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Issue 35.3 of the Review for Religious, 1976. ; REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is edited by faculty members of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boule-yard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copyright (~ 1976 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $2.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $7.00 a year; $13.00 for two years; other countries, $8.00 a year, $15.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Robert Williams, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Book Editor Assistant Editor May 1976 Volume 35 Number 3 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELICIOUS; P.O. BOX 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts and books for review should be sent to REVIEW FOrt RELIGIOUS; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's College; City Avenue at 54th Street; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19131. Obedience to MiSsion Sister Barbara Hendricks, M.M. Sister Barbara :Hendricks .,is a Maryknoll Sister who was missioned to Peru from 1953 until 1970. Sinc_e. then, she has been President of. the Congr.e, gation. She resides at /;he Sisters ~enter; Maryknoll, NY 10545, when not vi~siting her sisters missioned throughout t,he world. Th~s arhcle is from a talk that was given "at a Renewal. 'Week-end held ~t the,Provincial House 0f the Notre Dame. de Namur Sisters in Maryland on Janti~ary 24~26~ 1976. Introduction ~ - We live~ at°a momerit when the Church is appr6achin~g a fuller interpreta-tion of ~ts mission. We are_ beginning to understand that the Good News of Salvation in Jesus is neither dee~lless worff nor woi'dless deed; it is rather an ini~gral r(spo~se to th.e many critnic naele hdsu Imt ias s a l.v a"t iio!n " w oh i"ch can 'iServade and heal the phys, i~al, ps~cliological and spiritual wounds Of the world.We are conwnced that salvation begins now and that somehow we hav6 to have an experience of it in b~urlives ~is persons an~ as com-munities. Salvation is not ~omething ihat will only~ happen in eternity, but there must be a beglnmng of the~Klngdom here on earth. If this is true, then, holiness is not only,. ,apersonal transformation but it is meant to flow ~ut~vard infb human relationshipsi~both inte.r,-personal anal S~ructural.~ In the early sixties 'in South America we began to hear .the word "evan~gelizati~n,' beiqg used to 'dbscribe ihe essential task oof the Church. It was not a new w~d for those bf us who used to call ourselves "foreign mi~siona~ries.'' It was s~rt of our ;~thi~g." It meant going out there beyond the Church community to. preach the 'Gospel and plant the Church¯ Our articulated theology of mission put heavy emphasis on our "spiritual mis-sion" but in actual fact, we spent a good deal of our time engaged in the 322 / Review /or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 corporal works of mercy. A lot of debate started then" about what this Mission of Evangelization really means. It has been hot and heavy. The 1974 Synod on Evangelization and the latest Apostolic Exhortation, Evangelii Nuntiandi, are signs that the Church is indeed deeply concerned with Mission. For some Christians "evangelization" has meant recruiting new mem-bers, religious instruction of converts, teaching catechism, cultivating an inner spirituality or preaching missions in parishes and dioceses. For others, especially in the 1960's, it began to mean serious social action: promoting civil rights and concern for human dignity, witnessing to justice and peace or liberation from all forms of economic and political oppression. In more recent years, for certain groups in the Church it has come to mean a closely-knit, mutually supportive inter-personal community of shared wit-ness and prayer, highly alert to the presence of the Spirit, healing and reconciling. Our choice of definition depended a great deal on our own personal history, and the needs we experienced in ourselves ~and in the milieu around us. I think that the Holy Spirit has something to do with the recognition of 6ach of these dimensions of the evangelizing mission of the Church, and although we engaged in heated debates during these last ten years as we struggled to live out and espress an authentic con-temporary theology of mission, most of us knew that somehow we had to bring it all together, that our mission had to reflect the mission of Jesus in its entirety. The era of debate is subsiding as we move into the latter.half, of the 1970's. We Christians are beginning to listen to each other and tq the Word of God spoken and still speaking in our midst. We are now more concerned with the message itself, realizing that method is only the sec-ondary problem. Mission is .both message and method; btit with6ut a clear understanding of the.message, the method b6comes a lifeless, mean-ingless exercise of communication skills. So our main concern, then," is what is the "Message of Salvation" and how are we as religious, as apostolic people,~ to proclairh it in life, in work and in~word. More than. ten years ago, at the close of Vatican II, we were left with three docu-ments on the natui"e of the Church and its mission in the world; Lumen Gentium, Gaudium et Spes and Ad G~ntes. I have a feeling iha~°today we should put them together in a coordinated and harmonious integration. It was typical of the 1960'siha~ three distinct documents were needed to describe the same subject--t.he Church. It will be typical of these next ten years that theology of mission will c6nstruci a ~ynthesis of the many aspe~cts of evangelization to be lived and articulated. The Obedience o[ ~lesus In Saint Matthew's Gospel (3:13-17), we read: "As soon as Jesus was baptized, he came up from the water, and suddenly the heavens Obedience to Mission / 323 opened and he saw.,the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming down on him. And a voice spoke from heaven,' 'This is my Son, the Be-loved.; my favor rests on him.'" Jesus' missior~ comes,~from the Father, who, confirms~ in i~im Lh)s missibn of salvation for hum'anity. All. mission is initiat6~ by the Father~ who consecrates and sends. This is the beginning of Jesus" public ministry ' "he is 'sent by the Father." ~ 'Immediately after his 'ba~p,t!sm, Jesus is led by the Spirit into the wilder-ness, where he is confronted by the demonic power. He is° tempted three times and in his responses we have presented to. us wh~t I would call "guidelines for our mission." We can apply them to ourselves personally, to our rehg~ous °communities and to the broader Church. They have to do with the means we take.~t~pro~iaim the Good N~ws: -First. Jesus is tempted to turn stones into l~read. He responds, "man does n~'t qive on bread alone but on every word that ~omes from the mouth of G0'd." To satisfy physica~ hunger 'without at the same time" providing the Word of God, the Bread of Life, is. to otier°a partial salvation. Mission conceived of as promoung matei'i]~l well-being' without the dialogue of faith arid th~' sharing of the W6rd i~ not authentic Christian mission. ° " "Second. Jesus is tempted to display his power grid at{ract by the forc~ bf ~livine intervention.'H replies; "You must not put the Lord, your God to the test." Jesus' mission is not to perform prodigies and thus draw to him-self thos+o~vho admire power and prestige, but rather it is to transform hearts 'and relationships, i His miracles are reserved for those who are disposed to ~effr his Word'and'humbly ask his h'ealing. Third. Jesus is te.mpted to bow down before Satan~to lift up idols in place"of~'the true GOd. He ,is told that worldl~ kingdoms will be thus at ,his disigosal ~'He reslb6n~s, "You must worship the Lord your God and serve him alone." chfisti~anm :i"s s"i"on can never set up alliances with earthly po~vers or make arrangements for sycurity'at the cost of serving false g6ds. To accept the~ statu~ quo and not to struggle for th~ realization of the Kingdom of justice and holiness is to bow down before false gods. These are. the three temptations which persons, communities and the Church itself must confront and overcome both. internally and in the world: --seeking material well-being to the~detriment of the spiritual di-mension of life; using p6wer by secret, allianizes, manipulation and oppression; --setting up idols before the true God. ~ The disciple of Jesus consecrated for his mission fis continually involved in an interior struggle ,against private demons while at the same time con-testing the very same manifestations of evil in the 'institutional structures. .Jesus comes out of the wilderness and begins his mission with these words: '~Rep~nt, the kingdom of heaven is close at hand." His message is a two-edged sword; it names the evi!, inviting'closed hearts to open to love 324 / Review tor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 :and it points~to the signs of hope that salvation has penetrated the human reality: He went aroundthe ~vhole ~f Galilee teachinff in their Synagogues proclaim-ing the Good' News of the Kingdom and curing all kinds of diseases and sickness °among the people. His fam~ spread, throughout Syria;~, an.d those who were suffering from. dise~ises and painful complaint.s of on6 kind or another, the possessed, epilept.ics, the pa~ralyzed~. ,-were~all broughLto~h, im and he cured thi~m. Large crowds followed him . . IMt 4:23-25). Jesus Sends Hi~ Disciples ~ ¯ Jesus immediately calls ~and gathers disciples into t~h~.fi.r~t~c°m~aunity¯ ¯ of apostolic followers. Hi~ re~orded words are, brief but they cohtain the essenaal relationship of "call" to "mi,ssion~'~:,"Follow me and I wdl make you fishers.6f m~en." They are called to be sent. He gathers them in his com-pany so that they in turn will gather others~ i'n tl~e comp~ny of mission. As he has been ~erlt by the Father, Jesus w'ill send ~hem. His mission is to ,;all human hearis and huma~ communiti,es_to, .repentance of sin and to give them an experi_ence of~the nearness of the Kingdom ~f.God. Th'~y leav~ their concerns their .nets and follow him. This is. the first-recorded re-spoose of disciples in obedience to ~,the ~,ord JesuS' call~ to mission ,(Mt 4:12-17). _ Having~gather~d his t ~welve disciples, he sends them:in his name to,the House of Israel: "And as you go, proclaim that ih~ ~ngdo~i of l~eaven is close at hand, cure the sick, raise th~ de.a.~l, clean.s~e the lepers, .ca~st°~out devils." (Mt 10:7-8). And after his de~ath and resurrec~tion, his la'stwords to'his disciples are ~iearly the Universal-mandate to mission: "Go, Ihe, refore, :,mal~ disciples 6f all ~.natibns; baptize them in the name~of the, Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teach them to, observe all?ibe comm~.nds' I ~gave you. And know that l-am with you al~vays, yes, toi.[.h.e~ .end of t'ime (Mt ~28i 19- 20) . Repentance for the forgiveness of sins should be preached to all nations (Lk 24.:47). Go out to the whole world: proclaim the Good News to all creation (Mk 16:16). As the 15~ther sent me, so am I s~r~ding you (Jn 20:3). What, then, do we perceive t~ be Jesus" obedience to mission?, ". ~He-is sent by the Father and he is obedient t6.the mission given . him, even unto death. --~As he begins his public ministry, he confronts the demonic power of evil . - 7--He calls people to repentance,~-and announces~ the nearness of the.,,Kingd0m of God. He explains God's plan for~,.creation; the',, central figure Of his concern is the human person for~whom God Obedience to Mission / 325 Wills. the,perfection of love. With his teachin~g, he completes the sacred history of the.people. --He gathers those:.who_ believe in him, calling each by name, and -~ sends them as he, himself, has been sent by the Father: He travels thrbugh the" land, proclaiming the Good News of Salvation for all. His powerful word is heard and seen and felt because it is enfleshed in deeds of love and healing. --He forms a community of faith, of service and of love in .which he will continue his presence and prolong his mission ~until the time when he will return. The mission of Jesus is both physical healing and spiritual reconcilia-tion, liberation and fulfillment; the Lord's favor rests on the poor, the oppressed, and the alienated. We have an image set before us.of Jesus whose mission i~ lived out in absolute fidelity, to his Father and in faithfulness to human persons and ~their critical needs. There seems to be no conflict-of interest between building the earthly city and praising and glorifying God~ This 6oncern for 'the whole person--physical, and spiritual dimensions-- is the ~ mission . mandate, and it is also the criteria on which we will be judged at the end:."I was hungry and you gave ~me,to eat, thirsty and you gave me to drink . " The Evangelizing Mission in the Acts o[ the Apostles In the book of Acts there is a 'recurrent sequence of events which illustrate the ~continuous movement of Christian mission in the,~ early Chu'i'ch: We~ recognize there, the essential elements of apostolic life. There is a constant ~flow of gathering and sending, healing and proclaiming, con-fronting and suffering, .reflecting and celebrating. The first few chapters concerned with the primitive Christian com-munity in Jerusalem provide us with an outline of integral-evangelization: 'Gathering and,sending." the disciples of Jesus having encountered~the risen Lord° and experienced his healing and saving love, come together to build a faith cbmmunion of love and sharing nourished by the Spirit. The community is bound ~tbgether by prayer, by mutual service, by ,shared possessions, by the instructions of the apostles, and'by the celebration of the eucharistic meal. The Spirit urges them to go outside the faith com-munity and boldly preach the Good News of Salvation, challenging-men and women to repent and to be~converted. Healing and proclaiming: the evangelizing mission thrusts outward be-yond the community'with a deed of mercy. "When Peter and John were going up to the.temple for the prayers at the ninth hour, it~happen~d that there was a man being carrie.d past. He was a cripple from birth and they used ,,to put .him.down every day near the temple entrance called the Beautiful Gate so, he could beg from the people going in" (Acts 3:1-3). The evangelizers are led by the Spirit into the market place, outside the 326 / Review for Religious,. Volume 35, 1976/3 temple gate, and the Word, not yet~slSoken, is revealed by an act of mercy which responds to wor!dly agony and bodily need. In the name of Jesus, the man walks. In the midst of the deed, Peter"speaks the~ Word: ."Why are you so surprised at ~'th~is? . . . it is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the God of our ancestors, who has glorified' his servant, Jesus . " He pre~iches the .salvation of Jesus, incarnated, despised, suffering, re-jected, yet resurrected and triumphant, active in the midst of the world. Humans need to hear the Word of God spoken in faith and hope and addressed to their personal center, as well'as see and feel the impact of the healing act of love. Christian mission never isolates'the ministry of service from the ~ministry of the spoken Word. The evangelizing act is seen, felt and h~ard. , " Con]ronting and suffering: there is the inevitable confrontation with the principalities and powers (Acts 4:3). The priests and the officers of the ,.temple apprehend Peter and John. They are interrogated and harassed, told to ,be quiet, not to speak of Jesus and his message. The moment of :confrontation with all the suffe.ring it involves, provides the occasion for kerygma. Peter again proclaims the Ggod News even when it means resisting oppression.~_."You, yourselves, judge what is right in God's sight, to obey you or to obey God" (Acts 4: 19). Reflecting and celebrating: the d, isciples return to the community recounting their ex'~eriences, the healing act, the su~ering°-'they endured and ~there is rejoicing of all the members. They praise God, reflect together on Scripture; trying, to interpret the events in order to discover God's plan and purpose in them. "As they prayed . . . they,were filled With the Holy Spirit and began to pro.claim the Word of God boldly" (Acts,.4:3~L). The community of faith sharing and discerning together grows in creativity and valor. ~ A reflective reading of Acts steers us out of ourselves away from a one,dimensional acting out of Christian lif~ and mission. The continuous movement of evangelization in the Book of Acts links diakonia, kerygma and koihomla-~deed, word and community are not three distinct ways of carrying on the mission of Jesus; they are three dimensions of one Christie process in which we are all called to participate. Cohsecration tor Mission in Religious Community The invitation to follow the Lord Jesus is addressed" to the personal center of the one who, in some mysterious way, has been chosen to announce the Good News of Salvation. The person thus "called" perceives th6 Wbrd of God as an 'internal light or truth or warmth which presents an i~perative to stop what one is presently concerned~ about, to .turn to something new, to attend to a persistent urging and pursue a new direction. The person who listens and responds to the invitation to follow this new inner direction finds herself (himself) caught up in a new relation- Obedience to Mission / 327 ship ~with God--a relationship which requires a commitment to his plan for the transformation of human hearts and human relationships. It is 'ba, sically.the 'sanie .invitation addressed to the first disciples and many others in the history, of the Christian Church: "Follow me' and I will make you fishers of men.".The call is for mission. In the instance of a person called to apostolic religious life, there is an experience of deep significance, of the total engagement of one's being. It involves both a feeling of truth about oneself in relation to~ other~human persons and a sense of well-being even when the, commitment will require a difficult decision. A deep conviction arises'from within the person that -God is t:alling her (.him) to a celibate life in community. What is impor, tant to note here is that th~ person called has indeed~been "touched'? .by the Gospel and is motivated by that ,power from within. It .should not b~ simply a matter of having hem;d about the power of the Gospel and ~being deeply impressed by what it has done for~others. It has to be one's own experience of God beckoning. ~' Each of us at one point in our lives, be.fore we entered our particular community, had a dream or a vision. This dream was the way in which we were able to express to ourselves the significance of our inner experi. ence ~oL call. It was about what we wanted to be and what we wanted to do with our lives. ~I believe that "call" and ,mission" (the being and doing) are not two separate realities, but different aspects of the divine.~outward thrust .of love; God breaking through to us and inviting us to participate in his mission, the mission of~his Son, Jesus. God's desire to lib'erate and reconcile ,and, ultimately,, transform all that he. has;created manifests itself in a .special form of outreach to some chosen persons. He gathers these persons into commtiniiies '.for his' special pUrposes :in the historic process with its dire needs. None of us knows why his choice falls where it does, but we expe.rience it and therefore, we believe it. No_one is "called''~ to be simply for herself (or himself) alone. We are invited by God to take part in a transfoi'ming-mission which is the~:sharing of the Good News of Salvation in'4esus. We. are called to proclaim the Word to our brothers and sisters who have not heard nor experienced God's powerful healing and reconciling Word'. ' Obedience: Listening to (~od's Word and ReSponding with "Yes" Obedience is openness t~ God's deSigns and plans for the world. We do not have a blue print of his will and, therefore, obedience canhot ~imply be freedom to conform to what is already decided. It is not'a passive ac-ceptance of the way things are, but an enthusiastic search to discover the direction of the Spirit at .work in hearts, in relatiOnships and 'in institu-tional structures. Obedience, then, means openness and attentiveness to the Word of God spoken and speaking in our midst. It means listening, consultation, 328~/ Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 study, . dialogue and reflective prayer. Above all.it, means listening to one another in the local community, in our larger congregation, and to the different levels of Church in which we participate,° especially our local Church, but also our universal Church, as-~t struggles to articulate its experience, its insights and its consensus. It means trying to ,read the signs of our times; listening and discerning° the needs and aspirations of the society in which we are inserted, our neighborhood, our city, our nation and the .new global world in which we live today. As we listen, we need to analyze, consult and experience, the pain and violence of our times, as well as its joys and ~aspirations. We need to~name evil without despair and to point to the signs of hope with realism and ho.nesty but with Christian faith in the resurrection and promiseoof the Lord. The Spirit is working in the events of history both within the hearts of all of us, within our communities and in the world itself. In the light of the Gospel message our task is to discover the purpose and plan of God taking place in our times and to discern Our particular way of par-ticipating in the mission of Jesus. We have to listen to the Word of God in Scripture and in our own hearts in prayer and reflection. We have to listen to his Word in our own local,:communities and articulate to each other .the fruit of our reflection and prayer, so: that spontaneously together we can share :his Word and grow as a community of faith. The main problem seems to be that we lack very often, the right struc-tures and processes within our local communities and broade~ congrega-tions .which would enable a rhore enlightened obedience, to mission today. Both personally and as communities we need an asceticism of consistent, well organized"and faith-oriented "~omingtogether" for dialogue, discern-ment and. decision-making regarding our apostolic activities as well as for evaluation and growth in being communities of reflective faith-sharing. Our coming together should be characterized by, th~ same belongingness which was typical of the early Church communities. They came,,back to-gether. ,after healing and preaching, confronting.and suffering, and they shared their sufferings and joys, they reflected together to understand better God's plan for them, they offered common prayer-, and Eucharist. And, thus, they went out again with an even bolder enthusiasm to preach God's Word. Obedience, then, consists in listening to God's Woi-d, and growing in our abili.ty to understand its deepest meaning for our life and our mission: 1, Growth in taking respons.ibility for community'.s life and direc-tion, ~ 2. Growth in d~veloping meaningful ministries which tr,y ~to meet the critical needs of today's world. 3. Growth in .sharing the Word among ourselves and in the market-pla~ e. Obedience to Mission / 329 It seems to me that what we have tradition.ally called the "Vow of Obedience" is precisely the way in which each community agrees to li~,e and work and share its faith together. It is the covenant we make with God and with each other in order to grow and deepen our consecration to the mission of Jesus. Conclusion It is imperative for our apostolic religious communities to intensify and deepen our humanization commitments of the 1960's and at the same time, to pursue our hungering spiritual quests of the 1-970's. The Christian in mission to the contemporary, world is called to struggle for both personal and social transformation in Jesus Christ. The realization of the kingdom which Jesus proclaimed is, in fact, the building of an ever widening net-work of relationships of justice, peace and friendship. The personal trans-formation each of us longs for is the holiness of the Gospel, and the social transformation which our world cries out for is our challenge'to partici-pate in the mission of~the Gospel. The cries of our contemporary global society are many-~--for bread, for freedom and jusffce, ~or truth and understanding, for peace and reconcilia-tion, for independence and inter-dependence, for acceptance and friendship and for ultimate transcendent meaning. Somehow, some way, the apostolic relig~ious community must lift. up a ~lear sign for all 1o see that the kingdom of h~)liness and justic~e which Jesus preached is pos's~ible in our world today and at the very same time we must effectively minister, to the most (ritical social wounds in our milieu. ' Our problem today iia the Church and in our communities is not so much one of how to communicate the Good News of Salvation" in Jesu~s bu,,t ,prima~i'ily how to live it. Penance and Brotherly Love Michel Rondet, S.J. Readers of our pages will be familiar with Father Rondet~from his article publisrhed last July: '~Choices of Religious.Life in a SeCularized World." The present article was translated by Sister Mary Dempsey,CDP, an AmeriCan sister presently stationed in France. ~ . The"., sacrament of penance is certainly one of the Christian gestures least appreciated'in our time2 Father Maranache says that we have made of it "~the~ d~poshory .for our obsession~s or the sim~ple door-mat for the ~Eucharist . "~ It is a' gesture ihat is less and less understood today. That is something that should wo0y us, for it could be telling us that we are no longer a sin[id people.or that we no longer think: of ourselves as a sinful people. But. in that case we are necessarily going to be either a guilty peo~ ple or a pharisaical people. Guilty, that is, shut up in our guilt, in a .sense of failure, and therefore living in resentment, isolation hopelessfiess, with our fault; or else we are pharisees closed in on a feeling of our own righteousness. There are many ways of being pharisaical; it can be in the style of the pharisee in the gospel, but it can also be in more modern styles; for example, when a person thinks he is thee .only Christian, or the only type of Christian, who is committed, conscientiou.s;-adult, responsible, as opposed to the others who are only sociological Christians, vestiges the past. In both cases we are'up against a people without hope, who will not bring hope to mankind, for we are concerned with people who are travel-ing a different road friam the God who came for the sake of sinners and to 1A. Manaranche: Un chemin de liberti (Ed. du Scull), p. 91. 330 Penance and~'Brotherly Love / 331 save sinners. Historians of religions have bi~en able to show thht, in most non-Christian religions, it is the,'sinners who go to God to be pardoned. But~ in the Gospel it is always Christ who goes toward the sinners, it is God who goes to them. If we wish to be a holy pe'ople ~we must become again a sinful people, for the holiness to which we are called is not a holiness of perfection; it is a holiness of conversion. The holy people of God'are not a people of perfect beings; they are a race ,of sinners who'have been converted. ~, ~. But let us be careful! Sin is ~ religious reality. It is an attitude that has no meaning except in the context of the Covenant and in face of the love of God. Outside the Covenant there is no Sin, there are faults; there are no sinners, there are the guilty. Sin is a discovery that is made'in the context of the love of God and face" to face with that love. It is the faithful love of-. God that reveals to Israel its infidelity (cL, Ho'll). It is through the love of God that Israel is made aware'that.it is a spouse; unfaithful and at the same time loved over and above all infidelity. There isin th~ Gospel of Saint Luke a.passage that is very significant from this point of view. At the time of: the first miraculous draught of fishes and the call of the first disciples, Simon Peter says: "Leave me, Lord. 1 am a sinful man." At first sight ,this attitude is surprising: Peter did nothing reprehensible that day; on the contrary. It is not, then, the awareness of a fault that lets him~ know he, is a sinner, but the revelation of the fullness of the gift of God through what has just been accomplished before his eyes. Only in the light of the love of God is sin discovered as a religious reality. ~ If, instead of. oscillating between guilt~ and pharisaism, we would be a people made up .of sinners, we would accept-ourselves as such, we could be a hope for the world, because we would be sinners*saved and pardoned in Jesu~ Christ. And so we could make this sign of ,reconciliation which is the sacrament of penance come alive in the world. "-Guilt attd sin: The experiencing of our limitations, of our misery,of our defeat, of our infidelity, can develop in us a feeling of kuilt (~whi~h is found at that time in the°consciousness of the sinner), but there is a great difference between: -:-feeling guilty before a law, an ideal fabricated by others or that we ourselves conjure, up . The only thing to do then is to reproach ourselves or be discour-aged by our mediocrity, and the higher the ideal the more the .guilt-feeling risks being stronger and paralyzin~g., --and feeling unfaithful, guilty in the face of a person by whom we know we are loved and pardoned, abok, e all if that pardon has the absolute quality of divine love. The repentance that can then rise up in us is a strong and vigorous sentiment of gratitude, thanksgiving, hope. He who knows that much has been forgiven him becomes capable of loving much (Lk 10, 47, and 15~ 32). ~ The sense of sin in Scripture is this second attitude, and it is in this interpretation that we make the distinction here, pointing out the opposition between these often-confused ideas, a guilt,feeling and a sense of sin. 332 / Review [or Religious, Volume'35, 1976/3 The Sacrament of Reconciliation What is this sign that we are called :to live out in the Church? 1 ) It is a Memorial of the. Paschal Mystery. The sacrament.of penance is the memorial of Jesus inhis Passion forgiving his executioners and those who are responsible for his death: the leaders of his people, Pilate, the silent majority who have said nothing during the, trial of Jesus and who let himbe condemned. It is to .all those that the pardon of God is addressed in Jesus. The sacrament of penance is above all the memorial of this aspect of the Paschall Mystery, "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing." ~, It is a memorial of the revelation of' God as the one who forgiv(s; that is, he whose love welcomes us and creates us anew. To forgive is not tO forget,, but ~o refuse to identify the person with his fault, to shut him: up in his, past or his guilty present. Pardon' iS the attitude of hope that we continue to have toward a person, beyond what he has. been or wha't he is. To forgive is to say to someone: "To me you are not eternally, definitively, wholly, the one who has done .this or .that. I expect something else.of you." That is what Jesus did with Peter. It is in this sense that pardon is creative, re-creating hope. In the attitude of someone I can discover that I am other than what I am in this fault and in this sin. We are all sinners, but we are also hll saints in the eyes of God. .2) The'sacrament of penance, is ~the transfiguration of our sinful being into a being saved by Christ. It is the .passover from the table of sinn6rs to the table of sons through the forgiveness of God. We find a very beau-tiful representation of this in the window of the Prodigal Son in the Cathedral of Bourges. The prodigal in exile wears the short tunic'of slaves; welcomed by his father, he wears the long robe of the sons. The eider son, who had ,the long robe in the beginning, is wearing the short tuni+ in the last scene. He has the mentality of a slave. 3) The sacrament of penance is also the germ o[ a definitive and uni-versal reconciliation. Created anew through the pardon .of Christ, we be-come capable of pardoning, of looking upon one another with hope. Henceforth a new world is possible, for only love ge~erates"love. To ac-cept others, to forgive then~, the.person himself must be able to depend on the love and the forgiveness of him who is greater than our heart. And so the sacrament of penance is the gesture that creates the Church as a people of reconciliation; the Christian gesture that '-makes us "peace-makers," men who are capable of being in the world a~rtisans of peace and of reconciliation because we ourselves are reconciled through the for-giveness of God. , How Celebrate This Reconciliation? ' For the Church, the sacrhment of penance is the gesture of Christ that re-creates us. it is also the gesture by which we accept and celebrate this Penance and,Brotherly Love / 333 reconciliation. This is another way¯ of saying ,tha!, qike all the sacraments, Penance~is a Paschal celebration, penitential but joyous. In an old Bene-dictine text of the Middle Ages, this is what,is said about Ash Wednesday: "The monks Cntered with joyful hope into the sacred penance of Lent." The"stages of this celebration: ',, 1) Let the Word of God lead us to the table of.sinners, for. it is only there that we will meet Christ. The saints had a ~reat and profound insight into this truth. We must let the Word of God denounce our false righteousz ness. The table,0f sinners is not a sad table, because it is the table of en-counters. with God. What is sad is the table of the pharisees who trust in their own righteousness. Christ~will never come and sit down-at-that table. I have not said thht the first step is to examine our conscience because it ,is~ not for ,us to discdver our false justice.and injustice. This would be an illusion; it would turn us back on ourselves to excuse or justify ourselves or to be discouraged. It is necessary to let the Word of God denounce our sin ~ind bring it to light. ' ¯ There should be a celebration of the Word. You could prepare for your~ confessions by opening the gospel. ~That would be perhaps the best way to enter into the sacrament: .~ ' '2) Publicly to "confess° our s'infulness and salvation throug.h Jesus Christ, to confess through"a gesture that Christ 'alone is the Savior. It is true that contrition is a requirement for salvation in Jesus Christ. But that is '.not because contrition° saves- us," but because for us that ~contrition is a way'of uniting us to Christ the Savior. Confession is the gesture by which. we publicly repudiate,~the illusion that persists in ms, that it is our re- ,pentance, our good will,othat saves us. No, it is Christ and he alone that saves us. It is'in this sense, to, signify this, that the sacramental action is necessary. In any other perspective it is not justified~ or ii is only. the exterior sign of what our repentance :brings about. Alas, there are a'. certain number of Christians who still have this idea. They, therefore see very little impor-tance in the~sacramei~t, since all the weight of the gesture is centered on their repentance instead of being centered on the Christ who saves: .From this point of view, the monotony bf our ~accusations can be very good., I am. always~th~e same sinner, I.have not changed fundamentally,¯ but JeSus Christ saves me. The accusation is a oprofession of faith before it is an accusation. I proclaim that,Jesus Christ is Savior by confessing my sins. That is the sense that St. Augustine gives to his work Con[essions." the confession that he is~ weak and a.sinner and the profession of faith in God the Savior. 3) With .the Christ of the Passion, we must live our Christian priest-hood. This is perhaps one 6f the most profound opportunities we have to live it. Today, when we honor the priesthood of all the baptized, le't us not at the same time relegate to the shade one of the gestures by which this ,priesthood is. expressed ,with. perhaps the greatest intensity. In the 334 / Review forReli~ious~ Volume 35, 1976/3 sacrament of penance, with the Christ of the Passion, we are the Church which offers to;the Father the sinful world of which we are acknowledged . members. We present ourselves before theFather, selfish, proud, harsh, with the same selfishness, the same harshness, the same self-sufficiency as those who appear everywhere in the world and who sometimes produce bitter fruits of death and of suffering. If selfishness and pride have not pro-duced the same fruits in tis, it is because the circumstances have not been favorable. We are also the Church which accepts the pardon of the Father in the nameoof all and for,~all. It is not our own little pardon that we come to receive as a privilege that is going to set us apart fro~ others-apd justify us in our own eyes; it is the pardon of the Fathei" who welcomes .us in the name of the,sinful world of which, by the grace of God, we are conscious representatives. This is a priestly attitude." Since we are united through baptism to the pries(hood of Christ, we can, in this penitential gesture, live this priest-hood inooffering the sinful world and accepting in its name the forgiveness in 'the Father. 4) To witness through pardon "to our reconciliation in. Jesus Christ." Having tasted the love of God, proved his ur~failing°fidelity, we become capable, in our turn, of forgiveness. There is the true contrition, the true firm purpose: to enter into .,pardon, to enter into the Passover of Christ so as to become in him the people of reconciliation, example and witness of reconciliation in the world. The sacrament, then, opens us out to a -creative attitude that is very important in our time. In the world of conflict in which we.live~ where every society tends to become a closed society, pardon is a creative attitude. It cuts off the inexorable unfolding of our sin-ful history, it introduces an element of radical novelty, introduces an un-looked- for idea that causes hope to flower where it seemed impossible. That is the happy ending to which the sacrament leads us: to be, in the midst of the conflicts of this world, the artisans and the witnesses of a possible recon-ciliation. To let Christ lead us to the table of sinners, t6,profess our faith in Jesus Christ the Savior by the confession of our sins, to'live our baptis~mal~ priesthood by offering the sinful world and accepting the forgiveness of the Father, to enter in our turn into the love which,, forgives because it has been created anew'by the Father this is what it means to live and cele-brate the sacrament of penance. It is quite a different thing from ihat gloomy examination of conscience in which we look at ourselves and our failures, developing vexation and discouragement in ourselves before we pass to a nondescript legalistic action by which we make things right with~ God: To live the sacrament of penance is to celebrate an egsential and hope-filled dimension of' the Christian life. See Luke, regarding the pardoned Penance and Brotherly Love / 335 sinker: he who thinks he has been forgiven little or thinks he does not need forgiveness loves little ~gnd displays little love; but the one who has been forgiven much and' who knows he needs forgiveness can show much love; It is an essential dimension of every Christian lile. We must go beyond a calculated~_concept of the sacrament. It is expressed in 'a gesture and in a sign, but it ought not to be an isolated moment, cut off from life; if it were it would become a gesture of magic purification. Penance can be a_Sacra-ment, a sign which expresses our self and transforms us, only if faith causes us to live continually as, pardoned sinners. The sacramental gesture makes sense only if it permeates.a whole existence and a total attitude which shines forth in our prayer, our,~life, our relations with others. The sacramental gesture is the high point.of a whole life of a pardoned sinner, and that i's what gives its meaning, tO this penitential dimension of the Christian life. This summit cannot be separated from the rest without losing its signifi-cance. The sacrament of penance is, then, a gesture which sums up our whole life, from the acts of contrition that we make, the penitential rite of the Eucharist, rites of. reconciliation, the recitation of the Our Father, times of penan.ce (-Lent, Advent . ), the revisions of life that we make to-ge. ther. It is,all these_ moments that we live the sacrament of penance. All this is part of the sign and~ all ihis finds its true, fully-lived meaning at the time of the reception of ~the sacrament. Also, far from making the sacra-ment useless, all that we have just mentioned calls for it and gives it mean-ing. It is certainly necessary for tile Church of our time to rediscover-forms of celebration of the sacrament of penance which best express the signifi-cance of. this gesture. The Church has known ~any forms in the course of history (public penance in the 0rst centuries, individual confession since the end of the Middle Ages). It is precisely for this reason that the new rite of the sacrament is so important for us today. Penance and Brotherly Love 1 ) In its beginnings; religious life in the Church did not appear as an association of perfect Christians, better than others, like a little "Church of, the Just" in the midst of the larger, heterogeneous Church; but the first communities presented themselves as communities ojf repentant sinners, Christians who proclaimed their need of conversion. We are assembled ,sinners,. communities of sinners who try to love much because much has been forgiven us. This is a constant "of the spiritual tradition of the rel.igious life: a state of conversion, of penzance. 2) A religious community is not a group without tensions and prob-lems, but it is a community that endeavors to make,pardon ever possible, where this pardon can always be asked because each one knows that it will always be given. It is a community where-each one lives amid proffered 336 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 forgiveness, where each can be himself without grudgessor complexe~,,~a ,dommunity where hope is possible because the others look upon,you with hope and forg(veness. A person can become a new,creature in the forgive-ness of others. Par~on always possible makes .hope al~,ays present. 3) "In this sense a religious community can ,be a "vision of. peace,~' as the Church ought tO be and tries to be, not because it is an .idyllic,witness to 'understanding and friendship, but because it is a place of~ pardon ,and of reconciliation. ~ '~ . ~ , Reconciled with my fellowmen, living in theoview, of my brothers and sisters who pardon me in the strength of thd.,pardgn o1' Christ, I can, in my turn he,in the world an artisan of peace, a witness to'reyonciliation. This is .an essential dimension of our life of profound charity, ,not easy to live day by day. Let us'try to live it, and many difficulties will .recede to the background and it will be possible to shoulder them in' hope: Celebrating Reconciliation in. Brotherly Love o ~ I ) We mugt r'ediscover in our lives gestures that celebrate hnd express the penitential dimensioh of our lives. Formerly thei'e~were in the congre-gations traditions of penance on certain days and for certain feasts. They had become formalistic and have'~been suppressed. P¢0bably°it was neces-sary to do this and t6 pas~ .throuffh thig healing step~of purification. But now we must rediscover and re-create something else; otherwise, it~i~; a dimension of life that will not be celebrated. 2) We must rediscover times and intervals of mutual forgiveness. We mu~t find thefia again at the heart of a liturgical act. You have certainly had the experience already: there is sharing that c'an take place only in a liturgical set~ing~ for at that moment we are entirely centered on the Lord. There are things that can be said then arid will be accepted as they would not be in another context, because there wo'uld'not be the 'same climate, the same charity, the same grace, the same presence of Christ; There are times and places of pardon to be rediscovered, during the eucharistic cele-bration, liturgies of the Word, Compline . 3) We must also integrate into the sacrament more'consciously atti-tudes which in. fact already form a part of. it. For example,, certain revi-sions of life,./~ certain search ['or spiritual discernment'made in community in which we are helped t~ become aware of'our deficiencies, our infidelities. . . . We.could make the connection and end a revision of.life, ['or instance, by an aci.of contrition, an imploring of God's' pardon that would 'recall the sacrament bf penance and woiald be ['or each one a preparation for it. In this presentation, 1 have not stressed much the role of the priestly minister in the Celebration of penance. This role is precisely to signify, the 'necessary bond with Christ and this. necessary presence of Christ without which no Passover is realized and actualized. In the sacrament of penance Penance and Brother~ly Love'/,. ,337 the priest; who acts in the name of the Church, is the necessary witness of what reconciliation, forgiveness, salvation, are given to us.in ]esus Christ and through him. We cannot attain to it of ourselves. On the other hand, a celebration always presupposes a people. It is important that the community, whether small or' large, recognize itself always, when celebrating the sacrament of penance, as the Church of Christ. Faith and Justice Francisco Ivern, S.J. Father Ivern, until the Jesuits' recent congregation, had been Father Arrupe's special advisor on the social apostolate and the chairman of his special commission for the same: Since the congregation, he has been named General Counselor as well. A Spaniard by birth, he studied in the United States and worked for some years in Bombay. His present addi'ess: Borgo S. Spirito, 5; C.P. 9048; 00100 Roma, Italy. Introduction In one of its decrees, the 32nd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus (Dec. 2, 1974--March 7, 1975) has defined the,mission of Jesuits in the world of today as the service of faith and the promotion of justice. It was the most import,ant and specific contribution of that congregation for the future of the Society of Jesus as an apostolic order at the service of the universal Church. Some might argue that, as far as priorities are con~cerned, the decree on "The Union of Minds and Hearts" issued by that same congregation,1 deals with an aspect even more basic for the survival and maintenance of the Society of Jesus: i.e. the spiritual and commianity life of its members. Others might stress the importance of the decree on poverty and the radical changes it introduces into the practice of that vow by communities and apostolic works.~ Finall3}, others might rightly emphasize that the future of the Society will depend on the religious and apostolic formation of its members, and hence the decree treating that topic deserves top priority) All this is in a way true. But the decrees on spiritual and community life, 1This decree will be the subject of a future article in this series. -~See REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1976, pp. 191, ft. :*This decree will not be treated in this series as being of too narrowly Jesuit interest. 338 Faith and ,Justice / .339 on formation and even_on pov.erty represent the natural and expected evo-lution of a process already on the way since the 31st General Congrega-tion ~(1965). To a great extent; they simply develop and complement what was already expressed in that congregation. On the. other har~d, the decree on "Our Mission Today: the Service of Faith and ~he Promotion of Justice" marks a relatively new development and poses~.a new.challenge. Its influence is felt in all the,bther major documents of the~32nd~General Congregation; it gives them their apostolic motivation and orientation and thus conditions their fruitful interiorization and effective implementation. ~The decree on faith and justice, how6ver, has also becon]e-6ne of~ the most controversial pronouncements Of the last Jesuit congregation find it will ~,probably be one of the most difficult to implement. On the,one side, it is true that, in spite of its long ,and laborious genesis and° its obvious defects of form, the~decree was finally approved by an overwhelming majority. It can also be said, one year after its promulgation; that the decree has been gen.erally well accepted by most Jesuits. On the other side, how.ever, it~:is also true that not a few have received it with mixed fe~lings and reservations. Some ffonder about the scope and universal applicability of" the.decree for the ,Jesuit apostolate. Doubts have.also arisen about the precise meaning of justice ,an~l of the inter-relationship b~tween faith and justice in the ,context of the decree: Others feel that, the "specific contribu-tion of priests and religious to the promotion of justice should be further clarified. _ It is also a ~fact that the longest and most "substantial" remarks of the Holy, See concerning the congregation's documents, were aimed at this decree in particular.-A few have'even said that the Holy See's observa-tions have greatly.~ weakened the decree's thrust, if not crippled it al-together. . . It is myoview that, in spit6 of all these difficulties, the d6cree keeps all its basic strength and importance. It presents today for the Society of Jesus a big challenge and a unique apostolic opportunity. Perhaps like none Other, the decree on "Our Missiofi Today" can help Jesuits td'rediscover again, in:a new light,,what it means to be an apostle, a religious and a priest ifi the, modern world: It can help infuse~ new" vitality and dynamism into an aging and shrinking international organism. It can strengthen the union of all-Jesuits around a common apostolic ideal whbse"relevance and actuality appe.ar today with renewed clarity~ ° The criticism, reservations 'and evefi fears that the decree has aroused can be explained partly becau~se of its all embracing nature, partly because of some obscurities and difficulties of interpretation to which the text some-times lends itself. In this context, the remarks'made by the Holy See, though perhaps not absolutely ~necessary, can ~ greatly h61p to dispel some of~these fea'rs, and reservations. They can help i-eveal better ttie basis on which the potential of the decree for a profound religious and apostolic re-newal~ ultimately rests. However, we have also to admit that a decree that 340 / Review .]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 demands from every individual Jesuit and from every Jesuit community and apos.tolic work .a reassessm(nt in depth of their own, basic orientation in the light of the service of faith .and the ,promo.tion of justice~ was bound,to cause some uneasiness, set in motion defense mechanisms and even pro-voke negative reactions. The earlier 31st General Congregation recognized that, in order totface ,new needs and-conditions, the entire,.Jesuit,~tpost01ate had to be thoroughly :rethought and r~vised:~But while some channels and structures were prd-posed for. that revision, there was no clear ~ttempt at providing the overall criteria ands.objectives that should inspireoand guide it. ,A general sociological survey of the Society of Jesus that was launched by Fr. Arrupe towards the end of.1965, shortly after the 31st General°Con-gregation, provided.some apostolic guidelines and objectives and also con-tributed to develop some mechanisms of response to new needs. But itS; out-come was very, uneven and its best achievements-remained at the level of some provinces or regtons. There was no serious attempt, therefore, to ap-ply its conclusions, in terms.of some general policy guidelines¢.to the whole Society. This explains why, except for those .provinces or regions in which a considerable effort owas made to" determine general ~ind corporate apos-tolic objectives in the light of the survey findings,'the ov~erall pattern~"of apostolic worl(s and ministries in the Society of Jesus underwent relatively few changes from 1965 to. 1975. - o During;the.se years, however, under the ,leadership of Fr. Arrupe, .a good deal was done to give some new direction and contents to,the J~suit apostolate and to,emphasize some of the dimensions that~ should distinguish it as a whole, independently from the particular works or meahs through which it was to be carried out. This was specially true of the comriiitment to bring about a more human and just society,,which'was more"and .more presented not so much as a separate sector of activity, but rather as a dir~eri~ sion that should mark all Jesuit life and apostolic work. This led to a more interdisciplinary, "intersectorial" and integrated apostolic approach. It also contributed to give to the Jesuit apostolate a new sensb,oof direction, an '~identity" that had been somewhat, obscured and weakened~'during a period of rapid change. It also prepared the ground for the decree of the 32nd General Congregation on."Our Mission Today." ~ Unlike previous congregations, the 32nd did not issue b~ief and separate decrees restating the importance of the major~apostolates;,old or new, in which Jesuit.s are or should be engaged: missionary activity,.education, ecu-menism, pastoral action, scientific apostolate, artistic endeavors, social in-volvement, mass. media, and so forth. The brief references in the decree on "'Our Mission Today" to theological reflection, "conscientization" according to the Gospel, education and modern media of social communication, were to emphasize the level at which Jesuits should work, their main role as "educators" and the instruments that they should use in their apostolate iri Faith and Justice / 341 order to have thewidest possible, influence, rather than to single out spe-cific works, institutions or sectors of activity in'which they should engage: The main apostolic concern of the last Jesuit congregation was to define what should be the.~corporate mission of Jesuits today, whether they work in Jesuit controlled institutions or not, alone or in collaboration with others. Not only should whatever Jesuits are already doing contribute, more~or less directly or explicitly, to reconcile men with God and with each other, to serve the faith and to promote justice; but today Jesuits should preferably do what is more conducive to th~ attainment of,,those objectives. The Service:' of' Faith" " The mission we are called to share is the mission of the Church herself: to make known.to men the love of God our Father, to bring to our fellow-~ men the omessage of-salvation, to work that they may have life, and have it to the full.~ The decree does not hesitate to reaffirm, with different words and. expressions, the basic religious and supernatural nature of the Society's mission: the service of faith, the task of evangelization.'~ It is because we are commit~ted to the service of faith, that we are also called, always, but par-ticularly today, to promote love and justice among men, as one of. faith's main and more basic requirements: "The mission 'of the Society of Jesus today is the service of, faith,, of which the promotion of iustice is an abso-lute requirement. This is so because the reconciliation of men among them-selves, which their reconciliation with God demands, must be based on ius-tice."~, For many,- however, the specific contributioh of the decree on "Our Mission Today" still remains in having officially proposed the promotion of justice as the main apostolic objective for the Society of Jesus today3 though, it is true, side by side with the service ~of. faith and inseparably connected with it. The service, of faith would be affirmed simply as a pre-condition for that promotion. The fact that the very text of the decreetalks more 6ften of justice than of faith and that,what is said of faith is rather incomplete and far from being an exhaustiv~ presentation of all the demands of faith for religious life and apostolate, would seem to confirm this view. This explains why .in some regions and for some Jesuits the decree has become known as "the decree on the promotion of justice" or simply "the justice document." Its title has gradually undergone small but important modifica-tions. The mission of the Society of Jesus today would be defined no longer as "the service of faith and the,' promotion of justice," but ~rather as "the service of faith in or through the promotion of justice," or "the service of faith ]or the promotion of justice." It should be recalled that the promotion of justice was not the top prior- 4"Our Mission Today," n. 13. ~lbid., nn. I1, 13, 14, 18, 24-26, 51, 52, 55. 61bid., n. 2. 342 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 ity chosen by the General Congregation for its work and that the document was ttie~outcome of the combined effort of three different commissions, only one of which dealt with the justice question. The others were con-cerned with the apostolic mission of the Society in general and with the criteria that should guide Jesuits in their apostolate: questions to which the congregation had assigned a higher priority than to that of the promotion of justice. The call of the 32nd General.Congregation to the serx~ice of faith is not Simply a reminder of the primary and fundamental Jesuit.apostolic mission, nor the mere statement of a premise from which to draw later the concl~u-sion that the promotion of justice is a necessary dimension of the Jesuit apostolate 'today. The congregation wants to emphasize that in the light of today's conditions, of the needs and aspirations of the men of our time, the service of faith not only keeps its primary importance~ but that its .absolute need is today even more strongly felt. The diagnosis that "the congregation makes of the apostolic needs of the contemporary world is not formulated only ,or primarily in terms of justice: The fact that today "more than two billion human beings have no knowledge of God the Father and JeSus Christ whom He has sent''T and that "many of our contemporaries, dazzled and even dominated .by the achieve-ments of the~human mind, have either forgotten or rejected the mystery of man's ultimate meaning, and thus have lost the sense of God''s constitute for the' congregation, new challenges to the Society's apostolic mission. These challenges not only condition our efforts for more human and just relations amo.ng men,~' but have for us a value of~their own, 'because "people today are, somehow aware ~that their problems are not just social and technological~ but personal and spiritual. They have a feeling that what is at stake here~is the very meaning of man,: his destiny and future. Men are hungry: but hungry not.just for bread, ~but'for the word of God~TM The fact that today the.~service of faith has to face new demands, new situations, new cultural contexts, which will put to the test not only our religious dedication, but all our resources and creativity11 does not diminish in any way the need for that service, but ,on the contrary emphasizes it: ". the goSpel,.should be preached with a fresh yigour, for it is in a posi-tion once again ,to make itself heard. At first sight, God seems to have no place,today ih public life, nor even in private awareness. Yet everywhere, if we only knew.how to look at it, we can see that menare searching for an experienCe of Christ and of his kingdom of justice, love and peace.''~-~ rlbid., n. 4. Slbid., n. 5. °lbid., n. 27. aOlbid., n. 21. lalbid., nn. 24-26. r'lbid., n. 21. Faith and Justice / 343 The realization that today there is a L"new need" for the service of faith, by itself and also because of the ethical and religious roots of many of today's problems, is expressed in the decree with,an insistence, which some might° find even. exaggerated, on the need to "evangelize," to lead.men gradually to the acceptance of God and:of his salvation in C.hrist, wherever° we may be and through whatever apostolates, or ministries we might-be, called to exercise_, including social ministries and the promotion of justice itself.13 ¯ It is evident that the conviction about the need for a renewed service of the faith in contemporary society; if it has to inspire and guide effectively all our apostolic efforts, cannot be the o.utcome of a mere sociological sur-vey or scientific analysis of today's needs and aspirations. It has to grow out of a personal and-lived experience of the enriching and liberating role that faith plays in our own lives, in the lives of the groups and communities in which we !iv.e. To think that we can commit~ourselves to the service-of faith, without first realizing that we ourselves stand in need of being evan-gelized and of knowing how to meet Christ as he works in the world through the power of His Spirit,'" is an illusion. The Promotion of Justice Those acquainted with the text of the Synod of Bishops of 1971, "Jus-tice in the World," w0u_ld ,recognize some of the arguments that led the Jesuit General Congregation to propose the promotion of justice as one of the primary apostolic objectives for the Society of Jesus today. In some re-spects, however, the treatment of, jus._tice in the decree is less qomplete than that found in4he synodal text. The decree attempted to bring together into one single document the two basic dimensions of the Society's.mission to-day, while trying at the same time .to draw some conclusions and provide some directives for. Jesuit religious life and apostolic activities. The far reaching implications and consequences, both for the service of faith and the promotion of justice, of integrating into a unified and coherent whole dimensions that often had developed too much along parallel lines, are evident. The synthesis, however, reflects the vicissitudes of its long elabora-tion and is still far from being perfect and complete. It is in the light of the gospel, of the Church's magisterium, and 6f the Ignatian charism and vocation, thatthe General Congregation, faced with a ' world marked by deep and widespyead inequalities and injustices, at the na-tional and international level, commits the Society of Jesus to the promotion of justice. . This commitment, as previously statdd, flows from the very nature of the Society's apostolic mission, of a service of a faith that works through lalbid., nn. 11, 27, 33, 50-55. 141bid., n. 23. 344,/ Review [or, Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 love: a'love that cannot become reality without justice.,~ "The injustice that racks our World in so many forms is, in fact, a denial of God in practice, for it denies the ttignity of man" man, the image of God; man the brother of Christ.''''; The establishment of God's kingdom kingdom of love, justice and peace--begins already now, ~in this world. Christian hope and,salva-lion are a gratuitous gift from God, but also an invitation to work effec-tively for the transformation of the world, to make it more human and just.~r It is the wish to be faithful to the essential Jesuit mission, "as expressed in the Formula of the Institute, approved by.Paul Ili' and Julius II!, that prompted the congregation to propose the promotion of .justice as one of the prtmary a~ms of the Jesmt apostolate.'" For Ignatius~the service of faith had to be exercised both through the preaching of the Word and by works of charity andof reconcili~ition, by the assistance to those in greater need, like "those qvho are found in prisons and hospitals." Ignatius himself vited-Jesuits to interpret this in the. light of "what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good." This the decree has done and, following the lead of Paul VI in his inaugural address to the 32rid General Congregation, has seen in the sick and in the prisoners of Ignatius' time, tho. se living "on the margins of society" today: the poor and the de- ~ prtved, the victims of injustice and oppression. To the many encyclical letters and other documents of the magisterium Which support the congregation's stand on~ the question of justice anti with which the' readers of these pages are. undoubtedly Well acquainted--we should add the recent apostolic exhortation, Evangelii Nuntiandi, in which Paul VI repeatedly reasserts the intimate relationship between e'vangeliza-tion and the promotion of justice. In one passage of 'this most important document, the Holy Father gives us, in a remarkable synthesis, qhe main reasons which link together these two dimensions of our apostolic mission: Between evangelization and human advancem~nt--d~ve!opme~t .and libera-tion- there are in fact profound links. These include lihks of an finthro-po~ ogical order, because the man who is to be evangelize'd is ndt an abstract being but,is subject to social and economic questions. They also include links to the theological order, since one cannot dissociate the pla6 of creation from the plan of Redemption. The latter plan touches the very concrete situations of injustice to be combated and of justice to be restored. They.in-clude links of the eminently evangelical order, which is that of charity: how in fact can one proclaim the new commandment without promoting in justice and in peace the true~ authentic advancement of man? We our, selves have taken care to point this out, by recalling that it is impossible to accept "that in evangelization one could, or should ignore the importance of the problems ~r'lbid., nn. 2, 18, 2.7, 2,8. ~C'Ibid., n. 29. arlbid., nn. 30, 31, 40, 41. ~Slbid., n. 17. Faith and Justice ~/ 345 so much discussed today, concerning justice, liberation, development and peace in this world. This would be to forget the lesson which comes to us from the gospel concerning love of our neighbor who is suffering and in need."r~ Confronted with all these arguments of an evangelical, theological and doctrinal order, it is.hard to understand the difficulties some have expressed regarding the relationships between faith .and justice and the .very notion of justice as found in thedecree. There is need, as we shall see, for placing the promotion of justice in the proper theological and pastoral context and for defining clearly what is the specific contribution of priests and religious to that promotion. But that in the world of today the promotion of justice constitutes a primary apostolic c~bjective and conditions greatly the ~redibil-ity and apostolic effectiveness of the Church's mission, seems a fact beyond all question. Some have remarked that, justice, which is so often mentioned, is never clearly defined in the text. What does the decree mean by justice, they ask? This question sounds a bit like the "quid est veritas" of the gospel." Lik'd the Synod of 1971, the Jesuit General Congregation did not want to enter into a scholastic definition of justice, with all its divisions and subdivisions. But to concltide from ,~this that the General Congregation, or for that matter the Synod of Bishops. and so many other documents of .the magisterium, dd not know what they are talking about when they propose the promotion of justice as a necessary requirement of our apostolic mis-sion, would border on cynicism. ~ This being said, we have to admit that the document sometimes gives the,!mpression of talking mainly~ about inequalities and injustices of a socio, economic order, as though justice were merely a problem of a more equal distribution of the world's material., wealth and resources. On the other. hand, .it is hard to ignore the fact that the very unequal distribution not onlyof material goods, but als~ of~the power a.nd responsibility for ad-ministering them, constitutes today one of the major felt injustices of our s~ciety and deeply affects the lives the,freedom and dignity---of a large majority of mankind. But the congregation speaks also of other injustices: racial, social, political. Religious oppression, however, does not seem to-evoke any, clear echo in the document. The presence in the congregation of Jesuits working in regions where religious rights are openly violated and the fear of possible retaliatory measures, might explain this silence and reserve, which, 9therwise, would be difficult to understand. Rather than defining justice, the decree describes it. It also enumerates the gospel demands in the justice field: "The gospel demands a life free from egoism and self-Seeking and from all attempt to exploit one's fellow-men. It demands a life in which the justice of the gospel shines out in a willing-laEvangelii Nuntiandi, n. 31. 346 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 hess not only to recognize and respect the rights of all, especially the poor and the powerless, but also to work aciively to secure those rights. It de-mands an openness and generosity to one's neighbor v~henever he is in need, even if he is alienated or hostile, in a spirit of forgiveness that over-comes all enmity.'''-'° Since th6 concept of-justice in the decree is more evangelical than legal or philosophical, one can understand why justice and poverty appear so closely inter-related in the text and why, also in the name Of justice, the poor and the deprived should become the main objects of our attention, the privileged beneficiaries of our apostolic efforts. Independently from any law or human contract, the poor have a right to a fair share of God's gifts, of' the world's riches, and to have a say in all decisions concerning their individual and'collective existence. Those individuals and structures that ignore their plight and keep them in their situation of poverty and depriva-tion are simply unjust. This is very much in the gospel and patristic tradi-tion: charity is,,the source of justice, its necessary complement and fulfill-ment; the goods of the earth belong to all, particularl3~ to the poor, and those'who happen to possess them are merely their'administrators. It is in this context that we have to interpret Augu'stine's definition of justice: "Iustitia est in subveniendis miseris." To give to the poor, to be with them in their difficulties, may be an act of charity, but it is also an act of justice, the payment of a debt. Faith and Sustice - "There can be nb promotion of justice in the full and Christian sense unless we also preach~ Jesus Christ and the mystery of reconciliation he brings. For us, it is Christ who, in the last analysis, opens the way to the complete and definitive liberation of men.'''-'1 Similarly, there is no true preaching of Christ, no effective proclama-tion of his gospel, unless a firm decision is taken to promote love of neigh-bor and justice, which are the necessary consequences of a true love of God, of a faith that works through the love of men.2-° The decree not only points to a complementarity between the service of faith and the promotion of justice, but also to the fact tl~at ~many of the root-causes of contemporary unbelief and atheism are the same as those of tc~day,'s widespread injustice. The barriers, the "idols," that block man's access to God greed, ambition, selfishness and pride are also those that "close" him to the needs and to the rights of his fellow-m.en. The liberating message of Christ--which, for those who want to excel in his service, is described by'St. Ignatius in his m6ditation 6f "The Two Standards"--attacks 20"Our Mission Today," n. 18. 211bid., n. 27. 221bid., nn. 27-28. Faith and Justice / 347 at its deepest roots not only atheism, but also injustice in all its manifesta-tions: it opens,man's heart to God and' also t.o others. ~ In the ligh~ of this decree, the mission to combat the many forms of con-" temporary unbelief and atheism--a mission entrusted to the Society of Jesus by the Holy Father.on the occasion of the 31st General Congregation appears in all its individual and collective, religious and social ,dimensions, and presents itself, under the aspects of the service of faith and the promo-tion of justice, as an eminently positive and liberating task that can give unity and coherence to the Society's apostolate.::~;, However--and the decree acknowledges it faith implies much more than human justice alone and the deep causes and consequence.s of unbe-lief cannot always be reduced to the social level. ,The liberation that,faith brings "cannot be contained in the simple and restricted dimension of eco~ nomics, politics, social and cultural life; it must envtsage the whole man . . . right up to and including openness to the absolute, even the divine Abso-lute; itjs therefore attached to a certain concept of man, to a view of man which it. can never sacrifice to the needs of any strategy, ~practice or short-term efficiency.'"-'" Not all service of faith should always arid necessarily lead to.,the pro-motion- of justice as its explicit and immediate objective. But it shohld at least remain open to that social dimension. It should be exercised in such a .way and in such a context that justice is in no way compromised. If it does not contribute directly to the promotion of brotherly love and of jus-tice, it should .at least prepare the ground for it. From the point of view of justice and taking into account the concrete context ofoone's own ~life and apostolate; there are very few activities that can be. called "neutral" today. In its observations about the decree "Our Mission Today," the Holy See had this to say: "The promotion of justice is unquestionably ,connected with evangel!zation, but as the Holy Father said in his closing remarks to the last Synod 9f Bishops in October of 1974--~'Human development'and social progress in~.the temporal ., order should not be extolled qn such ex-aggerated terms as to obscure the essential significance which the Church attributes to evangelization and the proclamation of the full gospel.'"~n Though, in our opinion, the decree clearly avoids this danger, granted some of the interpretations given to it, it is nol superfluous to emphasize that faith can never,be reduced to ~the promotion of justice alone. Christian liberation is incomplete if it neglects to proclaim salvation in,Jesus Christ.~'~ Does human liberation or the promotion of justice, in the economic, so-cial, political and cultural fields, constitute always a service of faith? The "albid., n. 19." °-4Evangelii Nuntiandi, n. 33; cf. also "Our Miss~ion Today," nn. 27-28. ":'Letter of Card. Villot to Fr. Arrupe of May 2, 1975. See REviEw FOa REL~OtrS. 35 [1976] pp. 33-45. "-'~Evangelii Nuntiandi, n. 34. 348 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3" decree is not so clear and explicit about this, because when it refers to liber-ation and justice, it is usually o"in' the full'and Christian sense" of these ¯ terms. But by placing .the promotion of justice in a ]aith context, the Gen-era[ Congregation ~of the Society of, Jesus has reminded Jesuits that for a Christian the promotion of justice is a much more demanding task than for an atheist or for a non-Christian. It is evident that "not every notion of' liberation is necessarily consistent and compatible with an evangelical vision of man, of things and of events.''-'~ If the promotion of justice is to be ,a service of faith, it should.fulfill cer-tain~ conditions regarding the motives and the inspiration that impel us to seek that.promotion, regarding the way in which the promotion is carried out, and also regarding the objectives that we want to achieve: these should never exclude, and should always remain open to,,the transcendent dimen-sion that faith implies: ". the Church has the firm conviction that all temporal liberation, all political liberation-~even if it endeavors to find its justification in such or such page of the Old or New Testament, even if it claims for itsideological postulates and its norms of action theological data and conclusions, even if it pretends to be today's theology--carries within itself the germ of its own negation and fails to reach the ideal that it proposes for itself, when-ever its profound motives are not those of justice in charity, whenever its zeal lacks a truly spiritual dimension and whenever its final goal is not salvation and happiness in.God.''~s In various passages of the decree it is emphasized that'even ,if we fight for the.rights of men in the name of justice, love should always be our driv-ing andosustaining force. Besides: ". if the promotion of justice is to obtain its ultimate end, it should be carried out in such'a way as to bring man to desire and welcome the eschatological freedom and salvation' offered to us by God ,in Christ. The methods we employ, the actigities we under-take, should express, the spirit of the Beatitudes, and bring man to areal reconciliation. In this way the promotion of justice will show forth the Spirit and. the power of God. It will respond to man's deepest heeds: not just for bread, not just for freedom, but for God who is love, and who loves all men as sons.'''-'~' In the decree, to promote justice, to proclaim, the faith and to lead men to a personal encounter with Christ, these'are not three separate realities to which correspond three .separate apostolates, but rather three dimensions that should characterize the entire apostolic effort of the Society of Jesus today.:"' We should add that, in order to promote justice in a context of faith, it is not enough that faith and justice should be well integrated at the "-'Zlbid., n. 35. z:~"Our Mission Today," n. 33. , .~Olbid., n. 51. Faith and Justice / 349 theological and pastoral levbl, but also and mainly in the lives of those who [gromote it. " ° The Role. of Religious - What has been-shid so far provides a basis for what should be the spe-cific, Christian'contribution to the promotion of justice. Most of the prin-" ci[~les that~ have been enunciated apply not only to priests and to religious, but to all Christians. They represent the ethos that should~'inspire man's efforts towards a more'0human and just society, but they'do not tell" us what~those efforts should~ be. From that ethos to the °just communities, in.- stitutions and structures .that make up a just society; there is a long way to go. Christian inspired principl.es and values have to be incarnated into '~'a way of life," at~the individual and at the collective level. They have to b~ translhted into overall policies and concreteprogralns of action. Thisqs a task for which, besides Christiaia dedication, direct involvement in the eco-nomic, social, political~anff cultural fi61ds, technical knowledge and exper: tise are absolutely required. It is the primary, and specific task of lay peo-ple' whd~e particular v.ocation: places them in the midst of~the;world~and calls them to.renew, in faith and iffjustice, the temporal order ~The role o~f- the Church is rriainly one of inspiring, forming, supporting and ~guid~ng men~qn their struggle to build a ~world at,,once more human arid divine2: Th~ Holy See reminds Jesuits that this is even more true in their casi~, since,~they belong to '~ano institute "which is religious, not secular, and "' ~Besides th~ proclamation of the gospel message of justice, and the proph~etic'deffunciation of injustices tasks which°religious, like other Chris-tihns, hre~also, called to exercise there are functions that re~ligi6us seem to be"~ particularly equipped to carry out. The General Congregation of. the Society of Jesus mentions some of these: e.g., t~heologic.al reflection, "con-s¢ ientization" and education for justice, and the service of,the poor and e, Theological and doctrinal reflection on the main, problems of our day is~ a necessary prerequisite for any effectiqe-and" lasting pastoral action in the justice field¯'This reflection, conducted in the light of faith and "in a context ~which is both interdisciplinary and genUinely integrated with 'the culture iia" which it is done," ,will help to give greater' meaning and depth to whi~t we say or do in.favor Of justice; it will" also guide men in their search 'for, just'sol6tions to the vast and difficult problem~ that. confront them today. Thanks to this 'reflection we shall be able to exercise a critical and. liberating function regarding, the all-embracing ideologies and political systems which often tend to divide and enslave our contemporary world¯ :~Letter of Card. Viliot to Father Arrupe. :~""Our Mission TQday," n. 60. 350 / Review Jor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 ~o This reflection should also inspire all our efforts to educate men in faith and for justice: "men for others. , . persons whose lively faith impels them to seek and find Christ in the service of their fellow-men." Besides, in a world where the power of economic, social and p61itical structures and their vfist and deep impact on,the life of individuals and groups is recognized by all, "greater emphasis should be placed in our apQstolate on the con-scientization according to the gospel of those~,who have the power to bring about social chan~e?''~:' ','A commitment to the men and women who live.~,a life of hardship and who are the victims of oppression cannot be that of a few Jesuits only. It should be a characteristic of the life of all of us as individuals, and a char-acteristic of.our communiti'es and institutions as.well,v:'' Though not all re-ligious can share closely tlie lot of the poor and~of the oppressed,-the num-ber of ,those that experience more directly what it means to be poor, should certainly increase. Even if the poor are not always the immediate benefici-aries of our apostolic efforts, it should be clear to everybody~ that they con-stitute one of'our primary concerns. ~But "above all the gospel must.be proclaimed by witness.'':'~ "The first means of evangelization is the witness of an authentically Christian life. . It .is . . . primarily by her conduct.and, by her life that the Church will evangelize the world, in other words, by her living witness of fidelity to the Lord Jesus--the witness of poverty and detachment, of freedom in the_ face of the powers of this world, in short, the witness of san.ctity.":" If this is true of the whole Church, how much more of religious. Their most spe? cific contribution still remains that of bearing witness to faith'and to justic~ through the example of their,own lives.~They should embo~dy the radical demand~ of the~Beatitudes. They should be a sign, for the,world and for,the Church, of the total openness and. availability to God and to men that faith and justice demandY. It is through their tireless apostolic dediqation, but also by their faith-" fulness to the demands of their religious vows and consecrated life that this is mainly achieved. In a world in which the attachment to wealth and ma-terial comforts, man's selfishness and ambition appear as the'main roots of unbelief andfinjustice, the meaning and liberating pgwer of the religiou~ life appears in a. new light. The women and the men who, have chosen to, fol-low Christ i,n~his,great, renunciations, perpetuate his redeeming and liberat-ing work through the ages by preaching the gospel not by words alone; but by the witness :of their own lives: "It is in this.olight, that we.are asked to renew our dedication to the properly apostolic dimension, of.our .religious :~Zlbid.; n. 60. .~41bid., n. 48. "~Evangelii Nuntiandi, n. 21. at'Ibid., n. 41. Z7lbid., n. 69. Eaith and Justice~/ life. Ou~ consecration t6 God is really a rejection of those idols which the world is always tempted to adore: wealth, pleasure, prestige, power. Our chastity, poverty and obedience must bear witness to this visibly, Despite the inadequacy of our attempts to anticipate the kingdom which is to come, our vows ought to show how it is possible in practice, through the gospel and by God's grace, to have a community of men which is based on sharing rather than greed; on a willing openness to all men rather than a seeking after the privileges of caste or class or race; on service rather than domina-tion and exploitation. The men and women of our time fleed a hope which is eschatological; but they also need to have the beginnings of its realization presented to them here and now in a way that is meaningful to {hem.'':~s 3s"Our .Mission Today," n. 16. Faith and Justice: Reflection C~trl F. ~tarkloff, 'S.J. A Socio-Pastoral Father Starkloff's studies concentrated in the areas of missi~logy and pastoral theology (Ph.D., S.T.D., Ottawa), while his interest has focused on the American Indian. After six years of teaching theology at Rockhurst College, Fr. Starkloff, author of People o] the Center (Seabury, 1974) and of various articles on American Indian .religion and religious anthropology, is presently director of St. Stephens Indian Mission; P.O. Box 294; St. Stephens, WY 82524. The most pronounced thrust of Christian theology in the seventies has been a Ioiag overdue attempt to respond tO the Marxist thesis that, while the philosophers are trying to explain the world, the real task is to change it. In this famous dictum are stated the two poles that bound the work of theological reflection--theoria and praxis. From the highly speculative and' cloistered theology of the middle ages to the nineteenth century social gos-pelt theologians have tended to gravitate to the two poles separately rather than to embrace them together. It is to the great credit of the various "hope," "political" and "liberation" theologies that they are making this attempt at synthesis. When the recent Thirty-Second General Congregation of the Society of Jesus cast its mission statement in the mold of "the service of faith and the promotion of justice," this was not merely a re-focusing of the Jesuit voca-tion upon a unified spiritual world view touching both intellectual and prac-tical issues. More important, the statement sent Jesuits the world over into varying states of agony as they seriously set about confronting such very real and threatening documents. As may be expected, along with the con-frontation came many kinds of affective and speculative responses,-from 352 Faith and Justice." A Socio.Pastoral¯ Re[tection / 353 angry rejection to a perhaps naive embracing of the letter of the new law: The most~spirited discussion has taken place, at least in North America, in the academic milieu, while many of the mission apostolates--for example those branching out from the United States into Central and South Amer-ica are already caught ,up in efforts to live the gospel within the social and political struggles of the people. The academic debate (radical, activists to the contrary notwithst~anding) is essential to, prevent our ministry of justice from being a mindless lashing out at "evil in general." But the debate alone will remain barren ~--even for the academic .world. , What liberation theologians remind us is that there must be a social-pastoral "doing" in a context of thebretical inquir.y, .if theology is to be reflection on the lived faith of the community. In the academic community 4 found that the confrontation with the "single focus" approach to faith and justice led to a great deal of con-fusion, ranging Yrom highly theoretical arguments about definitions to de-bates about the morality of multi-national corporations. All of us must ob-viously share 'this confusion in wrestling with the problems of faith and justice, but it seems evident that we must transcend.the academic world if we are to advance the study creatively, because theology° is now finding it-self face to face with radically practical demands. What. we see here. is per-haps a new version of the old reminder,to theol.ogians to spend, less time at the desk (theory) and more time at the prie-dieu o(practice), only now with the contemplation of social evils being integral toJ our meditations. -Since returning to the radically pastoral ministry to. Native Americans, have realized how intense must be the struggle to synthesize our reflection., our prayer and our pastoral activity. It is out of this experience that I offer the following brief reflections, touching upon the need to understand "faith" as it is culturally expressed, and "justice" (a stumbling block to philosophers, legists and Scripture scholars alike) as the great longing of'~the deprived. In this article I shall offer one example of how the pastoral scene chal-lengers its workers to enrich the world of theology through their closeness .to the problems that.cry for solution. In taking this rather pragmatic ap-p. roach, I shah simply bypass much of the termino!ogica[ argum'6nt and sqt~tle provisionally for rather simple definitions of faith-evangelization and of iustice. By "faith" and ~'evangelization" let us understand'the real assent to being grasped and freed by Jesus Christ and proclaiming this event to our fellows.' By "justice" 1,intend the building of a more humane existence for men and women as we await the Kingdom of God. That Christ,~has come is shown in the Church's givi0g of social signs of the messianic presence. That he has not come definitively is painfully evident from the dismaying ex-perience of injustice all around us. Failh In our ministry among the Arapaho and Shoshone Indians, we have 354 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 found ourselves a testing-ground for our commitment to faith and justice. The constantly pressing demands force us to Work with. "inadequate" con-cepts as ,models, as we move toward the definition of mission goals and objectives. The narrative of our efforts may' perhaps serve others as a model, not of solutions, which are far distant for us, but of the kinds of analysis and activity that must be part of a socio-pastoral situation~ It should be added that, in Native American societies, as in all groups still close to their primal origins, the social-and the pastoral, religion and society, faith and culture are so intimately interwoven that in many cases the struggle for justice is an essential part of the upbuilding of faith, and the nourishing of authentic religious expression is one of the basic problems of justice. In order not to give way to frustration, the worker in many an Indian harvest field must admit that his labor of evangelization is still in its child-hood and that the signs of faith are ,going to be fragmentary. Much of this is due to the centuries of evangelization without inculturation practiced throughout North America. Much of it may also be attributed to the terrible social shocks of the conquest of the frontier, to the perfidy of whites in their dealings °with Indians, and to the frequent ridicule heaped upon the many authentic sign~ of God's presence in Native American culture, even by missionaries. A case in point might be the example of many of the Aymara people of Peru, whose religious life has been described by a de-voted and sympathetic missionary as retaining many elements that work counter to the basic gospel message, even though they have adopted Catholic rites and symbols quite extensively over the four-hundred-year period of the conquest.' If Monast's claims are true (and there are no doubt other missionaries who will disagree with him), they would be a case in point for painstaking examination, of both the cultural presupposi-tions of church ~vorkers among Indian peoples, and for the effectiveness of the means of communicating the gospel. The failure of early missionaries to communicate with the local culture, coupled with forced conversion, created this resigned acceptance by Indians of foreign signs and rituals, without rendering these signs effective symbols of the merciful and loving God. To varying degrees, on most Indian reservations in North America, one can find less extreme examples of' the Aymara experience, alongside many beautiful manifestations of Christian and Native American devotion. It is evident how complicated the problem of Christianity and culture really is, especially in cultures that must be described as living o{~ the mar-gin between' the ancient and the modern. Among Native Americans, the process calls for careful reflection and careful praxis; To be avoided at all costs is any naive movement to "adapt" Christian rites to' Indian culture, where the result would be a shallow syncretism whose components~ would 1See J. E. Monast; O.M.I., On les croyait chretiennes, Paris~ Editions du Cerf, 1969. Faith and Justice." A Socio-Pastoral Reflection / 355, be understood as' neither truly Indian nor truly Christian. Indian people sustained devastating culture shocks .as their religious expression underwent suppression by church and government leaders. An almost equally profound shock has come to many devout Christian Indians as missionaries sud-denly show themselves receptive to long-interdicted rites like the Sun Dance, Sweat Lodge, Peyote Tipi, Medicine Lodges, Harvest Festivals, and the like. The rapid about-face of so many church leaders vis-a-vis Indian religion, ~is well as of educators in relation to Indian language, is a source of some-what grim amusement to the old Indians who remember their boarding school days. Clearly, what is needed is a contemporary Indian Christianity. A return to the past is impossible, and yet the many beautiful traditions of the past are still available to nourish a genuine Indian faith life. Reflection and pastoral practice will have to concentrate both on the negative an~ positive aspects of Christian proclamation, as well as on the signs and countersigns present in Indian tradition. On the side of white missionaries there must be discernment of their preaching: where is it truly of Christ and his Church, and where is it merely of their European-American 6ul-tural impedimenta? A glib statement, this, because by this time the cultures have become so intermingled that clear separation is out of the question. I have .experienced a number of pastoral situations in which what I have tried to convince a Catholic.Indian is merely the "white American cultural symbol" is now truly part and parcel'of his or her worship. In our liturgies and homilies too, we find it necessary to use caution in "adaptation." For example, a facile attempt to pray with the Sacred Pipe or one of its derivatives, or to pray in the name of the Four Sacred Direc-tions, or too readily to equate "power" with "grace," will lead not only to a misuse of Indian rites and language, and thus to'contempt, but may also distort the Christian message by a too easy comparison. New chapters in the phenomenology and history of religion, added to the great work of scholars like Eliade and van der Leeuw, will have to'be written to enable pastors to employ with confidence the many native symbols that may seem fitted to Christian liturgy and catechesis. Such development (zalls for long and patient listening to the old i'eligious leaders, to whom imparting in-formation to outsiders does not come easily. In our desire to "inculturate" the gospel, further, we must also realize that contemporary0Indian culture, as mentioned.earlier, is a "wounded" culture more wounded even than many of the cultures with which the Church's pastoral ministry must deal. Even more than in its primal form, Indian life now needs the healing power of the gospel. For example, while many native 'rituals are truly profound signs of faith, they often seem to have no more permanent effect on life than do many of our Christian rituals. In the~missionary-social ministry, the word "interiorization" o[ the Good, News is as important as "inculturation." 356,/ Re.view for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 Thus we come to the most basic requirement of a pastoral ministry the spiritual life of the apostolic community. Into the damaged culture of the Indian people the Christian .ministers have chosen to insert their own wounded lives, and here it is that we cross over into the matter of justice as the necessary component of faith and proclamation, of the sign of a living community of teaching, fellowship and service. We find that we must live with these people the struggles of material and psychological uncer-tainty, an.d experience the pain involved in bringing a people into~com-munity. This insecurity is intensified as we find t.hat f_or so many Indians, especially youth, there is little intense concern for religion--Indian or Christianwor'for moral rudders to guide by. But we likewise feel that it is the vocation of the Church to aid in restoring the vital~ elements of Indian religion to their rightful place, if not within Christian liturgical settings,, then in events occurring alongside tra-ditional Christian practices, confidently, experienced by Indians who are also. Christians. With~ the grad.ual opening up of the tribal holy men so long driven into a nearly underground .religious activity, we find that we can be6ome instructed by attendance.at Indian rites and by judicious participa-tion in.them. Thus the pastor may find it possible to aid an Indian in religious and moral growth by encouraging him or her to more devout involvement ,.in traditional native rituals, often intermingled with sound Christian teaching, or paralleling it. Employment of Indian music, language and religious leaders at Christian sacramental events, especially funerals, has enriched the exp.erienc~s of Indians and pastors and educators. Homi-letic usage of Indian mythology often renders a basic Christian truth more comprehensible for an Indian congregation not to say for whites present as well. In considering an authentic form of Indian Christian ministry, we have begun to question,., the advisability of an Indian diaconate for Arapaho Catholics. We are discovering in the loosely defined but immensely impor-tant role of tribal elder a possible indigenous mimstry of instruction and sacramental worship that might more effectively speak to the culture with-out creating rthe tensions involved in calling Indians to become leaders under an imported rubric. A recent example of this was a, day of recollec-tion given to confirmands by two respected elders using much Arapaho language a.nd prayer forms. Another case in,point is the moving eulogy given by the elder at a funeral, touching the people in a manner that sup-plements if not supercedes the homily of the priest. Alo~ng the way, mistakes have.beenomade and will occur again. But I would submit that this careful mode of pastoral praxis will be the "labora-tory" out of which new theological understanding will grow. And in turn the critical work of theology will enrich and confirm and challenge pastoral practice. The demands placed on both pastoral and speculativ~e ministries are intimidating, but they are also an exciting call to creativity. Faith and JuStice: A Socio-Pastoral Reflection / 357 Justice The pastoral worker is in a position to avoid many theoretical traps in the struggle to come to terms with the meaning of justice, as well as to show that the great, stress given to it is not misplaced. While admittedly there is the danger of a simplistic approach to social problems, a discern-ing study of the milieu of pastoral work soon"reveals many of the immedi-ate and long-range problems of creating a more humane existence.' In studying the problems of Wind River Indian people, andin listening to the people themselves, we have been able to assemble a list of social problems ttiat as missionaries we are in a position to confront, or which we must consider for our future apostolate. In the larger picture, there is the already much-discussed problem of our materialistic American society, its wastefulness, its exploitiveness, its, political corruption. This has of course been the object of attack by militant organizations, and receives the bulk of attention given by, Catholic jour-nals. But, as wise Indian leaders assert, only so much can be obtained by protest against these evils. What is more urgent is the status of Indian peo-ple now, the positive growth by which they learn to confront, under their own power, the evils of a larger social environment. Impeding this growth, we have found, ~ire several outstanding inhumane situations, conditions of injustice intruding themselves into our meditations. The worst form of slavery :for Indian people today is ignorance, an ignorance that can be overthrown only by massive cariapaigns of quality education. This education must eventually be conducted and administered by their own people, if young Indians .are to become "conscientized~' to their own condition 'and rendered capable of changing it. Only a self-governed process of education is likely to capture the imaginations of Indian ctiildren and youth,~whose indifference to learning is lai'gely due to the fact that it is presented to them asia foreign import and thus another form of bondage., to white America: Thus, many mission schools, whether forced'~to it by lack of funds, or on the initiative of far-seeing administra-tors,"~ are now sharing the Indian political struggle to obt'ain government support for contracts under which Indian school boards will run schools and dictate policies. In the last year of our own efforts to support such a drive for Indian self-determination, in cooperation with Indian leaders, we have already observed a new sense of confidence in people tasting the hope of control of their own destiny. The pain in such growth to self-determina-tion will be considerable, but the Church should see here an opportunity to enter into a non-violent struggle for political liberation and the changing of oppressive structures. A problem closely connected to this move toward self-determination is the sudden unleashing by the United States government of vast sums of money upon people long accustomed to destitution and often not prepared to handle such funds. The worl( of Christian missionaries here is at least Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 twofold. Firstly, we must assist the people to acquire financial and admin-istrative skills. Secondly, in the face of the all-too-human temptation to graft and pocket-lining, the Christian must be an example of detachment from self-interest aud proclaim by his deeds that he is here to serve. Tra-ditionally, Indian people have valued communal endeavor, and have of necessity been concerned with frugality. But greed and a type of self-serving individualism, whether stemming from tribal origins or from the white society, threaten to .mar the whole process of financial self-deter-mination with the ugliest scars of personal or factional opportunism. The gospel message here is clear, and it is up to the Christian to exemplify it. Thirdly, Indian tribes, partly because of the social disorders brought on by invasion and partly by natural tribal jealousies, are subject to family feuds and long-standing animosities. Tribal pressure can be the most en-slaving form of manipulation experienced anywhere. Merely preaching against this is ineffectual, but the Church has the opportunity to build re-sistance to such pressure through its practice of Christian reconciliation. First of all, we must attend to our own house: if Catholic and Protestant churches do not begin to show forth reconciliation, the preaching of unity and cohesion is countersigned by actual fact. Second, by various liturgical and social events, the Church is in a position to be a reconciler of families long at enmity, and within families themselves. The sponsoring of groups in which married couples can learn to communicate (the old forms of con-trol and relationship having been lost), is a high priority in mission plan-ning. Along with this, the providing and encouragement of simple good times is of vital necessity in the often gloomy life of a reservation. Finally, the most devastating plague visited by the invading culture upon Indian society is alcohol. Causes for Native American addiction have been argued ever since the importation of fermented liquor into North America. There are theories about Indian alcoholics that argue both physi-ological and social causes. But whatever the basic problem, the one fact cited by Indian leaders ever since the seventeenth century is that this foreign introduction is not for Indians. Once again, it is a problem of in: justice that in theory seems to defy every solution that has been offered. The churches have always struggled with the problem, most commonly through total abstinence pledges, which are weak but at least partially effective ammunition against the scourge. But again mission ~planning is called directly to the point of pastoral praxis rather than to theory. It is now, taking means to combat spiritual problems as idle and meaningless existence, loss of identity due to cultural vacuum, and inability to handle and articulate frustration, again due to loss of cultural expression. Here too missionaries have come to realize how closely related are the solution to these-problems and a strong praying community that can provide spiritual and emotional strength; the spiritual order and the social order are brought together in the prayer-life of the community. It has fallen to Faith and Justice: A Socior~astorbl Reflection / 359 the churches to nourish that kind of communal life of worship once in-spired by the great Indian prophets who arose in times of suffering and persecution. The above are examples of how a given pastoral ministry finds itself challenged by the demands of faith and justice. I present this brief essay with the hope that other ministries will continue to provide input into the discussion about faith and justice in our ministry of the Gospel. There is no doubt both need for and profit in challenging the cosmic problems of world hunger, exploitive corporations, military-industrial complexes and .the like. But there are also grave situations of unbelief and injustice right. on our present ministerial doorsteps. "Doing theology" around these prob-lems may enable us to develop a better theology and spirituality of min-istry that draws not only from exegesis and systematics, but from culture and from society as well. As this article is being written, the liturgical readings for weekdays include the Letter of James. With its roots in the rabbinic wisdom tradi-tion and inspired by that "faith in our Lord Jesus Christ" with which no "personal prejudice is to be involved" (Jm 2.'1), th~s epistle proclaims with great power thai "faith by itself without works is dead" (2:18). When the author asserts that "one is justified by works and not by. faith alone" (2:24), he is not attacking the cardinal Pauline teaching that works of the la~w cannot justify man before God. From context it is clear that James is eulogizi,ng~ a faith-filled Abraham whose obedience inspired him to .ful-fill all justice as he saw it. ' There is in the Letter of ~l~mes a spiritualit3i~that contemplates the faith-life as a life permeated by the wisdom given by God to all who stand firm, and intuits in that life ihe duties of a justified Christian. Chapter two of the epistle sets before us what is perhaps the New~Testament's most un-equivocal statement about the inseparability of faith and justice. St, Paul' is the great apostle of ,spiritual freedom based on~ the humble acceptance of our utter dependence on God'and ,On the belief that~ "ou.r" justice is God's justice, granted us 0nly as believers. But what James' message .tells us-- 6choing with greater severity thee teaching of Romans cc. 12-15, is what Alfri~d Delp Wrote to the people of.Nazi Qermany in 1945--that the most pious praye¢ becomes a blasptiemy on the lips 9f one who tolerates condi-tions fatal to mankind. As I once heard a Native American tribal leader tell an hssembly of sociologists and social workers, "Wi/h~us Indians there is no separation of Church and State!" This was no defense of an established church, but simply a statement of the Indian belief, phrased in white man's jargon, professing that wha~ is truly religious bfiilds the human community, and that what is truly just partakes of the wholeness of spiritual reality. The missionary must draw upon the spiritual-social wisdom of James and upon"the contemplative Indian integration of religion, and justice, if his theology of faith and justice is to progr.ess beyond the abstract. Biblical Guidelines to Marian Devotion J. Massyngberde Ford o Professor Ford is on the faculty of the Department of Theology at Notre Dame University. Well known for her scriptural studies and her other wri.tings, she is also involved 'in the women's movement within the Church and with the charismatic movement. Her mailing address: Department of Theology; University of Notre Dame; Notre Dame, IN 46556. 'In this essay I wish' to endeavor, as far as it is possible, t.o place l~Ia{~,, the Mother of Jesus, within her own milieu, against the historical, ~conomic.al, social and religious background of her tirde. I should like to dethrone her from any pedestal upon which we have placed her and see her as a vital historical figui'e in the vivid dram]a of heilsgeschichte as we find it in first century A.D. Palestine. The World into which Mary was Born Hengel remarks that by the time of'Jesus Palestine had been under Hellenistic rule and its resultant cultural influence and political unrest for some 360 years? Mai'y was born into a war-torn country. Her people had been under the foreign domination of the Romans since 63 B.C. when Pompey, the Roman general, not only conquered Palestine but audaciously entered the H01Y of Holies (Josephus B.J. l :152). In the eyes of Mary's co-religionists this was a sacrilege crying to heaven for vengeance. Under the Romans King Herod was permitted to rule Palestine but he was hated by the vast majority of his people. He was of despicable birth, an Idu-maean, and therefore only half Jewish: Jesus called his successor "that fox" 1Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism, Fortress Press, Philadelphia, E. T. John 'Bowden, 2nd revised edition, 1973, vol. I, p. 1. 360 Biblical Guidelines to Marian Devotion (.Lk 13:32). Herod indulged extravagantly in Hellenistic customs, large building programs, games, shrines to the Caesars, and he had ten wives. He burdened the.people with heavy taxation and was unscrupulous and cruel in exactihg it. Economically the country was in poor condition especially because of the large lati[undia (large country estates) often owned by absentee landlords, many of whom were non-Jewish (cf. the Parable of the Wicked Tenants Mk 12:1-12 and par.). However, more intensified domestic or political resistance arose from the time of the death of Herod the Great in 4 B.C. It is from this period that scholars would date the rise or organization of the Jewish national-ists, the Zealots. They were a prophetic movement.~ They espoused only one master, namely, God; they refused to pay the Roman taxes and, while showing incredible witness in the face of suffering and even death, they were fanatical and violent in their opposition to Rome or those who sided with her, even their kinsfolk. They would neither look at a coin with an image inscribed on it or walk beneath the shadow of an idol. Their leaders, Judah the Galilean, his two sons and other~relatives formed a kind of dynasty which added solidity to the movement. Galilee was a hotbed of the Zealots and, indeed, sometimes the designa~tion "Galil~ans" seems to have been used for them.:' The city of Sepphoris in Galilee became one of the five Sanhedrins during the Roman rule and at one point was captured by the Jewish nationalists. The rebellion was quelled by Varus who burned it and sent its inhabitants into slavery (Josephus Ant. 17:286-298, B.J. 2:66-71). Herod Antipas rebuilt the city. Sepphoris was northwest of Nazareth. This party of the Zealots attracted both the educated and the poorer rural people and also some of the more violent school of Pharisees, the Shammaites. This is but a brief reference to the political and economic status of Mary's country but it is of immense importance for understanding both the psycholog3( and spirituality of Mary (and Joseph) and their peculiar circumstances. It is hardly credible that they should remain untouched by tile stirring events which occurred during their life-time and especially within their own district. When we ~turn to the religious scene again we witness "fightings out-side and fears within (cf 2 Co 7:5). The Sadducees were largely fromthe aristocracy, wealthy, priestly figures who took a fundamentalist interpreta-tion of the Scripture, e.g. they upheld the lex talionis, an eye for an eye and tooth for a tooth. They repudiated the afterlife, especially the resurrection of the dead, providence, and angels. They held the majority of seats on the '-'For material on the Zealots see S. G~ F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1967; W. R. Farmer. Maccabees, Zealots attd Josephus, Columbia University Press, New York, 1957; Martin Hengel, Die Zeloten~ E. J. Brill, . Leiden, 1961. :~Brandon op. cit. pp. 54 cf. 78, 226 note 4 and 339 note 4. 36:2 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 Sanhedrin, the Jewish council. Then there were~the two Pharisaic. parties. The school of Hillel, the gentle, humble Hillel who strove to mitigate the Jewish law to help the poor and who was nearly lynched by some of~ the other Pharisees when he went to offer sacrifice in the Temple. His teach-ing was close to Jesus'. Consider, for example: My homiliation is my exaltation: My exaltation is my humiliation. Do not appear naked (among the dressed) neither dressed (among the naked): do not appear standing (among those who sit) neither sitting (among those who stand) do not appear laughing (among those who weep) neither weeping (among those who laugh). The rule is: Do not deviate from the usage of men? However, opposed to the school of Hillel stood the school of Shammai. They were ultrastrict observers of the law, perhaps allies with the Zealots, and once placed a sword in their academY to symbolize suffering and death for those who dissented from their views. In the forties A.D. they passed the eighteen Halakolh (precepts) which were designed to minimi~ze contact between Jew, Samaritan and Gentile? Five of the precepts in'volved the dietary laws (contrast Jesus' attitude towards the latter Mk 7:14-23). Further one must glance at the status of the priesthood at the time of Jesus. Priesthood was, of course, hereditary but Herod and the Roman procurator had enormous influence upon the choice of the high priest. In fact the Romans even kept the high priestly vestments in custody and only allowed the Jews to use them on the greater liturgical feasts (Josephus Ant. 18:90-95 cf 15:403-5; 20:6-15). J. Jeremias'; estimates that there were about 7,200 priests, and, if one adds the Levites, 18,000 clergy in Jerusalem. However, there was a serious rift between the country priests, such is th~ father bf John the Baptist, and the permanent Jerusalem priests. The former were usually of moderate means, sometimes poor. The latter carried on brisk trade especially with animals and qther items needed for the sacrifices. Man3~ of the priests had large incomes5 Some indulged in simony. Some had good relations with the Roman governors. Many of the priests also plied a trade such as car.pentry and stone masonry. Prodi-gious wealth was found among the priests." Finally, one must take into consideration the community which lived 'ICited from Nahum Glatzer, Hillel the Elder,, Schocken Books, New Yoi'k, 1956, p. 38. .- ~'Hengel, Die Zeloten op, tit. pp. 204~208. ~,Joachim Jeremias, !erusalem in the Time o[ Jesus, E.T.F. H. and C. H. Cave, 3rd ed. S.C.M. Press, l_ondon, 1969, p.200. Zlbid., p. 105f. '~lbid., p. 96f. ' Biblical Guidelines to Marian Devotion / 363 near the Dead Sea, the Qumran covenanters. They became~eventually like a sect, withdrawn into the desert, keeping the law ~Vith a strictness not even found among the Pharisees and living in expectation of two Messiahs, one political and one priestly. They believed in the Holy War. I have taken some time. in briefly reviewing the state of Palestine for it is only"hgainst this background that we can~gauge the enormous appre-hensioh, perhaps even fear, which would seize a mother's heart when she realized that her son 'would find himself unacceptable 'to most. of these parties because of his teaching and practice. The History of Mary We may turn now to the history of Mary herself. She may have come from priestly stock as her kinsfolk were Zachary and Elizabeth (Lk 1:36). The Proto-evangelium of James (written not before 150 A~D:) describes Mary's parents and their anxiety for a child. It tells how an angel came to Anna and said "Anna, Anna, the Lord htis heard your prayer. You shall c6nceive and bear, and your offspring shall be spoken of in the whole world." And Anna said: "As the Lord my Gd~l lives, if I bear a child, whether male or female, I will bring it a~ a gilt to the Lord my' God, and it shall serve him all the days o[ its lije" (4:1 ). In this gospel Mary is offered to the Temple at the age of three. When she was twelve the council of priests decided that she would marry "that she may not pollute the temple of the Lord" (6:2). It is also reported that she helped to make a veil for the~ temple of~ the ~.L.,ord (10:1).~' It is commonly supposed that this wor.k is pious fiction.'H0wever, it is not neces~ sary, either to accept or reject every detail in an apocryphal gospel: 'The Gospel of Thomas is a good example of this. Indeed some features of the Proto-evangdlium ~of James have' close affinity to Luke?° ,Concerning Mary's residence in the Temple and her making curtains it is~worth remarking that Jereoias" reports that the Temple ct~'rtains were a constant occupation. Shek, 5:1 describes Eleazar who took care of these and was obliged to find "skilled weavers and knitters to produce annually two of the Temple curtains, 20 cubits wide and 40 cubits long: these were hung in 13 places in the Temple" (Yoma 54a; Ket. 106a). Each curtain had to be woven in ~six colors on 72 strands, each with 24 threads (Shek. 8:5; Yom. 7lb. Tos. Shek. 13, 178). According to Shek. 8:5 (the variant readings differ: of. Ket. 106a; Jer Shek. viii.4, 51b. 13). Eighty-two maidens had tq produce two curtains each year. The curtains were made of blue, scarlet and purple stuffs, and byssus (fine white linen). 9E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha, E.T.R. Mcl. Wilson, Lutterworth Press, London, vQI. 1, pp. 370-388. ~°lbid., pp. 380, 381-2386. X~Jeremias op. cit. p. 25. 364 /~Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1:976/3 I tentatively suggest.that it is possible-that Mary was given ~,to the Temple until she was 12 ~years old. In the Proto-evangelium of James the curtains which Mary helps to weave are made of gold, amianthus, linen, silk, hyacinth-blue, scarlet and purple.1~ The colors are similar to those mentioned in the Mishnaic and Talmudic texts. Children associated with the Temple were also required for the ~eremony of the red heifer:but the text does not intimate the gender of the children (Parah 3:2-4). But im-portantly, if Mary were in the Temple for some time, she must have been apprised of matters both good and bad which revolved round the Temple. She might realize, for example, the greed and wealth of many of the high priests and the money involved inthe sacrificial victims trade. Thus she would understand,fully when Jesus cleansed the Temple but she would be apprehensive, for the Temple had special police among its personnel. Mary was betrothed and espoused to Joseph. He was probably a land owner as he was obliged to register his property during the Roman census. "Josephus mentions property explicitly when he refers to the census under Quirinius, if this is the one to which Lk 2:1-3 refers (Ant. 18:1). We might also add the possibility of Joseph's property being confiscated either by the Romans or by Herod or the tax collectors during the family's sojourn as political refugees in Egypt. Ownerless property could be con-fiscatedY~ This author should concur with Buchanan who, commenting on 2 Co 8: 9, writes: The likelihood'thatJesus was originally from a wealthy family and that he gave up his wealth for the movement he led seems greater ~hen his rela-tionship to wealthy tax collectors "and rulers is considered. Most of his parables and teachings seem to have bee~ directed to an upper class of people who had money to lend, give, and use for hiring servants. His willingness to surrender this for the Kingdom of God would have given him more authority to ask others to give up all they had than he would have had if he had been reared in poverty. It would have been difficult in the Near East for a poor man to gain a hearing with the rich as Jesus evidently did.14 She also agrees with David Flusser1~ who states: Viewing Jesus' sayings against the background of contemporary Jewish learn-ing, . . . it is easy to observe that Jesus was far from uneducated. He was 12In an article published by the Marian Library, Dayton, Ohio, I hive tentatively put forward the thesis, that Mary was responsible for the Hebrew original of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Mary had known her son much longer than any of the~ disciples and would be an extremely prolific source of knowledge. l:~j. Duncan M. Derrett, Law in the New Testament, Darton, Longman and Todd, London, 1970, pp. 300-306. ~aGeorge W. Buchanan, To the Hebrews. the Anchor Bible, Doubleday, New York, 1972. pp. 208-209. ~David Flusser, Jesus, E.T. Ronald Walls, Herder and Herder, New York, 1969, p. 18. Biblical Guidelines to Marian Devotion / 365 perfectly at home both in Holy Scripture, and in oral tradition, and knew how to app!y.this scholarly heritage. Jesus' Jewish education ~.was incompa-rably superior to that of St. Paul. In the light of the tenets of these two scholars one is persuaded to see~the Holy Family,° not as poor, uneducated, politically uninformed peasants, but people who were fully conscious of the important .factors of the state of Palestine, people who were politically, economically, socially and religiously alert. Neither do they appear to have been bystanders to the situation. Mt 2:21ff seems to ,suggest that Joseph intended to reside permanently in Bethlehem after the, flight to Egypt but returned to Mary's village of Nazareth because of the political situation. Mary was probably betrothed at the age of twelve rand a half.TM David Daubelr has found an affinity between the book of Ruth and the Annunci-ation pericope. He gives special attention to the word "overshadow" (epischiazO) and its Semitic equivalents salalo(Hebrew) and tallel (Ara-" maic).~ These are frequently used of the overshadowing of the divine pre~sence. All three words can refer to the descent of.the Spirit of, God and also,to the spirit of prophecy; both meani'ngs are applicable in the case of Mary. However, a further usage is available. Associated with tallel is the noun tallith which designates "the cloak of a pious or scholarly man." This was distinguished by '.'wings." The rabbis used the expression "to spread the tallith (or wi, ng) over a woman" to denote marital relations. Thus Ruth can say "I am Ruth thine ha, ndmaid; spread therefore thy wing over thine handmaid, for thou art a redeemer'''~' (cf Rt 3:9). A similar phrase, in a spiritual sense, occurs in Ezk 16:8 where God says to Jeru-salem, "Thy time was the time of love, and I spread my wing over thee." Moreover, the rabbis had another.euphemism for "cohabitation," namely, ','to lay one's power (reshuth) over a woman." In the Lucan narrative of the Annunciation the a.ngel uses both the words "power" (-reshuth) and "overshadow" (-tqllel) and Luke clear!y, indicates that God will be the agent~.who im~plements this. Mary gives her consent inswords very similar to those of Ruth:: "Behold I am the handmaid of the Lord; let it be to me according.to your word" (Lk 1:38). The.us the narrative of the annunciation is presented in terms of a be-trothal or marriage.yontract or .marital consummation, the proposal by God and the acceptance express.ed by ~Mary:. The event had been fore-shadowed in the Book of Ruth. In pondering the words of the angel, perhaps lreported by,~ Mary to him, Joseph might well say "God has laid his power over her" and "He has spread his wing over her." Tl~en, if l~;Jeremias op. cit. ~ . lZDavid Daube, The New Testament attd Rabbinic Judaist~t, Athlone Press, Londoh, 1956, pp. 27-51. ~Slbid., p. 33. ~ X'qlbid., p. 33. ~' " : 366 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/3 used the principie of rabbinic biblical interpretation known as kal wa homer (inference frofa the minor premise to the major), he would argue that, if a woman were forbidden to her husband because she had been impreg-nated by another man, how much more would Mary be forbidden to her husband if God had laid his power over her. Thus Joseph might conclude that through her voluntary consent Mary had become the property of God for all time. She ffould be "forbidden to: the whole world" for God had chosen her like a consecrated vessel--or the ark in the sanctuary. This was an analogy used by Jews contemporary with Jesus, namely, a woman is set apart for one man as a vessel is for the Temple (Kid 2b). Joseph might also have felt that Is 54:4 was fully realized:: For your mak

Marc Joffe


San Francisco is proving to be ground zero in the nationwide commercial real estate collapse. While the values of offices and malls are tumbling in many US cities, the losses in San Francisco are more dramatic and, unlike elsewhere, have extended to hotels. City and state government mismanagement have played a major role in destroying billions of dollars in assessable real estate values, but the role of these policies is easily overlooked.
San Francisco's plight was thrown into sharp relief on June 5, when the owner of two downtown hotels containing a combined 2,925 rooms announced that it would cease making payments on a $725 million mortgage backed by the properties. Commercial bond investors will now have to find a company willing to purchase the hotels at a small fraction of their estimated 2020 valuation of $1.561 billion.
In explaining the company's decision to walk away from the hotels, Thomas J. Baltimore, Jr., Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Park Hotels and Resorts stated:
After much thought and consideration, we believe it is in the best interest for Park's stockholders to materially reduce our current exposure to the San Francisco market. Now more than ever, we believe San Francisco's path to recovery remains clouded and elongated by major challenges – both old and new: record high office vacancy; concerns over street conditions; lower return to office than peer cities; and a weaker than expected citywide convention calendar through 2027 that will negatively impact business and leisure demand and will likely significantly reduce compression in the city for the foreseeable future.

Another nearby hotel is also experiencing a dramatic valuation decline. The 1,195-room Westin St. Francis Hotel has asked the local tax assessor to slash the combined assessment of its two parcels from $1.037 billion to $101 million.
The hotels are within walking distance of the Westfield San Francisco Centre mall that is losing its anchor retailer, Nordstrom, this summer. Before Nordstrom announced the closure, S&P had already estimated that the mall's value had declined by over 70% since it was appraised in 2016.
An even larger value decline was suffered by a 22‐​story office tower at 350 California Street. After being valued at around $300 million in 2019, the property recently changed hands for between $60 million and $67.5 million according to media reports.
When considering why San Francisco has suffered so much commercial real estate value destruction in the 2020s, it is tempting to conclude that the city's tech‐​heavy workforce was better equipped to work from home. This factor played a role but should not be overestimated. Indeed, one common software development methodology, known as agile, often involved daily in‐​person team meetings. So, it is not strictly true that software engineering is a solitary job.
Rather than blame the pandemic or the local business mix, San Francisco and California political leaders should look inward at their policy errors that exacerbated the city's distress. Among these unforced errors were their harsh lockdown policies and the failure to provide adequate security in the downtown core.
The Lockdown
San Francisco and neighboring counties were the first to impose sweeping stay‐​at‐​home orders at the beginning of the COVID pandemic in the US. More importantly, San Francisco and its neighbors were slower than most other population centers to relax COVID-19 restrictions.
Over a three‐​year period, San Francisco's public health officer issued a blizzard of rules that were often lengthy and challenging to implement. As late as January 27, 2021 (over ten months into the pandemic), he issued an order that required "all residents in the County to reduce the risk of COVID-19 transmission by staying in their residences to the extent possible and minimizing trips and activities outside the home." At the time, California had more cases per capita than the less restrictive states of Texas and Florida, begging the question of how effective lockdown measures were.
By continuing shelter‐​at‐​home restrictions for so long, San Francisco normalized remote work, thereby encouraging employers and employees to adopt to a new normal. Many employees moved beyond easy commuting distance from the city on the assumption that they could retain hybrid or fully remote work arrangements permanently.
Although San Francisco's political leaders trumpet the city's low per capita death rate from COVID-19, some of that is attributable to individuals temporarily or permanently leaving the area, thereby deflating the true denominator of any death rate calculation. Economist Stephen Hanke has concluded that lockdowns had "a negligible effect" in COVID deaths.
Lack of Security
As the accompanying map shows, San Francisco has a very high concentration of high value properties in a small geographic area. Many of these $100 million plus properties (based on assessed value) are within walking distance of the Tenderloin neighborhood which has struggled over several decades. But in recent years, the social problems of the Tenderloin have increasingly spilled over into the adjacent, high‐​value areas, deterring tourists, shoppers, and office workers from visiting.











Measuring crime trends is challenging. According to Police Department statistics, reported crimes in the first five months of 2023 are below pre‐​pandemic levels. But some proportion of crime goes unreported and it is possible that this proportion has increased given the low likelihood that San Francisco police will identify a suspect. In 2022, only 2.9% of larceny thefts were cleared within one year.
Also, residents clearly perceive an increase in crime. The most recent City Controller survey found that San Franciscans rated the city's safety a C+, the lowest grade since 1996. Safety ratings were especially low in the Tenderloin and two adjoining neighborhoods with high‐​value commercial real estate: South of Market and Financial District/​South Beach.
Critics have highlighted various public safety policy concerns including the defund the police movement, lax prosecution, reclassification of shoplifting goods worth less than $950 as a misdemeanor, disincarceration, and lack of enforcement against open air drug markets. Since these issues have been covered elsewhere and libertarians have varying opinions about them, I'll address a couple of other aspects that have received less attention.
First, the city has encouraged many individuals who may be more prone to criminal activity to concentrate in and around the Tenderloin. It has done this by establishing a cluster of thousands of supportive housing units, mostly in converted hotels in the area. Although residents of supportive housing are no longer defined as "homeless", many if not most are still dealing with issues such as drug addiction that contributed to their loss of shelter.
During the pandemic, the city converted hundreds of additional hotel rooms in the area to temporary residences for unhoused homeless individuals in hopes of preventing them from getting and spreading COVID-19. But the unintended effect of this program, known as Project Roomkey, seems to have been to increase drug abuse and disorder at the periphery of the Tenderloin.
One Project Roomkey property, Hotel Whitcomb, housed about four hundred homeless individuals, many of whom were continuing to use drugs. Shortly thereafter, a new open air drug market became established in an alley just south of Market Street. Both the hotel and the drug market were near a new Whole Foods store which was forced to close due to high rates of theft and violent criminal activity.
Aside from concentrating potential offenders in the area, the city and activists appear to have neutered two quasi‐​private mechanisms that allow business districts to enhance security levels beyond that which the city government would normally provide.
Since 1847, San Francisco has had a category of law enforcement officers known as a Patrol Special Police. These trained officers can be directly hired by groups of merchants and/​or homeowners to patrol and provide other security services within a designated area. In 1994, there were 72 patrol special police serving 65 areas. But their ranks decreased in recent decades and, as of 2022, only one officer remained.
Although clients expressed a high level of satisfaction with their services, city policies have decimated the program. San Francisco's charter requires the city's Police Commission to approve new patrol special officers, but in recent years it has rarely done so. At the same time, the San Francisco Police Department offered a competing program under which city‐​employed police officers could provide security services to local business when they would otherwise be off duty.
Since clients must cover officer pay at overtime rates, this alternative is more expensive. Further, given the shortage of police officers in San Francisco today, there may not be enough staff to regularly serve clients who might be interested in purchasing their services.
California has also given property owners the ability to form their own Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) since the 1990s. BIDs, also known locally as Community Benefit Districts (CBDs), are formed when owners representing a majority of the assessed valuation in a given area vote to tax themselves to finance district operations.
San Francisco's Union Square area, the hotel and retail center that borders the Tenderloin, has had a BID in place since 1999. By 2018, the district was employing a large staff of cleaning ambassadors and safety ambassadors to deal with trash and quality of life issues respectively. The BID also installed a network of security cameras.
But the district's efforts to force homeless individuals out of the area faced criticism from UC Berkeley's Public Policy Clinic and local activists. Since the pandemic, the BID, now known as the Union Square Alliance, may have become less effective at maintaining cleanliness and safety in its neighborhood. It is not clear whether this is due to the criticism it has received, the retirement of its long‐​time executive director, or some other factor.
Conclusion
An overly energetic lockdown and actions that concentrated violent and unstable individuals in the downtown area have contributed to the collapse of real estate values in San Francisco's prime hotel, office, and retail districts. Quasi‐​governmental institutions that might have stepped in to provide improved security and street conditions have been enfeebled in part by city policy.
At this point, it does not appear that any set of feasible policies can restore downtown San Francisco to the heights it reached in 2019. A more realistic possibility is that it will stabilize at much lower levels of occupancy, activity, and value forming a new base from which to grow. New and remaining property owners should be given the tools and the space to restore a sense of security among those visiting, shopping, and staying in the neighborhood. Finally, city and state leaders should avoid overreacting to pandemics.

Curriculum material is generally considered the subject matter of information, talents, dispositions, understandings, and principles that make up research programs in the field. At a more complex level, the curricula need to contain historical and socio-political strengths, traditions, cultural views, and goals with wide differences in sovereignty, adaptation, and local understanding that encompass a diversity of cultures, laws, metaphysics, and political discourse This study aims to develop a curriculum with local content as a new approach in early childhood science learning. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) is compiled and developed to preserve the uniqueness of local culture, natural environment, and community crafts for early childhood teachers so that they can introduce local content to early childhood. Research and model development combines the design of the Dick-Carey and Dabbagh models with qualitative and quantitative descriptive analysis. The results showed that local content curriculum products can be supplemented into early childhood curricula in institutions according to local conditions. Curricula with local content can be used as a reinforcement for the introduction of science in early childhood. The research implication demands the concern of all stakeholders to see that the introduction of local content is very important to be given from an early age, so that children know, get used to, like, maintain, and love local wealth from an early age. Keywords: Early Childhood, Scientific Learning, Local Content Curriculum Model References: Agustin, R. S., & Puro, S. (2015). Strategy Of Curriculum Development Based On Project Based Learning (Case Study: SMAN 1 Tanta Tanjung Tabalong South Of Kalimantan ) Halaman : Prosiding Ictte Fkip Uns, 1, 202–206. Agustina, N. Q., & Mukhtaruddin, F. (2019). The Cipp Model-Based Evaluation on Integrated English Learning (IEL) Program at Language Center. 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Submitted 2020-07-05 | Accepted 2020-08-14 | Available 2020-12-01https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2020.23.mi-fpap.205-213The African Chicken Genetic Gain (ACGG) project (https://africacgg.net/) aims at backyard poultry optimization by commercial dual-purpose breeds introduction into Africa. To measure benefits, genotype by environment interaction (GxE) analysis provides guidance while predicting environmental effects on production traits of breeds. A survey among Ethiopian poultry smallholders showed egg sale being the most important purpose of keeping village chickens in Oromia. Data was available about laying of 894 ACGG chickens in Oromia. Hence current research questions were: 1) Does GxE take place? 2) Which breed performs best regarding laying and in which environment within Oromia? Traits investigated were egg number and egg weight of five breeds (S-RIR, Sasso, Horro, Kuroiler and Koekoek) located in three zones (East Hararge, East and West Shoa) and 5 districts (Adami Tulu, Bako Tibe, Dano, Dugda and Haromaya) in Oromia. Observations were taken as group measure performing weighted analyses. GxE was only present for egg number with magnitude strongest for zone. S-RIR performed best for both traits in both environments, except Kuroiler performing better in East Shoa for egg number and Koekoek for egg weight. This indicates success of crossbreed S-RIR. Sasso and Horro performed worst supported by previous research for Horro but not Sasso. Low precipitation in East Shoa caused bigger distance in egg number predictions, being higher for S-RIR and lower for Horro and Sasso compared to West Shoa. Apart from these final conclusions, social context of breeding and data collection difficulties should not be forgotten. 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Proceedings of the 10th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, Vancouver, Canada. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/78502Wondmeneh, E. et al. (2014b). Adoption of exotic chicken breeds by rural poultry keepers in Ethiopia. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A — Animal Science, 64(4), 210-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064702.2015.1005658Wondmeneh, E. et al. (2015). Village poultry production system: Perception of farmers and simulation of impacts of interventions. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 11(24), 2075-2081. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2015.10493Wondmeneh, E. et al. (2016). Comparison of different poultry breeds under station and on-farm conditions in Ethiopia. Livestock Science, 183, 72-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2015.11.019

"Todo es diseño, ¡todo!" Paul Rand

El diseño se desarrolla de forma práctica con fines comunicativos en la sociedad, éste se ha consolidado dentro de los aspectos comerciales más importantes de las organizaciones, debido a los requerimientos del mundo globalizado y a la gran demanda de diseño. El diseño involucra métodos y soluciones a problemas específicos de comunicación partiendo desde la identificación a través de procesos técnicos, la utilización de elementos diversos que finalmente componen un proyecto visual, generador de rentabilidad
El auge comunicacional ha impulsado la aplicación de la disciplina por su versatilidad para resolver problemas, situándolo en un punto de reflexión y análisis desde diferentes áreas. "Nunca se había hablado tanto del diseño hasta que los mass-media1 se apropiaron de él como si de un producto más, vendible en páginas y pantallas, se tratara". (Zimmermann, 2002, p. 55)
Para Chaves N. (2009) hace algunos años todavía no se consideraba cosa seria el analizar problemáticas de índole visual y mucho menos dar retribución por un trabajo que a la vista de todos no era más que habilidad plástica heredada2 . El diseño es una práctica heterogénea en la que se unifican variantes técnicas, metodológicas, culturales y estilísticas, estas acciones colaboran al desarrollo de un ambiente económico en el mercado
En este contexto, la globalización y el incremento de la comunicación han favorecido los procesos por los que atraviesa el diseño, brindando a las organizaciones elementos que favorecen su aplicación. El diseño en las organizaciones creativas favorece el cumplimiento de los objetivos, aportando diferenciación e innovación que resultan en una comunicación eficaz y en una mejor organización, además colabora en la solución de hábitos y rutinas comunicacionales que generan problemas.
Por naturaleza, el diseño exige la búsqueda de soluciones. A finales de la década de los noventa e inicios del siglo XXI Argentina sufrió una importante crisis política y económica; la que se vio sucedida por cambios en los gobiernos de turno, manifestaciones continuas, crisis financiera, la desaparición de la convertibilidad, la retención de los depósitos bancarios fueron entre otros, los principales elementos de la crisis. Esta etapa provocó grandes tasas de desempleo en diferentes áreas de negocios, los diseñadores por su parte, los que trabajaban en relación de dependencia, fueron destituidos de sus cargos en agencias y estudios de diseño, quedando expuestos a abandonar la profesión o buscar alternativas ocupacionales. En este punto de crisis donde los empleos se veían cada vez más reducidos, el diseñador buscó la manera de continuar ejerciendo su profesión de manera más propia al margen de los acontecimientos que sucedían en el país. La manera de solventar los gastos y de generar trabajo se vio concretada en el desarrollo de emprendimientos, constituyéndose como FreeLancer3 o estableciendo estudios de diseño desde sus propios hogares. Según el Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial (INTI), la crisis del 2001 estimuló a que Argentina se situara entre los diez países más emprendedores a nivel mundial y que el rubro del diseño tomará un papel más relevante sobre todo en la ciudad de Buenos Aires
Con la crisis surgieron gran cantidad de estudios de diseño dirigidos por profesionales que perdieron su trabajo o aquellos que empezaban su vida laboral. En la actualidad la creación de estudios de diseño se encuentra en aumento permanente gracias al fortalecimiento de los conocimientos sobre gestión que posee el diseñador. Esto ha significado una sociedad generadora de empleo y estudios innovadores, que son organizaciones que llevan un proceso firme de actualización comercial, organizacional y comunicacional
En los últimos años la ciudad de Buenos Aires ha experimentado la rápida evolución de las disciplinas de comunicación, la cultura de diseño representa un objeto de estudio importante por la gran cantidad de espacios publicitarios que se permiten emitir, y por el incremento de estudios de diseño que se ven en la necesidad de planificar o gestionar sus organizaciones para mejorar el desempeño, gestionar de mejor manera los procesos, identificar correctamente los problemas y ofrecer soluciones concretas
El correcto direccionamiento de los estudios creativos como del diseño mismo, genera información que permite a los diseñadores mejorar su desempeño y adoptar beneficios tanto empresariales como económicos. La gestión del diseño4 se encuentra definida como el conjunto de actividades, metodologías y técnicas que maximiza el uso de los recursos disponibles y que permite además, obtener los objetivos del proyecto en el que se encuentra involucrado el diseñador como el encargado de realizar dichas actividades
De la misma manera la gestión del estudio de diseño permite mantener y desarrollar un conjunto de atributos y valores intangibles en un servicio, una marca, un proyecto o un producto, que se establezcan muy alto en la mente del cliente, de tal manera que se crea mucho prestigio y un gran valor de los productos o servicios que están asociados al nombre del estudio. La presente Tesis se centra en el análisis de los resultados obtenidos de los estudios de dise- ño de la ciudad de buenos Aires, concretamente desde una perspectiva que vincula al dise- ñador, su empresa y la gestión, tratando de integrar un modelo que adopte los principales aspectos por los que se destacaron a partir de situaciones de coyunturas económicas, sociales y culturales del país que obligaron a los diseñadores a organizar su propia empresa.
Según la encuesta elaborada por la consultora Grant Thorton, de la ciudad de Chicago en el año 2011, Buenos Aires se encuentra en el quinto puesto del ranking mundial de optimismo empresarial, en donde se hace tangible un mercado viable para la comunicación y el diseño por el alto índice empresarial que en esta existe y por la gran demanda de sectores anunciantes para el desarrollo del rubro gráfico particularmente.

Orden y Justificación del trabajo
La investigación plantea el siguiente orden de trabajo, basándose en el análisis de los temas expuestos, realiza un recorrido que justifica la hipótesis planteada en el que se aborda los diferentes conceptos, teorías y metodologías que se emplean en la gestión y el correcto direccionamiento tanto de los estudios de diseño como de los procesos que le son propios. El orden se detalla de la siguiente manera
El capítulo uno aborda la importancia del diseño en Argentina, particularmente en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, la generalización de los estudios de diseño, el crecimiento y la viabilidad para formar un emprendimiento que pueda llegar a ser exitoso mediante el diseño y la gestión tanto de las estrategias utilizadas como de la elección correcta por parte del diseñador y de las acciones que le permitieron consolidar su estudio de diseño
En el capítulo dos se trata sobre los aspectos comerciales del diseño, la exposición de autores y su posición frente a este fenómeno y las cualidades que posee el diseñador, su visión y análisis hacia el mercado local. Además, del abordaje y la inclusión del diseñador en la gestión y dirección del estudio
El tercer capítulo está dedicado al análisis y la observación del diseñador en los nuevos mercados, ya que son estos los que generan nuevos retos para el profesional, así también la implementación de estrategia y gestión en los modelos empresariales de los estudios de diseño que en un primer acercamiento fueron concebidos de manera empírica por otra parte se realiza un análisis sobre la reconversión en los nuevos mercados sobre el diseño. El cuarto capítulo está dedicado al análisis e interpretación de las entrevistas a profesionales del diseño, así como el relevamiento de información en las dimensiones de crecimiento, consolidación y éxito y como enfrentaron los momentos de crisis en sus estudios. Además identificar los momentos claves de los estudios de diseño dentro de la concepción, el posicionamiento y la diferenciación de los mismos
Por último se presenta la metodología utilizada, las bases que la sustentan por medio del análisis y la comparación en contexto con el objeto de estudio. Se plantea el modelo teó- rico que sirve de base para contrastar la hipótesis y describir la metodología utilizada en la presente investigación. Finalizando con los conclusiones del autor a criterio personal.

Objetivo General
Como objetivo general plantea analizar la gestión implementada en los estudios de diseño, Gorricho, Tricota, Lipina y Krill, juntamente con la implementación de planes y políticas que se ejecutaron para consolidar el estudio de diseño como organización en la ciudad de Buenos Aires.

Objetivos Específicos
Sus objetivos específicos son determinar las estrategias competitivas y de crecimiento utilizadas por los estudios de diseño para sostener su rentabilidad; explorar los problemas que tuvieron los diseñadores en las distintas etapas del crecimiento de su organización y los factores que lo desencadenaron; analizar la gestión de los estudios, identificando los riesgos y factores de resistencia que han enfrentado y las medidas propuestas para superarlos; identificar las herramientas de Gestión Empresarial que permitieron construir y desarrollar la competitividad y el posicionamiento de su empresa; y analizar las estrategias de costo que se utilizaron como consecuencia de factores económicos y frente a sus competidores.

Hipótesis
Por otro lado, sostiene la hipótesis que la gestión implementada en los estudios de dise- ño: Gorricho, Tricota, Lipina y Krill, favorecieron su consolidación como organizaciones estructuradas, contribuyendo al desarrollo profesional del diseñador y su estudio en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, en el período 2002-2012.

Pertinencia a líneas temáticas planteadas en la maestría
El presente trabajo de investigación se encuentra dentro la línea temática que estudia empresas y marcas, la relación que existe entre el diseño, la gestión y las economías que son generadas a partir de los nexos que existen entre ellos. Esta investigación se acerca a este fenómeno a través del análisis, el enfoque y los factores que contribuyen a explicar el éxito en los estudios de diseño y particularmente en facilitar el esfuerzo de dichas organizaciones a través de la innovación y el conocimiento que posee el diseñador
Los estudios de diseño son organismos que ha aportado gran valor comercial y económico en la ciudad, y han formado expectativas para el avance del conocimiento sobre el diseño y la gestión de los mismos estudios así como del diseño en particular.

Notas
1. Mass-media: Según la Real academia de la lengua, es el conjunto de los medios de comunicación
2. Norberto Chaves realiza un análisis sobre el diseño y su concepción en la actualidad
3. FreeLancer: Se denomina trabajador freelance o freelancer o consultor a la persona cuya actividad consiste en realizar trabajos propios de su ocupación, oficio o profesión, de forma autónoma
4. Gestión del Diseño: Es una disciplina empresarial que utiliza la gestión de proyectos, el diseño, la estrategia y las técnicas de la cadena de suministro para el control de un proceso creativo, el apoyo a una cultura de la creatividad y la construcción de una estructura y organización para el diseño.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Adavalli-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 474 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 70 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 26 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 2 per cent extremely gravelly (60- 80% gravel) soils.  About 27 per cent of the area has very low (200mm/m) available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 69 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (10 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 56 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 2 per cent and 40 per cent is high (>1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 260 (55) 91 (19) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 139 (29) Groundnut - 26 (6) Musambi 139 (29) 187 (39) Sunflower 139 (29) 187 (39) Lime 139 (29) 187 (39) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 260 (55) 91 (19) Drumstick - 326 (69) Amla - 351 (74) Mulbery 351 (74) Tamarind - 139 (29) Pomegranate - 326 (69) Marigold - 351 (74) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 351 (74) Mango - - Jasmine - 26 (6) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Adavalli-4 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15019' – 15021' North latitudes and 75055' – 75057' East longitudes, covering an area of about 473.70 ha, bounded by Kavalura village and Yelburga taluk. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 51 to 49 per cent to the total sample population  Younger age groups of population is around 64 per cent to the total population  Literacy population is around 75per cent  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 89 per cent.  Around 33 % of farmers have taken yeshaswini health cards  Majority of farm households (89 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 89 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 11 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 14 per cent of sample households.  Women participation is decision making is found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.47 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation only among 32 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 59 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 8091 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets values is around 5 lakhs, about 11 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average livestock values are around Rs 16917 per livestock. The average milk produced is 1680 litter per lactation per animal.  The average fodder availability is 1044 kg/ha on season for the livestock feeding.  The average per capita food consumption is around 584 grams (1628.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 100 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 98238 per household. About 56 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 715 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 7004 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 3309315 per year for the total area of 473.7 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 10177/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in Red gram (Rs 26171/ha) followed by Sorghum (Rs 13486/ha), Green gram (Rs. 9269/ha), sunflower (Rs. 8763), Bengal gram (Rs. 2578) and Maize (Rs. 1525).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 1805/ ha/year. Per ha a fodder production service is maximum in maize (Rs 2947) and followed by Sorghum (Rs. 663)  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in Red gram (Rs 67233) followed by green gram (Rs 51173), bengal gram (Rs 45488), sorghum (Rs. 36719), sunflower (Rs 26257) and maize (Rs 998). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (29.97 %) followed by sorghum (20.64 %), Bengal gram (20.44 %), green gram (15.33 %), Maize (8.51 %) and red gram (5.11 %).  In Adavalli-4 Microwatershed, soil major soil series is Muttal (MTL) soil series are having shallow soil depth cover around 22 per cent of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing is sunflower. Handrala (HDL) soil series are 3 having deep soil depth cover around 7 per cent of area, major crop grown are bengal gram (50 %), Red gram (25 %) and Green gram (25 %). Bardur (BDR) soil series are very deep soil depth cover around 18 per cent area, crop grown are maize (53 %) and Sunflower (47 %). Narasapura (NSP) and Dambarahalli (DRL) soils series moderately deep soil depth cover around 27 % and 14 % of area respectively. The major crop grown is Sorghum, Sunflower, Bengal gram and Green gram.  The total cost of cultivation in study area for sunflower ranges between Rs. 21372/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.69) and Rs. 12514/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.11).  In green gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 27561/ha in HDL soils (with BCR of 1.08) and Rs. 19249/ ha in NSP soil (with BCR of 1.62).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 30120/ha in HDL soil (with BCR of 1.03) and Rs. 23566 /ha in NSP soils (with BCR of 1.03).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs Rs. 14565/ha in DRL soils is (with BCR of 1.66) and Rs. 11171/ha in HDL soils (with BCR of 1.7).  In red gram the cost of cultivation in HDL soil is Rs 19857/ha (with BCR of 2.24) and maize cultivation in BDR soils of Rs. 17224/ha with BCR of (1.13). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in Sunflower (8.9 %), bengal gram (16.7 to 35. %), maize (85.6 %), red gram (9.1 %), sorghum (20 to 50.5 %) and sunflower (44.4 to 57.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 494 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, one per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area is having clayey soils at the surface.  About 61 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 35per cent has gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 3 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  With respect to available water capacity 48 per cent of the area has low (51-100 mm/m), 3 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 49 per cent area has very high (>200mm/m) .  An area of about 2 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 97 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 7 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 92 per cent has very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 42 per cent, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 9 per cent and high (>1.0ppm) in 49 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable class (S1) and moderately suitable class (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 489(99) Guava - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 241(49) Groundnut - 233(47) Musambi - 256(52) Sunflower - 256(52) Lime - 256(52) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 489(99) Drumstick - 256(52) Amla 489(99) Mulbery 489(99) Tamarind - 241(49) Mango - - Marigold - 489(99) Sapota - Chrysanthemum - 489(99) Pomegranate - 256 (52) Jasmine - 233(47) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri-2 micro-watershed is located between 15019' – 15021' North latitudes and 75053' – 75055' East longitudes, covering an area of about 494.48 and bounded by Kavalura, Gudigeri villages and Yelburga Taluk in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 58 to 42 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 54 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 81 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 50 per cent.  Majority of farm households (75 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 75 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 3.9 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 33 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decision making is not found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 4.02 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation only among 7 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 80 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 17125 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets values is around 1.2 lakhs, about 75 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average per capita food consumption is around 643 grams (1443 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 75 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 11683 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 775 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 5756 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 2806682 per year for the total area of 494.8 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 2163/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs 3055 /ha) followed by green gram (Rs 2522/ha), groundnut (Rs 1574) and sorghum (1554).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 5867/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs 3000 /ha) followed by sorghum (Rs 1600 /ha) and groundnut (Rs 1000/ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in green gram (Rs 34116) followed by sorghum (Rs 22586), sunflower (Rs 16628), groundnut (Rs 11453) and Maize (Rs 6037). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is green gram (32 %) followed by Groundnut (19.4 %), maize (19.4 %), sunflower (16.1%) and sorghum (12.9 %).  In Gudigeri-2 micro watershed, major soils are Muttal (MTL) series are having shallow soil deep. On this soil farmers are presently growing green gran (50 %) and groundnut (50 %). Ravanki (RNK) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 47 per cent of area, major crops grown are maize. Gatareddaha (GRH) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 17 % of 3 area, the major crop grown is sunflower and Murlapur (MLR) soil series are Very deep soil deep cover around 25 % of area, the crops grown are green gram (50%) and sorghum (50 %).  The total cost of cultivation in study area for green gram ranges between Rs.14140/ha in MLR soil (with BCR of 1.33) and Rs.12466/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.19).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.14355/ha (with BCR of 1.23).  In maize the cost of cultivation in RNK soil is Rs.12633/ha (with BCR of 1.08).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation in soil GHR is Rs.13056/ha (with BCR of 1.32) and Sorghum cost of cultivation in MLR soil is Rs.14007/ha (with BCR of 1.18). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in green gram (20 %), groundnut (53.7%), maize (91.3%), sorghum (60%) and sunflower (55.6%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri North-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 448ha in Koppaltalukand district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent bywaterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 67 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 23 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 8 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 65 per cent of the area has low (51-100 mm/m), 4 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 30 per cent very high (>200mm/m) available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 47 per cent has soils that are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0)and about 52 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 69 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 30 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershedwere assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 4 (<1) 326 (72 ) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 133(29) Groundnut - 181 (40) Musambi 4(<1) 145 (32) Sunflower 4 (<1) 145 (31) Lime 4(<1) 145 (32) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 4 (<1) 326 (73) Drumstick - 149 (32) Amla 329 (73) Mulbery 329 (73) Tamarind - 133 (30) Pomegranate - 149 (33) Marigold - 329 (72) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 329 (73) Mango - - Jasmine - 181(40) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri North-1 micro-watershed is located in between 15020' – 15021' North latitudes and 75054' – 75056' East longitudes, covering an area of about 448.57 ha and bounded by Kavalura, Gudigeri villages and Yelburga Taluk in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52 to 47 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 54 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 54.3 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 87.5 per cent.  About 12.5 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (50 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 100 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 62.5 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 2.2 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 37.5 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decisions making are around 12.5 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 23 per cent and Agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 60 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 24875 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs 197441 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average livestock value is around Rs 39067 per livestock; about 62.5 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 675 grams (1515 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 4909 per household. About 12.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 752 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 7121 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 3086740 per year for the total area of 448.57 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 1500/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 5102/ha) followed by sunflower (Rs 2224/ha) and green gram (Rs 2149).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 2779/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in Sorghum (Rs 2964 /ha) followed by Maize (Rs 2470 /ha) (Rs 14/ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 46909) followed by Green gram (Rs 32659), Sunflower (Rs 21683), sorghum (Rs 18821) and maize (Rs 12073). Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is green gram (48.2%) followed by sunflower (23.1%), bengal gram (12.7 %), maize (9.5 %) and sorghum (6.4 %). 3  In Gudigeri North-1 micro watershed, major soils are Muttal (MTL) soil series are having very shallow soil depth covers around 25.1 % of area. On the soil farmers are presently growing are green gram (44.4 %), maize (16.7 %) and sorghum (11.1 %). Ravanaki (RNK) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 40.32 % of area, crops growing sunflower (41.9 %) and green gram (76.6 %). Gatareddihalla (GRH) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 28.69 per cent of area; crops are bengal gram and sunflower.  The total cost of cultivation in the study area for green gram ranges between Rs.17355/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.09) and Rs.10274/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.35).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs 22200/ha in GRH soil (with of 1.03) and Rs.18544/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.13).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs.17047/ha (with BCR of 1.08).  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in GRH soil is Rs.22068/ha (with BCR of 1.23) and maize cultivation in MTL soil is Rs 18148/ha (with BCR of 1.12). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (23.6 %), sunflower (33.3 to 50.6 %), green gram (14 to 43.7 %), maize (82.6 %) and sorghum (66.7 %) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 563 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Major area of about 93 per cent has clayey soils at the surface and a small area of 4 per cent has loamy soils.  About 60 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 26 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 11 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 29 per cent area has low (51-100 mm/m), 9 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 59 per cent area very high (>200mm/m) available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 9 per cent area has slightly eroded and about 88 per cent area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) and 91 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Entire area has high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 58 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 40 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in about 94 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 4 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 2 (<1) 382 (68) Guava - - Maize - - Jackfruit - 336 (59%) Bajra - - Jamun - 336 (59%) Groundnut - 45 (8%) Musambi - 384 (68%) Sunflower - 384 (68) Lime - 384 (68%) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 2 (<1) 427 (76%) Drumstick - 429 (76%) Amla - 430 (76%) Mulbery 430 (76) Tamarind - 335 (59%) Mango - 18 (3%) Marigold - 385 (68%) Sapota - - Chrysanthemum - 385 (68%) Pomegranate - 384 (68) Jasmine - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri-1 micro-watershed is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 75053' – 75055' East longitudes, covering an area of about 563.04 ha and bounded by Kavalura and Gudigeri villages in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER) – 3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 46 to 54 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 65 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 85 per cent  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 50 per cent.  Around 50 % of farmers have taken yeshaswini health cards.  Majority of farm households (83 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 67 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 66 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 11 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 33 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decision making is not found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.29 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation only among 19 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 54 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 13500 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets values is around 5 lakhs, about 33 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The average per capita food consumption is around 707 grams (1530 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 75 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 13244 per household. About 83.3 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 886 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 6389 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 3501368 per year for the total area of 550 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 2529/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in green gram (Rs 3948 /ha) followed by sunflower (Rs 2550/ha), bengal gram (Rs 178) and Bajra (Rs 61).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 1600/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in bajra (Rs 1600 /ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs 45488) followed by green gram (Rs 30135), bajra (Rs 27639) and sunflower (Rs 27796). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is green gram (43 %) followed by sunflower (28 %), