the report, while the second chapter expounds the habilitation field, its organisation, aim and main tools. Chapter 3 reports on the main findings of an interview survey with heads of coordinating units in a selection of Norwegian municipalities. Our particular focus is on issues related to collaboration within the municipality, between the municipality and the specialist health service and the transition between childhood/youth and adult life. The decision to interview the head of the coordinating unit in the respective municipalities was taken upon the advice of the Norwegian Directorate of Health. Chapter 4 discusses functionally impaired youngsters' experiences with the habilitation service and seeks in particular to elicit experiences from the transition from child habilitation to adult habilitation. Chapter 5 summarises the main findings and proposals some initiatives that may ease the transition from child habilitation to adult habilitation for the individual young person. Habilitation and rehabilitation are defined as: "Time-limited, planned processes with clear-cut aims and instruments, where two or more actors collaborate to provide necessary assistance to the users' own effort to function and cope to the best possible degree, to achieve independence and to participate in social and community life.» This is the definition of (re)habilitation employed today in official documents and which guides policy formulation in this field. The basis in law for habilitation and rehabilitation is set out in various statutes and regulations to ensure that the individual's need for a combination of coordinated services is met. Each municipality is obliged to have in place a coordinating unit with overall responsibility for habilitation service provision, and specialist health services include a rehabilitation unit catering to children and young people that is affiliated to and under the responsibility of a regional health trust. This responsibility can be transferred to a department of the regional health trust at a later stage. Both levels of administration are required to offer services that are: 1. based on a user perspective, 2. coordinated, cross-disciplinary and planned, 3. in or as close as possible to the user's customary environment, and 4. provided in a context meaningful to the user. The empirical part of the project is based on interviews with two different groups. One group comprises managers of the coordinating unit in 22 municipalities or municipal wards. This survey brought to light wide differences between municipalities as regards the organisation of the habilitation service and as regards how they discharged some of the tasks they were expected to perform. All the informants were concerned to improve the service offering to users who fell within the habilitation remit and were thus in need of a number of services the coordination of which was crucial to good service provision, municipal services and second-line services alike. No one was absolutely happy with the situation at the time of reporting although several informants reported an organisational set-up that appeared sound. The informants were clearly preoccupied by the challenges faced by functionally impaired young people upon the transition from youth to adulthood. A majority of the informants made it clear that the quality of the habilitation service, both municipal and second-line, was crucial to young people's ability to tackle the transition to adult life and the challenges they would face in areas such as education and employment, setting up a home and taking on greater responsibility for coordinating social services and health services. An important step in improving the municipal habilitation service would be to assign responsibility for it to a higher level of municipal bureaucracy than is usual at present. Several heads of coordinating units noted a mismatch between responsibilities and work assignments on one hand and the formal power or decision authority available to them in the municipal system. One possible model, to which attention was drawn, was to assign management of the service to a staff function under the chief municipal executive and to draw up guidelines and in the event an authorisation structure for initiatives involving various service performers. It would be important here to clarify responsibilities for and decision authority in relation to services administered by the Labour and Welfare Administration. The second survey comprises interviews with 12 informants in the age range 22 to 31, six females and six males. All have a diagnosis involving varying degrees of impaired physical functioning. Poor balance and reduced mobility are reported by many. Some use a wheelchair all day, others use a wheelchair in particular situations and to move over longer distances. Poor motor function, including poor fine motor control, makes using a keyboard problematic for some. All in all this part of the survey showed wide variation in the informants' experience of how well the habilitation service functioned in terms of coordinating various types of measure and in relation to assuring service continuity. The survey also showed wide variation in the role of the responsible doctors. This is attributable both to the differing priority assigned to habilitation-related work by different doctors and to variations between municipalities in the emphasis given to drawing doctors into this work. The survey also shows that, in the case of a number of informants who are prioritised for residential rehabilitation, the main rationale is to enable medical follow up of their diagnosis. The transition to adult habilitation is an important theme for many. Several of the informants believed they were given insufficient information about various schemes and programmes after they had reached the age of 18 and were no longer in child habilitation. It was now up to them to seek out the programmes and services they needed. Several experienced this situation as difficult. After being in child habilitation, where most of them felt they were taken care of, the transition to adult habilitation was a radical change. They are now personally responsible for applying for and coordinating the health services on which they depend. The situation is most difficult for those whose diagnosis does not place them within the remit of one of the country's competence centres. The report closes with 11 points on which the habilitation service could be improved to bring the range of services offered to users more into line with the legislation and the intentions as regards service quality and scope that are enshrined in central public documents. ; En del mennesker med nedsatt funksjonsevne kan i perioder av livet ha et behov for rehabilitering og habilitering. Barn med en medfødt sykdom eller skade kan trenge koordinerte og sammensatte tjenester innenfor ulike områder gjennom hele livet. Det tjenestetilbudet som gis innenfor habiliteringsfeltet, er både organisert gjennom kommunene og gjennom spesialisthelsetjenesten i de enkelte helseregionene. Det er unge voksnes erfaringer med habiliteringstjenesten som er denne rapportens tema. I første del gis det en fremstilling av mål og virkemidler i habiliteringsarbeidet. Først og fremst konsentrerer fremstillingen seg om den kommunale organiseringen av tjenester. Deretter presenteres erfaringer som leder av koordinerende enhet i 22 kommuner har med samordningen og samhandlingen på habiliteringsfeltet samt de erfaringer 12 unge voksne har med habiliteringstjenesten. Særlig blir utfordringer i forbindelse med overgangen fra barnehabiliteringen til voksenhabiliteringen vektlagt. Som en avslutning på rapporten legges det frem elleve punkter som kan bidra til en forbedring av habiliteringstjenesten.

