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The general principles for credit reporting were issued by the World Bank in September 2011. Since then, the World Bank and the international committee on credit reporting (ICCR) have been leading efforts towards the implementation of the general principles worldwide. This report is one of the concrete outputs of the work following the general principles. It addresses one of the most significant problems that limit the ability of most small and medium enterprises (SMEs) around the world to obtain adequate external financing to underpin their productive activities: information asymmetries. Creditors assess the creditworthiness of credit and loan applicants based on two basic criteria: ones financial capacity or ability to repay a loan, and ones willingness to repay the loan. A credit reporting system s (CRS) basic objective is to address information asymmetries, which is crucial for determining repayment capacity and repayment willingness. Credit reporting can therefore be extremely valuable to creditors for enhanced, fact-based credit risk assessments, and in this sense can also be seen as a tool to facilitate access to financing, including by SMEs. The main objective of this report is therefore to identify actions that can be undertaken by authorities and other relevant policy makers to improve the flow of data and other relevant credit information on SMEs to creditors through CRS. For this purpose, the report first analyses the overall status of credit reporting activities in connection with SMEs.

In 2011, women and girls represented 50.6 percent of the total Montenegrin population (620,029 persons). Different aspects of gender inequality vary by region and ethnicity. The present World Bank country partnership strategy in Montenegro is based on two pillars that include supporting Montenegro s accession to the European Union (EU) through boosting institutions and competitiveness. The purpose of this report is to provide an overview of gender inequality in Montenegro. Using a number of data sources, gender differences in various outcomes are analyzed with the intention of highlighting gender inequalities in human wellbeing. Results are used to prioritize possible avenues for future research to better understand such inequalities and or suggest areas that require more focus from policymakers. This report operates under the premise that gender equality is both an issue of human rights and of critical economic consequence. In line with the world development report (WDR) 2012, the nomenclature of gender gaps in endowments, access to economic opportunities, and agency will be used to elaborate upon these arguments and their relevance to Montenegro. The findings of this diagnostic suggest that there are gender gaps in Montenegro, particularly in: (i) agency, although available data in this area is limited; (ii) access to economic opportunities; and (iii) human capital among some population subgroups. The structure of the report is as follows: section one gives introduction. Section two addresses gender disparities in endowments, including education, health, and assets. Section three presents disparities in economic opportunities in the forms of labor force participation, unemployment, employment and wages, and entrepreneurship. Section four focuses on agency and its implications for gender equality. Section five discusses relationships across issues and suggests areas for further research.

República Federal AlemanaLa República Federal Alemana es una república democrática, representativa, parlamentaria y federal, compuesta por 16 Estados. El parlamento es bicameral. El Bundestag o Asamblea Federal posee 598 miembros y el Bundesrat o Consejo Federal posee 69. El Poder Ejecutivo es ejercido por el Canciller Federal que es el Jefe de Gobierno.El país mantiene altos índices en materia de Estado de Derecho:Estado de derecho en Alemania(1)Observamos como en una perspectiva histórica de 15 años, los valores concernientes al Estado de Derecho se ubican en una posición constante de un percentil 94/100, lo que nos habla de un elevado índice de garantías políticas. Siguiendo a Bobbio, quién se funda en los principios de la ley natural de Locke, podemos afirmar en este caso la existencia de un verdadero imperio de la ley. La sociedad se compone de un 91.1% de alemanes, un 2,3% de turcos y kurdos, 0,7% de personas provenientes de la ex Yugoslavia, 0,7% de italianos, 0,4% de griegos y bosnios y 0,2% de gitanos. (2) En cuanto a religión, predominan la católica con un 33% y la protestante con un 32%, existiendo a su vez minorías judías y musulmanas (6% de la población). (3)Alemania ha sido escenario de abundantes inmigraciones, las cuales dejaron como consecuencia principal una serie de minorías que no pasaron desapercibidas a lo largo de su historia. En este sentido, es el tercer país en materia de recepción de migrantes. Una posible razón a este fenómeno es su posición liberal ante el asilo político que el Estado ha predicado desde siempre –incluso actualmente- ya que en el artículo 16a de su Constitución dispone que "todo perseguido político goza de derecho de asilo en Alemania". (4) Es interesante observar en este punto como el principio de defensa de los derechos inalienables del individuo poseen una implícita primacía por sobre los conceptos de Estado y nación. Es este un elemento que sustenta la intención de defender las garantías políticas de todo individuo que se vea privado de las mismas, aún cuando careciere de la nacionalidad alemana. Observamos entonces como subyace el principio filosófico de la teoría liberal de Locke. Destacamos, por otra parte, que en la actualidad Alemania es uno de los países europeos que más dificulta la inmigración –en circunstancias distintas a las previamente mencionadas- y la expedición de su nacionalidad. Dado la enorme complejidad de la persecución que históricamente han sufrido las minorías en Alemania, nos limitaremos a mencionar las cifras del holocausto llevado a cabo por el régimen Nazi: 11 millones de víctimas, de las que 6 millones eran ciudadanos polacos. Asimismo, además de los 6 millones de judíos, hubo 5 millones que incluían a afro-europeos, Testigos de Jehovah, discapacitados, homosexuales, gitanos, sacerdotes y líderes cristianos y perseguidos políticos opositores al sistema. (5) Destacamos este hecho histórico no sólo por la enorme relevancia que tiene en materia de Derechos Humanos y por constituir una atrocidad que ha calado hondo en la percepción del mundo sobre los alcances de la naturaleza humana, sino –y a los efectos de nuestro análisis- para plantear la evidente consecuencia de este fenómeno en nuestros tiempos. Persiste en la sociedad y gobierno alemán una suerte de cargo de conciencia, profundizado por el saberse moralmente reprobado y vigilado por el mundo entero. Esto obliga a tener una profunda y particular consideración para con el trato de las minorías en su país. Paso seguido, ¿Cuál es el papel de las minorías en términos de participación política? El sistema de representación alemán determina que sólo aquellos partidos "receiving more than 5% of the vote are represented in parliament in proportion to their vote." (6) En este sentido observamos su evidente consecuencia: "El establecimiento de dicho umbral logró reducir la oportunidad de representación de los partidos pequeños." (7) Esto obliga a generar un sistema de gobierno de coalición donde las minorías –que exceptuando a la suma de judíos y musulmanes no superan en ninguno de los casos el 5%- sólo podrían verse representados en función de negociaciones con los grandes partidos, donde su influencia o poder de imposición sería escaso –por no considerarlo nulo en términos relativos. El problema se ve incrementado por el escaso porcentaje de extranjeros nacionalizados y, por ende, poseyentes de derechos políticos. "Only a third of Turks have become German citizens, in part because dual citizenship is not allowed." (8) Esto, de acuerdo a la teoría del gobierno representativo de John Stuart Mill, caería dentro de lo que podría considerarse una deficiencia del sistema de representación. Sin embargo, queremos destacar que aún a pesar de lo que las cifras llevan a inducir, los resultados de las elecciones del 2005 determinan que "there were at least eight members of ethnic minorities in the Bundestag and one on the Federal Constitutional Court, but none in the cabinet." (9) Lo que nos habla de un sistema de representación que en cierta medida pudiere estar funcionando en la práctica. Otro problema radica en la pobre integración –particularmente de los turcos- ya que, como es señalado en un artículo The Economist, la población joven desconoce el alemán e intensifica sus prácticas religiosas –distantes a la tradición cristiana alemana- careciendo muchas veces, como señalábamos previamente, de la nacionalidad. Eso, producto también de las mayores trabas existentes para obtener la ciudadanía, en parte porque, como indica el artículo, "immigrants are welcome, but you also have to get to know our culture, says Wolfgang Schäuble, the interior minister, who rejects the growth of parallel societies." (10) En cierto sentido, buscando distanciarse de las llamadas falsas promesas de la democracia planteada por Bobbio. Esta es una de las causas de la complicada situación que persiste en materia de Derechos Humanos para con las minorías extranjeras (debidamente protegidas por la constitución alemana en su artículo 3 (11)), donde"harassment, including beatings, of foreigners and racial minorities remained a frequent problem throughout the country." (12) En relación a micro grupos operando organizadamente en materia de persecución política, el Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos sostiene que "the FCO defines politically motivated crimes as offenses related to the victims' ideology, nationality, ethnicity, race, skin color, religion, worldview, ancestry, sexual orientation, disability status, appearance, or social status. The FOPC report listed 180 right wing extremist organizations and groups." (13) Sin embargo, es necesario remarcar que el país se destaca por sus bajos índices de violencia y su buena estabilidad política (14): Estabilidad política y ausencia de violencia en Alemania (15) En esta línea, The Freedom House (16) posiciona a Alemania en un puntaje de 1 (valor que representa la escala máxima de libertad) en materia de libertades civiles y políticas. En su análisis se destaca particularmente el buen funcionamiento de las instituciones democráticas y el Estado de Derecho, aunque sugiere también un llamado de atención en materia de ataques a minorías étnicas y en lo que respecta a ciertas restricciones a la participación política: "Political pluralism in Germany has been constrained by laws restricting the far left and far right." (17) En lo que al Poder Judicial respecta, observamos que prevalece una estricta independencia amparada en la misma constitución, estableciendo explícitamente en su artículo 97 que "los jueces son independientes y están sometidos únicamente a la ley." (18) Esto, sumado a que "the government is free of pervasive corruption" (19) nos habla un funcionamiento democrático que se aleja en buena medida de las falsas promesas a la democracia planteadas en la teoría de Bobbio. En materia de libertad de expresión, también The Freedom House (20) ubica a Alemania entre los países considerados libres. Esto se fundamenta en su Constitución, donde se establece explícitamente en su artículo 5 que "No se ejercerá censura." (21) El análisis de The Freedom House lo posiciona como poseyente de una prensa diversa e independiente. Asimismo, dicho derecho se ve respaldado en el artículo 10 (22) de la European Convention on Human Right, considerado en Alemania ley federal. Por último, se observa que "Germany's government is accountable through open debates in parliament that are covered widely covered in the media" (23), indicios de una aproximación al debate público que pudiere dar origen a una suerte de democracia deliberativa. Sin embargo, pensamos que a la luz de la eficacia que en definitiva parecieran tener las instituciones democráticas en Alemania, sugerimos que quizá dicho camino democrático no sería –a la fecha- necesario.Estudio comparado Entendemos que en buena medida el estudio de cada uno de los casos ha permitido al lector generar una suerte de deducción en materia comparativa. Sin embargo, consideramos necesario remarcar algunos puntos del análsis comparativo e incorporar algunos detalles que pudieren servir en esta materia. Observamos entonces, en una primera lectura, cómo los indicadores marcan una importante diferencia en los factores que hacen a la gobernabilidad, inclinándose decididamente en favor de Alemania. Como estudiamos en cada caso, la posición de cada país en el Indice de Estado de Derecho elaborado por el Programa de Gobernabilidad del Banco Mundial ha sido debidamente estipulado. Mientras Turquía se posiciona en una escala media, Alemania prevalece en un percentil cercano al 100. Una situación similar se da en el Indice de Rendición de Cuentas, donde Alemania se encuentra por encima de 95/100 y Turquia por debajo de 50/100. Aquí, las respectivas Constituciones nos informan sobre el tratamiento en la materia: por un lado, Turquía mantiene un vocabulario amplio y vago que deviene en un Parlamento fuerte y centralizado, con posibilidad de ejercer presión sobre las instituciones en teoría independientes (por ejemplo, el Poder Jucidial y Consejo Supremo de Radio y Televisión) al tiempo que la arbitrariedad en materia de libertades fundamentales limita toda posibilidad de mecanismos de contralor o rendición de cuentas. Por su parte, en Alemania impera una Constitución clara y contundente, que garantiza tanto la independencia indiscutida de las instituciones como los mecanismos que determinan la efectividad en la rendición de cuentas. Por otro lado, nos remitimos al indicador más contundente en materia comparativa: el Indice de Estabilidad Política (Alemania alcanza 80/100 y Turquia 20/100). No profundizaremos particularmente en este concepto, porque entendemos ha sido debidamente considerado en cada uno de los estudios de caso. Sin embargo, es posible relacionar este indicador con lo que ocurre en materia de libertades y participación política.Por último, nos detenemos en lo que hace al control de la corrupción, elemento que incide notablemente en muchas de las falsas promesas propuestas por Bobbio. Aquí, Alemania obtien 90/100 y Turquia mejora su dsempeno relativo, alcanzando un indicador de 60/100. La enorme distancia que prevalece también en este sentido da fe del difícil camino que tiene Turquía por delante si se plantea seriamente reformar la efectividad de sus instituciones para generar un clima político acorde a su vecino europeo. Sólo de este modo podría garantizar las libertades fundamentales de todos los individuos que conforman su sociedad. Finalmente, en materia de libertad de expresión nos encontramos ante una Turquía que genera especial preocupación, particularmente en el trato con las minorías. Esto permite realizar una lectura entre líneas que determina la situación de persecución en que dicha población se encuentra, tal como ha sido estudiado con antelación.Consideraciones Finales La evidente distancia en materia de instituciones democráticas, Estado de Derecho y tratamiento de las minorías entre la República Federal Alemana y la República de Turquía dan fe de las dificultades que en definitiva enfrenta esta última ante la posibilidad de su eventual incorporación a la Unión Europea. Pareciere que Alemania ha asumido las lecciones del pasado en materia de protección de las libertades liberales, al tiempo que el camino emprendido por Turquía en la materia no parece estar dando los resultados esperados. Nos posicionamos, en este sentido, ante una Alemania libre y de instituciones independientes, con un clima político que posibilita un alto grado de inclusión, al menos desde la conformación de coaliciones políticas. Por otro lado, Turquía permanece en una posición de centralismo que limita enormemente la eficacia a la hora de garantizar la independencia de sus instituciones y las libertades de sus individuos. En un clima de alta corrupción, las falsas promesas de Bobbio afloran en una Turquía con una Constitución más asemejada a los procederes estipulados por Rousseau que a las libertades individuales articuladas por Locke, sin siquiera preservar el rousseauniano idealismo teórico a la hora de la procura de una voluntad generaldesinteresada e independiente. Con un vocabulario amplio y vago, la arbitrariedad es introducida de modo legal, coartando las libertades individuales que son consideradas fundamentales –e incluso previas al Estado- en la concepción liberal. Alemania, aún con algunas señales preocupantes en el trato de la población a las minorías étnicas, carece de estas penetrantes limitaciones que limitan a la democracia y oprimen a las minorías. El estudio comparado refleja una Turquía distante y ajena a los principios democrático-liberales en que está embebida Alemania, distancia que repercute directamente en las condiciones de vida y participación política de sus respectivas minorías. Una eventual Europa que incluyera a ambos gigantes sentiría en sus miembros la palpable distinción que persiste entre un individuo siervo, y un individuo en pleno ejercicio de su libertad. (1) WORLD BANK. (2) Valores aproximados: GUÍA DEL MUNDO: (3) GUÍA DEL MUNDO: (4) LEY FUNDAMENTAL DE LA REPÚBLICA FEDERAL DE ALEMANIA. (5) HOLOCAUST FORGOTTEN.(6) NEW ZEALAND ELECTION STUDIE. (7) Descripción del sistema de Representación Proporcional Mixto en Alemania. .pag 13(8) The Economist. 2007.(9) U.S. DEPATRTMENT OF STATE. 2008.(10) The Economist. 2007. (11) LEY FUNDAMENTAL DE LA REPÚBLICA FEDERAL DE ALEMANIA. (12) U.S. DEPATRTMENT OF STATE. 2008. (13) Íbid.(14) Debido a los antecedentes, los casos de violencia son tratados con especial cuidado, lo que no determina necesariamente que la violencia sea sistemática o que mantenga índices extravagantes.(15) WORLD BANK. (16) FREEDOM HOUSE.2005. (17) FREEDOM HOUSE.2005.(18) LEY FUNDAMENTAL DE LA REPÚBLICA FEDERAL DE ALEMANIA. (21) LEY FUNDAMENTAL DE LA REPÚBLICA FEDERAL DE ALEMANIA. (22) CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS. 1950. (23) FREEDOM HOUSE.2005. *Estudiantes de la Licenciatura en Estudios Internacionales, FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay.AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL. Informe 2011: El Estado de los Derechos Humanos en el Mundo. Disponible en internet: AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL. Turquía: libertad de expresión. Disponible en internet: ANMESTY INTERNATIONAL. 2007. Informe 2007: el estado de los derechos humanos en el mundo. Disponible en internet: BOBBIO, Norberto. 1986. Fondo de Cultura económica. México D.F. CENTRO DE INVESTIGACION Y DOCENCIA PARA AMÉRICA LATINA Y MEDIO ORIENTE. Los Kurdos en Turquía. Disponible en internet: CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS. 1950. Disponible en internet: DAHL, Robert. 1989. Un prefacio a la teoría democrática. Argentina: Grupo Editor Latinoamericano.DERECHO CONSTITUCIONAL TURCO. 1982. Constitución de la República de Turquía. Disponible en internet : Descripción del sistema de Representación Proporcional Mixto en Alemania. Disponible en internet: EL MUNDO EN LÍNEA. Pueblos sin Estado: los kurdos, una nación partida sobre pozos de petróleo.Disponible en internet: EXTRA, Guus; GORTER, Durk (2001). The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives. Multilingual MattersFEDERACIO D´ASSOCIACIONS GITANES DE CATALUNYA. Proyecto Europeo. Disponible en internet: FIGUEROA, Manuel Ruiz. 2007. El islam y Occidente desde América Latina. México. FREEDOM HOUSE. 2005. Map of freedom in the world: Germany. Disponible en internet: FREEDOM HOUSE.2005. Map of press freedom. Disponible en Internet: FREEDOM HOUSE.2005. Country Report: Turkey. Disponible en internet: GLOBAL SECURITY. Military. Disponible en internet: GUÍA DEL MUNDO. 2007. Disponible en internet: GÜRBEY, Gülistan. 1996, The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey since the 1980s. Lexington, Ky. : University Press of Kentucky.HABERMAS, Jürgen. 1999. La inclusión del otro: estudios de teoría política. Barcelona: Paidós. HOLOCAUST FORGOTTEN. Holocaust: Non-Jewish Victims. Disponible en internet: La enseñanza del idioma kurdo en Turquía : una reivindicación legítima y justa.2010. Disponible en internet: LA INSIGNIA. 2005. Derechos Humanos. Turquía: AI pide la derogación del artículo 301 del Código Penal. Disponible en internet: LE MONDE DIPLOMATIQUE. El Atlas III. Un mundo al revés. De la hegemonía occidental al poli-centrismo. Capital intelectual. 2009. LEY FUNDAMENTAL DE LA REPÚBLICA FEDERAL DE ALEMANIA. Disponible en internet: LOCKE, John. 1664. La ley de la naturaleza. Madrid: Editorial tecnos.MILL, John Stuart. 1985. Del gobierno representativo. Madrid:Tecnos. Minorities in Germany: The integration dilemma. 2007. En: The Economist. Disponible en internet: NACIONES UNIDAS. Declaración de los Derechos Humanos. Preámbulo. Disponible en internet: NEW ZEALAND ELECTION STUDIE. Minority Representation, Empowerment,NEWSWEEK. The World`s Best Countries. Diponible en internet: NÚÑEZ DE PRADO, Sara. Minorías nacionales y medios de comunicación: una visión de Europa. Disponible en internet: PETTIGREW, Thomas: "Reactions toward the New Minorities of Western Europe". Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 24, 1998.ROUSSEAU, Jean-Jacques. El contrato social o principios de derecho político. Editorial tecnos. 1988, original en 1762. Madrid. Traducción de María José Villaverde. Pág. 34.THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY. Disponible en internet: TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL. Corruption Perceptions Index 2005. Disponible en internet: U.S. DEPATRTMENT OF STATE. 2008. Humans Right Report: Germany. Disponible en internet: VELASCO, Juan Carlos (2009). Democracia y deliberación pública. Confluencia XXI. Revista de Pensamiento Político. México.WAGMAN, Daniel. Integración e inmigración. Disponible en internet: http://www.fongdcam.org/manuales/educacionintercultural/datos/docs/ActoresyEscenarios/Actores/GrupoSociales/IntegracioneInmigracionT67.pdfWHITE, Jenny B. : "Turks in the New Germany". American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol 99, número 4, Diciembre 1997. WORLD BANCK. Country Data Report for TURKEY, 1996-2009. Disponible en internet: WORLD BANK. Country Data Report for GERMANY, 1996-2009. Disponible en internet: ZERAOUI, Zidane. 2000. El dilema Kurdo. Editorial Limusa S.A

El objetivo principal de esta investigación consiste en identificar y caracterizar las oportunidades comerciales que para el sector industrial del Valle del Cauca presenta la consolidación en el año 2005 del Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas – ALCA – especialmente con Estados Unidos y Canadá. Para lograr este objetivo se requirió, en primera instancia, revisar la situación de intercambio comercial entre Colombia y Canadá, y también Colombia y Estados Unidos a través de un mecanismo unilateral temporal como la Ley de Preferencias Arancelarias Andinas (Andean Trade Preference Act) – ATPA, para luego revisar el estado de las negociaciones según el capítulo de acceso a mercados del Borrador de Acuerdo ALCA. Además se hizo necesario evaluar la situación comercial del Valle del Cauca en el tema de comercio exterior para determinar la importancia de los productos o sectores productivos participantes. De este resultado se tomaron para análisis aquellos productos o sectores más representativos para los cuales se establecieron las posibles oportunidades comerciales que se perfilan si el Acuerdo se consolida y pone en marcha en la fecha propuesta. Este estudio se desarrolló en dos fases. La primera fase comprende la recolección de toda la información agrupada en dos grandes temas: Primero, la información existente sobre Colombia en el proceso de integración económica en América y sobre el Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas – ALCA – que incluye la revisión de la situación de intercambio comercial entre Colombia y Estados Unidos y Canadá a través de un mecanismo unilateral temporal como el ATPA, la búsqueda de antecedentes históricos, la evolución del proceso de integración hemisférica de acuerdo con los avances alcanzados en los Grupos de Negociación y, finalmente, la revisión del capítulo "Acceso a Mercados" del Borrador de Acuerdo ALCA. El segundo tema abarca la información existente en materia de intercambio comercial entre Colombia y el Valle del Cauca y los demás países de América donde se analizaron las estadísticas del comercio que han mantenido y se determinaron las expectativas que tiene el sector industrial del Valle del Cauca frente a la conformación del ALCA. En la segunda fase del estudio se hizo un análisis de la información obtenida en la primera fase para así realizar la caracterización de las oportunidades comerciales concretas identificando los productos o sectores más representativos de la industria vallecaucana en materia de exportaciones de la actualidad y seleccionando los que participan por lo menos con el 5% de la exportación vallecaucana identificando así el paretto en el tema. Igualmente se identificaron los sectores con potencial exportador según el Plan Estratégico Exportador Regional 2001 – 2010 del Valle del Cauca desarrollado por el CARCE. Al analizar los resultados obtenidos fruto de la investigación se identificaron ciertas conclusiones que resulta importante mencionar. Para que Colombia y el Valle del Cauca salgan airosos frente al gran reto que representa la consolidación del ALCA, es perentorio que el Gobierno, el sector privado, la Academia e incluso la sociedad civil estén concentrados en planes de trabajo compartidos y enfocados en estrategias bien definidas donde cada uno juegue su papel. Esfuerzos individuales aislados no garantizan el logro de los objetivos generales que busca la participación exitosa de Colombia en este proceso de integración, debe ser un esfuerzo coordinado. La obtención de ventajas comerciales competitivas y sostenibles en un mercado Americano ampliado por efecto del ALCA, depende del trabajo integrado y alineado bajo los mismos objetivos estratégicos de cada uno de estos actores en este nuevo escenario. Como complemento se identificaron unos factores que pueden considerarse como primordiales para alcanzar un desempeño satisfactorio ante la consolidación del ALCA por parte del Gobierno Nacional y el sector público, por parte del sector privado, por parte de la Academia y por parte de los Trabajadores como miembros de la sociedad civil. ; Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey ITESM;Corporación Universitaria Autónoma de Occidente ; INTRODUCCIÓN 1 1. AMÉRICA Y COLOMBIA FRENTE A LA GLOBALIZACIÓN 9 1.1. CAMBIOS EN EL ENTORNO MUNDIAL 9 1.1.1. Del modelo proteccionista al modelo aperturista. 12 1.1.2. Globalización y regionalización. 14 1.1.2.1. La Unión Europea. 15 1.1.2.2. El Asia Pacífico. 15 1.1.2.3. Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN o NAFTA). 16 1.1.3. Integración económica. 16 1.1.3.1. Modalidades. 16 1.2. REGIONALIZACIÓN EN BLOQUES ECONÓMICOS 18 1.2.1. Convenios o acuerdos regionales en el mundo. 19 1.2.1.1. América. 19 1.2.1.2. Europa. 21 1.2.1.3. Asia. 21 1.2.1.4. África. 22 1.2.2. Integración subregional en América. 22 1.3. LA INTEGRACIÓN ECONÓMICA DE COLOMBIA 25 1.3.1. Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas – ALCA. 26 1.3.2. Organización Mundial del Comercio – OMC. 26 1.3.3. Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración – ALADI. 36 1.3.4. Asociación de Estados del Caribe – AEC. 39 1.3.5. Comunidad Andina de Naciones – CAN. 40 1.3.5.1. Ordenamiento jurídico. 41 1.3.5.2. Beneficios de la integración andina. 42 1.3.6. Colombia – CAN – Argentina. 45 1.3.7. Colombia – CAN – Brasil. 46 1.3.7.1. Antecedentes de las relaciones comerciales Colombia – Brasil. 47 1.3.7.2. Resultados del Acuerdo para las exportaciones colombianas. 48 1.3.7.3. Contenido del Acuerdo de Complementación No 39. 49 1.3.7.4. Los principales aspectos normativos. 49 1.3.8. Colombia – Chile. 50 1.3.8.1. Acuerdo de Complementación económica No. 24 entre Colombia y Chile. 51 1.3.8.2. Acuerdo sobre Inversiones. 53 1.3.9. Colombia – Cuba. 54 1.3.10. Colombia – Guatemala. 56 1.3.11. Colombia – Honduras. 56 1.3.12. Colombia – Nicaragua. 57 1.3.13. Colombia – Costa Rica. 58 1.3.14. Colombia – El Salvador. 58 1.3.15. Colombia – Panamá 59 1.3.16. Colombia – Paraguay. 61 1.3.17. Colombia – Uruguay. 62 1.3.18. Tratado de Libre Comercio del Grupo de los Tres – G-3. 63 1.3.18.1. Programa de desgravación. 63 1.3.18.2. Acceso a mercados. 65 1.3.18.3. Sector automotor. 65 1.3.18.4. Sector agropecuario y medidas fitosanitarias y zoosanitarias. 65 1.3.18.5. Reglas de origen. 67 1.3.18.6. Salvaguardias. 67 1.3.18.7. Practicas desleales de comercio internacional. 68 1.3.18.8. Principios generales sobre el comercio de servicios. 68 1.3.18.9. Servicios financieros. 69 1.3.18.10. Entrada temporal de personas de negocios. 69 1.3.18.11. Normas técnicas. 70 1.3.18.12. Inversión. 70 1.3.18.13. Propiedad intelectual. 71 1.3.19. CARICOM – Colombia. 71 1.3.20. Mercosur – Comunidad Andina. 77 1.3.21. Colombia – Asia Pacífico. 79 1.3.21.1. Concejo de Cooperación Económica del Pacífico (PECC). 79 1.3.21.2. Concejo Económico de la Cuenca del Pacífico (PBEC). 81 1.3.21.3. Foro de Cooperación Económica del Asia Pacífico (APEC). 82 1.3.21.4. Conclusiones. 85 1.3.22. Colombia – Unión Europea. 87 1.3.22.1. Sistema de Preferencias Generalizadas – SPG. 87 1.3.22.2. SPG Andino. 87 1.3.22.3. Normas de Origen. 88 1.4. RELACIONES COMERCIALES ENTRE COLOMBIA Y ESTADOS UNIDOS 91 1.4.1. Perfil económico y comercial de Estados Unidos. 91 1.4.1.1. Información básica. 91 1.4.1.2. Indicadores sociales y económicos. 91 1.4.1.3. Comercio exterior. 93 1.4.1.4. Principales socios comerciales globales de E.U. 93 1.4.1.5. Estados Unidos: principal importador del mundo. 94 1.4.1.6. Origen de las importaciones de E.U. 96 1.4.1.7. Aranceles, regulaciones y normas. 97 1.4.2. Importancia de las relaciones comerciales con Estados Unidos 101 1.4.2.1. Origen de las importaciones de E.U. desde Latinoamérica. 102 1.4.2.2. Destino de las exportaciones de Estados Unidos. 103 1.4.2.3. Exportaciones de Estados Unidos hacia Latinoamérica. 103 1.4.2.4. Participación bilateral en el comercio mundial. 104 1.4.3. Situación actual del Sistema Generalizado de Preferencias – SGP. 105 1.4.4. Ley de Preferencias Arancelarias Andinas – ATPA. 107 1.4.4.1. Objetivos del ATPA. 109 1.4.4.2. Beneficios. 110 1.4.4.3. Exportaciones de Colombia a Estados Unidos (con ATPA). 111 1.4.4.4. Comercio bilateral entre países ATPA y Estados Unidos. 113 1.4.5. Nota del Arancel de Estados Unidos en relación con el ATPA. 114 1.4.6. Estado actual y futuro del ATPA. 116 1.4.6.1. Vencimiento del ATPA. 117 1.4.6.2. Nuevos productos del ATPA ampliado. 118 1.4.6.3. Iniciativas legislativas en el Congreso de Estados Unidos. 118 1.4.6.4. ¿Cómo exportar ahora bajo el ATPA? 121 1.4.7. Links. 125 1.5. RELACIONES COMERCIALES ENTRE COLOMBIA Y CANADÁ 126 1.5.1. Perfil económico y comercial de Canadá. 126 1.5.1.1. Información básica. 126 1.5.1.2. Indicadores sociales y económicos. 126 1.5.1.3. La economía de Canadá. 128 1.5.1.4. Comercio exterior. 131 1.5.1.5. Origen de las importaciones de Canadá. 133 1.5.1.6. Diez principales importaciones de Canadá. 134 1.5.1.7. Diez principales exportaciones de Canadá. 134 1.5.2. Reglamentación y procedimientos aduaneros en Canadá 135 1.5.2.1. Impuesto a las ventas. 136 1.5.2.2. Reglamentos específicos aplicables a determinados productos. 137 1.5.2.3. Importaciones controladas y prohibidas. 138 1.5.2.4. Cuotas y aranceles estacionales. 139 1.5.3. Logística. 140 1.5.3.1. Alternativas de transporte y puertos de entrada. 140 1.5.3.2. La relación contractual: Incoterms y otras garantías. 141 1.5.3.3. Documentos claves para importar en Canadá 146 1.5.4. Sugerencias para exportar exitosamente a Canadá. 149 1.5.4.1. Estrategia principal para aumentar la competitividad 150 1.5.4.2. La importación de los Precios. 153 1.5.4.3. El cumplimiento y la flexibilidad como ventajas competitivas. 153 1.5.5. Preferencias arancelarias. 154 1.5.5.1. Estructura de los aranceles. 154 1.5.5.2. Negociación de preferencias unilaterales. 156 1.5.5.3. Lista propuesta por la Comunidad Andina. 159 1.5.6. Links. 160 2. EL ÁREA DE LIBRE COMERCIO DE LAS AMÉRICAS – ALCA 161 2.1. ANTECEDENTES DEL ÁREA DE LIBRE COMERCIO DE LAS AMÉRICAS 161 2.1.1. Antecedentes remotos del ALCA. 161 2.1.2. Período de desintegración. 164 2.1.3. Primer antecedente directo del ALCA 166 2.1.4. Antecedentes recientes del ALCA. 170 2.2. EVOLUCIÓN DEL ACUERDO ALCA 171 2.2.1. Principios rectores de las negociaciones del ALCA. 173 2.2.2. Estructura y organización de las negociaciones del ALCA. 173 2.2.2.1. Presidencia de las Negociaciones. 174 2.2.2.2. Los Ministros Responsables del Área de Comercio. 174 2.2.2.3. Comité de Negociaciones Comerciales. 174 2.2.2.4. Grupos de Negociación y Comités. 175 2.2.2.5. Apoyos. 176 2.2.2.6. Declaración relacionada con los actos terroristas de finales del 2001. 177 2.2.3. Primera Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 178 2.2.4. Segunda Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 179 2.2.5. Tercera Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 180 2.2.6. Cuarta Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 182 2.2.7. Quinta Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 184 2.2.8. Sexta Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 185 2.2.9. La Cumbre de las Américas 2001 187 2.3. EL BORRADOR DEL ACUERDO ALCA 191 2.3.1. Consideraciones. 192 2.3.2. Grupo de Negociación sobre Agricultura. 192 2.3.2.1. Objetivos. 193 2.3.2.2. Reuniones. 194 2.3.2.3. Intereses de Colombia. 195 2.3.3. Grupo de Negociación sobre Compras del Sector Público 195 2.3.3.1. Objetivos. 195 2.3.3.2. Reuniones. 196 2.3.3.3. Intereses de Colombia. 197 2.3.4. Grupo de Negociación sobre Inversión. 197 2.3.4.1. Objetivos. 197 2.3.4.2. Reuniones. 197 2.3.4.3. Intereses para Colombia. 198 2.3.5. Grupo de Negociación sobre Acceso a Mercados. 198 2.3.5.1. Objetivos. 198 2.3.5.2. Reuniones. 199 2.3.5.3. Intereses de Colombia. 200 2.3.5.4. Texto oficial del Acuerdo. 200 2.3.6. Subsidios, Antidumping y Derechos Compensatorios. 200 2.3.6.1. Objetivos. 201 2.3.6.2. Reuniones. 201 2.3.6.3. Intereses de Colombia. 202 2.3.7. Grupo de Negociación sobre Solución de Controversias. 202 2.3.7.1. Objetivos. 202 2.3.7.2. Reuniones. 202 2.3.7.3. Intereses de Colombia. 203 2.3.8. Grupo de Negociación sobre Servicios. 203 2.3.8.1. Objetivos. 204 2.3.8.2. Reuniones. 204 2.3.8.3. Intereses de Colombia. 205 2.3.9. Grupo de Negociación sobre Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual. 205 2.3.9.1. Objetivos. 205 2.3.9.2. Reuniones. 205 2.3.9.3. Intereses de Colombia. 206 2.3.10. Grupo de Negociación sobre Política de Competencia. 206 2.3.10.1. Objetivos. 206 2.3.10.2. Reuniones. 207 2.3.10.3. Intereses de Colombia. 208 2.4. EL PROCESO DE NEGOCIACIÓN DEL ALCA 208 2.4.1. Estado actual de las negociaciones. 210 2.4.2. Futuro de las negociaciones. 211 2.4.3. Pautas y lineamientos acordados. 212 2.5. COLOMBIA FRENTE AL ALCA 214 2.5.1. El Plan Estratégico Exportador 1999 – 2009 de Colombia. 215 2.5.1.1. Objetivo Estratégico 1. 216 2.5.1.2. Objetivo Estratégico 2. 217 2.5.1.3. Objetivo Estratégico 3. 218 2.5.1.4. Objetivo Estratégico 4. 218 2.5.1.5. Objetivo Estratégico 5. 219 2.5.2. El Plan Estratégico Exportador 2001 – 2010 del Valle del Cauca. 219 2.5.2.1. Visión exportadora del Departamento. 219 2.5.2.2. Variables claves para el desarrollo del PEER. 220 2.5.2.3. Objetivos. 220 2.5.2.4. Proyectos prioritarios. 225 2.5.2.5. Entidades y empresas participantes. 229 2.5.3. Colombia y el ALCA en cifras. 231 2.5.3.1. Exportación de bienes. 232 2.5.3.2. Exportación de servicios comerciales 232 2.5.3.3. Inversión extranjera en Colombia 233 2.5.4. Objetivo e intereses de Colombia en el ALCA. 234 2.5.5. Rol de Colombia, los empresarios y la sociedad civil. 235 2.5.6. "Empresarios por el ALCA". 240 3. COMERCIO EXTERIOR DE COLOMBIA Y EL VALLE DEL CAUCA 243 3.1. INTERCAMBIO COMERCIAL DE COLOMBIA 243 3.1.1. Destino de las Exportaciones Colombianas. 244 3.1.2. Exportaciones Colombianas por Sector Económico. 246 3.1.3. Exportaciones por Sectores Económicos y Grupos de Destino. 249 3.1.4. Origen de las Importaciones Colombianas. 252 3.1.5. Importaciones de Colombia por Grupos Económicos de Origen. 253 3.1.6. Importaciones según Sectores de Origen 255 3.1.7. Balanza Comercial Según Grupos Económicos de Países. 258 3.1.8. Algunas Observaciones Preliminares. 260 3.1.9. Significado del ALCA para Colombia 262 3.2. EL VALLE DEL CAUCA Y SU POSICIÓN FRENTE AL ALCA 263 3.2.1. Importaciones del Valle del Cauca. 263 3.2.2. Origen de las importaciones del Valle del Cauca. 267 3.2.3. Exportaciones del Valle del Cauca. 268 3.2.4. Destino de las exportaciones del Valle. 273 3.2.5. Comportamiento histórico de las exportaciones vallecaucanas. 275 3.2.6. Exportaciones no tradicionales de Colombia y el Valle. 276 3.2.7. Balanza Comercial del Valle del Cauca. 278 3.2.8. El compromiso del empresario vallecaucano. 278 3.3. COMERCIO ENTRE COLOMBIA Y LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS 279 3.3.1. Balanza Comercial entre Colombia y los Estados Unidos. 279 3.3.2. Importaciones y Exportaciones por productos. 281 3.4. COMERCIO ENTRE COLOMBIA Y CANADÁ 282 3.4.1. Balanza Comercial. 282 3.4.2. Inversión extranjera. 283 3.4.3. Comercio bilateral. 284 3.4.3.1. Importaciones de Canadá a Colombia. 285 3.4.3.2. Exportaciones de Colombia a Canadá. 286 3.4.4. Perspectivas del mercado canadiense. 286 4. OPORTUNIDADES 289 4.1. OPORTUNIDADES FRENTE AL ATPA 289 4.2. OPORTUNIDADES EN EL MERCADO CANADIENSE 293 4.3. OPORTUNIDADES FRENTE AL ALCA 294 4.3.1. Papel del sector privado. 295 4.3.2. Oportunidades generales para el empresario. 296 4.3.3. Oportunidades para la industria del Valle del Cauca. 298 4.3.4. Sectores exportadores clave del Valle del Cauca. 300 4.3.4.1. Sectores representativos año 2001. 301 4.3.4.2. Sectores estratégicos del Valle del Cauca. 302 4.3.5. Análisis del sector exportador Vallecaucano 305 5. CONCLUSIONES 308 5.1. SOBRE LAS EXPORTACIONES DE COLOMBIA 308 5.2. SOBRE LAS IMPORTACIONES DE COLOMBIA 310 5.3. SOBRE EL VALLE DEL CAUCA 311 5.4. FACTORES CLAVE DEL ÉXITO 316 5.4.1. Por parte del Gobierno Nacional y el sector público. 317 5.4.2. Por parte del sector privado. 317 5.4.3. Por parte de la Academia. 318 5.4.4. Por parte de los Trabajadores. 318 6. RECOMENDACIONES 319 BIBLIOGRAFÍA 321 ANEXOS 324 ; Maestría ; The main objective of this research is to identify and characterize the commercial opportunities that the industrial sector of Valle del Cauca presents with the consolidation in 2005 of the Free Trade Area of the Americas - FTAA - especially with the United States and Canada. To achieve this objective, it was required, in the first instance, to review the commercial exchange situation between Colombia and Canada, and also Colombia and the United States through a temporary unilateral mechanism such as the Andean Trade Preference Act - ATPA , and then review the status of the negotiations according to the market access chapter of the Draft FTAA Agreement. In addition, it was necessary to evaluate the commercial situation of Valle del Cauca on the subject of foreign trade to determine the importance of the participating products or productive sectors. From this result, those most representative products or sectors were taken for analysis for which the possible commercial opportunities that are outlined if the Agreement is consolidated and put into operation on the proposed date were established. This study was carried out in two phases. The first phase includes the collection of all the information grouped into two main topics: First, the existing information on Colombia in the process of economic integration in America and on the Free Area. Commerce of the Americas - FTAA - which includes the review of the trade situation between Colombia and the United States and Canada through a temporary unilateral mechanism such as the ATPA, the search for historical antecedents, the evolution of the hemispheric integration process according to with the progress made in the Negotiating Groups and, finally, the revision of the chapter "Market Access" of the Draft FTAA Agreement. The second topic covers the existing information on commercial exchange between Colombia and Valle del Cauca and the other countries of America, where the trade statistics they have maintained were analyzed and the expectations that the industrial sector of Valle del Cauca has regarding to the formation of the FTAA. In the second phase of the study, an analysis was made of the information obtained in the first phase in order to characterize the specific commercial opportunities, identifying the most representative products or sectors of the Valle del Cauca industry in terms of current exports and selecting those that they participate with at least 5% of Valle del Cauca exports, thus identifying the paretto on the subject. Likewise, the sectors with export potential were identified according to the Regional Exporting Strategic Plan 2001 - 2010 of Valle del Cauca developed by CARCE. When analyzing the results obtained as a result of the investigation, certain conclusions were identified that it is important to mention. For Colombia and Valle del Cauca to succeed in the face of the great challenge represented by the consolidation of the FTAA, it is imperative that the Government, the private sector, the Academy and even civil society are focused on shared work plans and focused on well-defined strategies. defined where everyone plays their role. Isolated individual efforts do not guarantee the achievement of the general objectives sought by the successful participation of Colombia in this integration process, it must be a coordinated effort. Obtaining competitive and sustainable commercial advantages in an American market expanded as a result of the FTAA, depends on the integrated work and aligned under the same strategic objectives of each of these actors in this new scenario. As a complement, some factors were identified that can be considered as essential to achieve a satisfactory performance before the consolidation of the FTAA by the National Government and the public sector, by the private sector, by the Academy and by the Workers as members. of civil society.

From July 1915 onwards, leave granted to the front fighters allowed them to spend a few days in the rear. From 6 days in 1915, these leaves increased to 7 days in 1916, then to 10 days in October 1917. Approached from a global perspective, this research seeks to link the social and cultural history of war through the methods of cultural anthropology of social facts, without neglecting the political or military dimensions. The plan followed articulates three levels of analysis, the real, the symbolic and the imaginary, using a very varied corpus of sources. The research is based in particular on the analysis of 200 directories of police station reports in Paris (known as "mains courantes"), which have made it possible to build up a database of some 6,000 pass-holders and 6,000 deserters. Analyses of the social and cultural phenomena linked to permission in the capital use the quantitative study of this abundant source, which provides information on many aspects of the lives of individuals and Parisian neighbourhoods, and is not limited to delinquency. This source thus makes it possible to place the reflection in the perspective of social changes over time. The database has also made it possible to map certain phenomena, such as prostitution, desertion or the relations of soldiers on leave with civilians, women or allied soldiers. Finally, the police reports, which are often consistent, give flesh to an individualised social micro-history.The first part retraces the military, political and administrative construction of the permissions, as well as the logistical stakes of their transport by train, which is also studied from an anthropological perspective. It uses mainly classical military and political sources, but integrates testimonies and representations. The permissions regime set up in 1915 in France was marked throughout the war by permanent improvisation, but evolved and underwent a major reform in October 1916 when the French HQG made permissions a statutory allowance of seven days granted three times a year. Although decisions on permissions were the responsibility of the High Command, citizens and politicians played an important role in successive reforms by putting pressure on the government to grant fairer and longer permissions to men. The ideological stakes of permissions are evident in committees or in debates in the Assembly, in which left-wing MPs give a speech on the rights of republican citizens and the social stakes of recreational leave, which reinforces F. Bock's conclusions on the involvement of parliamentarians in the conduct of the war. At the individual level, the combatants have become involved through demands which show that for them there is a close relationship between the rights and duties of soldiers, and that their sacrifice is not without retribution, if only symbolic. In the context of a dehumanizing industrial war, leave had a great role to play in sustaining combatant morale over the long term. The calamitous management of the permissions in 1915 and 1916 explains the place taken by the permissions in the claims of the mutinees during Spring 1917, whereas they were now more regular and distributed with equity: it is especially as a symbol of the condition of the citizen-soldier and of his rights and duties that they are brandished by some combatants, confirming the study of L.V. Smith on the Vth ID. In this respect, leave is part of the evolution of the relations between the Army, the Republic and the citizens.It should be pointed out here that the theoretical weight of discipline is constantly called into question by the transgressive practices of furloughers, which are particularly evident during train journeys: defying authority, ridiculing employees, travelling first class in disregard of regulations, or seeking to illegally extend their leave.In the long term of the war, furloughs also provided a waiting horizon for a long overdue peace, and played a decisive role in men's ability to endure the war. The cycle of anticipation, experience and recollection of leave thus feeds into family letters or conversations between soldiers, and allows individuals to develop plans, even if the leaves arouse very ambivalent feelings. The second part focuses on the experience of being on leave in the capital, where Parisians rediscover a familiar world, while uprooted and isolated combatants from invaded regions, colonies or allied countries discover a mythical city as tourists. Paris was thus the main centre for furloughs in France, and probably of all the countries at war, receiving about 100,000 men per month, for a cumulative total of about 4 million furloughs between 1915 and 1918. The study conducted is based primarily on a statistical analysis of the directories of the minutes of the Paris police stations. The combatants' stay in the capital reveals the entrenchment of the combatant identity, confirming what is known about the importance of a specific culture born of shared experience, but it also combines with the signs of a lingering civilian identity. While political or working communities have not been studied, the strength of family ties, domestic habits, work gestures or neighbourhood sociability indicate that men are resettling into a familiar daily routine, despite the upheavals caused by the war in Paris. The subject lends itself to an analysis of gender identities through the reunion of couples and the confrontation of male and female communities. Relations between men and women have remained good, mainly thanks to the women in the family, but those of the couples are more tense, due to the suspicion that hangs over the companions. Generally speaking, male-female relations are part of banal practices whose cyclical dimension is mainly reflected in the symbolism surrounding certain gestures or words. The study of leave has also shown that female emancipation is limited, as indicated by women's resistance to the sexual solicitations of those on leave. Finally, the demographic stakes of furloughs can be seen in their impact on nuptiality, but their effects are more modest on the birth rate, which they do not compensate for. The relations of the soldiers on leave with the various components of Parisian society during the war (women, foreigners, allied soldiers) testify to the great credit enjoyed by the soldiers at the rear, even if the importance of theatricalization in Parisian space led them to sometimes violent transgressions of the social order, particularly towards police officers, underlining the redefinition of moral standards while invalidating the thesis of widespread "brutalization", since these practices were part of long-term conscriptive and popular Parisian traditions.The soldiers' stay was also an opportunity to identify the social and cultural circulation between the front and the rear, which contributed to the renewal of the distended links between civilians and combatants between 1914 and 1915. The expression of a need for recognition by the soldiers is coupled with a desire to forget the war, which underlines the complexity of individual reactions to the tension of war. Soldiers on leave sought to become exhilarated and to enjoy the pleasures of Parisian life such as the cinema, café-concert and prostitution, behaviours that contrasted with the puritanical norms of wartime. Permissions take their place here in the movement for the democratisation of leisure and holidays that has been underway since the end of the 19th century and confirm the relevance of drawing a parallel between the world of work and the war from the point of view of combatant mobilization factors. This question was explored in depth through the role of furlough in the mobilization of civilians and combatants. The stay of combatants in the rear presented risks from the point of view of controlling public opinion and the movements of soldiers. However, the complexity of the political and military stakes, particularly in 1917, the conditions for carrying out surveys on the state of mind of the Parisian population, and the weight of rumours during the war, made the study of public opinion delicate. On the other hand, permissions do appear to be one of the ways of desertion during the war, even if police sources do not allow for an exhaustive study of this subject, which is still poorly documented in France. The motivations put forward by the suspects indicate the wide variety of conditions in which men became deserters and it is difficult to say what effect the fear of punishment had on their actions. Police sources also make it possible to trace the modalities of the desertion experience, as well as the social profile of late deserters. The third part is devoted to the representations of furlough and furlough-holders that it confronts with the realities described above, based on the study of the press from the rear and the "newspapers from the front", postcards, novels, plays or songs, and with an emphasis on distinguishing the effects of transmitter and medium on the images produced. The stereotype of the combatant perceptible through the images of permission thus contributes to structuring the gap between civilians and combatants in a Parisian setting that crystallizes ambivalent representations. Indeed, soldiers on leave played an important role in the evolution of the wartime system of social representations by embodying the relationship between the combatant community and the civilian community. The figure of the permissionnaire illustrates the fundamental role of ethics in the identity processes of the First World War and in the construction of a social and cultural field specific to "combatants". The logics of civilian guilt on the one hand, and the need for recognition of combatants on the other, are articulated to give substance to combatant stereotypes. In many cases, the relationship of representation is perverted when the values for which combatants are recognized at the rear differ from those to which they aspire. Numerous, highly stereotypical and enduring, civilian representations carry the myths of heroism and virility attributed to warriors. Those constructed by the combatants are more intermittent and deferred, but their persuasive force is usually greater, due to the weight of the testimony between 1914 and 1918, which is perpetuated after the war, carried by the veterans' speeches. Several systems of representation thus coexist, become contaminated and evolve over the course of the war. In all cases, there is a great contrast between combatant myths and the social practices of the furloughers, particularly in their relations with women. ; A partir de juillet 1915, des permissions accordées aux combattants du front leur permettent de passer quelques jours à l'arrière. D'une durée de 6 jours en 1915, ces congés passent à 7 jours en 1916, puis à 10 jours en octobre 1917. Abordé dans une perspective globale, ce travail cherche à relier l'histoire sociale et l'histoire culturelle de la guerre grâce aux méthodes de l'anthropologie culturelle des faits sociaux, sans négliger les dimensions politiques ou militaires. Le plan suivi articule trois niveaux d'analyse, le réel, le symbolique et l'imaginaire, en utilisant un corpus de sources très varié. Celui-ci s'appuie en particulier sur l'analyse de 200 répertoires de procès-verbaux des commissariats parisiens (connus sous le nom de "mains courantes"), qui ont permis la constitution d'une base de données d'environ 6 000 permissionnaires et 6 000 déserteurs. Les analyses des phénomènes sociaux et culturels liés à la permission dans la capitale utilisent l'étude quantitative de cette source foisonnante, qui renseigne sur de nombreux aspects de la vie des individus et des quartiers parisiens, et ne se limite pas à la délinquance. Cette source permet ainsi d'inscrire la réflexion dans la perspective du temps long des évolutions sociales. La base de données a aussi permis la cartographie de certains phénomènes, comme la prostitution, la désertion ou les relations des permissionnaires avec les civils, les femmes ou les soldats alliés. Enfin, les comptes-rendus de la police, souvent consistants, donnent chair à une micro-histoire sociale individualisée.La première partie retrace la construction militaire, politique et administrative des permissions, ainsi que les enjeux logistiques de leur transport en train, qui est aussi étudié dans une perspective anthropologique. Elle utilise principalement des sources militaires et politiques classiques, mais intègre témoignages et représentations. Le régime des permissions mis en place en 1915 est marqué pendant toute la guerre par une improvisation permanente, mais évolue et connaît une réforme majeure en octobre 1916 lorsque le GQG fait des permissions une allocation réglementaire de sept jours accordée trois fois par an. Bien que les décisions en matière de permissions relèvent du Haut Commandement, les citoyens et les politiques ont joué un rôle important dans les réformes successives en faisant pression sur le gouvernement pour accorder des permissions plus équitables et plus longues aux hommes. Les enjeux idéologiques des permissions sont évidents dans les commissions ou lors des débats à l'Assemblée, au sein desquels les députés de gauche portent un discours sur les droits des citoyens républicains et les enjeux sociaux des congés de détente, qui conforte les conclusions de F. Bock sur la participation des parlementaires à la conduite de la guerre. A l'échelle individuelle, les combattants se sont impliqués par des revendications qui témoignent qu'il y a pour eux une relation étroite entre les droits et les devoirs des soldats, et que leur sacrifice ne va pas sans rétributions, ne seraient-elles que symboliques. Dans le contexte d'une guerre industrielle déshumanisante, les permissions avaient un grand rôle à jouer pour soutenir le moral combattant dans la durée. La gestion calamiteuse des permissions en 1915 et 1916 explique la place prise par les permissions dans les revendications des révoltés du printemps 1917, alors même qu'elles étaient désormais plus régulières et distribuées avec équité : c'est surtout comme symbole de la condition du soldat-citoyen et des droits et des devoirs de celui-ci qu'elles sont brandies par certains combattants, confirmant l'étude de L.V. Smith sur la Vème DI. A ce titre, les permissions s'inscrivent dans l'évolution des relations entre l'Armée, la République et les citoyens.Il faut souligner ici que le poids théorique de la discipline est constamment remis en cause par les pratiques transgressives des permissionnaires, qui sont particulièrement manifestes pendant les trajets en train : défiant l'autorité, tournant en ridicule les employés, voyageant en première classe au mépris des règlements, ou cherchant à prolonger illégalement leur permission.Dans le long terme de la guerre, les permissions ont aussi constitué un horizon d'attente qui s'est substitué à celui d'une paix qui se faisait attendre, et ont joué un rôle décisif dans la capacité des hommes à "tenir". Le cycle de l'anticipation, de l'expérience et de la remémoration des permissions alimente ainsi les lettres familiales ou les conversations entre soldats, et permet aux individus d'élaborer des projets, même si les permissions suscitent des sentiments très ambivalents. La seconde partie s'attache à l'expérience de la permission dans la capitale, où les Parisiens retrouvent un univers familier, tandis que les combattants déracinés et isolés, originaires des régions envahies, des colonies ou des pays alliés, découvrent en touristes une ville mythique. Paris est ainsi le principal centre de permissionnaires en France, et vraisemblablement de tous les pays en guerre, accueillant environ 100 000 hommes par mois, soit un total cumulé d'environ 4 millions de permissionnaires entre 1915 et 1918. L'étude s'appuie ici principalement sur l'analyse statistique des répertoires des procès-verbaux des commissariats parisiens. Le séjour des combattants dans la capitale révèle l'enracinement de l'identité combattante, confirmant ce que l'on sait de l'importance d'une culture spécifique née d'une expérience partagée, mais celle-ci se combine aussi aux signes d'une identité civile rémanente. Si les communautés politiques ou de travail n'ont pas été étudiées, la force des liens familiaux, les habitudes domestiques, les gestes du travail ou la sociabilité de voisinage, indiquent que les hommes se réinstallent dans un quotidien familier, malgré les bouleversements occasionnés par la guerre à Paris. Le sujet se prête à une analyse des identités de genre à travers les retrouvailles des couples et la confrontation des communautés masculines et féminines. Les relations entre hommes et femmes sont restées bonnes, principalement grâce aux femmes de la famille, mais celles des couples sont plus tendues, en raison du soupçon qui pèse sur les compagnes. D'une manière générale, les relations hommes – femmes s'inscrivent dans des pratiques banales dont la dimension conjoncturelle se traduit surtout par la symbolique qui entoure certains gestes ou paroles. L'étude des permissions a aussi permis de montrer que l'émancipation féminine est limitée, comme l'indiquent les résistances des femmes aux sollicitations sexuelles des permissionnaires. Enfin, les enjeux démographiques des permissions se manifestent dans l'incidence de celles-ci sur la nuptialité, mais leurs effets sont plus modestes sur la natalité, dont elles ne permettent pas de compenser la chute. Les relations des permissionnaires avec les différentes composantes de la société parisienne du temps de guerre (femmes, étrangers, militaires alliés) témoignent du grand crédit dont bénéficient les soldats à l'arrière, même si l'importance de la théâtralisation dans l'espace parisien les conduit à des transgressions parfois violentes de l'ordre social, notamment envers les agents de police, soulignant la redéfinition des normes morales tout en infirmant la thèse d'une "brutalisation" généralisée, puisque ces pratiques s'inscrivent dans des traditions conscriptives et des traditions populaires parisiennes de long terme. Le séjour des soldats est aussi l'occasion de repérer les circulations sociales et culturelles entre le front et l'arrière, qui contribuent à renouer entre civils et combattants des liens distendus entre 1914 et 1915. L'expression d'un besoin de reconnaissance par les soldats se double d'une volonté d'oublier la guerre qui souligne la complexité des réactions individuelles à la tension de la guerre. Les permissionnaires cherchent à se griser et à profiter des plaisirs de la vie parisienne comme le cinéma, le café-concert ou la prostitution, des comportements qui contrastent avec les normes puritaines du temps de guerre. Les permissions prennent ici place dans le mouvement de démocratisation des loisirs et des vacances engagé depuis la fin du XIXème siècle et confirment la pertinence d'une mise en parallèle du monde du travail et de la guerre du point de vue des ressorts de la mobilisation combattante. Cette question a été approfondie à travers le rôle de la permission dans la mobilisation des civils et des combattants. Le séjour de combattants à l'arrière présentait des risques du point de vue du contrôle de l'opinion publique et des mouvements des soldats. La complexité des enjeux politiques et militaires, notamment en 1917, les conditions de réalisation des enquêtes sur l'état d'esprit de la population parisienne ou encore le poids des rumeurs pendant la guerre, rendent toutefois l'étude des opinions publiques délicates. En revanche, les permissions apparaissent bien comme une des voies de la désertion pendant la guerre, même si les sources policières ne permettent pas une étude exhaustive de ce sujet, encore peu documenté dans le cas français. Les motivations avancées par les suspects indiquent la grande diversité des conditions dans lesquelles les hommes deviennent déserteurs et il est difficile de se prononcer sur l'effet de la peur de la sanction sur leurs actes. Les sources policières permettent aussi de retracer les modalités de l'expérience de la désertion, ainsi que le profil social des permissionnaires en retard. La troisième partie est consacrée aux représentations de la permission et des permissionnaires qu'elle confronte aux réalités précédemment décrites en se fondant sur l'étude de la presse de l'arrière et des "journaux du front", des cartes postales, des romans, des pièces de théâtre ou des chansons et en s'attachant à distinguer les effets d'émetteur et de support sur les images produites. Le stéréotype du combattant perceptible à travers les images de la permission contribue ainsi à structurer le fossé entre civils et combattants dans un cadre parisien qui cristallise des représentations ambivalentes. En effet, les permissionnaires jouent un rôle important dans l'évolution du système de représentations sociales du temps de guerre en incarnant les relations de la communauté combattante à la communauté civile. La figure du permissionnaire illustre le rôle fondamental de l'éthique dans les processus identitaires de la Première Guerre mondiale et dans la construction d'un champ social et culturel propre aux "combattants". Les logiques de la culpabilité des civils d'une part, et du besoin reconnaissance des combattants, d'autre part, s'articulent pour donner corps aux stéréotypes combattants. Dans bien des cas, la relation de représentation est pervertie quand les valeurs pour lesquelles les combattants sont reconnus à l'arrière diffèrent de celles auxquelles ils aspirent. Nombreuses, très stéréotypées et durables, les représentations civiles drainent avec elles tout le poids des mythes de l'héroïsme et de la virilité attribués aux guerriers. Celles construites par les combattants sont davantage intermittentes et différées, mais leur force de persuasion est a priori plus grande, en raison du poids du témoignage entre 1914 et 1918, qui se perpétue après guerre, porté par les discours anciens combattants. Plusieurs systèmes de représentations coexistent donc, se contaminent et évoluent au fil de la guerre. Dans tous les cas, on relève un grand contraste entre les mythes combattants et les pratiques sociales des permissionnaires, en particulier dans leurs relations avec les femmes.

The Mercury December, 1908 HEEP THOSE WHO HEEP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. 2**£™°I CAPS AND GOWNS TII Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lchigh. Dickinson, State College, Univ. of Penn s> Ivani i. Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods _»»■ Degrees. The College Man's Opportunity. We offer the Surest Means of finding your right place. Hundreds of good positions open in business, in teaching and in technical work. Offices in 12 cities. Write us to-day. TUB JYMTJOJVJZ, OB»^JVIZJlTIOJV Of BXAIJV BHOXBJtS. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Electric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for Commencement Visitors. BATES $2.00 PEB DAY. £iver-y Cttad-ied. Jotin P. M^tifl- Proprietor. DEALERS IN All kinds of Fresh and Smoked Meats Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. 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Vke only Jobbing House in Adams County. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. 2 * * » | Seligniqi] I * % 1 ^ B^etim | !t ** 2 Are Gettysburg's Most * * * aV * « v. « «» V* t- * * * * -3 Reliable TAILORS #»»**###*#**#*****»*** PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. i^l^^^^i^^^^^^i^i^^i^^r'i^M^l^.y^yi^-^i^^i^: as ;!. .1.1I ■>!•■ II IIfI Essentially the instruments for criti-cal and discriminating- buyers. Super-ior in every detail of construction and superb instruments for the production of a great Variety of musical effects and the finest shades of expression. Close Prices. Easy Terms. Old Instruments Exchanged. WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, YORK, PA , U S A. \&i^iAtt%zi&Zfc5%'i$te*&*&M$',?¥:&& s Headquarters —FOR-HATS, SHOES, A*TD GENT'S FURNISHING. Sole Agent lor WALK-OVER SHOE EGBERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right Itje Lutheran Mlieirtloji Society No 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY 8. BONER, Supt, THE KAERCURV The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1908 No. 7 CONTENTS. A CHRISTMAS POEM 2 E. J. BOWMAN, '11. JUSTIFICATION OP THE BOYCOTT 3 E. E. SNTDER, '09. CONSTITUTION OP THE KEYSTONE DEBATING LEAGUE 7 IS THE GOVERNMENT COSTING US TOO MUCH?. 9 P. S. DENGLER, '09. OUR LITERARY SOCIETIES II.—PHRENA 11 WHY IS GETTYSBURG NOT WEALTHY? 13 ST. G. PHILLIPY, '09. THE JUNIOR "PROM" SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. .15 BIOGRAPHY OF SCHILLER 17 MISS BAUSCH, '11. CULTURE'S DISTRESSING FOE 20 G. E. WOLF, '09. THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE LINCOLN ROAD.22 G. L. KIEFFER, '09. THE "INDIAN STEPS." 23 E. C. STOUFFER, '11. THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FARMER; WHAT IS IT LIKELY TO BE WORTH? 25 MISS HELEN H. BRENNEMAN, '08. EDITORIALS 27 BOOK REVIEWS 29 EXCHANGES 30 THE MERCURY A CHRISTMAS POEM. E. J. BOWMAN, '11. .Behold the earth in solemn stillness lies! Again, his course traversed, the king of day Has sunk beneath the distant mountain tops. No longer glows in radiance the sky, But silent night enshrouds the wearied earth. No sound of man or beast comes forth to break The charm that over all has cast its spell. And far above from out the folds of heaven's Aetherial dome, the stars innumerable and Sublime are smiling on the earth below. All nature bows her head in reverence, thus- The God of Peace to laud and magnify. 'Twas such a night when from far Eastern lands, O'er mountains high, through valleys deep, Wise Men? Their way were tracing, guided by a star Outshining all the innumerable host That spangled all the heaven's majestic dome- When lo o'er Judah's city, Bethlehem, It stopped, and there, within a lowly hut, Behold, asleep within a manger lay The Holy One, the Buler of the Wise, By seers announced and prophets long before- 'Twas such a night when on the rolling hills O'erlooking David's City, Bethlehem, The humble shepherds, holy and devout, Their flocks were guarding from the hostile foe That roamed o'er hill and plain in quest of prey- When lo, the glory of the living God Around them shown, and, standing in their midst They saw the form of One divine in robe Of heavenly light, and in a tender voice The Messenger addressed the shepherds thus: "Fear not, I bring you tidings of great joy, THE MERCURY. To you, I bring them and to all mankind: In yonder Bethlehem is born this day A child, who is your Saviour and your Lord." Then while the shepherds filled with awe, o'er this Mysterious scene were meditating deep, Their gaze beheld a heavenly host in robes Of shining white around the Messenger Of love. Then forth upon the hallowed night The mellow strains of heavenly music broke, And there alone by God's own chosen few "Was heard the anthem of the Christmas-tide: "To God on high be glory evermore And upon earth goodwill and peace to men." JUSTIFICATION OF THE BOYCOTT. E. E. SNYDER, '09. JHE justification of the boycott is by no means an easy task. Its practice and its underlying principle have always been questioned and in view of the advanced and radical ground taken by both its advocates and its opponents, a careful study of the boycott, its history, its develop-ment, its modern forms, and its ultimate object, is necessary to enable us to pass judgment upon it, either favorable or unfavor-able. The term originated in 1880 when Captain Boycott, an Eng-lishman, who was the agent of Lord Barne in the Connemara district of Ireland, became so obnoxious because of his harsh treatment of the tenants, that they retaliated by inducing the people for miles around to have nothing whatever to do with him. They would neither speak to him, work for him; buy from him, sell to him, or in any way connect themselves with him. More than this they resorted to violence and even blood-shed, to prevent others from doing so. But this was not the ori-gin of the practice although it gave rise to the term. The prac- 4 THE MERCURY. tice extends almost as far back as history itself. In 1327 the citizens of Canterbury, England, boycotted the monks of Christ's Church. They refused to inhabit the houses of the prior, and passed an ordinance that no one should buy, sell, or exchange drink or victuals with the monastery. A severe punishment was provided against the disobedience of the order. The first use of the boycott in America was during the period just preceding the Eevolution, when the colonists boycotted several articles of British make. This culminated in the Boston Tea Part}', which was advocated and supported by our best and most patriotic citizens. Thus the advocates of the boycott claim that it was born in the cradle of American liberty. It was a great weapon, used by the Abolutionists against slavery, and it has often been used by ministers and others prominent in the social world against intemperance, immorality and other social evils. It has been used by the Manufacturer's Association against the work-ingmen, but here it is known as the "black list," and in this form it has ruined thousands of poor laborers. It has also been used by the laborers, in retaliation against the capitalists and it is this use which represents what we today recognize as the boy-cott. Thus from its history we might define boycott in its original usage, as meaning a combination of many to cause loss to one person by refusing to have any relations with him and by influ-encing and coercing others to treat him in like manner. In re-taliation for some wrong either real or imaginary, they withdraw from the victim all beneficial intercourse and even resort to force, in order to persuade others to do likewise. Today the term boy-cott means a combination of many usually organized working-men against an individual or a combination, through which they seek by withdrawing their support and services to secure redress for some infringement upon their rights. It,is this use that we would attempt to justify. The boycott, as has been mentioned, is but another name for the "black list," although it is usually practiced with a nobler end in view. The boycott usually seeks redress for wrongs, while the "black list" disregards the justice of its object and seeks only additional advantages by this coercive means. Yet the capital-ists raise a great cry of injustice when the boycott appears,, and shall be defined by the college that submits the question. THE MERCURY. lose no time in making their appeal to the courts for injunction and protection, although they are daily and yearly practicing the same principle against the laborer who can seek justice through no other means. But in this case it is the poor man's ox, that is gored instead of the rich man's, and if he would resist or seek redress, he is pointed out as dangerously affected by socialistic principles, and often suffers for trying to maintain a right guar-anteed to all by our Constitution. In practice, also, the boycott has changed, and few of the ob-noxious and injurious characteristics of the ancient boycott re-main. The boycott, as practiced at present, as has been stated, is simply the ostracism of an individual or organization, by an organization in order to secure, what they believe to be their rights. It may result in great pecuniary loss to the victim and because of this fact has often been restrained by injunction, but ■no violence attaches to it; no personal harm or injury, and in many cases individual bitterness has been eliminated. No force or coercion is used outside the obligations of membership in the contending organization, although, this fact is often changed, .and it is true that many organizations do take up the fight in sympathy. It is, when rightly used, but an effective weapon in the hands of the laborer by the use of which he is able to secure consideration and justice, when other means have failed, and as such its use is justifiable. From the laborer's standpoint its use possesses considerable economic importance, for it is only by its use, through the me-dium of his organization that he can battle, with any degree of success against the oftimes higher intelligence and more perfect organization of his employers, the capitalists. In this age, the tendency of each class, seems to be to gain wealth regardless of the loss, they may occasion. To the laborers, the boycott, is one of the few barriers that stand between him and a lower standard of living, which would be the inevitable result, were these barriers removed. Our eco-nomic welfare depends upon progress in every class. If the laborer is to share this progress he must advance and not recede. He must raise his standard of living, his culture and his edu- •cation instead of lowering them. To do this he must be in con-tinual conflict with the capitalist, who is his superior in educa- THE MERCURY. tion, and had an additional advantage because of his capital. The boycott has proved to be one of the few things which the •capitalists have not been able to overcome, and as its use enables the laborers to maintain his ground in the conflict for advance-ment, it is certainly justifiable. The boycott can also be regarded, as simply the practice of the right guaranteed to each citizen by our government, to say, write, or publish, anything he wishes, on his own responsibility. This is what the laborer claims for the boycott. He certainly has the right to govern his own words and dealings and to use his influence with others so long as he advocates a just cause and uses no coercive measures to secure adherents. This represents the workingman's idea of the boycott, and while it must be ad-mitted that it is here pictured in its most favorable form, and •that it is seldom practiced within the prescribed limits, yet the argument is founded upon a basis of justice and many decisions of higher courts have recognized this fact. As a last claim, we would advance the boycott, as the only ef-fective weapon against the "black list." No man has a right to work permanent ruin to another because of individual difference of opinion nor has an organization a similar right, and since the employer often uses this means against the employee, the laborer has a right to defend himself by the boycott. It is a hard and bitter solution to the problem. It is the Old Testament dispen-sation, "An eye for an eye." but when we consider that the con- 'ditions, from an ethical standpoint are far from normal, we must be satisfied if they do require abnormal means. Thus would we justify the boycott, from an economical view-point, but when we turn on our question the light of an ethical culture, we find it again questionable and we are compelled to ask ourselves the question, "Is there in the business activity of today, as represented by the masses on both sides, a point where ;an individual can retain pure ethical ideals and secure true eco-nomic good?" Perhaps in the masses there is not, but it is pleasing to note that here and there in the great business hustle of our age, we see sturdy advocates of a higher principle emerg-ing from the ranks of both contestants and when these shall have gained a majority the justification of the boycott will be impos-sible, but not until then. THE MERCURY. 7 CONSTITUTION OF THE KEYSTONE DEBATING LEAGUE. ARTICLE I. NAME AND MEMBERSHIP. This organization shall be known as the Keystone Inter-Colle-giate Debating League and shall have the following members: Bueknell, Lafayette and Gettysburg Colleges. ARTICLE II. PURPOSE. The purpose of this organization shall be to increase interest in debating in each of the colleges represented and to encourage inter-collegiate debating. ARTICLE III. ORGANIZATION. The executive committee shall consist of one undergraduate from each college represented and shall meet annually at the time and place of the final debate to transact all business of the League. ARTICLE IV. CONTESTANTS. Each college shall send to the contest in which it participates three representatives. Contestants shall be regularly enrolled students in the collegiate department taking at least ten hours of recitation or lecture work per week. The names of the de-baters and alternate shall be submitted to the opposing team at least ten days before the debate. No college shall protest the-eligibility of a debater later than five days before the debate. ARTICLE V. SELECTION OF QUESTION. The question for debate shall be submitted not later than six weeks and returned not later than five weeks before the debate is to be held. The college that receives the question shall select sides. No college shall submit the question to the other college twice in succession. Terms in the question, if not understood. THE MERCURY. ARTICLE VI. JUDGES. The college at which the debate is held shall submit to the visiting team at least four weeks before the debate the names of prospective judges. The visiting team may strike from the list any of "the names and shall return the remainder within one week designating the order of preference. No personal friend of any contestant and no one having had student of official relations with either of the colleges involved, shall be eligible for appoint-ment as judges. At the close of the contest, without conference-with his associates, each of the three judges, deciding for him-self, shall give his vote duly signed and sealed to the presiding officer who shall announce the decision. The judges shall base their decision on argument and composition and delivery; argu-ment to count sixty per cent., composition and delivery forty per cent. ARTICLE VII. CONTEST. The college at which the debate is held shall select the presid-ing officer. Each debater shall have fifteen minutes; ten min-utes for his opening speech and five minutes for rebuttal. The first speech in rebuttal shall be made by the negative, and the-affirmative shall close the debate. The order of speakers in re-buttal shall be left to the discretion of the respective teams. No> new material shall be introduced in rebuttal speeches. ARTICLE VIII. EXPENSES. At the annual meeting of the Executive Committee, each col-lege shall present an itemized statement of its expenses necessary for the year. This expense shall be born equally by the colleges-of the League. TIIE MERCURY. IS THE GOVERNMENT COSTING US TOO MUCH. F. S. DEX3LER, '09. F wo except the most active period of the Civil War, the total drafts upon the Treasury of the U. S. during the past Congresshavebeengreater than at any period in our history. The total appropriations made by Congress dur-ing the Civil War were $1,309,000,000 of which $1,030,000,000 was spent upon the army. The appropriations for the fiscal year 1909 reached a total of $1,007,000,000. In these days, when private fortunes sometimes run up to a hundred million dollars we are liable not to realize how large a sum a billion dol-lars really is. It would take an expert counter, working eight hours a day, over one hundred years to count a billion silver ■dollars. A billion dollars in twenty dollar bills would make a pile 13,750 feet high. What is all this money used for? The expenditures may be classed under three general heads: Postal Service, $225,000,000. Military Service, $500,000,000. Other Government Service, $225,000,000. The largest appropriation for a single department was that for the post office. The postal service is one of the greatest utilities which the government gives to the people and one which the peo-ple can appreciate every day. The post offices scattered all over the land turn into the postal department a large revenue each year but it is not sufficient to run the service. The quarter of a billion dollars is disbursed through many channels. The sal-aries of postmasters, clerks, carriers and messengers total in the millions. The railroads come in for a large amount for carrying the mail. The rural delivery was established in recent years at a cost of about $25,000,000. A bill was proposed at the last Congress to establish a rural parcels post, but it was not passed. The most significant feature of the appropriations during the year is the great amount of attention that has been given to the building up of the military branch of the government. The ex-penditures for the army and navy, if we leave out of account the years when the country was engaged in war, have been the larg-est in the history of the country. The army was granted $95,- 10 THE MERCURY. 000,000; the navy, $123,000,000; the amount $163,000,000 for pensions should be included. The remainder of the half billion dollars is spent for fortifications, military and naval academies, soldiers' homes, arsenals, armories,'navy yards and numerous other things of a similar nature. The total expenditures for military purposes, direct or indirect, is truly a colossal sum when we bear in mind that our standing army today is not over 70,000. The sending of our fleet around the world is an event in history—an event which cannot fail to have a good influence. While we may be a peaceful nation, it will show that we have strength enough to protect ourselves in time of trouble. Some people think that our navy is too large. They say that our ships have nothing to do and then they get into trouble as in the cap-turing of the Philippine Islands. The remaining quarter of a billion dollars goes for a great number of things. The Agricultural Department, the Diplo-matic and Consular service, the Indian Bill, the different bu-reaus and public works are all included. We have seen where the money goes. Now, where does it come from? The revenues of the government amount to about $800,000,000 and this will leave a deficit of about $200,000,000. The treasury has a surplus of $250,000,000 to meet this. If this is not sufficient bonds can be sold. The Speaker of the House and the House itself keep restrain-ing hands on the extravagant tendencies of the varioifs commit-tees. The tendency of Congress to spend money is increasing at an appalling rate. The money appropriated by last Congress would have run the government during the decade ending 1896. These periods are both far enough removed from the Spanish War not to be materially affected by it. The world has advanced and moved forward since 1896, but not to such an extent as to warrant the rate of increase of running the government. There seems to be a leakage somewhere. Congress should remember that even a million dollars does not flow into the treasury of its own accord but it is pushed in and that as a result of the sweat of many brows. This does not mean that a narrow-minded policy should be adopted. The American people are willing to pay well to keep their country in the front ranks of the army of THE MEKCUEY. 11 progress. The last Congress has made a record in appropriating, public money and it is up to Congress to make a record in the-spending of it. OUR LITERARY SOCIETIES II—PHRENA. N the account of Philo which was published last month we find much that is very similar to the history of" Phrena The Phrenakosmian Literary Society was founded Feb. 4th, 1831, in Linwood Hall. At the second regular meet-ing a constitution and by-laws were presented and adopted. We are fortunate in having the original copy in an excellent state of preservation. Although frequently modified and amended, this historic document retains its original and noble spirit. The whole aim of its authors and zealous defenders is admirably ex-pressed by this, the motto of the Society: Kocr/m T/iv peva. There also exists the minutes of all the meetings that have been held since the Society was organized. These also have been well cared for and may be found among the treasures of the li-brary. As for Phrena's library, it can be said that it contains 5,845 volumes, which are the results of the energetic exertions of our members. Various catalogues of these books have been made for the use of our members, but most of them are not suitable for reference work. The Society is now indebted to George Heintz. '09 for a complete card index of the library. This not only en-hances the value of the present, collection of books but insures to us the proper recognition, care, and usefulness of any works we may add. Other property of value has accrued to the Society. In 1837r when Phrena was given a large and convenient room in the new college building (Old Dorm.), efforts were immediately made to secure suitable furniture. Here again the characteristic as-siduity of Phrena's members was triumphant. Improvements have been made from year to year, and the present beautiful ap-pearance of our hall furnishes sufficient evidence of the energy 12 THE MERCURY. as well as the taste of those by whom it was accomplished. The-present apartment in Eecitation Hall is elegantly furnished. Busts of Franklin, Webster, Cicero and Demosthenes have appro-priate places on the walls. The walls are also decorated with portraits of those Phrenakosmians who have done honor to their Alma Mater by becoming capable to hold professorships in our college. The Society has helped men individually, and has contributed much to the health of college spirit. A literary contest in which much spirit is shown, is held each year, with our sister society, Philo. Formerly it was the custom of the two societies to join at commencement time and be addressed by an honorary mem-ber of each society, alternately. In earlier years, of those be-longing to Phrena, and Eev. E. J. Breckenridge, D.D. officiated in 1842, Eev. T. H. Stockton, D.D. in 1844, and Eev. George B. Cheener, D.D. Much time and labor could be spent in arranging the inter-esting events of Phrena's history, but the space on these pages-does not permit the presentation in detail of very much con-tained in the Society's records. Suffice it to say, the work of those who have gone before should be gratifying to us as presag-ing that like privileges and honors are in store for their succes-sors. With the same noble aspirations and unalterable determi-nation let us be true to our literary societies as were those who have gained so much by supporting them. At present, Phrena is wide awake, doing excellent work and living true to the spirit of her fathers. THE MEECUEY. 13 WHY IS GETTYSBURG NOT WEALTHY ? N. G. PHILLIPY, '09. N" treating this question we will consider the people as a whole, taking as broad a view as possible under the cir-cumstances. According to Webster, wealth means large possessions, opulence, riches. Of course we could not compare Gettysburg with a large city and expect the same amount of wealth, but should more properly compare it with smaller towns of its own size. One of the foremost reasons why Gettysburg is not wealthy is the lack of industries conducted on a large scale. We find no shops or anything of a like nature whereby the owners or entre-preneur can amass a fortune. The ordinary workman cannot collect a fortune as nearly all his wages are used to support his: family. As a rule where there are no large enterprises located we find little wealth. It is true the location of the town geo-graphically may be accountable for the lack of industries, but this does not demand consideration under the present question. The lack of employment for men accounts for the slow in-crease in population. An increase in the value of land and property depends largely upon an increase in population and as the values of each remain nearly the same from year to year, speculation and investments in this line are unprofitable and unremunerative in Gettysburg. The country surrounding the town is not so very fertile and agriculture is not as productive as we find in many other locali-ties. Very few agricultural products are put on the market by the farmers near the town in any great quantity. We do not find minerals profitable for mining in the neighboring localities so very little shipping is carried on. 'Eailroads depend on freight for their profits and when there is little transportation railroad facilities are usually poor. Being located inland the people have not the opportunity to carry on markets or any other pursuit which water affords. The people themselves, have a great influence on any town. If we make a careful study of the people and their pursuits we have partly, at least, the solution of our problem. In our study 14 THE MERCURY. we must take into account their likes and dislikes, their desires,, their ambitions and their doings. The people as a whole are of a retiring nature. There seems: to be little greed for money and little ambition to amass a great, fortune. Each individual is actuated by a desire to live com-, fortably and save enough to keep himself and family during old age. Judging from appearances everybody is contented and happy, a condition which is proof of the statement that the de-sire for riches is lacking. We find the population as a body, industrious, being em-ployed at different occupations. An unusual number are en-gaged in educational work who labor more for knowledge and the pleasure afforded thereby, than for the money received for their work. It is natural in a college town to have cultured people. Peo-ple of culture and refinement have their surroundings fashioned after their ideas and influence the whole community. This class has certainly added much to the community. The battlefield also attracts many well-to-do people who come here to. live a retired life and to enjoy the beautiful surroundings. In Gettysburg, if a man is not engaged in educational work, he is in sympathy with it and usually formulates his opinions accord-ingly. In conclusion, the people are interested in their personal welfare, mentally as well as physically, and do not have the de-. sire for great wealth as their sole ambition. THE JIEUCURY. 15 THE JUNIOR "PROM" SOCIALLY CONSIDERED. CLL consideration of the social significance of the Junior Prom naturally involves a taking into account the general social life of the college community. For it is obvious that the character and tone of this annual function must, to a large extent, be determined by the social life as it is developed throughout the year. And since the Junior Prom is just in its infancy,—in its formative period,—this pa-per shall be both critical and suggestive. The social life of our college seems to be the characteristic so-cial life of colleges in general. It is very different from the so-cial life that existed in earlier years of the college. New condi-tions in the social structure at large, together with the increased number of students, have all contributed to the existent social status in the college community. The present exclusive tenden-cies in modern family life, unknown to our forefathers, cannot fail to produce like tendencies among a body of students; the social product developed in our college is, in short, but an out-growth of the existing trend of home life. Though the number of students in any one college is really small, when compared with the number enrolled in a modern university, yet it has grown so that no longer can the authorities of even the small college boast that theirs is the privilege of easily acting in loco parentis, and of forming with the student body a well regulated family. Instead of one united family, thoroughly democratic in its workings and with a reasonably common purpose and as-piration, the student body has been organized by the fraternity into many little families, each with its distinctive membership making of paramount importance the promotion of its own inter-ests and those of its individual members. The college authori-ties have, in other words, failed to meet new conditions by their failure to provide a sane and invigorating college family atmos-phere for the student to grow in, and it should not be surprising, therefore, that the students have themselves provided their own substitute, inferior though it may be. The fraternity is not lacking in provsions for the diversion of 16 THE MERCURY. its members. Numerous social events are held during the year, and occasionally an inter-fraternity function is arranged. Be-tween the members of this organized portion of the student body, who are thus frequently brought together, there naturally is formed a rather strong attachment. But how about the unorga-nized portion, which is comprised, for any one of several reasons, of the men whom the fraternity has not attracted? The social opportunities of most of these men are not only more limited, they are also more individualistic. That there should be a cer-tain divergence, therefore, between the fraternity and non-fra-ternity element is not to be wondered at. The Junior Prom is a step in the direction of preventing this divergence. Every element in the student body is to be repre-sented as far as possible on a common basis. The possibilities of general good fellowship are on this occasion to be fully pre-sented and fostered. Men who are seldom to be found in com-pany of their fellows in a purely social way are to find in the Junior Prom an opportunity of seeing what such commingling means for a man and for the community. Men to whom this is not a new experience are to find pleasure in assisting the unini-tiated over the stony places. The realization of all this could not, of course, be expected in the two times in which the Junior Prom has been held. Indeed it may require several more years to accomplish the desired re-sults. It seems very apparent, however, that tendencies point in the right direction. Last year's Prom marked an improvement over the first, in that dancing was not the exclusive feature of the occasion. Provision was made, though not of a sufficiently definite and attractive character, for those who do not dance. This is not passing judgment upon dancing as a means of di-version; it does mean to imply, however, that to allow dancing or any other form of diversion to become the exclusive feature of a social event indicates a distortion that cannot fail to prove exceedingly narrowing. It implies, too, that it is altogether un-fair to expect those who do not dance to attend an affair which provides definitely only for those who do dance, and which gives dancing such predominant or exclusive place that real com-mingling is impossible. Dancing has become such a mighty factor in the social life of young people everywhere that it is not THE MERCUttY. 17 surprising that it has gained a considerable foothold in our col-leges, but to permit it to have the ascendency at an event, such as the Junior Prom, which contemplates the presence of a large number who do not dance, shows great inconsiderateness and means the blasting of the real significance of the Prom. The far-reaching influence of the Junior Prom, properly regu-lated, can hardly be appreciated at this early stage in its evolu-tion, but to behold its possibilities along the lines indicated should be sufficient to impel us to assist in its proper develop-ment. A. ± A BIOGRAPHY OF SCHILLER. MISS- MARY BAUSCH, '11. JOHANJST Christoph Frederick Schiller was born at Mar-bach, in Wurtemburg, Germany, Nov. 10, 1759. He was the only son of Johann Casper Schiller, an officer in the Wurtemburg army, who held an inferior position in the Duke of Wurtemburg's household. The elder Schiller is was a man of great strength of character. To him Schiller is indebted for his firm and positive traits. His mother, Elizabeth Dorothea Kodweis, the daughter of an innkeeper at Marbach, was just the opposite of her husband in temperament, of strong yet gentle demeanor, full of simple charm and wisdom. We can see deep traces of this mother's sweetness and gentleness in the life of the gifted poet. Schiller did not find it easy to choose a profession. He first attended school at the village of Loech, where influenced by Par-son Moser, his teacher, he prepared himself for the clerical pro-fession. These plans were thwarted by the Duke of Wurtem-burg. He next entered the public school at Ludwigsburg. At the age of fourteen, he became a student at the military academy near Solitude Park, Ludwigsburg, the Duke wishing to have his services for the state. There he pursued the study of law, which was very repugnant to him. After two years had passed he 18 THE MERC PET. gave this up, and began the study of medicine, and was subse-quently appointed regimental surgeon. During this time, however, he was engaged in. the study of lit- 'erature. He was especially fond of the classics and became very proficient in Greek. His knowledge of Greek philosophy is ap-parent in his writings. His first work of note, "The Eobbers," he completed before he was twenty-two years old. Schiller pro-tested in this work against the restraints which he felt the Duke had unjustly forced upon him. Fearing the Duke whose wrath he had thus kindled, he fled to Mannheim. There he passed through many hardships, one reverse of fortune followed an-other. But still he continued to write. Schiller's first play in verse was "Don Carlos,'"' which was pre-sented at Hamburg in August, 1787. The Duke of Weimar, whose interest had been aroused in the young poet, made him one of the counsellors of his court. Upon his arrival at Weimar, Schiller was introduced to Goethe. This acquaintance subse-quently ripened into a close friendship. Early in December, 1788, Schiller's "History of the Eevolt of the Netherlands" was published. This work brought the best results, financially, which he had yet received. It not only had a rapid sale but it aroused the attention of the intellectual world. Through the influence of Goethe, he was offered a professorship in history at the University of Jena which after some hesitation he accepted. On Feb. 22, 1790, he was married to Charlotte von Lengefeld, a most admirable woman who aided him greatly in his life work. A very busy life opened to Schiller while at Jena. It was not unusual for him to spend fourteen hours daily in lecturing and writing. But the strain of such heavy work was too great for a man so delicately constituted as Schiller. A dangerous pulmonary dis-ease overtook him so that he was forced to give up his position as instructor in the university. Then through a generous gift he was enabled to revisit Wurtemburg, where he remained almost a year. In May 1794, he returned to Jena much improved in health although never again entirely well. The period between 1796 and 1800 was especially rich in lyrical productions, of which "Der Taucher," and "Das Leid von THE MERCURY. 1$ der Glocke " aTe prominent. The latter has been considered the best known of Schiller's poems. It deals with the most dra-matic events in the life of man. His great works, "Wallenstein" and "Maria Stuart" followed in close succession. Next came "Die Jungfrau von Orleans" in 1801, "Die Brant von Messina" in 1803, and "Wilhelm Tell," the last and perhaps greatest of his works, in 1801:. In this last great tragedy, Schil-ler portrays with wonderful power the Swiss resistance to tyr-anny. He causes the leader, Wilhelm Tell to stand elevated as a national hero. In all his writings, Schiller's love of liberty and hatred of despotism is manifest, but in none so much as in Wilhelm Tell. Schiller had now reached the zenith of his glory. His man-ners and appearance had improved. The timidity and conscious-ness of youth was replaced by the dignity and ease of more ma-ture years. He was overwhelmed with public honors and enthu-siastically received everywhere he went. But alas, when prosperity and fame seemed permanently se-cured to him, the dread disease which had undermined his health again overtook him. He endured this last trouble with great fortitude; though he had to pass through many trials yet his spirit seemed as it were to soar above them all. He continued to work until at last, his weakened powers being overcome, he passed away on May 9,, 1805, at the age of forty-five. The news, of his death brought universal grief to Germany. 20 TKE MEKCURY. CULTURE'S DISTRESSING FOE. G. E. WOLFE, '09. UST as men err in making happiness a distinct end, so do they err by putting culture in a similar position. And just as they deceive themselves by trying to pro-cure happiness as they would some commodity, so they deceive themselves by like attempts to gain culture. Life would indeed be a barren thing, if it were not enriched by our capacity for happiness and culture, but it is worse than barren where there is a false conception of these enrichments. That culture should be perverted to such an extent that men would make it a fad, seems almost inconceivable, yet that is what the intellectually curious and the socially idle made it some twenty years ago. What abhorrence must have been aroused in all who possessed true cultural instincts! For a fad is always a sham—a gross perversion—and a sham in the world of art ox-literature begets a peculiar offensiveness and hatred. The short-cut, superficial methods employed in pursuing this culture fad must have been entirely detestable to all serious-minded and sin-cere people. Could it be otherwise, with genuine culture possess-ing the rich qualities of ripeness and maturity in taste, intellect and culture ? How crude and defective the sham in the presence of the real! But this perversion, while more pronounced at certain periods, lias not been confined to one or two decades. Haste and arti-ficiality have always been employed by men, in their eagerness to possess the charming ripeness and greatness of soul which mark the truly cultured man. Recent years, however, have de-veloped a new condition, the recognition of which requires no unusual insight. There has developed a foe to culture which is distressing, not simply because it is aiming at culture by per-verse methods, but because it is entirely at variance with true cul-ture and lias so widely disseminated its influence that one may rightly inquire whether the true cultural instinct will not even-tually be quenched on account of it. "Smartness" is not a modern product by any means, but never has it captivated a people as it has the present generation; never THE MERCURY 21 has it held such predominant sway. Strictly speaking this spirit belongs to the world of mediocrity, but so important has it be-come that it claims recognition as the "real thing" from alL We have our so-called "smart sets," but the spirit of smartness in these days finds fruitful soil among all classes—as well among the wealthy as among the not-rich, as well among the intelligent as among the unlettered. And it is this, we believe, that today constitutes culture's distressing foe: it is this that makes impera-tive the loud calls, "Let Us Go Back"—in the direction of "The Simple Life." Not that there are no more who possess true culture, or who are eager to possess it. There are such indeed, but so effectually has the "sporty" microbe been doing its work in the rising gen-eration, that quiet people have well-nigh been driven to despera-tion, those with undeveloped cultural instincts have been tainted or entirely diverted and others never get a desire for cultural pursuit at all. One does not have to be a pessimist to be conscious of the fact that it is the fashion for everybody to be gay; that we are all called upon to persevere in a gala atmosphere. From the ex-treme solemnity of bearing that characterized our forefathers we have swung clear to the opposite extreme. It is impossible not to come in contact constantly with the cheap jargon that is everywhere afloat; with the lightness, cyni-cism and insinuation of immoral sentiment which marks the con-versation of popular young people. Fashionable clothes and jaunty manners never played as prominent a role as today. Plain, unassuming people, to whom this pertness and super-, ciliousness is extremely repulsive, are wondering when there will \ be a reaction toward the sane and rational. Surely the reaction-must come, and parents and educators have no more important duty before them than to seek to obliterate this spirit of sm^rt-. ness. THE MEECUEY. THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE LINCOLN ROAD. G. L. KIEFFEK, '09. JJST order to consider this subject properly, we must first inquire into the nature of the proposed "road." There-fore, briefly, "The Lincoln Eoad" is a proposed na-tional memorial to Abraham Lincoln. The "road" is to be a grand boulevard joining Washington, D. C, with Gettysburg, Pa. Its two hundred feet of width are to be occupied by green-sward plots, hedges, and trees, a speedway for automobiles, a driveway for carriages and wagons, two double-tracked electric railways, the one for express trains and the other for local trains. The very nature of the proposed "road" declares that it shall be equally open to both the rich and the poor. This being true it will be the means of bringing to Gettysburg, for at least a day, many of the hundreds of thousands of tourists that annually visit Washington. Hence with all this traffic, the very "road" itself might become an economic asset to the United States gov-ernment. To accommodate these people appropriate hotels would have to be maintained in Gettysburg. The present hotels and restau-rants would have to be renovated and enlarged. New ones also would have to be erected. A higher standard would be the order of the day for all Gettysburg hotels when official Washing-ton would be in the habit of paying them a visit at almost any hour. To meet this increase of business occasioned by the influx of people, Gettysburg herself would have to grow and increase the number of and enlarge all her business places in whatever line they might be. Naturally all property in Gettysburg would increase in value as would also all the property along the "road" from Washington to Gettysburg. To compete with the travelling facilities which would be af-forded by the proposed "road," the facilities of the present rail-roads would have to be bettered and new roads would be built— both electric and steam. All eyes would naturally be turned towards Gettysburg, which THE MERCURY. 23 with its historic surroundings, beautiful scenery, and medicinal springs, would naturally be expected to become the greatest sum-mer resort in the United States. The character and number of tourists would necessitate gov-ernment control of all guides. Thereby would undoubtedly be obliterated the blot of blots found upon the world. With gov-ernment control of all guides the tourists would be guaranteed just and equal treatment. For the guides themselves, better days would result. To Gettysburg's educational institutions would come greater publicity and a better appreciation of these institutions' rare sur-roundings. The result would naturally be manifested by an in-crease in the student bodies and an enlargement of the institu-tions themselves. All this resulting from the proposed "Lincoln Way?" Yes, more. With it connected to Gov. Stuart's proposed highway from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, "The Lincoln Way" naturally would become the backbone of a national highway system extend-ing all over the country. Then would all roads lead to Gettys-burg, which would be, in fact, the shrine of American patriotism, the Mecca for all Americans. THE "INDIAN STEPS." E. C. STOUFFER, '11. HE immense dam of McCalPs Ferry Power Company is nearing completion. As a result the slowly rising waters of the Susquehanna river are gradually cover-ing up one of the oldest and most noted landmarks of south-eastern Pennsylvania. The old "Indian Steps" are artificial shelves, cut no doubt, by means of stone hatchets into the face of a large round-pointed rock, which juts out from the west bank of the Susquehanna river. They were cut by the North American Indians possibly centuries before the discovery of America. These steps were used by the dusky inhabitants as a place on which to stand and dip the shad as they crossed the rapids on their annual journey 24 THE MERCURY. to the spawning grounds in the upper Susquehanna. Since the settlement of the country the white man has for generations used them for the same purpose. So far-famed were these steps that the Indians from the North, South, East and West came here to fish. Only the strong, vigorous and daring could fish from this rock for only such were able to endure the chill damp night winds which frequent the lower Susquehanna. As each contestant ap-peared a chalk mark or number was placed on his hat to desig-nate his turn. When his name was called he took his place, tied himself to a ring in the rock and cast the net. Each one was ■compelled to take his catch and be content. If there were a goodly number of shad, all was well; but if it proved to be a small catch he had to go away heavy hearted and take his place in the waiting line again. Year after year from these rocks hundreds of these daintiest ■of all fishes have been caught, some to grace the humble board of ■a poor riverman, some to please the fastidious taste of a city epicurean. The land around the "Indian Steps" was originally occupied by the Conestoga Indians and was preserved for them by the first proprietors of the state. Even Maryland, which was attempting to push her lines farther and farther north, respected the rights of the natives and made no attempt to appropriate this section. 'The land was held for the Indians until August 26, 1786, when a deed was granted to Joseph Eeed on condition that the "Indian Steps" should be preserved for a fishing place for the poor of the community. This charge has been faithfully kept until now. A few months more and the old landmark will have passed away and forever this curious specimen of Indian art will be lost to Pennsylvania. THE MERCURY. 25 THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FARMER; WHAT IT IS LIKELY TO BE WORTH. MISS HELEN H. BRENNEMAN, '08. EVEEAL months ago when President Roosevelt ap-pointed a committee to investigate the condition of the farmers throughout the country, it provoked quite a little amusement on the part of some people, while on the part of others it aroused sarcasm and anger. Many people regarded the President as a "busy-body" and failed to recognize the real aim in his interest in the farmers' condition. Never before has there been a man at the head of the nation with such broad and liberal views and one who has put forth such strenuous efforts in behalf of all kinds and classes of peo-ple. And it was such a motive that prompted him to take this action. The scope of this committee's work is not to ascertain the technical methods of farming and to inquire into personal matters, but to find out what are the general sanitary, social, educational and economic conditions of country life, to find out what is needed, what improvements can be effected, and in what way the government can help them. The commission was confronted with a task not only wide in its scope but comprising a large territory, and many people were to be dealt with. The President suggested that the farmers be called together in convenient meeting places for discussions, and that the members of the commission try to get in the closest touch possible with them and find out their needs. The commission has sent out circulars to professional men, business men, farmers and many others. These circulars con-tain a list of twelve questions with respect to the public schools in the vicinity and their efficiency; whether the farmers get rea-sonable returns from the sale of their products; whether they have good railroads, highway, telephone and rural postal service-accommodations ; whether there is a sufficient supply of labor in the neighborhood. These questions show what the commission are seeking to find out. It is their desire not only to ascertain the conditions but to get opinions and suggestions as to what needs to be done. Now the question arises, "What is the investigation likely to 26 THE MERCURY. be worth ?" In the first place it is very evident that almost the entire success depends upon the attitude of the people. If they continue to take it as a joke or with a feeling of animosity, cer-tainly the progress of the commisison's work is going to be checked and its ultimate success doubtful. However Dr. Bailey of Cornell University, the chairman of the commission, says that the public interest is increasing as the people come to under-stand the commission and its work. These words are encourag-ing and indicative of a very likely success. If this investigation is going to amount to anything, there must be co-operation of the people, especially of the farmers for whose benefit these efforts are being exerted. In a recent mes-sage to the commission the President said, "It is esssential that the farmers, the men who live on the soil should feel a sense of the ownership in this commisison, should feel that you gentle-men in very truth represent them and are responsive to their de-sires, no less than to their needs." If this committee receives the support of the people, it should effect some good results. There is a larger percentage of per-sons engaged in agricultural pursuits than in any other occupa-tion and it is only just that more attention should be given to their needs. The demands for better highways, better railway and trolley service are being universally agitated, and surely the commis-sion will concentrate, its efforts towards their accomplishment thus increasing the facilities of the farmer for better profits. At the Farmers' Convention held in Madison last October scientific crop raising and the need of teaching agriculture in the schools were among the principal topics approved by that orga-nization. It is just as essential that agriculture be taught in the rural schools as manual training and trades in the city schools. Here again if such a desire could be met by the gov-ernment it would not only benefit the farmers economically but the nation also. It remains to be seen just what this investigation will amount to, but nevertheless we can surmise that the educational advant-ages in some districts will be improved, that there will be bet-ter facilities for the transaction of business and that the social, educational and economic conditions will be bettered. T H E HERCURV Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., DECEMBER, 1908 No. 7 Editor-in-Chief Assistant Editor P. F. BLOOMHARDT, '09 CHARLES F. V. HESSE, '09 Exchange Editor Associate Editors H. REY WOLF, '09 SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10 Business Manager EDWARD N. FRYE, '10 CHABLES L. KOPP, '09 Advisory Board Ass't Bus. Managers PROF. C. F. SANDERS, A. M. G. U. KNIPPLE, '10 PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH.D. PAUL S. MILLER, '10 PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. such is often the case. EDITORIALS. THE question has often been asked how a small college, with a limited number of students and a corresponding limitation of tal-ent can successfully conduct nearly as many student enter-prises as the larger univeristies— and conduct them, too, in such a way that they frequently rival similar organizations in their larger sister institutions. But Our own college may be taken as suffici- "28 THE MERCURY. ent proof. Our five varieties of athletic teams, our three publi-cations, two literary societies, debating and oratorical teams, musical clubs, and dramatic society, etc., have often been re-spected rivals to similar teams of other and larger schools. But the mere fact of the numbers of these enterprises does not neces-sarily have to affect the quality of the results accomplished. We are inclined to think that men with just as great ability and as large capacity for work are to be found in the smaller college as in the larger ones,—not as many, to be sure, but the ratio is about the same. Furthermore, the smaller college offers oppor-tunities to every one of such calibre, while in the larger schools, •only a comparatively few can take part. LAST year Gettysburg was disappointed in not being enter-tained by her dramatic society, the Mask and Wig. Presumably this was due to the lack of time for rehearsals. Nevertheless the loss was felt. This year it has been decided that no musical club trip will be taken. It has been suggested that the time, talent, and energ}', usually devoted to this organization be turned into another channel; that is, into the perfecting of a good play or minstrel show which might be allowed to take a trip, similar to the Triangle Club of Princeton. IN a few days the first term of the present collegiate year will be closed. After an arduous week's work in examinations, the Christmas vacation will be the more appreciated and enjoyed. Its rest and pleasure has been anticipated by all, but especially has it been longed for by the Freshmen. Christmas has been written about so often, and from so many different viewpoints, that little that is new is left to say. To the college student it is a joyous season to be looked forward to, but in its actual enjoy-ment, he no longer thinks of college and its surroundings for it is a vacation season at home. So, with its last issue for 1908, the MERCURY wishes all its readers a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. THE MERCURY-. 29 BOOK REVIEWS. INDER the Crust, by Thomas Nelson Page, Phrena. This volume is composed of original stories. Each story has a philosophical side. They were evidently written to stimulate thought and the author has succeeded admirably. One of the stories, "A Brother of Diagones" is especially commenda-ble. In this story, great wealth is pointed out as a stumbling block rather than an aid to happiness. The simple life, too, is contrasted to the hustle and bustle of the metropolis. Other stories of the volume effectively contrast altruism and egoism. The Biography of Thomas Jefferson, by John T. Morse, Phrena. This biography is very impartially written. The au-thor gives us the facts indulging in neither unmerited praise nor criticism. He seems to have an insight into the man's very nature and thus vividly portrays the actions of the statesman both at home and in the blaze of public life. The biography not only enumerates the achievements of Mr. Jefferson with their causes and effects but also those of contemporary statesmen. The biographer shows Mr. Jefferson as a visionary, shrewd politician and a far-sighted statesman. The book is very readable and valuable. Tides of Bamegat, by P. Hopkinson Smith, [Philo 11:6.] This is a book which one can scarcely afford not to read. It presents a very impressive picture of life. It is an account of how one member of a noble and respectable family brought shame and disgrace to the family name There is seen the secret sufferings of the sister through false modesty. Her life would have been made happy indeed, if she had only opened her heart to her lover. It shows how one sister may give advantages and culture to another and instead of receiving gratitude, have her head bowed in shame while the other, seemingly soulless, is not af-fected. There is also brought out the yearning and love of a father for his son whom he has driven from home in a fit of anger for the evil he has done when he refuses to do right. The story is somewhat overdrawn, but otherwise one can find no fault. It is nevertheless very instructive. Although somewhat tedious at times it is generally interesting. The language is clear and wholesome. The Brass Bowl, by Louis Joseph Vance, [Philo, 11:8.] The so THE MEECURY. title of the book is somewhat fanciful as the bowl has practically the least connection with the story. Anyone wishing to read a book for entertainment and recreation will find this romance suited to his purpose as it is very interesting, simple and full of action. The thread of the story seldom breaks and the climax is near the end. The reader will be pleased with the happy ter-mination. No characters are used except those which are neces-sary to the plot. The principal parts are played by persons of high social rank, and they seem to be somewhat magnified. There is no place in the book that is tedious. The narration is clear, animated and well balanced. The language is simple and vigorous. The author has handled 'the plot very well. He shows broadmindedness, independence, the possession of a vivid imagination and a pleasant sense of humor. He has an ac-quaintance with high social life. The reader will be very much pleased with "Mad Maitland's" spirit as he makes his wild flights and also with Miss Sylvia Graeme who comes into Mait-land's life in a very peculiar way. EXCHANGES. JE are glad to have with us again most of our old ex-changes. There are a few that have not arrived yet. We trust that all will soon respond. It seems necessary again to call attention to the con-tent of the MERCURY. The MERCURY, we are trying to make a literary journal, and not a paper combining literary, athletic and the other departments of college activities. The "Gettysbur-gian," our weekly publication, contains the news of the various departments of college life. Among the good things in the "College Student" we would call attention to "Lowell's 'Biglow Papers'" and "Eelation of Diction to Character." The former is a critical essay which brings to notice many interesting facts concerning this import-ant contribution to American literature. The latter shows how the ideals and characteristics of the individual are reflected in hie writings. THE MERCURY. 31 We are glad to welcome "The Thielensian" to our exchanges. In the article entitled "Greek and Eoman Influences" the writer reminds us of some of the beauties of Athens and Borne. The beginning of philosophy was in Greece. Then from the Eomans we can learn the lesson of patriotism. Their motto was, "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." The Eomans understood mili-tary matters, and we can also learn much from their sculpture and architecture. "Luther in the Eeformation" is also worthy of perusal. The character sketches of Taft and Bryan in the "Otterbein Aegis" are brief but very interesting. We all admire the teachings and doctrines of Socrates, the great Greek philosopher. He busied himself by trying to teach men the truth, and even though he greatly emphasized truth, he was especially eager that men should become happy and useful citizens. To be a good citizen he regarded the "summum bonum" of the individual's life. Indeed in our present age of political corruption, we can not over-emphasize high ideals of citizenship. "Making an American Citizen" in the'Thiloma-thean Monthly" presents this subject in a forceful manner. The writer gives some qualifications of the ideal American citizen. First, he must exercise the right of franchise. It is not only his right, but his duty, to vote. Secondly, he must vote intelligently and not allow himself to be bribed by a paltry farthing. Again, he must be a doer, and not depend upon party leaders. And lastly he must have strong moral convictions. As to the prob-lem of attaining this ideal, the author says, "If I were to offer a solution of this vital problem, it would be: the continual, untir-ing moral and civic training in home and school." All scholars have more or less knowledge of epic poetry. They all know something of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid and Milton's Paradise Lost, but often the epics of less renown are neglected. "The Sketch Book" contains an article entitled "Sita," which tells us of India's epics. The Eamayana and the Mahabharata are India's chief epics. "Sita" is the im-portant character in the Eamayana. She is to the Eamayana what Helen of Troy is to Homer's Ilaid. The article gives a brief summary of the epic and closes with a few ethical com-ments on the character of "Sita." 32 THE MEKCUKT. We wish to comment on two articles in the "Albright Bulle-tin." "The Character of Satan in 'Paradise Lost,'" and "Work; Man's Opportunity." The writer regards Satan as the princi-pal character of the epic, and speaks of him from that stand-point. In the latter essay, we have a very practical exposition on work and its blessings to the individual. Lovers of German literature will find pleasure in reading "Two Representatives of German Epic and Lyric Poetry" in the "Lesbian Herald." Of our High School exchanges, the "Eed and Black" (Read-ing High School) deserves special mention. The departments are well represented and as a whole the paper makes a pleasing appearance. We gratefully acknowledge the usual exchanges. "PXYK iKT2« r>rv. M3VSUT13ER5. There's no pen that gives such all-round satisfaction i Conklin's Self-Filling Fountain Pen. It's the best pen for College Men. When an ordinary fountain pen runs dry in the middle of a word, it means you've got to stop right there, hunt up a rubber squirt gun, fill your pen to overflowing, clean both pen and dropper, wash your hands, and then endeavor as best you can to collect your lost Crescent f'f train of thought. It's different with Filler Jr-l 9 FILLING "THE PEN WITH THE CRESCENT-FILLER" To fill, iust dip it in any ink, press the Crescent-Filler, and the Conklin is filled and ready to write instantly. You can't over-fill it. Hence no inky fingers, no loss of time, no ruffled temper. The feed of the Conklin is No waiting for ink to come—no jerking—no slips, blots. ng dealers handle the Conklin. IE yours does not, order direct. Look tor the Crescent-Filler and refuse substitutes. Prices, $3.00 and up. Send at once (or handsome new catalog. T3E OOHZLIH PEH CO., 31 Itiahattsn Bnildiag, Toledo, Ohio. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FUfOTTUfjE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames; Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. 3=3L ZB_ 23eri-d.ex, 37 Baltimore Si., *-tttt/xhurg;, FA EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. SUNDAY SCHOOL LESSON HELPS AND SUPPLIES, P. ANSTADT & SONS, Publishers, Book and Job Printing of all Kinds ttrtte for Prices. YORK, PA. ■> PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE ^MEMS ENGRAVER, DESIGNER, AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER 722 Chestnut St., Phila. SPECIALTIES : MASONIC MARKS, SOCIETY BADGES, COLLEGE BUTTONS, PINS, SCARP PINS, STICK PINS AND ATHLETIC PRIZES. All Goods ordered through G. F. Kieffer, CHARLES S. MUMPER, MtKALER MJV TTTTTS "KFTTTTT? 15! PICTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS * W *■*" * * *» *fc*Hf REpA|R WORK DONE PROMPTLY I WILL ALSO BUY OR EXCHANGE ANY SECOND-HAND FURNITURE NO. 4 CHAMBERSBURG STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA D. J. SWARTZ DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. SHOES KEPA1UHI> —BY— 115 Baltimore St., near Court House. GOOD WORK GUARANTEED. -IS-Your Photographer ? If not, why not? 41 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. 8EFT0N I FLEMMING'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg, -Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arm »» Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place to stay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. ROOMS §1.00 PER DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputation and eonsequenee in > 3Pla.ila.cLe2pla.ISL • » J 1 i SQ *. • • » ,atindry . . OF YORK . . Offers tfte COLLEGE STUDENTS first-dass work; at Special Low Prices. E. C. STOUFEER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. MEANS TASTY WOEK SAEEFULLY DONE. MfcNU CARDS. LETTER HEADS, WINDOW POSTERS ENVELOPES, DANCE CARDS TICKETS, Programs of all kinds. Everything the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper, clone in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Gettysburg Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with town and college life. HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. ™2li2^! CAPS AND GOWNS To Utttyi-buri? College Lafayette. Lehigh. Dickinson. State College, Univ of Penn sylviinin, Hnrviird, Yale. Princeton. Wellesley, Bryn Mnwrnnd the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods i. Degrees. Mr. College Man We are already lining up our clients for nextSpring. With our National Organization of 12 offices we will need over 2000 college men for technical, office, sales aud teaching positions throughout the United States. We can also use at any time college men who are in the market for a position. Let us explain to you NOW. Write for the "College Man's Opportunity." It tells how Hapgoods, a great organization built up by college men has placed many thousand youngmen, has raised the standard of college meu as a business factor throughout the world. State age, education, location desired. THE JV\iTIOJVJIZ, OBGjrjVTZJlTjrOJV OF BIlJlIJV BHOHKBS. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Electric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for Commencement Visitors. RATES $2.00 PER DAY. -livery CLi'ta.c'ked. Jot]i] P. JV^tH Proprietor. BECKER & CO., DEALERS IN All kinds of Fresh and Smoked Meats Chambersburg St., Gettysburg, Pa. WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. ALLEN K. WALTON, Pres. and Treas. ROBT. J. WALTON, Supt. flummelstown Brown Stone Company, QUARRYMEN and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING and TILE. Wa/l/fcoTwille, ]£)a.-u,pT-vlr\, ^o. Pa. CONTRACTORS FOR ALL KINDS OF CUT STONE WORK. Telegrapn and Express Address, Brownstone, Pa. Parties visit-ing quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R-R. R. For Artistic Photographs Go To T{PTON The Leader in PHOTO FASHIONS Frames and Passapartouts Made to Order. PATRONISE OUR ADY$RTI$$RS Come and Have a Good Shave or Hair Cut -AT-Harry B. Sefton's BARBER SHOP. 35 Baltimore St. Barber's Supplies a Specialty. Also choice line of Cigars. 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Issue 36.5 of the Review for Religious, 1977. ; REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS IS edaed by faculty members of St LOUIS University, the editor,al offices being located at 612 Humboldt Braiding, 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copyright © 1977 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $2.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $7.00 a year; $13.00 for two years; other countries, $8.00 a year, $15.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Robert Williams, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Assistant Editor September 1977 Volume 36 Number 5 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to REVIEW Fon REL1c~ous; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts andbooks for review should be sent to REVXEW YOn REL~CIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's College; City Avenue at 54th Street; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19131. The First Week of the Spiritual Exercises and the Conversion of Saint, Paul Carolyn Osiek, R.S.C.J. Sister Carolyn is on the faculty of Catholic Theological Union, Chicago, where she teaches New Testament. Most recently, she had been Research/Resource Associate in Women's Studies at H~rvard Divinity'School. Her address: Catholic Theological Union; 5401 S. Cornell; Chicago, IL 60615. The title ~ays in a general way the topic of this article. Actually, however, it is somewhat the other way around, for another way of expressing the topic would be: Paul's decisive "First Week" experience, or, the "First Week" in the life of Paul. The present investigation Will be an attempt to focus, examine, and understand the personal experience of Paul which parallels and reflects the process experienced and planned by Ignatius for his followers in what he later came to call the "First Week" of the Spiritual Exercises. There are some obvious limitations to such an undertaking. First, if as is generally accepted, Paul's initial conversion experience took place some-time between 33-36 A.D., and if what is preserved of his Philippian, Ga-latian, and Corinthian correspondence was written between the years 54 and 57 from Ephesus, there is a 20 year gap between the.experience and the description. 1 Second, Paul had no intention of writing an autobiography.' He alludes to his own spiritual experience only insofar as it helps him convey ~The chronology of the letters is disputed. Here I follow J. A. Fitzmyer, "A Life ~Jf Paul," Jerome Biblical Commenthry, ed. R. E. Brown. J. A. Fitzmyer. R. E. Murphy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall, 1968), pp. 218, 221. 657 6511 / Review for Religious, .Volume 36, 1.,977/~5 his point to others, usually in terms of the bankruptcy of the Mosaic laW vis-a-vis the grace of Christ--a religious situation far removedin actuality from the experience of most of us, whatever figurative applications can be made. Third, the one source in which Paul's spiritual conversion-is graph-ically and formally portrayed (in triplicate)--Acts 9:22 and 26~could be utilized in a consideration of New Testament theology of conversion, but in the light of modern scriptural source criticism cannot responsibly be used to shed light on Pauline spirituality or spiritual experience. Some of the elements picked up by Luke in.his triple narrative will be used as illustrative of the Pauline experience in the wider dimension of familiar religious symbols, but it must be kept in mind that for Paul they are secondary. This brings us to a statement of the broader scope of the present under-taking. The purpose of the investigation is not historical. If it were, it could well stop with the Pauline data. Rather, the full scope is an attempt to understand Paulis wounding and healing as exemplary of a common spir-itual journey through death to new life for a purpose. The expanded ar- .ticulation of that process is drawn from personal experience as retreatant and as a spiritual director. It might be well to begin by describing the structure of the "First Week' '~ process as it will be treated here. Basically it is a movemrrit of entering into death in Order to have life, of descending into the depths 0nly to find there new inspiration to arise, of going down with the old and familiar and coming up in newness, as the ancient ritual of baptism by immersion so clearly portrays. It is wodnding and healing, alienation and reconciliation as the person comes face to face first with human evil and then with divine good-ness. Precisely where these two currents cross is the point of greatest pain because the comparison becomes nearly unehdurable. But out of the con-flict engen.dered by that pain comes the energy to begin anew, and thus the paradoxical cycle of death and rebirth is once again lived out. Ignatius' term -confusion" is not a bad word to describe the growing sense that something is wrong, both in its literary meaning of "shame" and especially in its more common sense of "losing one's bea.rings." There are three stages that can occur as defenses are stripped away and the sense of confusion sharpens. Ignatius described these three stages one way in n. [63] of the Exercises: first, a deep knowledge of-pers~onalo sin and a feeling of abhorrence; second, an understanding of the "disorder of my actions" and a resulting feeling of horror; third, a. knowledge of the sinfulness of the world ~.and, again, a.sense of horror. Abhorrence and horror are strong enough terms, yet they imply a primacy of activity on the part of the retreatant though, it must be added, the grace to have such feelings is clearly seen as something to be asked of and freely bestowed by God. The terminology used by Ignatius here, at least as we can understand it four centuries later, does not adequatrly desc.ribe the passive nature of the First Week experience as it is sometimes encountered when, without active The Spiritual Exercises and the Conversion of Paul / 659 pursuit of desire for sorrow for sin, and so forth, rational defenses and affective supports ~reviously relied upon suddenly disappear. Disorienta-tion deepens as awareness of sin increases. The revelation of sinfulness progresses; as Ignatius.described it, in three stages. The first is that of felt guilt over specific acts for which the person is respohsible, guilt that has been accumulating perhaps over a long period of time, the full impact of which suddenly bursts forth with unexpectedly painful sharpness as the reti'eatant faces God and himself in solitude. Crnfusion is balanced only by the fi~m witness of the mercy and forbearance of God in allowing the person t~J come to this point. The second stage occurs if the layer of the conscious mind can be sufficiently peelea off to-reveal the underlying basic tendencies to evil for which a perso~n is only partly responsible at the conscious level. The feeling of confusion, pain,, a~nd alienation increases and a ne'w factor eri(ers in: helplessness-sthe inability to do what one Would want to do about vast areas of life. ,;The realization deepens that one is unable to Consciously regulate tendencies to grab for security, love, and control that diminish both victims and subject. The person is painfully aware of not being in control of his own motivation. At this point feelings of guilt mix with a newly discovered fear of one's own innate destructiveness. Mistrust of oneself can be countered by trust in the God who has kept him from becoming worse than he is. In the third stage the probe of the ~pirit goes deeper still until it reaches the 16vel at which personal responsibility is no longer at stake. It is .the experience of total powerlessn~ess, helplessness, total inability to act in any way.to save oneself. The forces of disintegration seem to be triumphing and God seems to have left the person totally to his own resources which have consequently cru'mbled. Here it is no longer a question of guilt and merc~,, but of the ability to live with fear and to cling to some memory of the love of God. The familiar theological maxim that God sustains all things in existence at every moment becomes a crushing reality, for the person is This "confusion." flowing from the sense of being judged by God, is not the result of a rational process: it is total loss of face before a situation which cannot be long endured with the usual supports of reason and prudence. We find ourselves con-fronted by ttie cross of Christ placed in the presence of unmeasuredness itself, that which is "madness to the world" (I Co 1:23).2 Z"La 'confusion.' fruit spirituel de cejugement divin, n'est pas le r~sultat d'une argumenta- 'tign logique: elle est perle totale de contenance, devant une situation qui pr~cis~ment ne peut ~tre plus Iongte.mps support~e avec !es ressources habituelles de la raison et de la pru-dence. ~Nous voici, devant la Croix du Christ. mis ,en presence de la d~mesure m~me, qm est 'folie l~our le monde" (I Cor 1:23) . La premiere semaine des Exercices." Christus, vol. 6. no. 21 (1959), pp. 22-39 (translation mine). 660 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 sure that nothing within himself is preserving his being, .and yet it seems to be God himself wh6 is crushing him. Ignatius understood [53] that only the total powerlessness of Christ on the cross as he is destroyed by force.s beyond human control can give any meaning to this experience, W. de Broucker describes this state of soul in a way that sums up the whole triple movement: It is precisely the attitude expressed by the dying Chris.t that marks the beginning of the movement upward: "Into your hands I commit my spirit." Surrender into the hands of God, the cessation of struggle against the force that seems to be annihilating the self, goes against the basic instinct of human nature. It is natural for us "to fight for life, to hang on tenuously to the familiar. If the shred of self that is left can be given up, a new self can be formed. With surrender comes trust that there is someone or something to surrender to, and that something other than total chaos can result. Once trust has been given, a dim hope can begin to arise, an assurance that dawn will~ome and that a reason for the suffering and death of the experience may be that something greater is coming to birth. With a new confidence given to the force that is at work within, further insight into one's personal responsibility may result. There may be deep-ened realization of how one's total helplessness before God, now a.~vivid reality, creates subconscious defenses in the form of root tendencies to turn away from God in order to avoid pain, conflict, or unwelcome truth. New awareness of personal orientation away from God then leads to a whole new outlook about personal sinfulness. The avoidance, neglect, anxiety, and self-seeking expressed in everyday~life as sin are seen with much more understanding and insight into one's personal motivation.s and weaknesses. At this point a healing of pain and guilt can take place and the mercy of God becomes an invading presence _bringing with it the experience of reconcil-iation leading to a deep sense of peace and eventually of joy. The new clarity of understanding leads inevitably, for the person who remains faithful in following the new way where God is'leading, to a trans-formation of attitude and behavior. This transformation is a psychiC and spiritual change that invades the whole person, btit rarely does it happen all at once. It involves the abandoning of certain accepted values and untried assumptions regarding personal autonomy, perception of truth, or need for affectivity. Realization of what God is asking in these areas and consequent surrender and acceptance of change usually happen gradually over a period of at least several months. What is happening simultaneously is the ac-quisition of a new set of personal values to replace the old ones, values usually founded on sharpened awareness of the fragility and weakness of the self and a deep sense of awe an~d gratitude at the ways that God's power is at work in weakness. Mary Esthei- Harding describes the psychological change that is taking place at this point: The Spiritual Exercises and the Conversion of Paul / 661 Whenever there is an upsurge of highly activated unadapted material into conscious-ness, the task of assimilation becomes urgent. This holds true whether the new material is valuable, creative stuff or merely alchaic phantasy that bespeaks more a morbid exuberance than a prolific creativity. The assimilation of the new material demands a fresh standpoint, which implies a recognition of the relativity of all former judgments. What was formerly considered unqualifiedly good must'now be judged in the light of,the new and enlarged understanding; the same must be done with that which has been considered bad? The whole experience might be summarized as an awareness of: the goodness of God gratitude sinful actions guilt. need for mercy, forgiveness sinful tendencies fear struggle need to experience love of God powerlessness surrender trust hope And a new awareness of: sinful tendencies new awareness of mercy love motivqtion for sinful power of God acts , need to change There follows a healing and reconciliation peace, joy and a gradual transformation of values, attitudeS, behavior As 'was stated at the beginning, the primary focus of this paper is the spiritual experience of Paul, aRd the previous discussion of the process is by ~ay of setting the stage. Patil's change Of heart is classically spoken of as a "conversion;" The limitation inherent in the use of this term is the restricted sense in which the word is most often used: change of faith or religion or, somewhat more broadly, emendation of a wayward moral life, while the root meaning of the word "conversion' ~ is really something closer to an "about face~'--a total turning of the person from one orientation to another. While Paul's "conversions" certainly did entail a change of reli-gious affiliation, though probably not a change of moral conduct, it must be Understood. primarily in the broadest sense of the term, as a complete overthrow and turn-about of personal values. Because of the ambiguities aPsychic Energy: Its Source and Its Transformation, 2nd ed. Bollingen Series X (Washington, D.C.: Pantheon, 1963), p. 285. 662 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 present.in the word "conversion," it might be preferable to ~pe~ak of the "transformhtion" of Paul in his encounter with the li~,ing Christ.4 Contrary to, what much p0pu,!ar arid undiscrimina.ting piety (and perhaps even the a~uthor of Acts)would,have us think, Paul's transformation did not happen.overnight or even in three days as a careless reading of Acts 9:18-30 might suggest. Paul himself speaks of three years (Ga 1:18).~tran~spiring before he began to preach Christ. There is no reason' to suppose that the process moved along with remarkable speed. We tend to clothe Paul's transformation~ixperien~e in'a thick ~overirig of the miraculous, leaning too heavily on the clear triple account of Acts and too lightly on Paul's own illusive comments. The flash of light, the heavenly voice of the reveals/r, Paul's being struck to the ground, and the mysterious three-day blindness are all stock elements of narrations of divine epiph-anies. For some, miraculous revelations are a stumblingblock and a source of conflict. But for most people today, they are something else: an invitation to disregard. And so what happens°is that someone like Paul, who leaps out at us so humanly in his own writings, becomes relegated to the dim past, to the gallery of "saints" who are not quite as human as the rest of us, to the realm of the "supernatural" dichotomized from that realm in which we ourselves live and struggle. The reason for all this is 'not surprising: we do not have to have the uncomfortable experience of seeingourselves reflected in such a "saint." The ways of God with humanity are as varied as are the persons who seek to know them, and yet there are qualities of our common humanity that remain very much the same. It is for this reason that an analysis'of the transformation process a~ given above, and an attempt to see that process as it happened in Paul are worthwhile. We may be able to see something of ourselves in him and so better understand the ways of God in us. It is a mistake to think of Paul as changing f.rom hardened persecutor to egthusiastic mystic, from~his, blind cruelty to a Christian sensitivity, as though: his transformation, were from sinner to saint. Paul was not a hard man; .he was a sincere and generous man. His pursuit of Christians sprang 4An important article or] the structure and Western interpretations o"f Paul's conversion ex-perience appeared long ~go and attracted considerable nOtice in Protestant Scholarly circles, coming as it did out of a Lutheran interpretation of~Paul; I refer to Krister Stendahl'.s "The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West," Harvard Theglogical:Revi~ew 56:3 (July, 1963), pp. 199-215, an article well worth reading. In recent conversation betwe_en the author arid rfiyse!f there was agreement about Paul's "clear conscience" regarding his former way of life in Judaism (see ~specially pp. 200-201); however, I would not want to stress the idea of "introspection" as the search for personal sin, but would rather emphasize the seeking after awareness of God's action within the person. In contrast to Dean Stendahl's interpretation (pp. 204-205) I would distinguish two aspects of Paul's change of ways: first, a personal transformation, and second, the directing of that new energy toward evange Jzat~on of the Gentiles. The Spiritual Exercises and the Conversion of Paul / 663 not from cruelty but from enthusiasm in the service of God. He was the good and tlpright man whom the Lord loved, and because the Lord loved hii~ so much, he called him to give more. Paul says of himself (Ph 3:5-6) that his family and religious credentials were impeccable and that he had done far more than the minimum required to be a son of the Law. He was without fault in itg r~gard,'fully aware of its value as gift bestowed upon Is-rael as a proof bf God's love. Hi~ sincere thirst for justice miast have led him periodically into the self-scrutiny of the just which produces an awa(eness of personal failings anti sinful tendencies that only deepens devotion as it deepens-an ap~areciation of God's mercy. ,.Then something happened. Whether his encounter with the living Christ was as dramatic as Acts 9 portrays it is doubtful, for Paul nowhere alludes to~,,his experie]ace as containing elements of the sensational,but rather de-scribes it qui[e simply: "Have I not seen Jesus our Lord?" (1 Co 9:1); "I did not receive [the gospel] from a human source nor was I.taught by any but a revelation from Jesus Christ" (Ga 1:12); "God who had set me aside from my mother's womb called me through his grace and revealed his son in me" (Ga 1:15; see Is 49:1; Jr 1:5). There is an undeniable sense of personal encounter and ,call, even for a specific mission, but ~very little impression of fanfare. He found himself at point zero, knocked off his horse more internally than externally, with no patterned defenses or conditioned responses to fall back on that had not been stripped away by a new presence that was relentlessly pursuing him. ,When the realization of whathad happened began to take hold of him, Paul knew he had been changed. Luke's image of blindness approximates in physical.terms what must have been his psychic,state for a period of time: confusion, loss, fear, inner chaos, spiritual paralysis, the terrifying~feeling that hig whole world was coming apart. As he began to surrender to the force that was invading him, he would have become aware that it was a new and unwelcome presence that of Jesus of Nazareth, suddenly: intruding upon his well-ordered world. This is in fact the heart of the experience of brokenness: that Christ manifests himself in a new and unexpected way, and before his demanding presence all pre-conceived structures of life must be put aside. '~ Onc~ he had accepted what was happening, he would have begun to see h~ms~lfin a new way, feeling within himself the slowi3i-dawning and terrible realization that he had misplaced his devotion and misdirected his zeal, the frustration of knowing for the first time that he had beeri turned in a di-rection which, in the light of a new awareness, he had to judge as the wrong way. New understanding Would .have brought about new se'lf-knowledge and a new capacity for radical honesty about the movements of his life, enveloped in deepened awe at the sustaining and patient love of God re-vealed in Christ who was now calling into question the whole meaning of his life. ,664 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 The realization that the love of God has been constant when our re-sponse has been anything but constant, that his forgiveness was extended even before we knew for what to ask it, can be a crushing blow from which the security of the ego never fully recovers. The wound inflicted on it is not cured, as if the tearing never happened; rather, it is healed, brought to new wholeness- not in spite of, but because of the rending. As is often the case, Paul's healing and reconciliation with God were not for his sake only., but that he might lead many others to the same point: "The love of Christ overwhelms us when we realize that one died for all., so that the living should no longer live for themselves but for him who died for them and was raised again., for everything is from God who has reconciled us to himself through Christ and given us the ministry of reconciliation" (2 Co 5:14-18). What is cautiously born then is a'self that must undertake the painful task of she~lding and leaving behind as so much debris much that the former self deemed of value, in order to make room for new value to come. In the case .of Paul the reversal which he had to endure to be faithful to newly-given grace was dramatic and loaded with not only personal but also social consequences: "But whatever was formerly gain to me, I have com~ to consider it loss because of Christ; mor.eover, I now consider everything loss because of the overwhelming knowledge of Jesus Christ my Lord, for whom I have let go of eve~:ything and consider it rubbish in order to gain Christ and be counted with him" (Ph 3:7-9). For him it meant giving up a worldview, religious affiliation, a certainty of being right, a reputation, family and friends, the whole fabric of personal and social relationships that had formed the pattern of his life. Few are called to so drasti6.a change. Yet the most fundamental change must have been one with which many can resonate: the need to reconstruct from broken fragments.a new self, a much more fragile self, like an earthenware jar hollowed out at the center in which "the overflowing power comes from God and not from us" (2 Co 4:7). It is the need to understand and accept the voice of Christ addressed to the prostrate human spirit, "My grace is enough, for strength is brought to fullness in weakness," and to respond by saying, "Joyfully then I will openly share my weakness so that the power of Christ may be revealed through me" (2 Co 12:8-9). It might be argued that the above account of Paul's conversion .and transformation is a fanciful extrapolation based on insufficient data. Yet the essential human experience underlying it is so basic and .universal that no matter in how many myriad forms it is manifested, a true experience of transformation from one spiritual state to another (as opposed to a super-ficial "conversion" that is only temporary because self-induced) has certain fundamentally similar components. Certainly Paul's experience was a trans-formation of this kind. Though he leaves many things unsaid, the pain and fear, the bewildering search, and ultimately the ecstasy of discovering that it is precisely in crucifying weakness that the power of the risen Christ is manifested, come through in the few literary traces he has left. The Spir!tual Exercises and the Converison of Paul / 665 For Paul transformation meant a radical break with the past, with family, home, and faith. For most of us, the break is not so abrupt, and yet the need to abandon old habits of thinking and feeling to make room for new ones still only dimly perceived is a common element. Spiritual directors are plentiful these days, but guides and models in one's spiritual experience are not always easy to come by. An ability to find echoes of one's own life in the jolting experience of Paul may give encouragement and be a cause for that movement of hope in darkness which affirms with him that no matter how chaotic may be the experience of finding out what we really are, for the person who continues trying to hang on the way Christ has hung onto him neither height of blind pride nor depth of despair--both of which can co-exist in the same person--nor any creature of the imagination can ever wrench us away from the love of God that is expressed to us in Christ Jesus our Lord.5 ~See Ph 3:12; Rm 8:39. REPRINTS FROM THE REVIEW Profile of the Spirit: A Theology of Discernment of Spirits by J. R. Sheets, S.J. .50 Retirement or Vigil by B. Ashley, O.P. .30 The Confessions of Religious Wom~en by Sr. M. Denis, S~.O.S. 30 The Four Moments of Prayer by J. R. Sheets, S.J. .50 The Healing of Memories by F, Martin .35 The Nature and Value of a Directed Retreat by H. F. Smith, S.J . 35 The Teaching. Sister in the Church by E. Gambari, S.M.M. .30 The Theology., of the Eucharistic Presence by J. Galot, S.J. .30 The Vows and Christian Life by G. Greif, S.J. .30 New Reprints° Centering Prayer--Prayer o~ Quiei by M. B. Pi:nnington, O.C.S.O .50 Colloquy of God With a Soul That Truly Seeks Him .30 Prayer of Personal Reminiscence by D. J, Hassel, S.J. .60 Orders for the above should be sent to: Review for Religious 612 Humboldt Building 539 No. Grand Blvd. St. Louis, MO 63103' Please include remittance with all orders less than $5.00 A Theology of the Religious Life Local Church and Ladislaus Orsy, S.J. Father Orsy teaches Canon Law at the Catholic University of America. He resides at Carroll House; 1225 Otis St. N.E.; Washington, DC 20017. The text of this article is the keynote address given in New Orleahs at the annual convention of the National Conference of Vicars for Religious, on March 21, 1977. The notes were added later to try to dispel some ambiguities in the text and, elucidate further the author's mind. Saint Thomas Aquinas introduced one of his famous works with the Sen-tence: "A small error in the beginning leads to a great one in the end.''1 In the same spirit of wise caution we can say that the wrong question ~n thee beginning is likely to lead to the wrong answer at the end. Let us transform, therefore, the terse words of the title, "A :Theology of the Local ChUrch and Religious Life," into a question rightly construed, that can lead us securely in our inquiry toward the ans~ver~s that we do not know at the point of our departure. Indeed, the title breaks up quite naturally into three queries: 1. What is our understanding of the local church? (By under:standing we mean tides quaerens intellectum; faith seeking underst.and!ng. Here we mean the knowledge of the local church that is givew t.hroughfaith, and is deepened through our reflection on the data of faiths)z ° ~ ~ 2. What is our understanding of religious life? (Understanding means, here again, knowledge through faith and reflection.) , 3. What is, and what should be, the right relationship between the two? The questions spring quite natur~ally from the title. Yet, I am still not satisfied with them. They shouldbb focused with more care, sharpened with greater precision. Also, they should impose a limit on our rather broad topic, and thus make the discussion of it more manageable for our specific purpose. Let us try again to set the right questions. 666 A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 667 1. What is our understanding of the fact, of the ~event, of a particular church ? There are two significant changes in this new formulation. We seek a better understanding of the fact or event of the church; that is, our'focus is not on an abstract concept, but on an actually existing community of Chris-tians who form a church, although not the:universal Church. Our focus is concrete and existential. Our understanding will develop more from .the observation of the living body than from the analysis of texts. Also, we substituted the term "particular" for "local." The reason for this isthat local church has a geographical connotation and tends to point to a parish or to a diocese, hardly to more than these. The term "particular" allows greater flexibility; it points toward the natural unity of a group of Christians inside the broad,universal community. Such unity may well emergedn a diocese, .but it may well go beyond it and extend as far as an ecclesiastical province, a region, or a country.~ It may even spread over several countries. To seek the understanding of a "particular" church, instead of a "local" church, frees us from narrow boundaries and will allow us to examine the issue in a broader context? But we must impose a restriction on ourselves. We do not intend to exhaust the mystery of a particular church by investigating all its dimen-sions. We want to understand its life in relationship to religious commu-nities. That is all; but, it is a lot. 2. What is our understanding of the fact and event of religious com-munities? Here, too, our focus is concrete. Our primary interest is not in the concept of religious life, but in the real life.of religious communities.4 With a well-defined limitation: we seek the understanding of the life and work of religious communities in their .relationship to a particular church in which they exist, and where they give themselves to the service of the universal church. 3. What is, or what should be, the relationship between the two, a particular church and religious commutiities, in it? We intend to reflect on the living relationship that exists, or should exist, in the b6dy of the church between two diverse members. We seek ihis understanding in view oflntelligent Christian action, with the intention of ¯ finding norms and guidelines for such action. Let us turn now to the first q,uestion. First Question: How Can We Come to,a'Better understanding of the Particular Church? All understanding begins with the perception of facts. For facts about the particular church we must turn to the awareness of Christians through-out- the centuries, from the beginning to our days. Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 Some historical pointers about the development of the particular church; or, how did the Christian community perceive the particular church throughout its history? In the early centuries, Christian communities developed maihly along the great commercial routes of the Roman Empire. Soon they structured themselves; the bishop presided over the congregation. The local com-munities were closely knit; those were the times when Christians knew each other by name. While they were aware of the universal dimension of their religion, they enjoyed a certain amount of local autonomy,. Yet, right from the beginning, there was a ,movement to bring the smaller communities around the bishop into a larger unity, either under the supervision of a traveling bishop, or under a metropolitan residing in a larger city, usually the capital of a province. Particular churches with their own language, liturgy, discipline and customs, developed, not so much in each~city, but in larger territories that represented a natural cultural unity, They developed different understandings of Christian faith; they created different practices. Of course, those differences did not go so far as to deny or contradict the unity necessary for universality, but they certainly went far enough to give a different character to each of those particular churches.'~ Such trends are clearly discernible well into the Middle Ages. Individual dioceses in most places were too small to give a specific ex-pression to their faith, to create their own discipline; culturally, they were ¯ ¯ absorbed into a larger unity, into the ecclesiastical province or the national church. Thus, the Irish church, from the beginning, wa.s quite different from the continental churches, yet there was not much difference from one diocese to another. The English church, too, had its own characteristics under the leadership of Canterbury. On the Continent, the legal customs of Germanic peoples gave a certain unity to many churches. In Spain, the Mozarabic rite developed and united many dioceses in worship. In France, churches around Lyons formed again a vital unity, distinguished by their liturgy. We could continue the enumeration of such developments, but for the purpose of this article, let us content ourselves with a general statement, that I believe is historically correct. If by particular church we mean a church that has its own specific charisms, its own mind and its own heart within the universal Church, then only a few dio.ceses were truly.particular churches,n Differences in theology, liturgy, and discipline could be found much more between ecclesiastical provinces, regions and territories of nations, than between dioceses. The source of such variety is much more in human culture than in the understanding of faith. With the waning of the Middle Ages, a change takes place. The power of the metropolitan see in the Western church is reduced to a minimu~m. Liturgical worship, preaching, and discipline become strongly unified in the whole Church, even to the point of exaggerated uniformity. The role. of A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 6159 particular churches, be they dioceses, regions or provinces, is reduced to a minimum. Vatican Council II wanted to restore the dignity of the particular church and the bishops sti'essed its importance repeatedly,r ~'et the council was not in a position to do much reflection on the nature of the particular church, on what it has been throughout different periods of.history; it did not tell us how the term should be understood in the future. Indeed,°the developments after the council reflect some confusion, even some contradiction in these matters. In many theoretical writings and commentaries on the council, it is assumed that the particular church is the diocese. Its unity, its specific character, its distinctive vocation are em-phasized. Yet recent developments in liturgical and disciplinary legislation do not give,.much importance to individual dioceses; they give much more power to larger :tinits represented by national or regional episcopal con-ferences. While differentiation on the diocesan level is virtually impossible, ex-cept in insignificant and minor matters, privileges, exemptions, special permissions are easily granted to a larger unit such as a region or a nation. It is clear now that the term "particular church" can be used in two distinct ways. It may refer to an individual diocese, to one congregation around its bishop, or it may refer to a larger unit that comprises several dioceses and possesses a unity that springs from human factors such as culture, history, national inheritance, and so forth. Both uses are legitimate and important. But the meaning ought to be clarified in each case. Reflecting on the relationship of religious communities to the particular church, we cannot sweep away this problem of meaning, calling it purely semantic. The issue of relationship is alive on both levels and brings up different problems that we must face. There is the issue of the rela~tionship of.religious communities to a diocese. But there is also the issue of the relationship of religious com, munities to a larger unit, e.g., ~to the national church, that has its own particular characteristics. In the United States, both issues are alive. Theological reflections on the fact or event of the particular church, or, what is our understanding of a particular church? 1. Christian people throughout their historY were aware of belonging, as it were, to two communities: one, universal, the other, particular. The universal' community is world-wide; it springs from the action of the one Spirit of God, who was poured out on the face of the earth. The entrance into it is through one baptism that is the same everywhere. The particular community is the local one~ For some, the local church means the parish, for some others the diocese, for others again, it may well mean the church in a country. 2. The temptation always existed, and will probably never leave us, to Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 oppose the two to the point that one is considered important at the expense of the other. But any such consideration is wrong because it tears up the visible body .of Christ. When we speak of the universal Church and the particular ones we. do nothing less.and nothing more than to describe an existing differentiation in the social, body of Christ. His body is one, but it is composed of parts; the whole could not exist without the parts;-and the parts have no life .in themselves. Any separation means death for all; any destruction of natural harmony brings sickness to the whole organism. 3. Paradoxes can be helpful inour attempt to understand such complex differentiation. It can be :said that there is both autonomy and dependence in each member of the body. The particular church is autonomous and yet it depends on the universal Church. The universal (~hurch is itself the source of life for all other churches; yet its vitality comes entirely from the local churches. We may think of the autonomy of the heart in bur body. It will not ~ perform well unless all the other organs let it do what its spec!fic task is; any unwarranted intervention with. the heart,may bring subsequent disaster for the whole body. Yet the heart is totally dependent in its function on the whole body. The rhythm of its beat, the strength of its action, are carefully regulated by numerous other factors and agents present in the living body. If they,.cease . to function, no life-giving blood will flow into the heart. We may not be able to reach~a precise definition for the local church, but reflection through symbols and images can give us a great deal of, under-standing. 4. If we ask now what precisely the source.of differences is among the local churches, we find that it is mainly in the humanity of those Christians who form them, that is, not so much in any specific Christian belief, but in th~ human traditions; history and culture of those who believe. Thus, initially, the Jews and the Greeks and the Romans all received the good news equally, but they built up churches that were marked by their own culture, national customs and characteristics. Thus there were soon Jewish churches, Hellenistic Churches, and churches of the Romans, all part of the "same universal Church, yet all different. .Later, the inhabitants of Ireland, of England, of the Iberian peninsula built their churches on the universal elements of Christian faith, worship, " and discipline, and on the particular elements of tl~eir own inheritance. 5. The situation is not much different today. Here and there, an isolated di6cese may be found that has its own distinctive life as a diocese. The Christian community of a Pacific Island may well develop.distinctive traits that no other diocese in this world can possess. But such cases are rare today. More often there is a regional unity. The dioceses of Alaska form a natural unity that is quite different from their sister churches in the South. A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 671 There" might also be a national unity. The dioceses of Japan are not mark-edly different from each other; the strong unity of the culture and traditions on the four islands is manifest in the particular church of Japan. Even a whole contir~ent can display a unity. How many times in recent years we have. heard the churches of South America speaking with voices that were strikingly similar to one another. There are foundations in South America for a specific particular unity that embraces the Christians of many dio-ceses, numerous provinces and several nations. 6. °Such re°flecti0ns and considerations do not leave us with a clear concept'and definition of what a particular church is; but they leave us with a good working understanding of the complex nature of our Church that is both universal and particular at the same time. Our undei-standing reflects the true state of things and.~e do not become captive of romantic ideas that are definitely present in the .post-conciliar writings. Father Karl Rahner himself stresses that there is church whenever the bishop celebrates the Eucharist, surrounded by his community. Such a ViSion certainly corre-sponds to our earliest traditions, but it is simply not realistic today. Few of the faithful ever partake in the Eucharist'celebrated by the bishop, and the size of the dioceses geographically or numerically makes any such cele- I~ration virtually iml56ssible. Our understanding it not in adopting clear theories. It is much more the perception of the changing, shifting realities of the Chi~rch. That is how it should be. The duty of Chri~tia.ns to uphold the particular church; or, how must we confess in word and deed our belief in the particular church? At this point, two facts stand out. One is that there is no Christian Church without particular churches, as~there is no human body withotit members. The other is that there is no Christian who does not belong, somehow, to a particular church, as there is no individual cell that does not belong,to a distinct organ in the human body. No one can; therefore, belong to the Christian Church without assuming the duty to uphold a particular church, although this duty may well be differentiated according to the condition of each one, as we shall see. There is no direct and immediate entry, into the universal Church, since it is the communio of local churches. Interestingly enough, not even the pope him-self, who traditionally has been called the "Bishop of Rome," or the "Uni-versal Bishop," belongs exclusively to the universal Church. He is not residing in a territory detached from all particular churches, as the Presi-dent of the United States resides in the District of Columbia, detached from any allegiance to any state. The pope is the Bishop of Rome and belongs to that particular, church, while he is also the head of the universal Church. The very structure of the (2hurch demandsthat there should be aduty on every single person to uphold his own local or particular church. The support to a,memb.er church must always be in harmony and good 679 / Review for Religious, Volume,36, 1977/5 balance with the belief and support given to the universal Church. There is no precise measure to determine how much a Christian should give tohis particular community and how much to the universal congregation of the Church. Such measure can only be determined by taking into account a call and a mandate: the vocation of an individual person or of a distinct com~ munity. Even in the case of the same person, of the same community, the contribution can be shifting and changing according to needs, and their existing capacity to give. Now we have come to the point where we can speak .more explicitly about the duty of religious communities to uphold the local, particular church. It is a duty from which there is no exception and no exemption. But the duty is not the same in every group. Religious ins'titutes that are exempt from the jurisdiction of the local or~linary and subject to the direct supervision of the Holy See, have a f9ndamental universality, a call and a mandate to go to local churches where the need is greater.8 They are freed from the power of the local,.bishop, not in order to be total free-lancers in the Church, but to be free to serve~ anywhere in any local church. Because of the universal call and mandate of such religious institutes, their world-wide organization, their capacity to move from one place to another should be respected. But once they are settled within the boundaries of the local church or in the territory of a particular church in the broader sense, they must blend into the local scene; they must even strike roots in the local soil in order to bring forth good fruit. They should not be a source of disruption, but a source of strength.9 Similar considerations apply to'various communities of pontifical right. As a rule their vision goes beyond the limits of a particular church, their aspirations often stretch far and wide. But they too, are at some place and have the duty to serve the people of God there. Then there are the institutes of diocesan right. They dedicate them-selves to the service of the universal Church through serving exclusively near a local church. They are not superior or inferior to the others; they simply have their own distinctive vocation and dedication. The duty to respect.and to serve a particular church SpringS not only from a law imposed by God through the structures of the Church, but also from the respect due to differences manifest in our human nature and in our historical traditions. The upholding of the local church originates in a deep belief in the Incarnation; in the blending of divine and h6man elements in the Christian community. The gift of God may be similar all around but it takes different shapes and forms in various ~places. Second Question: How Do We Perceive Existentially, Understand Rationally, and Be at Home Practically With Religious Communities? The question sounds broad but the focus of our inquiry is strictly cir-cumscribed again. We do not wish to reflect over all the aspects of the A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 673 existence and life of religious communities. We want to know, to under-stand and help them in their relationship to the local and particular (hurch. This is the proper scope of our inquiry. A short survey of the development of religious communities in their rela-tionship to the local or particular church will be good grounding again for further reflection. Our survey will be limited to a few facts arising in the history of the Western Church. The birth and expansion of the monastic movement from the sixth into the ninth century can be described in a somewhat unusual way: the au-tonomous monasteries that sprang up first in Italy, and then on the con-tinent of Europe, also in the British Isles, had much of the characteristics of a local church. The monasteries were cities of God, distinguished from the cities of man. The brethren gathered around the Abbot to offer their praise and thanksgiving to God.~° In some places, the bishop exercised a certain amount of power over them. In other places, due oftrn to distance, the monks lived and died Within their own monastery, with no interference from any ecclesial au-thority. By the eighth century however, the weakness of being alorie and not being in communication with a broader ~egment of the Church became manifest. Signs of decline and decay were setting in. The eighth century that witnessed the movement of Cluny also saw an increasing awareness of the need forgreater unity am?ng religious com-munities. Monasteries of different places, provinces, regions and countries placed themselves under the power of the Abbot of Cluny. Such close unity clearly constituted a new relationship to both the particular and universal Church. In fact, without the help of the church of Rome, that is the pope, they could not have achieved what they did. With Cluny, an organizational breakthrough had been made. In the eleventh century, the movement of Citeaux brought about again a new type of union of monasteries built more on a bond of love than on any legal structure. In the thirteenth century, Francis and Dominic were certainly dedicated servants of local churches, but soon they moved beyond this: they em-o braced the whole of Christendom. They brought their own new approach toward serving both the local and the universal Church. They had a strongly developed sense of universality, without, however, turning their backs on local needs. ~ ~ The sixteer~th century is the time when new continents opened up. Discoverers and colonizers set out to conquer new lands. That is the time of the foundation of the Society of Jesus. The Jesuits seemingly had no allegiance to any local church. They were devoted to the pope. But further examination shows that while they set out on their apostolic journeys, often 1574 / Review for Religious, Volume 36~ 1977/5 sent by the pope himself, for the sake of the universal Church, once they arrived, they went to extraordinary lengths to build and to uphold local churches in India, in Japan, in South America. Paradoxically, they left thei,r native churches to become all to the natives in faraway places.~z The nineteenth and the twentieth centuries bring a new development. There are many apostolic foundaiions; some more for the sake of the universal Church, some definitely for the sake ofparticular churches. Both trends are represented: to serve the universal Church, and to work for the welfare of local churches. Here our historical survey ends and our reflections begin. The ecclesial Character of religious communities; or, hdw are they related to the Church? Our .aim here is to articulate with some clarity an understanding of the obvious fact of history that religious communities exist in the Church and they are in the service of our Christian people. 1. The birth, the development, the existence and the work of religious communities is nothing else than a particular manifestation of the life of the Church.~3 A religious com,rnunity, independently .from the ~:hurch, has no life. When a community prospers, it is growing in the life that was given to the Church. This statement should be stressed today ~ince some religious comn~unities have become soinvolved in reflecting on their own life that they hhve lost sight of the source of their life. They work within a- narrow horizon, and never find what they are seeking so anxiously. Also, once we understand the fact that there is no life in religious communities except what comes from the Church, it is easier to understand the history of those communities which once prospered spiritually but later grew old arid died. There is not necessarily any shame~in that. Human persons too. are born, develop, prosper, grow old and die. God may well call a community into existence to provide for the needs of the times; he may well call another one for new needs. We are not privy to his designs. We should give praise for the vocation we have and should not covet what we do not have. Those who are ~nxiously asking whether or not religious life will survive lock themselves in(o the limits of a wrong question. The right question is: is there an abundance of life in the Church? If so, that life. will manifest itself in new ways that we cannot foresee. There will be always foolish persons around, such as were Francis of Assisi, Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Avila, to surprise us, to shock us, and to entice us to follow them. If we put our hope. where it naturally belongs, that is, in the Church, our anxieties may well disappear.~4 ~ 2. A religious community may have many goals, all of them good and right. But there is a built-in purpose in .every community that seeks and obtains approval from the Church. They. publicly proclaim that the words of life are with the visible Church. They want to be publicly recognized by the Church, they want to have their way of life authenticated as good enough to follow Christ. A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 675 The legal formalities of obtaining approval for a new religious com-munity have a deep theological significance. As often happens in the Church, the beauty is all within. A community asks for public incorporation into the strtictures of the Church. Such a quest is the fruit of an act of faith in the wisdom and the power of the Church. When such incorporation is granted, behind the test of the document there is a quiet recognition that the Church has seen grace operating in the community. It is an approval of the way of life of the group, of their service to thee community. The foundation. for the understanding of government and obedience in religious commu-nities is their ecclesial character. The Church gives them a public mandate. When they accept it, they obey the call to service.1'~ 3. Ye~, the mandate from the Church does not make all the ]zommunities the same. Each retains its own particular character and personality. Each is called to serve both the universal and local church in different ways. There are and there will be communities Who have their origin and the scope of their life within a local or particular church. There they were born, there they live, work and die. We all know such groups. Their gift is precious beyond telling.In Lesotho, who can serve the local church better than a congregation of native sisters? There are communities whose organization may spread throughout the ~niversal Church. Members are easily transferred from one place to an-other, according to need. Their vocation is to blend the universal mission with service in one place. The Franciscanor Dominican friars or the Jesuits would be typical examples of'suchcommunities. But let us recall that when a Eurbpean is sent to Japan, and takes up some apostolic work there, his mandate is to affirm and uphold through every available means the church of Japan. Missionary adaptation or "incuituration" is really an effort.to-ward building the local church. No matter how universal the vocation of a commu,nity is, eventually service must be given at a place that is the local or particular church. The duty of the Church to uphold religious communi.tiey; or, how can religious communities be "affirmed by the Church? The Church affirms a religious community through the act of public approval. But that is just the beginning. The initial act should be followed by unceasing help and encouragement to promote the integration of reli-gious into the life of the Church, both universal and particular. Respect for the ,way of life of each group should be the fundamental rule that governs the attitude of the Holy See or of the diocesan bishop. There is no single rule to say how this respect should go. , In the case of a contemplative monastery, respect may ~nean the ap-preciation of the prayers~offered by those monks and nuns, of the sacrifice of their lives. In the case of an apostolic community, the situation is dif-ferent; they are taking part in the practical work of evangelization. The 676 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 Church mandates them to preach, and to perform deeds of charity. They should be given an opportunity to share their experience with others. I.n the diocese, they should=be taken into the planning, even into the decision-making, process. Indeed, there is an ancient tradition to invite abbots of independent monasteries and, a newer practice, to invite superiors general of exempt religious, orders, to an ecumenical council. To have religious present at synods, held either on regional or diocesan levels, would be not only fair and just, bfit it would be according to our traditions, too. Such can be the affirmation of religious life in practice. At this point it is interesting to note that the development from synods to episcopal con-ferences is somewhat a departure from the old tradition of the Church. Surely, the episcopal body has a unique position in the universal Church, and the residential bishop is in charge of his diocese. But the bishop needs the religious to carry out well their own mandate received through their consecration. I~t is, necessary for them to be in steady contact with religious who carry so much of the burden of daily work in the Church and the churches. If reiigious share the pastoral work of the bishops, they should also have some part in planning and evaluating the same work.~ Third Question: What Is the Relationship Between the Particular Church and Rer, ligious Communities, and How Should This Relationship Develop? The relationship between a particular church and religious communities is a dynamic living relationship that must be created anew all the time. Legal norms cannot do more than give a framework that is always in, adequate .to generate life, but good enough to protect life that comes from deeper sources. Legal norms by their very nature are abstract, impersonal, and general. They are meant for typical cases irrespective of the persons inv61ved, and of their historical circumstances. But in real life there are only concrete situations and living persons and communities. The relationship depends on the personality of the bishop on the one side, of the religious community on the other side. They must work out their relationship concerning particular issues,lr Perhaps this.relationship is best described through analogies. The ob~,ious analogy of call and response can be used. The bishop calls on the religious community and asks for help to build the Church, to announce the good news, to do the good deeds of charity. When the re-ligious hear this call they must respond out of their own resources. The response of an enclosed community may well be in offering prayers for the needs of the diocese; the response of a group of Dominican friffrs may well be in preaching in' the diocese. The religious too, may call 'on the local church for help and encouragement; they may well need it. A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 677 They may play another role in the diocese. They may call people to a better service of the Lord. They can act as the conscience of the com-munity. Their independence and freedom allows them to do so, provided they can do so without presumption.18 The analogy of the body can be recalled also. The religious community must find its own identity in the body of the church, before it can function properly. The community is a member of the local church, with its own structure and role. It would not be in the interest of the local church to weaken a member group. On the contrary, it must promote their welfare, It must respect theii- identity, must use them properly for the purpose they have been created.19 Such relationship cannot be regulated 'by the rules of justice only, Justice gives birth to rights that must be respected, and certainly should not be bypassed and neglected: Nonetheless, a living dynamic relationship cannot be created if both sides stand on their rights. Such an attitude would lead to a dead end where all the participants become captive to their own rigidity and: dedication to strict justice:2° ~ Good relationships between the local church and religious living and working in it must be created'continuously by both sides. There is no other way of creating it than by charity thiat means to give. Neither side should ask first what is due to them, but rather what is 'it that they can give to-the other. Only then will there be a new spirit that builds the church instead of destroying it; a new spirit that brings unity to the whole body instead 6f fraffmenting it. ~ Conclusion As we reach our conclusion we may well experience contradictory feelings. On the~one side, we experience frustration. After ali we did not succeed in finding precise rules and fixed principles tO determine ihe relationship of the local church and religious communities. We found only changing ,and shifting patterns and the need to create relationships where they do not exist according to our expectations. On the other side we experience contentrhent because we are guided by the Spirit of God and the intelligence of believers rakher than by rigid rules. After all, the Lord himself did not give many detailed instructions to his disciples. He gave them his Spirit to guide them in all. With the help of the Spirit they have built the Church. They were guided more by a person than by words. Our hope, too, is in a person, in the same Spirit of Christ. He is with us, in the local church and in the religious communities. Yet, our hope is also in the dedication and intelligence of Christian people on both sides, in the local church and in religious communities. They; together, can create their relationship anew. 678 / ReOiew for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 By dOing it, they will experiencethe joy of the Incarnation; they will share theagony of the Cross. Yet, throughout it all, they will 'be blessed and will know a contentment that is in a small way the anticipation of the gift of the Resurrection. Notes I. Parvus error in principio magnus est in fine in "De ente et essentia," begin~ning. ~ 2. Such understanding is the fruit of both contemplation and rational reflection. We must first accept the mystery through faith and then seek the understanding of it. 3. We do not intend to down-play the importance of a diocese. It is a natural unit in the church, ,sacramentally and organizationally. Nonethe-less, the life of a given diocese ordinarily does not differ significantly, if at all, from the life of neighb.oring dioceses. But, often enough,.a group of dioceses displays significant differences from the way another group .lives. The local churches of Holland form a unity that is quite distinct under many aspects from the d!oceses of Germany. Organizationally, the division of the universal Church into dioceses is of permanent importance; but, histori-cally, the larger units have played a more importapt role. The term "par, ticul,ar" is used in our text loosely; its meaning is to be determined from the context. At times, it refers to a diocese. More often it refers to a larger unit: to several dioceses grouped together, displaying a common understanding of the mysteries, using similar rites in worship, cooperating closely in apostolic work. 4. The theological principle cannot be stressed enough. We do not begin with a definition; we begin with the contemplation of an event in the history of the Church. We seek to reach some understanding through the con-templative perception of the mystery. Therefore, our vision will never be so complete as apparentlya definition is. Even if we are able to reach a good understanding, it remains incomplete and leaves plenty of possibility for further pr.ogress. 5. As succeeding generations of Christians may focus on different as'- pects of the same mystery, and give practical emphasis to their vision, in a similar way, churches existing in the same historical period may build up differing~understandings of the same mystery, and order their practices acc.ordingly, not in the sense of Contradicting each other, but rather, in the sense 6f completing each other's perception. The same mountain can be looked at. by explorers from the North, and by explorers from the South. Their differing vision of the same mountain is complementary, not contra-dictory. The contemplation of God's mighty deeds in our history, deeds that are certainly permanent, gives rise to perceptions and understandings, that are diStinct and complementary. We see the origin of particular churches in such different perceptions, followed by different practices. A Theology of the Local Church .and Religious Life / 679 6~ At any time of Christian history, a diocese can be called a particular church organizationally. There is one community, with a bishop presiding over it_But beyond any Organization, there is a sacramental unity in the diocese; if the universal Church is a sacrament, so is the diocese. "This Church of Christ is truly present in all legitimate local congregations of the faithful which, united with their pastors, are themselves called,churches in the New Testament" Lumen Gentium, 26. 7." Vatican Council II strongly upheld th6 dignity of, and the right of, the local church.' For instance: "That Church, Holy and Catholic, which is the Mystical Body of Christ, is made up of the faithful .who are organically united i6 the Holy Spirit through the same faith, the same sacraments, and the same government and who, combining into various groups held together by a hierarchy, form separate churches or rites. Between these, there flourishes such an admirable brotherhood that this variety within.the Church in no way harms her unity, but rather manifests it. For it is the mind of the Catholic Church that each individual church or rite retain its traditions whole aiad entire, while adjusting its way of life to the various needs of time and place" Orientalium ecclesiarum, 2. 8. A paradoxical statement; nonetheless it is true; Exempt religious orders mostly used their freedom from local episcopal jurisdiction-to go from,one place to another, either to help the churches most in need, or through missionary activity, to give birth to new churches. Sometimes the privilege of exemption helps specific activities in the service of the universal church, such as, to :sponsor an International School of Theology in Rome or elsewhere. 9.' The strength they give to the local church eventually rebounds to the strength of the whole. 10. To describe the monastic movement in terms o'ffuga mundi, that is flight from the world, only~ is to do injustice to history. Granted that to flee the world was an important motive for people who wanted to join the monastic community, still theii" main motive was to build the city ~of God among the cities of man.°The monastery was as self-contained as the Small cities built on the tops of the hills and mountains of Italy. Yet, there was a difference: praise and thanksgiving were offered, t9 God, day and night. The task of th'e earthly city wasopus hominum, the work of man; the task in the city of.God° was opus Dei, work thai belonged to God. Admittedly, the theme 'of "fleeing the world" is stressed in contemporary monastic lit-erature. But such writings must be contrast+d with documents, such as the Rule of St. Benedict, where the ongoin, g praise of God and his service takes the central place; also, with the fact that the monks did not hesitate to go out into the world "of barbarians in central and northern Europe to bring them the good news of Christ, and to teach them all that they found precious in human culture. A monastery could truly be called a,"local" or "partic-ular" church except, perhaps, for the fact that it was not presided over by 6~!0 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 a bishop. But the monks were dedicated to the service of the universal Church0probably more than they realized. Without understanding their universal orientation, we cannot understand the conversion of Europe. For a wisely controversial book on the rise and fall of religious com-munities, see Vie. et mort des ordres religieux by Raymond Hostie (Paris: Cesclee de Brouwer, 1972). For a classical exposition of the development of religious orders, see From Pachomius to Ignatius by David Knowles (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1966). 11. The Middle Ages, also, saw the foundation of religious orders that were principally devoted to the works of the universal Church. There were orders' to promote the Crusades, or to take part in them; to protect the possession of the Holy Land; to give themselves for the redeeming of the captives, and so forth. 12. Thi~ history ofthe Jesuits shows eloquently that the service of the universal Church can never be separated from the service of particular~ churches, and vice versa. They could not have been more dedicated to the universal Church. They accepted a mandate from the pope, and the pope only. Yet once they established themselves at a given place, they did everything to enter into the culture of the natives. They helped them, in every way that was compatible with Christian faith and the universality of the. Church, to build new churches with strong particular traditions. In China, they devised and fought for specific rites in the vernacular suitable for the Chinese culture and mentality. They attempted to do the .same in India. In South America, they sided with the natives against the con-quistadores, and gave life to local churches within the framework of the so-called "reductions," that is, autonomous Indian settlements leading a strong community life reminiscent, somewhat, of the early church of Je-rusalem. History shows that to serve the tiniversal Church redounds to the good of Particular churches. 13. We like to stress that the life of religious communities is nothing else than a particular manifestation of the life of the Church. There is no such thing as the Church on one side and religious communities on the other, eitherhelping each other inharmony, or being in open conflict. The member is not .separate from the body; all life of the member is the life of the body, Religious life cannot be conceived of as charismatic life independent and separate from the institutional life of the Church. Charisma and structures, although distinct, can no more be separated from each other in the Church than the flesh and blood of a human person can be separated from his bones: The skeleton, ugly and unfriendly as'it is, gives support and proportion to the beauty of the flesh that covers it. Charisma and institutions must work' together. ~ 14. There is no need that is as. great today as the need for purification of our faith in the Church, and the right understanding of what ,kind of A Theology of the Local Church and Religious Life / 681 community Jesus has founded. One conception should be discarded right from the start (in the terms of Karl Rahner, it could be called a "silent heresy"): the Church is a community of holy persons throughout. While it is true that there will always bepersons of extraordinary holiness raised by God among his people, there will always be many in the Church who are sinners, and glorify God by proclaiming his mercy. The Church is a human community, a community of sinners. Yet, because the Spirit of God is faithful to her, she will never lose or corrupt the word of God, provided the proclamation of the word takes place with ~'ull apostolic authority. Human limitations and fragility, however, will always be present and manifest in the Church till the end of time, be it in the hierarchy, be it in the people. To love the Church means to love the community as it is, and above all, to have the internal disposition to give what we can to this community. There is little love in those who continually expect to receive. There is love in those who know how to be compassionate. A religious community is one with the Church if the members are steadily asking themselves what they can give to her so that she can grow in goodness, into a greater likeness to Christ. For a more detailed explanation of these principles, see "How to Be One With the Church Today" in Blessed Are Those Who Have Questions, by Ladislas Orsy (Denville, N. J.: Dimension Books, 1976). Perhaps the best and most rewarding way of acquiring the right theo-logical understanding of the Church is to read and study its history. The real Church, suppprted by the Spirit, is there in its beauty and fragility. A merely conceptual and systematic approach may lead the unwary to a dream--beautiful and unreal. Once a person surrenders to,the dream, he will be frustrated by the harsh and true reality, that is, by the Church as it exists. 15. Indeed, the roots of a theology of obedience in religious life are there in the mandate that the community receives from the Church. There is a sacramental character to such a mandate, since the Church itself is a sacrament. (The seven signs are particular manifestations of the life of the Church.) Obedience to such a.great mandate should not be confused with ob~eying ordinary human rules and regulations that are part and parcel of the life of every community, religious or not. Through the v6w of Obedience, a person gives himself or herself explicitly, visibly, to the Church~ It is the sacrifice of legitimate freedom to accept a mission from the Church in which, behind human~structures, the Spirit of God lives. 16. There are few countries where the health and progress of the Church depend so much on education as in the United States. Much of this ~ork is sponsored, directed, or done by' religious men and women. Yet, when the most important policy-making body for the pastoral life of the Church meets, that is, when the episcopal conference deliberates, or de-cides, religious are absent and are given only a very limited opportunity to Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 contribute before, during, or after the meeting--a lack of balance, and the Church is poorer for it. °17. It is interesting to note that, with all the ingenuity of canon lawyers at .her disposal, the Church never succeeded in working out clear and entirely satisfactory norms to regulate the relationship between the local ordinary anti,religious communities of pontifical right, or those enjoying the privilege of exemption. Why? Because it is easy to state some theological principles such as: the bishop is the supervisor of~all apostolic works in the diocese; or, religious must be free to i'egulate their internal affairs, and to carry out their apostolate according to their constitutions. But, it is difficult t0 make detailed norms applicable everywhere. Nor will the new proposed legislation overcome this problem. If anything, history proves the insuf-ficiency of strict legal solutions. 18. A religious community of international dimensions can do much to bring a local church out of its own isolation, and to make it aware of the universal Church. The very presence of the members of~a community that works world-wide for the Church is a reminder ~to the faithful that they too belong to a community over which the sun never sets. 19. This implies respect for the particular charism of an institute. The local church should not try to use the religious for work contrary, or alien, to their own calling. 20. While it isright to work for justice, we should never lose sight of the ¯ fact that justice is the minimum of charity. Justice can proclaim what is due to each person and group and does establish a balance in the life of a human community. Yet the stability of an organization built on justice only remains precarious.To achieve contentment and happiness, it is necessary to ttave charity all around. By charity, we do not mean charitable handouts, but strong love that consists in giving, not only advice or things, but ourselves. A society in which each vindicates his or her own fights is built on a shaky foundation. A society in which each one is intent on giving what he has to others, is like a house built on a rock. This is obviously true of the Church, but it is equally applicable to any secular society. The great national'heroes of the past were those who were able to give to others, not counting much what they were giving. From what we just said, rio one should conclude that ttie cause of justice is not urgent, and that we should not work for it. Quite simply, as Christians, we must say that justice, in itself, i.s not_enough. The strength and perfection of love is a vital need for every human being and every"human society. The great idea of balance and welfare through the virtue of justice ought to be completedby the foolishness of love that God revealed through his Son. See the Conclusion in Morale Internationale, by Rene Coste (Paris: Desclee, 1964). For general orientation about the great problems of the world, and for spiritual recreation, all at once, see Return to the Center, by Bede Griffiths (Springfield, IL: Templegate, 1977). From the Center will those actions flow that bring love, peace, and justice to all men. Prayer: Adventure Into the Unknown Cecile Godreau, M.M. Sister Cecile worked for eighteen years in Bolivia where she was active in spiritual direciio~ for young religious. Presently she resides with the M.aryknoll Sisters; Maryknoll, NY 10545. Today there is a thrill at the very thought of the unkno~,n. Is there life on Mars, on Jupiter, or on the planets around other suns? If there is life, is it more advanced or more perfect than the life forms we know? What about our own planet? Are there life forms we have not yet explored? What about ¯ those areas on earth where men have never or rarely ventured?.What secrets do they hold? There was a time when the knowledge of the unknown would have inspired us to build protective areas, or at least, to introduce taboos for safety's,sake. Today we want, and are drawn to venture into, the heart Of the unknown. I would suggest to anyone with a bit of explorer's blood, and ~,h~ has a heart desirous of giving beyond what is often a dull, everyday existence (called life), to join me in a consideration of a great adventure. This ad-venture is so unique and so intensely personal that it is different for each -one. It is so thrilling that the one who goes on this journey will need an eternity to finish it to discoger its source. I mean prayer, God's version of p~ayer, called spiritual life by some, mysticism or i:ontemplation.by others. I call it adventure: God calls: maybe, he proffers a mind-blowing call, the kind of call that, as in the life of St. Paul, knocks us down when we are riding high. Maybe it is a call as quiet as an evening calm. Or, maybe it is a call after a powerful experience in a Common pCayer situation because of, or with, an unusually charismatic person's approach to our weak defenses. Again, maybe it is merely the movings quietly within that crumble all our preconceived plans and leave 683 684 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 us stunned by silence, or the slow and burning love that somehow separates us from our past. It is impossible to mention every situation, for from the time of this very conversion, it is different for each. God knows how best to invite us into the great adventure. Once we have been converted, we are left to find our way into God's country. Like the prophet Elijah, we realize that God is not in the con-version, not in the earthquake or thunder, but in the whispered breeze. Even trees, whose job it is to let us know when a breeze is near, are often u~nmoved by the gentleness of a tiny breeze. But we are made with hearts attunedif we will but go into our hearts to see and hear what is taking place therein. Some stop here. It is difficult to go within. Our culture has worshipped the extraverted, the active, the expressed word. Our people are expected to tell the world how they feel about everything. So it is almost impossible to have a silent center within us. We are not accustomed to going deep within where God is waiting for us. We are afraid to find out how it is to meet God in our'hearts. We are afraid to discover life within because someone may think we are not socially-minded. People may think we are not committed. "Alone in our hearts where God resides" has a scary sound to it, or, perhaps, even neurotic. What is God doing inside when we have been shouting to him from afar? Some break through and come to the God within. For them, He is Father, or Jesus, or maybe an inner awareness or "presence." Here we are bound to kneel in silence. Even our vocal prayer and meditations come to a halt. As the silence deepens, we wonder if it is right to be here. And we need help so often to just sit and enjoy what it is to be with God. Here we need often to be assured like children. We are moved to love so deeply, we may think we are a little "different." We search for others to understand. Often there are few around who dare to talk about this. We are alone and happy, deliriously in love, or quietly secure. Our God is like a mother nursing its child, a child being embraced by a loving mother, or held like an infant to a father's cheek. As we settle down like Peter to build tents for our experience, Jesus reminds us it is time to go back down to the bustle of the city. Our first reaction to move on is, "I thought this was it!" We balk at being born, and we refuse to leave this hallowed place. So God "puts out the lights" so to speak. Here many get discouraged. Yes, they lose heart. Why? Because all was so comfortable. Here people try to find other loves and ways. They are frightened because they think they have lost their faith. "Faith," of course, is the name mistakenly put on the experience of God within. Faith,-in fact, is the stepping out into the darkness that God directs us toward. We "explore" Faith by putting our hand into the hand of the resurrected Jesus to go out and discover what it is to be Jesus, Son of God. We are going to have to molt our skins of the intense joy and the security Prayer: Adventure Into the Unknown / 685 that we had, and we realize that we are vulnerable. To put our hand into the hand of Jesus is not a journey deeper within. It is a journey beyond our human limitations. Here Jesus who directs our adventure gives us self-knowledge. We might get discouraged and have the feeling of one who has climbed too far, too fast. We are aware of our smallness. Yet, Jesus who helps us on our journey is intent on leading u~ onward. When we reach the place he means us to explore, he does a very strange thing. He lets us see our world through his eyes. We might find ourselves somehow knowing what Jesus means in his gospel. Somehow, we tread through life as Jesus did. We, little by little, begin to know ~vhat it meant for Jesus to have been driven by the Spirit. Now we no longer seem drawn within. Our eyes are cast out onto our world! How terribly important each person we meet becomes! We are not sure we are loving others as our-selves, or as Jesus, because we are somehow filled with a compassion beyond our own. We are almost sure our small selves are being used by Jesus. Yet, all along the way, we are aware of the difference. Our real selves come to light. We find fewer and fewer excuses for ourselves, and we are driven deeper into our faith. For some this step is done very quietly, almost imperceptibly. Some cry, "I no longer know if it is me or Christ living in me," while others go deeper into faith, knowing only that they must go on seeking a water to quench the thirst of "Everyman." Here each one is given something of Jesus to use for Others. Little by little, the awareness of self is lost in the dream of bringing solace to others. 'Here we lose touch with our world because it claims to do what we, in fact, are made ~over~ tiy Jesus to really accomplish. We talk a different language, and our agony is this language. We no longer speak as men do who have tongues in cheek. Our new simplicity makes us a target for the clever and the powerful. Yet we seem to be drawn to quietly go on. our wills and intellects, no longer bound up in our feelings, are sharper. We are able to see our. way better than before, and our way takes us, like/Jesus, into the Father's will. We delight in our brothers, whether large, smzll, sinful or ~,irtuous. We ar~ at last able to see the God hidden in each. We know what it is to be Jesus. We begin to desire with all our strength to build a temple to our new-found religion. Jesus will be our Master, and we will do our worshipping strongly for a new world. We will be the Jesus of this world. It seems we have arrived, and yet--yet, God has just brought us to a new faith. It is as though all the experiences we have had were pu! in a vast sea, and we were set afloat in the tiny boat of our new faith. No longer do we feel the strength of God, nor see the glory of Jesus. We are asked to ride a stormy sea in a skiff. There is only one thing to do: trust. We are terrified by our nothingness, as we are compared, not with men, but with God. This death experience is the most terrible and the most beautiful experience of our lives~this realization of what we are without 686 ,/ Review for Religious, VOlume 36, 1977/5 him. The deep peace that has seen us through that dark and light of our lives is a must now, and we hope it is real in this stage of our adventure. Here, too, each person is different, and comes to this at different times. Once we have opted for death, we are given a faith that we never thought possible: No longer a faith held up by our deepest feelings, nor one seeing the progress of Jesus in our lives, but the faith that believes because one holds on to God beyond any reason. We go into the darkness to be pulled out now not trusting ourselves, our "faith," our ways, even our religiosity. We are pulled out swinging from a thread like a string puppet. We go from anger, to despair, to surrender. Surrender, which once sounded so terrifying, is the beginning of life. A dark faith is given us. No longer do we explain, or sing to it, orhold it as a precious keep-sake, for we realize.it is simply gift. We are now ready to walk back with a song to our native home. Nothing can really make us fear again. Our wordless love is for God, the Great Unknown. God, who lias been badlyexplained over and over by ourselves and others, takes us into himself. It is as though welook for our small boat, only to see it has disappeared. We are at the beginning of an intense desire. Longing and homesickness set in to show us how intense ourodesire is for God. Yet, he turns us back to live again among his people. He gives us each a seed to nurture, and when grown, to share the fruits with others. Some are so overwhelmed by this that they fall into silent prayer, agonized with the weight of their message. Others are filled with speech, a babbling speech, yet a speech that can be recognized as a song of God. One can open one's eyes and God has grown unlimited. We hasten to meet him, only to find that at this point, he spreads out in all directions. One is surrounded by God, silence, and it will take an eternity to begin to explore, to begin our adventure into this great unknown. How much we desire to begin to go towards our deepest love, and at least arrive at the first steps toward an eternity of ~urprises, peace, and our Source. We are willing to live a thousand years, if that be what he desires. We ~ealize that creation needs our new song which we, like God's trou-badours, will sing, with hearts somehow free and waiting, in this new-found peace, his last call. An Apostolic Spirituality for the Ministry of Social Justice Max Oliva, S.J. Father Oliva is the Director of Social Ministries for the California Province of the Society of Jesus. His special interests are the theology and spirituality of Social justice. He conducts workshops on these two themes as well as on. other aspects of social justice. He is also Associate Director of Field Education at the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley. He ~resides at the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley; 1735 LeRoy Ave.; Berkeley, CA 94709. Introduction We hear a lot of discussion today about the need to promote justice in economic, social and political structures. It takes only a cursory reading of the Bishops' Synod Statement, "Justice°in the World," tofind the Church issuing this call: Listenihg to the cry of those who suffer violence and are oppressed by unjust systems and structures, and hearing the appeal of a world that by its perversity contradicts the plan of its Creator, we have shared our awareness of the Church's vocation to be present in the heart of the world by proclaiming the Good News to the poor; freedom to the oppressed, and joy to the afflicted) How does one pursue social justice in the light of one's faith? How do we in.corporate and integrate the important ingredients of our own need for personal contact with marginated and oppressed people and the ongoing process of conversion that each of us must undergO? Row do we bring about a balance between our faith and our practical efforts for changing structures? This article offers some reflections on an apostoli~ spirituality for changing social structures, a ministry which can be a part of anyone's life and ministerial vision. The thoughts expressed here are the result of the tSynod of Bishops, 1971, "Justice in the World," page 1. 687 61111 / Reviewfor Religious, Volume 36, 1,977/5 author's reflection on his own ministry, both in inner-city Black commu-nities and in efforts to change social structures,z What do we mean when we talk about changing social structures? The most obvious example of structural change that comes to mind is the effect that a state or federal law can have on a whole range of institutions and the people in them. Take, for example, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act, which has had the effect of requiring businesses to hire minority and women workers, in responsible positions, or lose federal contracts or be taken to court in civil action suits. The ordinary citizen's role in promoting such a law might have been to draw attention to the injustices present before the law was passed by some kind of advocacy effort. Another example of structural change, again in the world of business: ~in the 1960's, many companies had as one of the standard questions on their applications forms, "Have you ever been arrested?" To the person ap-plying for work from an economically depressed area, this question was an automatic "No" to a possible job since many had been arrested. However, relatively few people had ever been convicted. Successful efforts were made to convince companies to change the word, "arrested," to, "con- .victed," thus opening the job market to a large segment of the community who had up to then been ex.cluded. Closer to home, changing structures m~ght involve affecting admission policies in a religious school so that more min.ority students might be able to attend, or, influencing a province so that an essential criteria for being a superior would be that she or he is strongly committed to justice. In both of these cases, an individual's action can have results that change the structures involved and thereby affect many people in the process. Basically, structures, systems and institutions of society are the frame-work in which human relationships--personal, political, economic, cultur-al~ take place. Social justice seeks to assess the worth of social structures and systems in view of how they impact the lives of people in them, or exclude people from them, and calls for personal responsibility for these structures. There are many ways to influence social structures, be it through actions to promote just state or national laws, be it efforts to affect international systems, or by way of altering a policy in one's own institution or com-munity. Whatever the means chosen, certain basic dispositions are neces-sary for such efforts to be realistic and, thus, effective. The first and pri-mary disposition is to be on the side of the economically po, or and politically powerless, as an advocate for their rights. In St. Matthew's gospel (15:29-31), we find Jesus sitting on a moun-tainside. There, "large crowds of people came to him bringing with them ~'i'he author is also indebted to Workshop participants who have given valuable feedback to the ideas expressed in this article. A Spirituality for the Ministry of Social Justice / 689 cripples, the deformed, the blind, the mute, and many others besides. They laid them at his feet and hecured them." What is particularly striking about this scene is not so much the cures, though, of course, these are marvelous signs of God's presence, but that Jesus actually, physically, touched these people: the crippled, the deformed, the blind, the mute--the marginated and outcasts of his time. Today, we, because we are Christians, are called to do the same, to touch the poor and oppressed of our day, those who are often different, from us by economic background, by color or culture, by education, perhaps by some kind of physical or mental handicap. To touch these, people means to have some ongoing personal contact with them, in order tolearn from them--their needs, their suffering, their aspirations, and their richness. To touch these people involves, paradoxically, a healing in ourselves, a deliverance from our prejudices, convictions, and attitudes, an escape from apathy, and an awareness that has deep within it a sense of urgency that justice be done. Such personal contact insures that our com-mitment be an "affair of the heart." Such contact is essential if our ministry of changing unjust .social structures is to be realistic, that is, meeting real needs. This ongoing personal interchange with oppressed people and an alert analysis of the structure we wish to change are basic dispositions for a ministry of changing social structures, be our work in schools, hospitals, a parish, retreat house, mass media, social ministry, or whatever,z Some Basic Principles The cycle of poverty is often described as consisting of: apathy--aliena; tion frustration--ignorance--hunger---despair. These words can also be used to describe our own state of mind and heart as we contemplate unjust arid dehumanizing structures. The problems seem so vast, the structures so complex, that we simply despair of moving at all to influence or try to change them. We need to begin our consideration of an apostolic spirituality for social justice ministry by taking a close look at some basic principles: 1. That each of us can be part of the change process for a more just world: by our choices, by our life-style, by our life-stance. No issue is so ambig-uous, no structure so complicated that we are unable to do something to influence it. ,~ 2. That other people--those we live with, those we work with, our stu- 3Personal contact with oppressed people, is also necessary for one-on-one kinds of service, such as spiritual direction, for the purpose of such ministry is to help the person clarify and deepen his relationship with God and challenge, when appropriate, the way the person lives out this faith in relation to the world. The director can be an excellent resource for helping the person being directed to see the intimate connection between faith and social justice and to discover ways she or he might effectively act to change unjust social structures. It is only by realizing this connection in his own life that the director will effectively communicate this message to the one being directed. 690 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 dents, parishioners, retreatants, fellow workers--can be reached and can change in their attitudes, in their values/in their standard and st.yle of life. Why? Because, like us, they are of good will. True, like us, they suffer from ignorance about those who are poor, are often insulated from those who are economically poor and politically powerless, and sometimes accept myths about the poor as truths. Still, they do not deliberately will the destruction and dehumanization of others any more than we do. They, too, seek hap-piness, peace and justice. And, like us, they sometimes get too caught up in self-interest or ignore the social dimensions of their actions. But if we can change, can become more socially conscious, more committed to justice, so can others. 3. That because of God's personal love for each of us, we are each im-portant in the process of building the kingdom of God, a kingdom initiated by Christ and commissioned to us, his followers, to carry on and build, a kingdom which fosters human dignity and equality, and which values hu-man-. development. , 4. That the Spirit is working in and through each of us even as we take small steps to change structures, and can work in ever new ways as we become more resolutely inserted into the world of the marginated and the oppressed. ~. 5. That other people---other religious women and men, diocesan priests, laypeople, Christians of.every denomination, and non-Christians too-are at work, acting for peace and justice, realigning their life styles, taking a critical stance toward the structures of society. This gives us hope. The Center of Our Commitment We are called to this ministry of changing unjust social structures by Jesus Christ, who works with us and whose Spirit is the source of our courage, wisdom, power and hope. God the Father is the center of our lives, the focal point of our identity: his personal love isthe basis of our worth.4 He is our Rock, our Foundation, our Beginning and our End. He is the One for whose sake ultimately we are engaged in the struggle for justice. ~ The more God is our center, the less chance do the idols that attract us and keep us from a commitment to justice hamper our ministry, idols such as popularity, "success," reputation, endless analysis, and the '.;good life." The more God is our center, the more effective will be our ministry of justice, for it will become ever more clearly his work. Because God is the center of our lives, we can develop the kind of apostolic qualities that are necessary for an effective ministry of justice. ~The author realizes that not all people relate to God, as Father,. as the center of their lives. This is the way the author relates to Gbd. To respect this difference, the word "Father" will only be used this once in the article. A SpiritutJlity for the Ministry of Social Justice Let us now consider some apostolic qualities that can help render our actions more fruitful. Apostolic Qualities for Our Ministry of Justice Because God is the center of our lives, we can be radically open: open to growth--intrapersonal, interpersonal and societal (our relationship to human.environments, structures, institutions and processes, especially of asocio-economic-polifico-cultural character). Open to new ~concepts and ideas, such as social sin and social grace, Liberation Theology and the use of Marxist tools of analysis for studying the structures in our socie[y. Open to face uncertainty and fear as we come into personal contact with the marginated and the oppressed people in our society and the environments in which they are forced to live. Open to face our own prejudice, racism and sexism as, they are manifested in attitude and language. Open to face our value addictions as they are reflected in our consumption patterns--the kinds of things we buy and.~why--and in our life style. Open to the pos-sibility of being misunderstood, even rejected, by those ~ith v~hom we speak about issues of justice, be they members of our family, our com-munity, or our constituents. Because God is the center of our lives, we can ~have a capacity for critical reflection such that no ideology, no system or way of life is "sa-cred" (or defines who we are). None can be free of scrutiny, challenge and, if needed, reform, be it: socialism, communism, capitalism, the American way of life and its values, the Church, our own community or the work of our apostolate, Because God is the center of our lives, we are not afraid to face the fact that we are converts to our ideas of justice and the actions we undertake for justice. Thus, we are capable of being ruthlessly honest with ourselves, neither becoming self-righteous nor bitter or cynical. Being honest in this way enables us to have what Thomas Cullinan calls "patient endurance,''~ a uniquely, Christian virtue, which is centered on Christian hope, without losing a sense of urgency that justice be done. Because God is the center of +ur lives, the focus in exercising our ministry of justice is not on "success" as we usually define it. Our success is in the doing or saying what we know we must say to be true to our convictions and the needs of oppressed people. Like the prophets, the doing or not of some word, some action, is not based on peoples' reac- 5Thomas Cullinan, O.S.B,, If the Eye Be Sound (England: St. Paul Publications, 1975), page 121, This is an excellent work of modern spirituality. In particular it uncovers the theological and spiritual foundations on which a socially committed Christianity must be built. Dom Tfiomas Cullihan, O.S.B., is a monk of the Ampleforth community, in England, and a member ¯ of the Commission for International Justice and Peace of England and Wales. Available: Catliolic Institute for International Relations; I Cambridge Terrace; London, NW I, England. 692 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 tions--be they affirmative or negative--not on how many people like us more or not, not on how many people ag~'ee with us more or not, but on being congruent with who we are before God, as we discern it in prayer and consultation. It is the virtue of integrity. Because God is the center of our lives, we can ~possess an habitual facility of discernment. In our ministry of social justice, there are two basic areas of input for our process of discernment. (1) The first element of our input is grasping the "signs of the times," that is, the cries of the poor and the oppressed of our world, their struggles,, their needs, their aspirations, their problems and the causes of these problems. Such knowledge and, more importantly, unders~tanding comes, as we said before, primarily by way'of some ongoing personal contact with economically poor people and those who are politically powerless and is supplemented by books and articles, films, workshops, or whatever means serves to increase our con-sciousness of the problems. Then each of us must lobk closely at her Or his talents, gifts, personality, ministerial strengths and weaknesses, and the kind of ministry she or he is involved in. In a spirit of prayer and with ~:onsultation, then, the discernment-reflection process gradually, organi-cally, and continually enables eiach of us to make action-choices for justice from where we are. For some, such action will involve integrating, social justice into classes taught or into the administration of a school or a hos-pital; for others, it will mean some kind bf political action or public protest. For some, it will mean homilies or retreat talks that show the intimate relationship between one's ~faith and a commitment to act for justice; for still others, it will involve direct service in an inner-city or rural, community or Third World country. Because God is the center of ou~ lives, we can ask him to fashion in us a heart for the oppressor as well as for the,oppressed. Injustice kills the perpetrator since exploitation, tyranny and oppression are sighs of death, spiritual death. We love the oppressor when we oppose with all our strength her or his spiritually suicidal behavior of oppression. With God's help we can enter every heart. For the po. or, we strive to win rights and the freedom to develop humanly; for the rich, we strive to win moral development. It is important to note, though, that the way in which one manifests one's concern for the oppressor will differ according to the kind of ministry one is involved in. The community organizer's way, for example, will be dif-ferent from the high school teacher's. Each develops a heart for the op-pressor in the context of her or his own situation. Because God is the center of our lives, we can have empathy with those who are economically and politically oppressed. Empathy is the'ability'to see life through the eyes of others. In our ministry of social justice it is seeing life through the eyes of the poor. It demands personal contact with people who are poor. It necessitates our taking a "learning stance" in the presence of oppressed people, listening to their needs, their suffering, being A Spirituality for the Ministry of Social Justice / 693 willing to be continu'ally educated by their life experiences and their contact with human misery. Empathy is the key to understanding and thus to be able to demythologize our views on why people 'are poor. Finally, empathy is the way to true solidarity and effective advocacy. Because God is the center of our lives, we can have a freedom from attachment---in the face of anything which is not in line with our primary goal: the will of God and the building of his kingdom, a kingdom which values and promotes human dignity, equality and development. Having our foundation in God allows us to be free from attachment to. any cause or issue, any insight or pre-conceived plan of action, any request, for action, or even our own fear of acting. It is the "single-heartedness" of the Be-atitudes. Finally, because God is the center of our lives, we can have a capacity for suffering--what Jos6 Magafia says in his book Ignatian Exercises: A Strategy for Liberation, "to rejoice in sufferings because they are the hallmark of every ,genuine liberating commitment.''6 Such a capacity en-ables us to make the fundamental Christian option of becoming advocates for the rights of oppressed people. It is also, obviously, intimately bound up with the preceding eight apostolic qualities and with the effort it takes to keep God as one's center. A capacity for suffering is essential for each person~s ongoing process of conversion, and we are all called to conversion: "It is too easy to throw back on others responsibility for injustices, if at,the same time one does not realize how each one shares in it personally, and how personal conversion is needed first.''r Just what is conversion ? One of the clearest descriptions the author has read is the following from Fr. Pedro Arrupe, S.J, Conversion is getting rid of something so that something else can take its place. It is getting rid of everything that prevents us from being filled with the Holy Spirit. Conversion, then, is a change; a change tfiat takes place deep inside us; a radical change. Let us make no mistake about it: there is nothing supdrficial about conver-sion. It is not, for'instance, deciding, after a somewhat more fervent retreat, to "give something to the poor," or to be a little more generous to one's "favorite charity." This is a praiseworthy thing in its way, but it is not conversion. Conversion is not a giving of something that we can well afford to lose. It goes much deeper than that. It is a putting away of something that we are: our old self, with its all-too-human, all-too-worldly prejudices, convictions, attitudes, values, ways of thinking and acting; habits which have become so much a part of us that it is agon.y even to think of parting with them, and yet which are precisely what prevent us from rightly interpreting the signs of the times, from seeing life steadily and seeing it whole.8 ~Jos6 Magafia, S.J., Ignatian Exercises: A Strategy for Liberation (New York: Exposition Press, Inc., 1974), page 117. rPope Paul VI, 1971, "A Call to Action," page 28. 8Pedro Arrupe, S.J., "Witnessing to Justice" (Vatican City: Pontifical Commission Justice and Peace, 1972), pages 25-26. 694 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 Our call to conversion as we pursue our ministry of social justice is not a one-time happening, it is an essential element of the Cross-Resurrection dynamic that permeates our lives as Christians. And conversion does in-volve suffering as well as joy. With God as:our center, we can have the courage to face our own need for conversion and the suffering that ac-companies it, Such suffering is redemptive. Conclusion We are,' each, called to a ministry of justice, but our ministry must take place in the rootedness of our faith lest we become simply good humanists or philanthropists. Our commitment must be founded in the love of God and the "Good News" of his Son. Although this may seem to be an evident" premise, it is easy to lose sight of once we become involved in actual work. We depend on one another for support, for.challenge and tolerance. And we are nourished in our commitment to act on behalf of social justice by our prayer and the Eucharist: in prayer, for it is here in the quiet moments that we can face the reality of just who our center is-~ourselves or God; in the Eucharist, because it strengthens us to face our timidity and fears, it calls us out of ourselves to be, like Jesus, persons for others. Now Available As A Reprint Prayer of Personal Reminiscence:' Sharing One's Memories with Christ by David J. Hassel, S.J. Price: $.60 per copy, plus postage. Address: Review for Religious 612' Humboldt Building 539 North Grand St. Louis, Missouri 63103 Taking the Long View Francis X. Hezel, S.J. Father Hezel is director of the Micronesian Seminar. based in Truk; Caroline Islands; Trust Territory, Pacific 96942 Not too long ago a gentleman visited these islands offering a new eight million dollar college as a gift to the Micronesian people from the U.S. Congress. His offer met with an enthusiastic response almost everywhere. At last Micronesia would soon have its own four-year college! Not a con-ventional college, but one that would be specially tailored for providing training in vocational skills or whatever else is judged to be educationally relevant. I was dismayed by the uncritical enthusiasm that greeted the visitor's offer, well-intentioned though it was. Don't people here know, I asked myself, that the new college will cost almost two million dollars a year to operate? A tidy sum, considering that the total amount of local revenues generated in the Trust Territory is only seven .million dollars at present. Isn't this gesture, I thought, a bit like making a gift to a poor friend of a good-sized German shepherd to guard his house, letting him know as you walk out the door that the animal eats five pounds of meat a day? tin any case, would a new four-year college of any kind help solve the burning question of how to promote economic development? Diplomas abound in the Trust Territory and marketable skills are on the increase. The real problem, of course, is jobs; and this won't be solved by adding another expensive education mill. As long as the goal is to develop Micronesia's resources and make the islands more productive, a new college with an increased capacity can only make a bad situation worse. If you want a person to spend his life in a fishing boat or on a farm, the worst thing you can do is plant him in a chair for another four years. He will very likely never get out of it afterwards. 696 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 Its the old story, I said to myself. Another."gift" from abroad; more hidden costs, social and economic; and the dependency rut gets deeper and deeper. How is it, I wondered,th~at this familiar story is repeated over and over again, even by individuals and groups that profess a commitment to self-reliance? Surely some of them must see the long-range effects of these projects. Consider the response to the Headstart and Old Age Programs, to use as examples two federal programs designed to benefit opposite ends of the population. No sooner was the Trust Territory made eligible for federal funds under these titles than every district opened an office, applied for government money, and began an earnest search for ways to spend it. The immediate benefits of the two federal programs were all too obvious: food for the young and the old, an income for those on the payroll, travel abroad for program directors and their understudies, and the promise of other good things to come. But how about the fact that the~palates of the young were being ha-bituated to breakfasts of tomato juice and doughtmts? What about the danger of families abdicating their strongly-felt traditional responsibility to provide for the elderly? Or the risk of weakening family and community ties, as still another responsibility of theirs is surrendered to a government agency? Then, of course, there is again the matter of furthering the eco-nomic dependence of Micronesia on a global superpower that has military interests to maintain. Somehow these last questions were overlooked in the rush to expand the district payroll and get money rolling in. A paycheck and cases of corned beef are just a bit more real than such intangibles as family bonds and ,psychological dependence. - Do I sound a trifle "anti-progress," or possibly even cynical?.Then let me make a public confession. Neither I nor the staff of the small private school of which I am director have altogether resisted the temptations of "easy money" from abroad. We are receiving federal funds from the six-million dollar Federal Feeding Program, as are virtually all public schools and a good many 'mission schools as well. To understand how an abomination of this sort ~might have happened, you would have tO put yourself in the shoes of a school administrator who is wondering how he will make it to the end of May. without going broke. Local support groups have not come through, the school accounts are just about exhausted, and bills continue to pile higher on his desk. Just then, in walks a federal program officer with a sheaf of papers in hand who proudly announces that he has funds to cover the entire cost of the school feeding program for the year. To the beleaguered school.administrator it is a heaven-sent answer to a pressing problem. Naturally he signs on the dotted line, heaves a sigh of relief, and then settles back to wait for the first check to come. ~ Taking the Long View / 697 That, however, is only the beginning.'A year later the school admin-istrator has to decide whether he shall continue to participate in the feeding program. He knows very :well that the 25 thousand dollars he receives will not raise the nutritional quality of the food one bit. Healthy food is some-thing that teenaged boarding students must have in ample quantity, no matter hbw financially hard-pressed the school may be. He knows that the Feeding Program of which his school is a beneficiary can only further re-inforce the "handout" mentality of a people long accustomed to looking to Washington to pay all their bills. He recalls with a shudder all that he has read and heard about the stifling welfarism of Indian reservations. But he calculates that an additional 25 thousand dollars a year would allow him to build a garage, a maintenance shop and new water tanks which he thinks that the school may need. And so, dismissing the uncomfortable concern he feels for remote consequences, he signs on the dotted line just as he did the year before. Like the others in the examples cited earlier, he has responded to the immediate need and left the future to take care of itself. Micronesia teems with persons like him (or should I say me?) whose decisions are based on answering today's needs at the expense of the future. Jobs, schools, roads and the like occupy our exclusive attention while the hidden costs of these "improvements" and the nature bfthe funds that finance them go uncalculated. This preocc~ipation with the sho~'t-term rewards might be called the national disease of Micronesia and it has infected every part of society. The employee who drinks up his paycheck, on Friday and Saturday to the sorrow of his family for the following two weeks shows acute symptoms of it. So does the fish dynamiter who pulls in his haul, rubs his belly, and leaves the shattered reef to repair itself---in twenty years time. Then there is the young college student who spends the two days before his semestral exams emptying Budweiser cans with his friends, and a week hence is looking for plane fare home from college. Is it simply an accident that a couple of years ago the theme song of the islands seemed to be "Help Me Make It Through the Night?" The people of an island press for Congress of Micronesia funds to erect a seawall, conscious only of the money that will make its way into their pockets, but unmindful of the damage to their sense of community that loss Of locally sponsored labor projects will inflict. Congressmen vote to ap-prove high-cost capital impr6vement projects to be funded by the U.S. knowing full well that the cost of maintaining these facilities will be a financial burden to Micronesia in later years. Top,level policy-makers cam-paign for higher wages for government employees, thereby undercutting any real hope of inducing young people to take up less lucrative but much-needed work in commercial agriculture and fishing. And ,everyone-- parents and educators alike---encourages the greatest possible number of 69~1 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 high school graduates to go off to college without the least idea of how they will occupy themselves when they return. Entrepreneurs with an eye for a fast dollar build supermarkets, bars aid moviehouses, thus helping to send the annual level of imports soaring still higher. Prominent businessmen who are. instrumental in bringing tele-vision into their islands make a killing on sales ofTV sets~ leaving the social consequences anti'the economic effects on families for others to handle. Political decisions, I fear, are made in much the same way. Nothing can convince me that the people of the Marianas, when they signed their Cove-nant with the U.S. two years ago, were as fond of the American Eagle as the dollar on which it 'appears. Yet money buys good things, as I have already ungrudgingly admitted. Whether, however, it will also purchase an enduring social bliss for the Northern Marianas remains to be seen. I have never heard or read a cogent explanation of what any of the separatist districts wants politically and I have despaired of ever doing so, although it is well-known what those districts expect by way of fiscal gains. I can only assume that they desire for themselves whatever their generous benefactors~ desire for them--whether these bene.factors be America, Japan, Nauru, or the Sheikdom of Aden. Surely it would be difficult to maintain that their decisions are. models of political far-sightedness, whatever else they may have to recommend them. But the rest of us are in no position smugly to point an accusing finger at those districts that have sought greener pastures---or, to be more exact, greener bankrolls--elsewhere. Which of the remaining' districts can hon-estly say 'tha~it would not have jumped at the chance to do likewise, had the opportunity been offered? We all seem to have fallen prey to this obsession with the immediate pay-off. It may be that this is an all too human weakness, but it is a frightening irony that our failings should be rationalizedqn the name of "progress" or "development." If development implies anything at all, it suggests a forward-looking approach---one that is as concerned with to-morrow and 20 years hence as with today. With the coming of foreign currency to these islands a century and a half ago, Micronesians were for the first time able to accumulate a surplus, to hoard, to save and invest. Money created the possibility of a "tomorrow" in these islands. By a strange irony, however, foreign money is now being used to freeze us securely into the present and to anaesthetize us against a concern for the future. Not that money, jobs, education, material improvements, and even federal programs are evil in themselves. The real problem is that these and other short-range benefits are so alluring that they overpower more distant considerations. And when they are offered to any of us gratis, their at-traction is practically irresistible. An announcment is made that some new federal program is offering funds to establish national parks, buy library books, or develop curricular materials for teaching the metric system. We Taking the Long View / 699 run to our desks' and concoct a proposal that will enable us to receive our share of the funds. Why not take advantage of a windfall while it lasts, we reason to ourselves. The trouble is that the objectives we set down for our programs can all too easily be inconsistent with or even run counter to broader develop-mental goals in ttie Trust Territory. There's certainly no harm in securing federal money to build a museum in which traditional artifacts will be displayed., or in providing emergency assistance for' rebuilding houses after a typhoon, or in putting up a new sports center at U.S. expense. But we must not be surprised if the cu-mulative effect oUall this on the community is to teach people that Santa Clauscomes to Micronesia every day of the year. Over many a desk in headquarters is posted the inspiring adage: "Give a person a fish and he has a meal today. Teach him how to fish and he has food for the rest of his life." It is very easy to understand how this lesson can be lost on our people today in the face of the mammoth give-away program that enervates our com-munities even 'as it showers on'them its material "blessings." Buyit~g canned federal programs is a lot like buying canned fish. It is inexpensive, convenient and satisfying---an eminently sensible thing to do. But there, are still those hidden costs to be reckoned, as we know only too well. Whether we weigh these costs in making any initial decision or not, they are bound to catch up with us in the end. Those of us who ~take a dim view of ~anned programs funded from abroad---and I include myself hereto so on the grounds that their long-term costs usually outweigh their immediate benefits. These "costs" can be conveniently grouped under three bro~d headings: social, economic and political, although some would want toadd "environmental" as a fourth heading. Let me now suggest a few examples of each. Regarding social costs we may say this. Programs that introduce into a community a substantial amount of money to build a road, erect a com-munity center or feed schoolchildren all too often bring about the pyscho-logical or social impoverishment of the community that they are intended to help. This happens when members of the community decide that it is more profitable for them to sit and wait for things to happen rather than initiate devi~lopment projects oftheir own. At this point, cooperative work by families on community projects sharply declines, and so does what we commonly call "community spirit." When most of its responsibilities are pre-empted by government agencies and alien institutions, the community simply loses confidence in its own effectiveness to achieve anything of real value. The same may be said of the family. As it relinquishes its respon-sibility for feeding toddlers, schoolchildren and the aged, the ties among its members will almost certainly weaken. The obvious question that must be asked of every development project, then, no matter what the source of funding, is whether its effects will be to increase or diminish the social fabric and sense of purpose of the community. 700 / Review for Religious, Volume 36, 1977/5 ¯ Micronesians commonly refer to their islands as "poor"--that is, as lacking adequate income to provide for themselves much of what they regard as desirable. For this reason, there is usually a mad rush to obtain whatever haaterial benefit~ the U.S. or any other country might offer by way of assistance. What is often overlooked, however,, is that certain gifts may make us poorer rather than richer. Expensive hospitals, water systems and airports are also expensive to rriaintain year by year--and the future budget of a "poor" group of islands is bound to be very limited. Moreover, some improvements can require an expanding network of expensive facilities and social services to support them (or clean up the social mess they have made). Take,the case of a costly new high school that is built of sufficient size, to allow all school-age youth in the area to enroll. Soon after the new school opens discipline problems multiply, since there are clearly a large number of misfits who have been accepted in the cam-paign to make secondary education universal. To keep the poorer students in school, a special program for potential dropouts is funded through a federal grant. A recreation center is built and new staff is hired to moderate the center's activities. Social therapists are trained---at additional expense-- and hired to counsel "hardcore" problem students. Mental health facilities and referral centers are established through still another program. In short, everything.possible is done, at prodigious expense, to keep in s~chool young people who never wanted to be there in the first place, As social services and physical facilities proliferate along with the pro-grams that support them, Micronesians are gradually led to believe that a society without expensive gadgetry and quackery is entirely impossible. To have a school without sliding classroom dividers or a hospital without sophisticated laboratory equipment becomes unthinkable. It is no wonder that Micronesians have come to believe that they can't live without an extravagant subsidy from abroad! Naturally this means that they will have no recourse but to continue living in the shadow of the American eagle--with all that this implies politically and militarily. Very few decisions today are simple decisions. Most have far-reaching implications on the future social, economic and political order in these islands. We know this only too well, of course, but all of us still must adjust to making decisions at times as if there were no tomorrow. Until all of us learn honestly and openly to weigh the long,term effects of our choices, not just count the immediate gains; we will be deluding ourselves

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Horanchi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 389 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 341 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 25 ha covered by rock outcrops and 23 ha by others (water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 341 ha (88%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 49 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) 16 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 6 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 17 per cent soils are shallow (25 - 50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 38 percent soils are loamy and 48 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum area of about 71 percent soils are non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 10 percent soils are medium (51-100), 12 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 17 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 80 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 8 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (10-20ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (4.5ppm) in an area of about 82 percent and deficient (<4.5ppm) is 6 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 114(29) 147(38) Guava - 50(13) Maize - 251(65) Sapota - 50(13) Bajra - 261(67) Pomegranate - 238(61) Groundnut - 50(13) Musambi 188(48) 50(13) Sunflower 114(29) 124(32) Lime 188(48) 50(13) Redgram - 238(61) Amla - 261(67) Bengal gram 188(48) 23(6) Cashew - - Cotton 114(29) 97(25) Jackfruit - 50(13) Chilli - 261(67) Jamun - 188(48) Tomato - 261(67) Custard apple 188(48) 73(18) Brinjal 16(4) 245(63) Tamarind - 188(48) Onion - 228(59) Mulberry - 50(13) Bhendi 90(23) 171(44) Marigold - 261(67) Drumstick - 238(61) Chrysanthemum - 261(67) Mango - 16(4)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Horanchi-2 micro-watershed among them 4 (11.76 %) were landless, 13 (38.24 %) were marginal farmers, 11 (32.35 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmers and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 117 (56.80 %) men and 89 (43.20 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.25, marginal farmers' was 5.15, small farmers' was 7.27, semi medium farmers' was 7.4 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 55 (26.70 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 103 (50 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (17.48 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (5.83 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Horanchi-2had 45.63 per cent illiterates, 0.49 per cent Functional Literate, 23.30 per cent of them had primary school, 3.88 per cent of them had middle school, 12.62 per cent of them had high school education, 3.40 per cent of them had PUC, 0.49 per cent of them had Diploma and ITI, 2.43 per cent of them had Degree education and 1.94 per cent of them had Masters education.  The results indicate that, 88.24 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 8.82 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 cent of the household heads were General labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 55.83 per cent of the household members, 67.66 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.94 per cent were in general labour, 2.43 per cent were private service, 22.82 per cent were students, 5.83 per cent were housewives and 5.83 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 20.59 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 44.12 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 32.35 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 70.59 per cent of the households possess TV, 50 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess bicycle, Computer/Laptop and Landline Phone, 47.06 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Auto, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Tempo and 94.12 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,625, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,250, Bicycle was Rs. 3,000, motor cycle was Rs. 53,312, Landline Phone was Rs. 5,000, Computer/Laptop was Rs. 35,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,360. 2  About 29.41 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 44.12 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.76 per cent of the households possess Power Tiller, 5.88 per cent of them possess Tractor, Sprayer, Sprinkler and Thresher, 8.82 per cent of them possess Harvester and 52.94 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 14,200, plough was Rs. 2,153, Power Tiller was Rs. 78,250, Tractor was Rs. 650,000, sprayer was Rs. 4,000, sprinkler was Rs. 5,500, Harvester was Rs. 76, Thresher was Rs. 100 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 202.  The results indicate that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 23.53 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 8.82 per cent of the households possess Goat and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.73, average own labour (women) available was 1.47, average hired labour (men) available was 9.37 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.63.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.38, average own labour (women) was 1.23, average hired labour (men) was 8.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.69. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.82, average hired labour (men) was 7.91 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.73. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 14.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.20. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2 and average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.63.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, 3.85 per cent of the households have migrated in the microwatershed.  The results indicate that, the average distance of migrated households was 2800 kms and average duration was for 4 months.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that Job/wage/work was the main purpose of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Horanchi-2 micro-watershed possess 22.94 ha (64.46 %) of dry land, 9.41 ha (26.44 %) of irrigated land and 3.24 ha (9.10 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 7.25 ha (92.94 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (7.06 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 12.41 ha (83.22 %) of dry land and 2.50 ha (16.78 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.45 ha (6.60 %) of dry land and 6.36 ha (93.40 %) of irrigated land. 3 Medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (46.67 %) and 3.24 ha (53.33 %) of Permanent Fallow land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 374,770.64, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 339,956.99 and the average value of Permanent Fallow land was Rs. 247,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 602,092.13 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 908,088.23 for Irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 306,131.77 for dry land and Rs. 859,130.45 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 445,045.04 for dry land and Rs. 298,726.93 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 352,857.14 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 1 De-functioning and 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.53 per cent of the farmers and Open Well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 15.65 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 2.15 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.08 ha, 4.92 ha and 4.25 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (4.19 ha), green gram (5.88 ha), groundnut (2.23 ha), Paddy (4.72 ha), red gram (10.19 ha) and sorghum (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, paddy, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, sorghum, red gram, green gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, red gram, paddy and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram and sorghum.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Horanchi-2 micro-watershed was found to be 86.14 per cent.  The results indicate that, 67.65 per cent of the households have bank account and 2.94 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 64.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 229722.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 109333.82. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. -120388.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.48.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 39928.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47145.61. The net 4 income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 7217.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.18.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 55704.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68428.15. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 12723.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.23.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 34552.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48332.75. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 13780.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.4.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 50898.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59280. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8381.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.16.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20.59 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 114,889 for for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 149,763.64, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 119,000 and medium farmers it was Rs. 290,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 441,909.32. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 11,598.62, for small farmers it was Rs. 17,066.12, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,680 and medium farmers it was Rs. 60,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 64 Neem, 5 Acacia, 16 Banyan and 1 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,647.06 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 705.88 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,323.53 for improved crop production and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 617.65 improved livestock management.  The results indicated that Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 38.24 per cent for land development, 11.76 per cent for irrigation facility, 35.29 per cent for improved crop production and 11.76 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 84.41 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 98.91 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 82.61 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 44.05 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 75 per cent. 5  The results indicated that, about 100 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the major source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 29.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and Pulses were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, Oilseed were adequate for 94.12 per cent of the households, Vegetables were adequate for 79.41 per cent, Egg were adequate for 8.82 per cent, Fruits were adequate for 2.94 per cent and Milk and were adequate for 82.35 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 29.41 per cent of the households, Pulses were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, vegetables and milk were inadequate for 17.65 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 97.06 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 91.18 per cent of the households and Meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and Wild animal menace on farm field were the constraint experienced by 88.24 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35 %), High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals, Lack of marketing facilities in the area and High rate of interest on credit (85.29 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (14.71 %), Low price for the agricultural commodities (76.47 %), Inadequate extension services (17.65 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (79.41 %), Less rainfall (2.94 %) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (8.82 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Danakkanadoddi-2microwatershedwas conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 542ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95per cent is covered by soils, about one per cent by rock outcrops , one per cent bywater bodies and three per cent by mining/industrial. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15soil series and 23soil phases (management units) and 7land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 62 per cent areahas loamy soils, 28 per cent area has clay soils and 5 per cent area has sandy soils at the surface.  About 69 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 7per cent area has slightly eroded (e1) and about 89 per cent area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  About 13 per cent area is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 30 per cent area is slightly alkaline (pH7.3-7.8)to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0)in soil reaction and 52 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 3 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  Anarea of about 58 per centismedium (145-337 kg/ha)and about 38per cent ishigh (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in one per cent.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm)in46 per cent area and deficient (1.0 ppm) in about 95 per cent area.  Available copper is sufficient(>0.2 ppm) in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershedwere assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 246 (45) 104 (19) Pomegranate 185 (34) 183 (34) Maize 65 (12) 260 (48) Guava 181 (33) 138 (25) Bajra 233 (43) 118 (34) Jackfruit 185 (34) 133 (24) Groundnut 164 (30) 299 (55) Jamun 164 (30) 74 (14) Sunflower 205 (37) 131 (24) Musambi 202 (37) 166 (31) Cotton 184 (34) 191 (35) Lime 202 (37) 166 (31) Red gram 185 (34) 141 (26) Cashew 229 (42) 40 (7) Bengalgram 17 (3) 390 (63) Custard apple 275 (51) 237 (44) Chilli 233 (43) 93 (17) Amla 258 (48) 254 (47) Tomato 233 (43) 67 (12) Tamarind 164 (30) 62 (11) Drumstick 185 (34) 260 (48) Marigold 181 (33) 194 (36) Mulberry 185 (34) 270 (50) Chrysanthemum 181 (33) 194 (36) Mango 164 (30) 21 (4) Jasmine 181 (33) 144 (11) Sapota 185 (34) 133 (24) Crossandra 181 (33) 194 (36) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the7identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder,fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 104 (56.22%) men and 81 (43.78%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers was 5, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 5.20, semi medium farmers' was 5.27 and medium farmers' was 7.  The data indicated that, 42 (22.70%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (44.86%) were in 16-35 years of age, 49 (26.49%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (5.95%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Danakanadoddi-2 had 34.59 per cent illiterates, 24.86 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.78 per cent of them had middle school education, 20 per cent of them had high school education, 7.03 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.70 per cent of them had degree education and 1 person was doing masters.  The results indicate that, 34.29 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 60 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers, 5.71 per cent were in private service, 2.86 per cent were students and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were involved in other occupation.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 25.95 per cent of the household members, 39.46 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.78 per cent were in private service, 23.24 per cent of them were student, 1.62 per cent of them were housewife and 5.41 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 17.14 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 54.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 28.57 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results shows that 74.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.29 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 14.29 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 22.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 94.29 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results shows that the average value of television was Rs. 8,807, mixer grinder was Rs.2,000, motor cycle was Rs.30,875, mobile phone was Rs.1,673 and bicycle was Rs.2,000.  About 20 per cent of the households possess plough and 60 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.2642 and the average value of weeder Rs.50.  The results indicate that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 20 per cent of the households possess local cow. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2, average own labour (women) available was 1.30, average hired labour (men) available was 13.52 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.71.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. About 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium, 100 per cent of medium and large farmers have opined that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Danakanadoddi-2 micro watershed possess 24.53 ha (56.03%) of dry land and 19.26 ha (43.97%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.72 ha (74.46%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (25.54%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 2.71 ha (53.60%) of dry land and 2.35 ha (46.40%) of irrigated land. Semi medium possess 12.95 ha (57.76%) of dry land and 9.47 ha (42.24%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.15 ha (41.64%) of dry land and 5.82 ha (58.36%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 358,561.53 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 477,595.63. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 847,341.34 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 368,656.71 for dry land and Rs. 596,206.89 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 231,562.50 for dry land and Rs. 411,666.67 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 192,592.59 for dry land and Rs. 257,649.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 63.66 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.62 hectares, small farmers had 2.35 hectares, semi medium farmers had 9.47 hectares and medium farmers had 5.67 hectares.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (32.45 ha), bajra (6.69 ha), paddy (2.02 ha), groundnut (1.05 ha) and cotton (0.81 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Danakanadoddi-2 micro watershed was found to be 80.39 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 99.68 per cent, for small farmers it was 88 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 84.71 per cent and medium farmers had a cropping intensity of 62.78 per cent.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households possess bank account in the micro watershed. 3  The results indicate that, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 20 per cent of small, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 66.67 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 21.43 per cent have availed loan from commercial, 14.29 per cent have availed loan from cooperative banks and 64.29 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed a credit of Rs.181,000, Rs.20,000, Rs. 210,833.33 and Rs.135,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan.  The results indicate that, around 7.14 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources and 92.86 per cent of the households opined that the loan helped them to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 33796.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32938.44. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -858.06, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 27226.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25701.72. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. -1525.01. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.94.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 108212.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 92625. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. -15587.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 64208.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 87978.31. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 23770.03. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.37.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 65892.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. -16492.52, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.75.  The results indicate that, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and another 14.29 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 37,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 46,518.18, for small farmers it was Rs. 41,600, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 87,581.82 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 155,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 9,241.43. For landless households it was Rs. 9,900, for marginal farmers it was Rs 3,610.19, for 4 small farmers it was Rs. 7,640, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,609.50 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 30,111.11.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 30 coconut trees in their field and 1 coconut tree in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 70 neem trees and 29 teak trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,600 for land development, Rs. 885.71 for irrigation facility, Rs.1,914.29 for improved crop production, Rs.57.14 for improved livestock management and Rs.228.57 for orchard development/maintenance.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the major source of investment for 17.14 per cent of households for land development, for 5.71 per cent of the households for irrigation facility, for 11.43 per cent for improved crop production and for 2.86 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 11.43 per cent for land development, for 2.86 per cent for irrigation facility, for 11.43 per cent for improved crop production and for 2.86 per cent improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 14.29 per cent for land development, 8.57 per cent for irrigation facility, for 20 per cent for improved crop production and for 5.71 per cent for orchard development/ maintenance.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 78.26 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 62.50 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 62.50 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 86.96 per cent and paddy was sold to the extent of 74.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 77.14 per cent of the households sold their produce to local/village, another 17.14 per cent have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society and 5.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the farmers have used tractor as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households are interested in soil testing.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 20 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 22.86 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the source of drinking water for 57.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 94.29 percent used fire wood, and 5.71 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. 5  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 27.27 per cent of marginal, 40 per cent of small, 27.27 per cent of semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.86 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 5.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 2.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 94.29 per cent, eggs were adequate for 97.14 per cent and meat was adequate for 11.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were inadequate for 11.43 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 8.57 per cent and meat was inadequate for 22.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, vegetables were market surplus for 2.86 per cent, and fruits were market surplus for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (62.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (71.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (48.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (71.43%), high rate of interest on credit (48.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (57.14%) and inadequate extension services (48.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kotakkanahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the delineated physiographic boundaries were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 838 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 69 per cent is covered by soils, 2 per cent by rock outcrops, 10 per cent by mining/Industrial area, 150 cm).  About 64 per cent of the area is having loamy at the surface and 5 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 42 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m).  An area of about 3 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands, 66 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands and 0.75%) in 34 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 29 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 20 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 41 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 63 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 53 per cent of the soils.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agriculture and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 88 (10 ) 110(13) Pomegranate 48(6) 288(34) Maize 12(1) 164(20) Guava 48 (6 ) 267 (32) Bajra 88 (10) 258(31) Jackfruit 48 (6 ) 266(32) Redgram 48(6) 118(14 ) Jamun 37(4) 299(36) Bengalgram 22(3) 176(21) Musambi 48(6) 288(34 ) Groundnut 11 (1) 392 (47) Lime 48(6) 288(34 ) Sunflower 48 (6) 118(14 ) Cashew 1(<1) 303(36 ) Cotton 37 (4) 161 (19) Custard apple 127 (15) 424 (51) Chilli 50(6) 125(15) Amla 127 (15) 424 (51) Tomato 50(6) 125(15) Tamarind 37(4) 90(11 ) Drumstick 48(6) 301 (36 ) Marigold 11(1) 187(22 ) Mulberry 11(1) 508(61 ) Chrysanthemum 11(1) 187(22 ) Mango 37(4) 68(8) Jasmine 11(1) 165(20) Sapota 48(6) 267 (32) Crossandra 48(6) 127 (15) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the six identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 118 (50.43%) men and 114 (48.72%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.33, marginal farmers' was 5.24, small farmers' was 5.80, semi medium farmers' was 4.50 and medium farmers' was 7.67.  The data indicated that, 58 (24.79%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 102 (43.59%) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (24.79%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (6.84%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kotakkanahalli-1 had 34.19 per cent illiterates, 0.43 per cent functional literates, 31.20 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.41 per cent of them had middle school education, 15.38 per cent of them had high school education, 5.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.85 per cent had diploma education, 0.85 per cent had diploma, 0.85 per cent of them did ITI, 1.28 per cent of them had degree and 0.43 per cent of them had masters level education.  The results indicate that, 67.44 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 25.58 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.33 per cent of the household heads were involved in households industry.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 35.04 per cent of the household members, 28.21 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.85 per cent had households industry, 0.85 per cent were in private service, 0.43 per cent was in trade and business, 27.35 per cent were students, 2.99 per cent were housewives and 3.85 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.85 per cent were in self help group, 0.43 per cent were in user group and 98.72 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 11.63 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 81.40 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 4.65 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 6.98 per cent of the households possess semi pacca house.  The results show that 88.37 per cent of the households possess TV, 37.21 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 4.65 per cent of them possess bicycle, 27.91 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.33 per cent of them possess auto and 90.70 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,707, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,775, bicycle was 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 36,892, auto was 300,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,805. 2  About 2.33 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 11.63 per cent of them possess plough, 6.98 per cent of them possess tractor, 4.65 per cent of them possess sprayer and 18.60 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 30,000, plough was Rs. 3,860, tractor was Rs. 450,000, sprayer was Rs. 2,900 and weeder was Rs. 481.  The results indicate that, 13.95 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 25.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and 6.98 per cent possess buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.45, average own labour (women) available was 1.34, average hired labour (men) available was 5.24 and average hired labour (women) available was 3.84.  The results indicate that 67.44 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 18.60 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kotakkanahalli-1 micro-watershed possess 31.64 ha (71.84%) of dry land and 12.40 ha (28.16%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.98 ha (94.79%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (5.21%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.55 ha (76.48%) of dry land and 4.17 ha (23.52%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 4.65 ha (37.52%) of dry land and 7.74 ha (62.48) irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 442,312.61 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 362,642.74. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 812,207.21 for dry land and Rs. 1,214,754.11 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 368,766.80 for dry land and Rs. 695,436.90 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 128,981.73 for dry land and Rs. 129,116.57 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 10 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.26 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 17.90 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.89 ha, 4.37 ha and 4.10 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (20.66 ha), bajra (11.86 ha), jowar (2.85 ha), sugarcane (1.84 ha), cotton (1.62 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha), cowpea (0.81 ha), navane (0.81 ha), sunflower (1.62 ha), tomato (1.21 ha) and 3 chilly (0.4 ha). Marginal farmers had grown maize, bajra, jowar, cotton, cowpea, chilly and tomato. Small farmers had maize, bajra, jowar, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, navane and sunflower. Semi medium farmers had grown maize. Medium farmers had grown maize, bajra, jowar and tomato.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kotakkanahalli-1 microwatershed was found to be 72.02 per cent.  The results indicate that, 13.95 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 13.95 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 72207.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50618.43. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -21589.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.7.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 70878.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 676114.55. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 605235.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:9.54.  The total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 22209.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 6916. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. -15293.38. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.31.  The total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 30058.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 123500. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 93441.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.11.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 31958.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16672.50. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -15286.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.52.  The total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 38688.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 11578.13. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. -27110.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.3.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 21725.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23218. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 1492.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 46218.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 148200. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 101981.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.21.  The total cost of cultivation for Navane was Rs. 16245.82. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 9880. The net income from Navane cultivation was Rs. -6365.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.61. 4  The results indicate that, 20.93 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 16.28 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 23,833.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 49,609.41, for small farmers it was Rs. 109,080, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 60,250 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 87,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,844.14. For landless households it was Rs. 2,611.11, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,339.39, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,524.13, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 19,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 14,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut trees and 2 mango trees in their field. Also, 12 coconut and 1 mango tree in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 62 eucalyptus, 1 cashew and 7 teak trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 953.49 for land development, Rs. 69.77 for irrigation facility, Rs. 813.95 for improved crop production and Rs. 186.05 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 9.09 per cent for land development, for 2.27 per cent for irrigation facility, for 11.36 per cent for improved crop production and for 2.27 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 15.91 per cent for land development, for 18.18 per cent for improved crop production and for 6.82 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 96.43 per cent, chilly was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, cowpea was sold to the extent of 50 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 66.67 per cent, jowar was sold to the extent of 53.85 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 99.31 per cent, navane was sold to the extent of 25 per cent, sugarcane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, sunflower was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent and tomato was sold to the extent of 80 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55.81 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 37.21 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 27.91 per cent of them sold their produce to agents/traders.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 96.43 per cent, chilly was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, cowpea was sold to the extent of 50 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 66.67 per cent, jowar was sold to the extent of 53.85 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 99.31 per cent, navane was sold to the extent of 25 per cent, 5 sugarcane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, sunflower was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent and tomato was sold to the extent of 80 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55.81 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 37.21 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 27.91 per cent of them sold their produce to agents/traders.  The results indicated that, 83.72 per cent of the households used tractor, 30.23 per cent of them used cart and 6.98 per cent of them used head load as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 41.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 34.88 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 81.40 per cent of the households used firewood and 25.58 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 53.49 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 55.81 per cent and lake/tank was the source of drinking water for 11.63 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 20.93 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 2.33 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card, 95.35 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.33 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 65.12 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 90.70 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 20.93 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 27.91 per cent, fruits were adequate for 11.63 per cent, milk was adequate for 67.44 per cent, eggs were adequate for 55.81 per cent and meat were adequate for 53.49 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 30.23 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 79.07 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 72.09 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 86.05 per cent, milk was inadequate for 23.26 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 37.21 per cent and meat was inadequate for 32.56 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 72.50 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals 6 (30%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.5%), inadequate extension services (10%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), less rainfall (60%) and Source of Agri-technology information (37.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 637 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soil and 5 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 5 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 90 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 64 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 21 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 73 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 54 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 41 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 2 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 38 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 55 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 3 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 64 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 30 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0) in 4 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 28 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 44(7) 387(61) Sapota 19(3) 72(11) Maize 19(3) 412(65) Pomegranate 19(3) 230(36) Bajra 91(14) 328(51) Musambi 30(5) 218(34) Groundnut 32(5) 59(9) Lime 30(5) 218(34) Sunflower 30(5) 218(34) Amla 91(14) 340(54) Redgram 19(3) 209(33) Cashew - 59(9) Bengal gram 12(2) 419(66) Jackfruit 19(3) 72(11) Cotton 12(2) 419(66) Jamun - 229(36) Chilli 32(5) 59(9) Custard apple 103(16) 328(52) Tomato 32(5) 59(9) Tamarind - 214(34) Brinjal 59(9) 372(59) Mulberry 76(12) 161(25) Onion - 91(14) Marigold 19(3) 412(65) Bhendi - 431(68) Chrysanthemum 19(3) 412(65) Drumstick 63(10) 186(29) Jasmine 19(3) 254(40) Mango - 108(17) Crossandra 19(3) 105(17) Guava 19(3) 72(11)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 105 (57.69%) men and 77 (42.31%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.2, marginal farmers' was 5.06, small farmers' was 4.8, semi medium farmers' was 6 and medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 22 (12.09%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 95 (52.2%) were in 16-35 years of age, 56 (30.77%) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (4.95%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Chikkashindhag-2 had 25.82 per cent illiterates, 16.48 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.04 per cent of them had middle school education, 28.57 per cent of them had high school education, 10.99 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.55 per cent had ITI education, 6.59 per cent of them ha degree education and 1.10 per cent of them had degree level education.  The results indicate that, 55.56 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 41.67 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 39.56 per cent of the household members, 36.26 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.20 per cent were private service, 15.38 per cent were students, 3.85 per cent were housewives and 2.75 per cent were children.  The results show that, 3.30 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in user group and 96.70 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 83.33 per cent of the households possess katcha, 11.11 per cent of the households pucca/RCC and5.56 per cent of the households possess semi pacca house. The results show that 75 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.78 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD player, 58.33 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 44.44 per cent of them possess motor cycle and 91.67 per cent of them possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,333, DVD/VCD player was Rs. 2,000, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,952, motor cycle was Rs. 42,687 and mobile phones was Rs. 1,980.  About 5.56 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 30.56 per cent of them possess plough, 19.44 per cent of them possess sprayer and 52.78 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18,000, plough was Rs. 1,636, sprayer was Rs. 4,428 and weeder was Rs.75.  The results indicate that, 8.33 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.22 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent possess crossbreed cow and goat and 5.56 per cent of them possess buffalo. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, average own labour (women) available was 1.29, average hired labour (men) available was 13.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.74.  The results indicate that 86.11 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkashindhag-2 micro-watershed possess 26.67 ha (67.76 %) of dry land and 12.69 ha (12.69 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.71 ha (75.19%) of dry land and 1.55 ha (24.81%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 3.22 ha (52.17%) of dry land and 2.95 ha (47.83%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 12.26 ha (69.80%) of dry land and 5.31 (30.20%) for irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (69.23%) for dry land and 2.88 ha (30.77 %) for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 401,107.91 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 653,939.39. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,379,295.53 for dry land and Rs. 1,801,041.66 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 341,761.01 for dry land and Rs. 677,640.61 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 220,099.01 for dry land and Rs. 546,376.81 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 61,750 for dry land and Rs. 208,438.81 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 41.67 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 44.87 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.96 ha, 5 ha, 3.36 ha, 6.93 ha and 2.88 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (23.72 ha), sunflower (3.24 ha), Bengal gram (2.83 ha), sorghum (2.43 ha), sugarcane (1.7 ha), jowar (0.81 ha), cotton (0.41 ha), bajra, cluster bean and onion (0.4 ha). Marginal farmers had grown maize, Bengal gram, cotton, bajra, cluster bean and onion. Small farmers had grown maize,. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, Bengal gram, sorghum, sugarcane, and jowar. Medium farmers had grown maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkashindhag-2 micro-watershed was found to be 84.92 per cent.  The results indicate that, 11.11 per cent of the households have bank account. The results indicate that, 2.78 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative and grameena bank. 3  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 205,000.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, around 40 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from high rate of interest.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 36799.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31616. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -5183.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 162755.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 262007.31. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 99251.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The total cost of cultivation for Beans was Rs. 40614.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88920. The net income from Beans cultivation was Rs. 48305.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.19.  The total cost of cultivation for Maize was Rs. 62559.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47681.83. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. - 14877.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 24327.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33962.50. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 9635.39. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.4.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 43641.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61186.67. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 17545.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.4.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 95996.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 197600. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 101603.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 27307.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46312.50. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 19004.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7.  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 22141.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27052.38. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 4911.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.22.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 22.22 green fodders was adequate, 5.56 per cent of the households opine dry fodder was in adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate. 4  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 39,533.33 for for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 36,666.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 104,375 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 110,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,373.84. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,708.89, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,366.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,578.13 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 30,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 48 coconut and 2 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 34 teak, 49 neem and 4 tamarind tree in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,750.22 for land development, Rs. 361.11for improved crop production and Rs. 277.78 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 13.51 per cent for land development and improved crop production and 8.11 per cent for irrigation facility. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.7 per cent for land development and improved crop production and 5.41 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra and sorghum was sold to the extent of 60 per cent, beans and Bengal gram was sold to the extent of 83.33 per cent, cotton, sugarcane and sunflower was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 97.62 per cent and onion was sold to the extent of 98 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 8.33 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 47.22 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 19.44 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 13.89 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 75 per cent of the households used tractor and 13.89 per cent of the households use truck as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 36.11 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 72.22 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.78 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 77.78 per cent of the households bore well and canal/nala was the source of drinking water for 11.11 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.22 per cent and 2.78 per cent of the households used kerosene lamp in micro watershed. 5  The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 27.78 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and milk were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.67 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 25 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 47.22 per cent, fruits were adequate for 16.67 per cent, egg were adequate for 80.56 per cent and meat were adequate for 77.78 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 8.33 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 66.67 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 52.78 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 75 per cent, egg and meat were inadequate were 5.56 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 8.33 per cent and fruits were market surplus for 2.78 per cent and meat were market surplus for 11.11 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil water and inadequacy of irrigation water was the constraint experienced by 72.22 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (86.11%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (69.44%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit (75%), low price for the agricultural commodities(8.33%), less rainfall (22.22%) and Source of Agri-technology information (8.33%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; Rajendra Hegde, Ramesh Kumar, S.C., K.V. Niranjana, S. Srinivas, M.Lalitha, B.A. Dhanorkar, R.S. Reddy and S.K. Singh (2019). "Land resource inventory and socioeconomic status of farm households for watershed planning and development of Kunikeri Tanda-1 (4D3A1Z1a) Microwatershed, Koppal Taluk and District, Karnataka ICAR-NBSS&LUP Sujala MWS Publ.452, ICAR – NBSS & LUP, RC, Bangalore. p.145 & 39. The land resource inventory of Kunikeri Tanda-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 451 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soils and 10 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 1 per cent has sandy soil, 66 per cent has loamy soils and 24 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 27 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 4 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 23 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 67 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 16 per cent are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), 19 per cent are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 41 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 12 per cent has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 3 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 13 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 85 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 6 per cent area in the microwatershed.  About 66 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 1 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 121 (27) 118 (26) Sapota 115 (25) 139 (31) Maize 47 (10) 192 (42) Pomegranate 115 (25) 156 (35) Bajra 133 (29) 188 (42) Musambi 131 (29) 139 (31) Groundnut 102 (23) 253 (56) Lime 131 (29) 139 (31) Sunflower 121 (27) 77 (17) Amla 153 (34) 250 (55) Red gram 110 (24) 82 (18) Cashew 81 (18) 172 (38) Bengalgram 11 (2) 229 (51) Jackfruit 115 (25) 139 (31) Cotton 105 (23) 127 (28) Jamun 95 (21) 177 (39) Chilli 110 (24) 112 (25) Custard apple 169 (37) 233 (52) Tomato 110 (24) 112 (25) Tamarind 95 (21) 121 (27) Brinjal 87 (19) 194 (43) Mulberry 132 (29) 221 (49) Onion 49 (11) 215 (48) Marigold 110 (24) 128 (28) Bhendi 49 (11) 231 (51) Chrysanthemum 110 (24) 128 (28) Drumstick 132 (29) 147 (33) Jasmine 110 (24) 111 (25) Mango 95 (21) 66 (15) Crossandra 110 (24) 122 (27) Guava 81 (18) 172 (38)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 91 (56.88%) men and 69 (43.13%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 4.83, semi medium farmers' was 4.7 and medium farmers' was 4.4.  The data indicated that, 40 (25%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 63 (39.38%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (30%) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (5.63%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Kunikeri Tanda-1 had 40 per cent illiterates, 20.63 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.38 per cent of them had middle school education, 15.63 per cent of them had high school education, 4.38 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.63 per cent had diploma, 1.25 per cent did ITI, 5 per cent of them had degree education and 0.63 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 82.35 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 11.76 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 per cent were involved in trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 60 per cent of the household members, 5.63 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.63 per cent were in private service, 0.63 per cent were in trade and business, 30 per cent were students, 1.88 per cent were children and 0.63 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 1.25 per cent of the households participated in user group and 98.75 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 94.12 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.88 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.18 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 20.59 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,411, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,583, motor cycle was Rs. 44,285 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,925.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 2.94 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess harvester, 20.59 per cent of them possess sprayer and 61.76 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 24,000, plough was Rs. 1,500, sprayer was Rs. 5,000 and the average value of weeder was Rs.34.  The results indicate that, 14.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20.59 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.88 per cent possess crossbred cow and 5.88 per cent of the households possess sheep. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.62, average own labour (women) available was 1.35, average hired labour (men) available was 6.71 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.09.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Kunikeri Tanda-1 micro-watershed possess 34.12 ha (61.18%) of dry land and 21.65 ha (38.82%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.24 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 11.74 ha (77.80%) of dry land and 3.35 ha (22.20%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 13.28 ha (60%) of dry land and 8.85 ha (40%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.86 ha (33.95%) of dry land and 9.45 ha (66.05%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 364,786.48 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 526,317.76. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 648,758.36 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 468,125.43 for dry land and Rs. 1,044,082.11 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 278,543.13 for dry land and Rs. 530,818.47 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 102,916.67 for dry land and Rs. 338,501.07 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 32.35 per cent of the farmers and canal was the major source of irrigation for 2.94 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 20.93 meters.  The results indicate that small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.62 ha, 7.60 ha and 8.58 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (4.17 ha), cotton (5.02 ha), cowpea (0.81 ha), groundnut (1.26 ha), maize (30.74 ha), paddy (0.81 ha), pearl millet (2.12 ha), redgram (5.85 ha), sugarcane (2.83 ha) and sunflower (1.72 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, pearl millet, redgram and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, redgram and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, cowpea, groundnut, maize, pearl millet, redgram and sugarcane. Medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy, pearl millet and sugarcane.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kunikeri Tanda-1 microwatershed was found to be 83.52 per cent.  The results indicate that, 41.18 per cent of the households have bank account. 3  The results indicate that, 44.12 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 33487.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 177840. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 144352.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.31.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 50918.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -13868.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73.  The total cost of cultivation for cow pea was Rs. 40347.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44504.50. The net income from cow pea cultivation was Rs. 4157.06. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.1.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 41421.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55822. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14400.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.35.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 23698.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34978.93. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 11280.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 27701.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30803.52. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 3102.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.11.  The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 28889.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 53149.32. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 24260.27. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.84.  the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 28994.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56539.60. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 27544.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.95.  The results indicate that, 61.76 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate for 11.76 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 42,625 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 55,466.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 94,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 184,820.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 4,061.97. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,222.22, for small farmers it was Rs. 1,229.17, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 3,259.74 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 14,833.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 35 coconut trees and 1 mango tree in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 79 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees and 4 banyan trees in their field. Also, 16 neem trees, 1 tamarind tree and 3 banyan trees in their backyard. 4  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,588.24 for land development, Rs. 1,235.29 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,117.65 for improved crop production and Rs. 88.24 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 52.94 per cent for land development, for 20.59 per cent for irrigation facility and for 41.18 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loans were the source of funds for additional investment for 2.94 per cent for land development, 2.94 per cent for irrigation facility, for 8.82 per cent for improved crop production and for 2.94 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent except bajra and redgram which were sold to the extent of 99.02 per cent and 89.13 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.18 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 32.35 per cent of the farmers sold in regulated markets and 2.94 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households used cart, 97.06 per cent of the households used tractor and 5.88 per cent of them used truck as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 67.65 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 70.59 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 5.88 per cent have also used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 52.94 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 29.41 per cent and canal/nala was the major source of drinking water for 11.76 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households and kerosene lamp was the source of light for 2.94 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 91.18 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 8.82 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card.  The results indicated that, 61.76 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.06 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 41.18 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 58.82 per cent, fruits were adequate for 5 2.94 per cent, milk was adequate for 79.41 per cent, eggs were adequate for 17.65 per cent and meat was adequate for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 8.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 47.06 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 82.35 per cent, milk was inadequate for 23.53 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 73.53 per cent and meat was inadequate for 88.24 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 11.76 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 76.47 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (67.65%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (73.53%), inadequacy of irrigation water (17.65%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.24%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (70.59%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.35%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (64.71%), inadequate extension services (8.82%), less rainfall (44.12%) and source of agri-technology information (32.35%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir RF1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 486 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 335 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 142 ha by forest and 9 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 69 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 5 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm).  About 17 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 52 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 47 per cent area in the microwatershed is gravelly (15-35%) and 18 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m).  About 68 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 1 per cent has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 68 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 1 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 55 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 14 per cent area is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content  An area of about 7 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 17 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) and 45 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the cultivated soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 44 per cent cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 168 (35) 120 (25) Guava - 14 (3) Maize - 288 (59) Sapota - 14 (3) Bajra - 289 (59) Pomegranate - 14 (3) Groundnut - 73 (15) Musambi 166 (34) 17 (3) Sunflower 168 (35) 14(3) Lime 166 (34) 17 (3) Redgram - 183 (38) Amla - 288 (59) Bengal gram 168 (35) 106 (22) Cashew - - Cotton 168 (35) 106 (22) Jackfruit - 14 (3) Chilli - 289 (59) Jamun - 168 (35) Tomato - 286 (59) Custard apple 166 (34) 123 (25) Brinjal 3 (<1) 286 (59) Tamarind - 168 (35) Onion 3 (<1) 120 (25) Mulberry - 14 (3) Bhendi 3 (<1) 286 (59) Marigold - 289 (60) Drumstick - 183 (38) Chrysanthemum - 289 (60) Mango - 3 (<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 97 (56.4%) men and 75 (43.6%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal farmers' was 5.09, small farmers' was 5.16, semi medium farmers' was 4.66 and medium farmers was Rs.6.  The data indicated that, 31 (19.50 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (43.40 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 45 (28.30 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (8.81 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgir Rf-1 had 50 per cent illiterates, 18.02 per cent of them had primary school education, 0.58 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.37 per cent of them had high school education, 4.07 per cent of them had PUC education, 4.65 per cent of them had diploma, 0.58 per cent of them had ITI and 5.81 per cent had degree education.  The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 26.47 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborer.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 37.21 per cent of the household members, 26.16 per cent were agricultural laborers, 3.49 per cent were in private service, 22.09 per cent were students, 6.40 per cent were in housewives and 2.91 per cent were children.  The results show that, 1.16 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in taluk panchayat, 1.74 per cent of the population has not participated in sthree shakthi sangha 97.09 per cent population has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5.88 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 70.59 per cent of them possess Katcha house and 29.41 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 82.35 per cent of the households possess TV, 41.18 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 52.94 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 82.35 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,892, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,500, motor cycle was Rs. 49,526, and mobile phone was Rs. 2,424.  About 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 29.41 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess transplanter/grinder, 5.88 per cent of them possess tractor and harvester, 20.59 per cent of them possess weeder.  The result indicated that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 24,000, Plough was Rs. 1,700, transplanter/grinder was Rs. 12,000, tractor was Rs.800,000, weeder was Rs. 450 and harvester was Rs. 150. 2  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 8.82 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess sheep, 5.88 per cent of the households possess goat and 2.94 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.58, average own labour (women) available was 1.58, average hired labour (men) available was 10.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.59.  The results indicate that, 94.12 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that the labour was inadequate.  The results show that, 4.65 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has migrated. The results show that, average distance of migration was 720 kms and average duration of migration was 10 months.  The results show that, job/wage/work are the main purpose of migration for 100 per cent of the population in micro-watershed.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgir Rf-1 micro-watershed possess 40.16 ha (91.57%) of dry land and 3.69 ha (8.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.73 ha (95.03 %) of dry land and 0.40 ha (4.97%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.62 ha (90.33%) of dry land and 1.67 ha (9.67%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 11.81 ha (87.94%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (12.06%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 411,957.07 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 649,288.05. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 736,734.69 for dry land and Rs. 1,482,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 409,639.81 for dry land and the average value was Rs. 717,675.52. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 317,535.14 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 370,500 of irrigated land. In medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 139,886.74 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 de-functioning and 4 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water-shed for 11.76 per cent of the farmers and open well was the irrigation source in the micro water-shed for 2.94 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 6.81 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.27 meters.  The results indicate that marginal and small, semi-medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.4 ha and 2.43 ha, respectively. 3  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (33.67 ha), jowar (4.96 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha), sorghum (1.34 ha), paddy (1.27 ha) and cotton (1.21 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgir Rf-1 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have bank account and 79.41 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 76.47 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 44.44 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 11.11 per cent of the households have cooperative, fiends/relatives and moneylender and 100 per cent of the households have grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 179,833.33.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 16.67 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, around 50 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 39113.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56381.43. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 17268.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.44.  The cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 57136.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 168377.46. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 111241.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.95.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 25833.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 18626.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 27477.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39316.25. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 11838.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.43. 4  The total cost of cultivation for Coconut was Rs. 41867.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82333.33. The net income from Coconut cultivation was Rs. 40466.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.97.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 42,666.67 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 194,045.45, for small farmers it was Rs. 108,030.77, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 151,333.33 and medium farmers it was Rs. 364,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 18,927.24. For landless households it was Rs. 13,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 18,158.80, for small farmers it was Rs. 15,398.42, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 19,100 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 90,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 4 coconut, 14 mango and 2 sapota trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 4 eucalyptus and banyan, 21 teak, 101 neem, 9 tamarind and 2 acacia trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,882.35 for land development, Rs. 882.35 for irrigation facility and Rs. 676.47 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 61.76 per cent for land development, 2.94 per cent for irrigation facility and 23.53 per cent improved crop production.  The results indicated that, coconut, groundnut and paddy was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, jowar was sold to the extent of 87.5 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 99.53 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 94.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.18 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to to local/village merchants and 5.88 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 91.18 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent of the households used dung cake, 85.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 41.18 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 94.12 per cent of the households, 20.59 per cent of the household used bore well and 2.94 per cent of the households used lake/tank in the micro watershed. 5  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 69.44 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 76.47 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 79.41 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 61.76 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 70.59 per cent, fruits and egg was adequate for 26.47 per cent milk were adequate were 61.76 per cent and meat were adequate for 20.59 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 23.53 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate were 20.59 per cent, oilseed were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 29.41 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 73.53 per cent, milk were inadequate for 32.35 per cent, egg were inadequate for 64.71 per cent and meat were inadequate for 70.59 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 100 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (97.06%). frequent incidence of pest and diseases (73.53%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (82.35%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (67.65%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (38.24%), inadequate extension services (58.82%) and source of Agri-technology information (2.94%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Horanchi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 389 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 341 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 25 ha covered by rock outcrops and 23 ha by others (water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 341 ha (88%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 49 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) 16 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 6 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 17 per cent soils are shallow (25 - 50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 38 percent soils are loamy and 48 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum area of about 71 percent soils are non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 10 percent soils are medium (51-100), 12 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 17 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 80 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 8 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is medium (10-20ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (4.5ppm) in an area of about 82 percent and deficient (<4.5ppm) is 6 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 114(29) 147(38) Guava - 50(13) Maize - 251(65) Sapota - 50(13) Bajra - 261(67) Pomegranate - 238(61) Groundnut - 50(13) Musambi 188(48) 50(13) Sunflower 114(29) 124(32) Lime 188(48) 50(13) Redgram - 238(61) Amla - 261(67) Bengal gram 188(48) 23(6) Cashew - - Cotton 114(29) 97(25) Jackfruit - 50(13) Chilli - 261(67) Jamun - 188(48) Tomato - 261(67) Custard apple 188(48) 73(18) Brinjal 16(4) 245(63) Tamarind - 188(48) Onion - 228(59) Mulberry - 50(13) Bhendi 90(23) 171(44) Marigold - 261(67) Drumstick - 238(61) Chrysanthemum - 261(67) Mango - 16(4)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Horanchi-2 micro-watershed among them 4 (11.76 %) were landless, 13 (38.24 %) were marginal farmers, 11 (32.35 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmers and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 117 (56.80 %) men and 89 (43.20 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.25, marginal farmers' was 5.15, small farmers' was 7.27, semi medium farmers' was 7.4 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 55 (26.70 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 103 (50 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 36 (17.48 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (5.83 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Horanchi-2had 45.63 per cent illiterates, 0.49 per cent Functional Literate, 23.30 per cent of them had primary school, 3.88 per cent of them had middle school, 12.62 per cent of them had high school education, 3.40 per cent of them had PUC, 0.49 per cent of them had Diploma and ITI, 2.43 per cent of them had Degree education and 1.94 per cent of them had Masters education.  The results indicate that, 88.24 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 8.82 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 cent of the household heads were General labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 55.83 per cent of the household members, 67.66 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.94 per cent were in general labour, 2.43 per cent were private service, 22.82 per cent were students, 5.83 per cent were housewives and 5.83 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 20.59 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 44.12 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 32.35 per cent of them possess Pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 70.59 per cent of the households possess TV, 50 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess bicycle, Computer/Laptop and Landline Phone, 47.06 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Auto, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Tempo and 94.12 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,625, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,250, Bicycle was Rs. 3,000, motor cycle was Rs. 53,312, Landline Phone was Rs. 5,000, Computer/Laptop was Rs. 35,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,360. 2  About 29.41 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 44.12 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.76 per cent of the households possess Power Tiller, 5.88 per cent of them possess Tractor, Sprayer, Sprinkler and Thresher, 8.82 per cent of them possess Harvester and 52.94 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 14,200, plough was Rs. 2,153, Power Tiller was Rs. 78,250, Tractor was Rs. 650,000, sprayer was Rs. 4,000, sprinkler was Rs. 5,500, Harvester was Rs. 76, Thresher was Rs. 100 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 202.  The results indicate that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 23.53 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 8.82 per cent of the households possess Goat and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.73, average own labour (women) available was 1.47, average hired labour (men) available was 9.37 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.63.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.38, average own labour (women) was 1.23, average hired labour (men) was 8.69 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.69. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.82, average hired labour (men) was 7.91 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.73. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 14.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 15.20. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2 and average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 10 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.63.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, 3.85 per cent of the households have migrated in the microwatershed.  The results indicate that, the average distance of migrated households was 2800 kms and average duration was for 4 months.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that Job/wage/work was the main purpose of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Horanchi-2 micro-watershed possess 22.94 ha (64.46 %) of dry land, 9.41 ha (26.44 %) of irrigated land and 3.24 ha (9.10 %) of Permanent Fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 7.25 ha (92.94 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (7.06 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 12.41 ha (83.22 %) of dry land and 2.50 ha (16.78 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.45 ha (6.60 %) of dry land and 6.36 ha (93.40 %) of irrigated land. 3 Medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (46.67 %) and 3.24 ha (53.33 %) of Permanent Fallow land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 374,770.64, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 339,956.99 and the average value of Permanent Fallow land was Rs. 247,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 602,092.13 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 908,088.23 for Irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 306,131.77 for dry land and Rs. 859,130.45 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 445,045.04 for dry land and Rs. 298,726.93 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 352,857.14 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 1 De-functioning and 8 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.53 per cent of the farmers and Open Well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 15.65 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 2.15 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.08 ha, 4.92 ha and 4.25 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (4.19 ha), green gram (5.88 ha), groundnut (2.23 ha), Paddy (4.72 ha), red gram (10.19 ha) and sorghum (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, paddy, cotton and green gram. Small farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, sorghum, red gram, green gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, red gram, paddy and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram and sorghum.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Horanchi-2 micro-watershed was found to be 86.14 per cent.  The results indicate that, 67.65 per cent of the households have bank account and 2.94 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 64.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 229722.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 109333.82. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. -120388.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.48.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 39928.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47145.61. The net 4 income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 7217.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.18.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 55704.62. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68428.15. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 12723.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.23.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 34552.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48332.75. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 13780.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.4.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 50898.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59280. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 8381.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.16.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20.59 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 114,889 for for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 149,763.64, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 119,000 and medium farmers it was Rs. 290,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 441,909.32. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 11,598.62, for small farmers it was Rs. 17,066.12, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,680 and medium farmers it was Rs. 60,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 64 Neem, 5 Acacia, 16 Banyan and 1 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,647.06 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 705.88 for Irrigation facility, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2,323.53 for improved crop production and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 617.65 improved livestock management.  The results indicated that Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 38.24 per cent for land development, 11.76 per cent for irrigation facility, 35.29 per cent for improved crop production and 11.76 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 84.41 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 98.91 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 82.61 per cent, Paddy was sold to the extent of 44.05 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 100 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 75 per cent. 5  The results indicated that, about 100 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the major source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 29.41 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 94.12 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and Pulses were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, Oilseed were adequate for 94.12 per cent of the households, Vegetables were adequate for 79.41 per cent, Egg were adequate for 8.82 per cent, Fruits were adequate for 2.94 per cent and Milk and were adequate for 82.35 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 29.41 per cent of the households, Pulses were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 5.88 per cent, vegetables and milk were inadequate for 17.65 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 97.06 per cent, Egg were inadequate for 91.18 per cent of the households and Meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and Wild animal menace on farm field were the constraint experienced by 88.24 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35 %), High cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals, Lack of marketing facilities in the area and High rate of interest on credit (85.29 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (14.71 %), Low price for the agricultural commodities (76.47 %), Inadequate extension services (17.65 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (79.41 %), Less rainfall (2.94 %) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (8.82 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

On 20 September 2023, less than three weeks before Hamas's violent attacks on Israel, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman suggested in an interview with Fox News that his country "will have to get" a nuclear weapon should Iran develop its own.[1] In recent years, frequent declarations from the Saudi Crown Prince and prominent government officials regarding the nation's pursuit of nuclear energy for civilian applications[2] have indeed prompted concerns about their true intentions. Saudi Arabia has not only made it publicly known that it aims to attain full autonomy over the entire nuclear fuel cycle[3] – encompassing enrichment and reprocessing capabilities – but has also hinted at the potential utilisation of this technology for the development of a nuclear arsenal if circumstances dictate – as bin Salman made clear in his interview with Fox News. As a result, Saudi Arabia has faced difficulties in procuring both nuclear technology and fuel for its programme. True, the efforts to normalise diplomatic relations with Israel before the 7 October attacks seemed to potentially open the door for the United States to offer Riyadh the required technology and fuel. The crisis unleashed in the region as a result of Hamas's aggression against Israel, however, calls into question the feasibility of the whole process.The Saudi nuclear programme and proliferation concerns
In the 1960s, Saudi Arabia expressed a keen interest in nuclear energy and subsequently initiated its civil nuclear programme in the 1970s. The cornerstone of this endeavour, known as the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), was established in 1977 in Riyadh. Building on this foundation, the Atomic Energy Research Institute (AERI) came into existence in 1988.[4] Nevertheless, it was only in 2006 that Saudi Arabia and six other member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) jointly declared their intention to initiate a comprehensive study on the peaceful application of nuclear energy.[5] Later, in 2011, Saudi Arabia unveiled its ambitious strategy, revealing its plan to construct as many as 16 nuclear reactors within a span of 20 to 25 years.[6] However, as of 2023, it's evident that substantial progress has not been achieved in pursuit of Saudi Arabia's nuclear energy goals.
Several key factors have contributed to this. A fundamental one has been the absence of comprehensive legislation pertaining to nuclear security and safety within the country. The lack of a legal framework has created obstacles to the development of nuclear infrastructure and regulatory oversight. The most critical factor, however, has been the nuclear proliferation concerns surrounding Saudi Arabia's nuclear ambitions. In fact, there have been speculations that Riyadh may have explored the possibility of acquiring nuclear weapons since the mid-1970s.[7] Indeed, Saudi Arabia became entangled in the nuclear weapons programmes of both Pakistan and Iraq, primarily through financial support. The underlying objective appeared to be the long-term acquisition of knowledge and technology from these two nations, potentially for the purpose of advancing Saudi Arabia's own nuclear weapons programme.[8] Rumours and speculation have been recurring about the potential for collaboration in a joint nuclear weapons programme between Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.[9]The key regional players: Iran and Israel
The repeated statements from Saudi Arabia regarding the potential development of a nuclear arsenal are closely tied to developments in Iran's nuclear programme. Riyadh's strategic considerations in this regard seem to be heavily contingent upon Tehran's actions and intentions. Recent developments in Iran, such as the expansion of uranium enrichment capacity at the Fordow facility and the increase in the stockpile of enriched uranium to 60 per cent, have raised concerns in Saudi Arabia about a possible resumption of weaponisation research by Tehran. Such concerns have been exacerbated by reports from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), indicating that as of early September 2023, there has been limited progress in the Agency's efforts to monitor Iran's nuclear activities.[10] Iran's decision to cease implementing its nuclear-related commitments under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) also significantly hampered verification and monitoring efforts.
These developments have contributed to Saudi Arabia's apprehension and underscore the intricate and volatile nature of nuclear security in the region. The lack of transparency surrounding Iran's nuclear activities indeed heightens Riyadh's security concerns. While Tehran's actions may arguably be perceived as a strategy of pressure on the international community, particularly the United States, rather than a clear intent to develop nuclear weapons, the uncertainty surrounding its intentions remains a significant source of tension in the region.
For its part, Israel's position on the matter is clear, as articulated by its Atomic Energy Commission. Israel – notably, a country that is not party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and which is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons – has expressed concerns that giving in to Saudi Arabia's request to build a nuclear power plant as part of a normalisation agreement could set a dangerous precedent and potentially trigger a nuclear arms race in the Middle East.[11] The concerns expressed by Israel regarding the potential acquisition of nuclear fuel enrichment and reprocessing capabilities by Saudi Arabia point to the reality that such capabilities would bring Saudi Arabia closer to Iran in terms of nuclear programme development. Such a situation could further intensify regional competition and security dynamics, given the longstanding rivalry between Riyadh and Tehran.
More generally, allowing Saudi Arabia to acquire such capabilities could set a problematic precedent at the international level. It could possibly encourage other countries in the region, such as Egypt or Turkey, to pursue similar nuclear capabilities, leading to a proliferation cascade in an already volatile Middle East.Prospects of extra-regional cooperation: The US and China
Before the 7 October attacks, the Biden Administration adopted a somewhat peculiar approach to nuclear cooperation with Saudi Arabia, with an emphasis on diplomacy and regional dynamics. The normalisation of relations between Israel and Saudi Arabia was framed as a potential trade-off for a nuclear cooperation deal between Washington and Riyadh. Reports of high-level talks to provide Saudi Arabia with US-enriched uranium and other nuclear supply alternatives suggested ongoing efforts to negotiate a nuclear cooperation agreement between the two countries.[12]
However, Mohammed bin Salman's demands, particularly those related to the acquisition of enrichment and reprocessing technologies, as well the fallout of the 7 October attacks, pose a conundrum for the United States. While the Saudi regime has been carefully balancing its response to the Israel-Hamas war in order not to jeopardise relations with any of the parties involved (including Israel),[13] a diplomatic breakthrough is now unlikely in the near future. Furthermore, in the US Congress and Senate, many have always been wary of providing Riyadh with sensitive nuclear technologies,[14] as they believe it could increase the likelihood of a Middle East arms race. As a consequence, the Biden Administration must navigate competing interests and concerns to achieve a balanced and responsible approach to nuclear cooperation with Saudi Arabia. An option for the Biden administration may be to push forward a 123 agreement with the Saudis that would mimic the Emirati nuclear development model, which excludes the provision of enrichment and reprocessing technologies and thus poses no risk in terms of the possible development of a military nuclear programme. The Saudis, however, have been steadfast in defending their right to possess these technologies under Article IV of the NPT, which does not explicitly prohibit them.
Against this backdrop, Saudi Arabia may also consider alternative offers for nuclear cooperation – first and foremost, from China. While Saudi Arabia would prefer to partner with the United States due to its advanced technology and existing relations, Washington's restrictions on uranium enrichment pose a significant hurdle.
The proposal from the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) to build a nuclear power plant near the border with Qatar and the United Arab Emirates[15] presents an interesting alternative. China may indeed have a less restrictive approach compared to the US when it comes to nuclear cooperation. Unsurprisingly, closer ties between Saudi Arabia and China in recent years – epitomised by Chinese President Xi Jinping's visit to Saudi Arabia in December 2022 and the announcement of substantial investment deals totalling 10 billion US dollars during a business summit in Riyadh in June[16] – have raised concerns in Washington.
Chinese President Xi Jinping's pledge to pursue a "multi-faceted energy cooperation" model with Gulf countries[17] aligns with China's strategy to secure energy resources to meet its growing energy demand as the world's largest energy consumer. The Gulf region, with its significant oil and gas reserves, plays a crucial role in this strategy.[18]
Overall, Saudi Arabia's effort to balance between China and the United States reflects its complex geopolitical positioning and strategic considerations. While Saudi Arabia has been forging closer economic ties with Beijing, Washington remains the most important security partner. On the other hand, China's economic engagement, including investment and trade, presents opportunities for Saudi Arabia's economic diversification and development plans, such as Vision 2030. As far as nuclear cooperation is concerned, for Riyadh, closer ties with China may also be a negotiating tool vis-à-vis Washington. Indeed, China's involvement in the Saudi nuclear programme could potentially influence the Biden administration to reconsider its conditions for nuclear cooperation, particularly regarding uranium enrichment and uranium mining, forcing the US to lower its standards lest Riyadh goes the Chinese way. The way in which the regional security environment will shape up in the aftermath of the Israel-Hamas war will also have a bearing on the US's future stance on nuclear cooperation.Looking ahead
In recent weeks, Saudi Arabia's ambitions for the development of nuclear energy have been frozen once again, as a result of the 7 October attacks and the subsequent Israel-Hamas war, which has put the normalisation of Tel Aviv-Riyadh relations on hold. Nonetheless, the Saudi leadership continues to see the development of nuclear energy as a feasible plan for the future and hopes that a diplomatic solution to the conflict could bring talks back on track.
At a broader level, however, the biggest hurdle in moving forward with such plans remains: that is, the international community's lack of confidence in the Saudi regime, particularly given its lack of transparency and threats to develop a nuclear bomb in response to any similar development by Tehran. To minimise these concerns, Saudi Arabia could accept to include in any nuclear cooperation agreement the obligation for Riyadh to sign the IAEA additional protocol, also clarifying that technology and fuel will be provided by external suppliers in order to close the uranium enrichment door for weapons development. A further push for normalisation of relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran, especially with regard to consultations on regional security and to avoid miscommunications regarding the respective nuclear development, could be another means for assuaging these concerns. More generally, there is a pressing need for Saudi Arabia to increase transparency with respect to its nuclear programme and cooperate effectively with the IAEA.Manuel Herrera is Researcher in the Multilateralism and Global Governance Programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI).[1] Julian Borger, "Crown Prince Confirms Saudi Arabia Will Seek Nuclear Arsenal If Iran Develops One", in The Guardian, 21 September 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/p/zq6nf.[2] Natasha Turak, "Saudi Arabia Announces Crucial Step Forward in Its Nascent Nuclear Power Plans", in CNBC, 26 September 2023, https://www.cnbc.com/2023/09/26/saudi-arabia-announces-step-forward-in-its-nascent-nuclear-power-plans.html.[3] Luke Caggiano, "Saudi Arabia Aiming for Complete Nuclear Fuel Cycle", in Arms Control Today, Vol. 53, No. 2 (March 2023), p. 33, https://www.armscontrol.org/node/13475.[4] John Chipman et al., Nuclear Programmes in the Middle East. In the Shadow of Iran, London, International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2008, p. 40.[5] Colin H. Kahl, Melissa G. Dalton and Matthew Irvine, Atomic Kingdom. If Iran Builds the Bomb, Will Saudi Arabia Be Next?, Washington, Center for New American Security, February 2013, p. 22, https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06372.[6] Luke Caggiano, "Saudi Arabia Aiming for Complete Nuclear Fuel Cycle", cit.; "Saudi Plans to Build 16 Nuclear Reactors by 2030", in Reuters, 1 June 2011, https://www.reuters.com/article/saudi-nuclear-idAFLDE75004Q20110601.[7] Colin H. Kahl, Melissa G. Dalton and Matthew Irvine, Atomic Kingdom, cit., p. 24.[8] John Chipman et al., Nuclear Programmes in the Middle East, cit., p. 42.[9] Ibid., p. 43-44; Kate Amlin, "Will Saudi Arabia Acquire Nuclear Weapons?", in NTI Reports, 31 July 2008, https://www.nti.org/?p=21335.[10] International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA Director General's Statement on Verification in Iran, 16 September 2023, https://www.iaea.org/node/125122.[11] Tal Schneider, "Saudi Arabia Could Convert Civilian Nuclear to Military, Israeli Expert Warns", in The Times of Israel, 2 August 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/saudi-arabia-could-convert-civilian-nuclear-to-military-israeli-expert-warns.[12] Daryl G. Kimball, "Just Say 'No' to Uranium-Enrichment Cooperation with Saudi Arabia", in Arms Control Today, Vol. 53, No. 8 (October 2023), https://www.armscontrol.org/node/13785.[13] Giulia Daga and Luigi Simonelli, "Saudi Arabia's Balancing Game: The Palestinian Cause and Regional Leadership", in IAI Commentaries, No. 23|57 (November 2023), https://www.iai.it/en/node/17748.[14] Matt Spetalnick and Patricia Zengerle, "Twenty US Democrats Express Concerns about Possible US-Israel-Saudi Diplomatic Deal", in Reuters, 4 October 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/twenty-us-democrats-express-concerns-about-possible-israel-saudi-deal-2023-10-04.[15] Summer Said, Sha Hua and Dion Nissenbaum, "Saudi Arabia Eyes Chinese Bid for Nuclear Plant", in The Wall Street Journal, 25 August 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-eyes-chinese-bid-for-nuclear-plant-e4a56f.[16] "Saudi Arabia, China Ink $10bn in Investment Deals", in The Cradle, 12 June 2023, https://new.thecradle.co/articles-id/156.[17] Xinhua, "Full Text of Xi's Signed Article on Saudi Media", in China Daily, 8 December 2022, https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202212/08/WS6391317da31057c47eba3418.html.[18] Jonathan Fulton, "Systemic Change and Regional Orders: Asian Responses to a Gulf in Transition", in The International Spectator, Vol. 57, No. 4 (December 2022), p. 1-19, https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2022.2107843.