This article examines the provisions of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Compensation of Damage Resulting from the USSR Occupation (hereinafter -- the Law), which was adopted on 13 June 2000, in the light of customary rules of international law on state responsibility, as codified in the 2001 the UN International Law Commission's Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter -- the ILC Draft Articles). The main aim of the article is to deal with the international legal grounds of the responsibility of the Russian Federation for the Soviet occupation of the Republic of Lithuania and, against this background, to identify the role of the Law. The ground of Russia's responsibility is an internationally wrongful act committed as the aggression against the Republic of Lithuania, which was started by the 15 June 1940 incursion by the Soviet armed forces & subsequently continued in the form of the illegal occupation of Lithuania until the restoration of Lithuania's independence on 11 March 1990, however, the illegal presence of the foreign forces on Lithuania's soil ended only in 1993. The fact of the 1940 Soviet aggression & illegal occupation of the Baltic States has been widely recognized by the international community, it was even acknowledged by the USSR & Russia in 1989-1991. Therefore there is no doubt that under international law from 1940-1990 the Republic of Lithuania had been an occupied State. That is why the illegal occupation with its consequences, as the breach of an international obligation not to resort to aggression having a continuing character, constitutes an objective element of an internationally wrongful act being the ground for Russia's responsibility. That also explains why the title of the Law refers to the occupation. Meanwhile the specific feature of subjective element is addressed in the preamble of the Law. That is the continuity of the Russian State & the corresponding identity of its international legal personality with the Soviet Union, which was claimed by Russia & generally recognized by the international community. Therefore under international law the Russian Federation is the State continuing the rights & obligations of the former USSR (ie., it is the same international legal person). Consequently, internationally wrongful acts of the latter, including the Soviet occupation of Lithuania & the other two Baltic States, should be attributable to the Russian Federation. Apart from the ground for Russia's responsibility, the issue of reparation is addressed in the article. In accordance with international law (the ILC Draft Article), the principle of full reparation should be applied to realize responsibility for an internationally wrongful act. The full reparation for the injury can be provided in the form of restitution, compensation & satisfaction, while any financially assessable damage should be covered by compensation when restitution is not practically possible. Responsibility for the Soviet occupation is the latter case. Therefore in this sense the Law concretizes the claim of Lithuania as it lays down the obligations of the Government of Lithuania to calculate the damage & seek its compensation from Russia. In conformity with the principle of full reparation, the provisions of the Law require to calculate the damage for all period of the Soviet occupation as well as to cover all types of financially assessable damage. The third main issue addressed in this article is admissibility of a claim for reparation, ie., the procedural requirements to be observed by the injured State invoking an international responsibility of other State. The main requirement, as follows from Art. 43 of the ILC Draft Articles, is that the injured State should give a timely & proper notice of its claim to the State responsible for an internationally wrongful act; the claim is admissible when it is waived by the injured State or it can be inadmissible when it is not maintained. However, a mere lapse of time without a claim is being resolved, including delay in its prosecution due to refusal of the respondent State, cannot result in loss of the right of the injured State to invoke responsibility. In this regard the Law is a unilateral act of the State of Lithuania which formulates & concretizes the claim for Russia's responsibility. The form of this act was determined by Lithuanian national rather than international law as the former requires that any compulsory rules or instructions for the Government can be laid down by the Seimas (the Parliament) only in the form of (statutory) law. As it is clear from the preamble of the Law, in continuing & consolidating the previous Lithuanian acts invoking Russia's responsibility the Law demonstrates that the claim for responsibility has been raised without any unreasonable delay a long time ago (the first time Lithuania declared about its claim for reparation in 1991) & Russia is aware of that claim from the very beginning. In such a manner the Law also proves a consistent & unchanging position of Lithuania with regard to Russia's responsibility. Therefore, the Law evidences that the claim of Lithuania remains admissible although still being unresolved & notwithstanding that Russia is rejecting it. Under international law the injured State has the right to waive its claim for responsibility of another State. National law may, however, restrict that right in setting up appropriate duties for the authorities of the injured State. In this regard it follows from the preamble of the Law that under Lithuanian constitutional law no State organ or official can declare a waiver of the claim for Russia's responsibility because the Law is based on & aims at implementation of the corresponding decision by the 14 June 1992 national referendum that demanded to seek reparation for the Soviet occupation. Therefore, the waiver can be declared only by other referendum as well as without a referendum the Seimas cannot abolish the provisions of the Law requiring to seek a compensation (such kind of action could amount to the waiver in the sense of Art. 45(a) of the ILC Draft Articles). To keep the claim for responsibility of another State admissible & valid, when it is being unresolved a long time, the injured State should do everything it can reasonably do to maintain the claim. Otherwise it can be questioned, whether the right to invoke responsibility is lost due to conduct of the injured State in the sense of Art. 45(b) of the ILC Draft Articles. Therefore, to avoid similar doubts the Law obliged the Government to seek constantly the compensation for the damage caused by the Soviet occupation. Since Russia used to reject Lithuania's initiatives to conduct negotiations on the matter & any other way of settlement is not available without Russia's consent, it can be stated that as yet, in particular due to the Law, the conduct of Lithuania has not raised any serious doubts with regard to validity of its claim for compensation. Obviously such doubts would be serious if any kind of moratorium on the claim had been announced. To sum it up, it can be concluded that the Law is based on & is consistent with the rules of international law. It also implements the international legal requirements for the proper declaration & maintenance of the claim for reparation. Therefore both under international law & under Lithuanian constitutional law the Law has been necessary to consolidate & consistently maintain the claim to Russia for the compensation of the damages caused by the Soviet occupation. Lastly, it should be noted that a proper settlement of the problem of Russia's responsibility for the Soviet occupation of Lithuania is not a question of self-interest for Lithuania & it should pursue the claim for compensation not only due to the decision by the 14 June 1992 referendum. Not accidentally Art. 1 of the ILC Draft Articles refers that "every internationally wrongful act of a State entails the international responsibility of that State." It is also not accidentally that the preamble of the 1991 Treaty between Lithuania & Russia states that mutual confidence between the people of both Parties is hard to achieve without elimination of the consequences of the Soviet annexation of Lithuania. Like for national law, rule of law & justice cannot be established without realization & inevitability of responsibility for grave breaches of international law. Therefore the realization of responsibility for the 1940 aggression against the Baltic States & its consequences would undoubtedly contribute to general prevention of such grave breaches as well as would assure that similar tragic events never happen again in the history of Lithuania. Such kind of prevention should be at the focus of attention of the whole international community rather than only Lithuania & the other two Baltic States, since a prohibition of aggression is a long-standing rule of jus cogens character & obligation erga omnes towards international community. Adapted from the source document.

Violent crime has emerged as a growing development challenge, affecting large segments of societies, and taking a severe toll on economic development. In many high crime environments, weak institutions, fiscal constraints, and political resistance have undermined the effectiveness of development programs and threatened their sustainability. The World Bank has begun to confront this challenge. The country of Honduras is the most violent in the world as measured by its homicide rate, which reached 90.4 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012. This report presents the findings of a study of crime dynamics and prevention practices focused around a comparison of nine neighborhoods in three of the most violent cities in Honduras: La Ceiba, El Progreso, and Choloma. The research revealed that although the transnational drug trade, economic downturn, and political crisis have deepened the country's vulnerability, some neighborhoods have successfully prevented crime. Drawing from extensive qualitative research in these neighborhoods, the study identified practices that communities pursue to prevent violence through collective responses. It also examined the characteristics of communities, societal factors, and institutional context that have enabled or constrained these responses. The research points to measures that can be built upon, scaled up, and tested through future research and programming to strengthen community-based crime prevention. It illustrates how deep examination of the dynamics of insecurity - and the ways communities manage it - can inform efforts to improve public safety in violence-prone countries.

With most of the global population and capital goods concentrated in urban areas, cities are key to social development and economic prosperity. They are drivers of national economic growth and innovation, and act as cultural and creative centers. Many development partners and other organizations are active on the topic of resilience in cities, and there has been a recent upswing in the development and promotion of innovate programs, tools, and initiatives. Arup International and the Rockefeller Foundation have developed the city resilience framework, which provides a lens through which the complexity of cities and the numerous factors that contribute to a city's resilience can be understood. The framework is being used to facilitate agenda-setting sessions in cities selected to participate in the 100 resilient cities challenge. Within this global context, the city strength diagnostic was developed to help World Bank staff apply this new holistic approach to urban resilience to operations. It was designed to help facilitate a dialogue among stakeholders (for example, government, civil society, residents, and the private sector) about risks, resilience, and the performance of urban systems. The city strength diagnostic results in the identification of priority actions and investments that will enhance the city's resilience as well as increase the resilience building potential of planned or aspirational projects. It stresses a holistic and integrated approach that encourages cross-sectoral collaborations to more efficiently tackle existing issues and to unlock opportunities within the city.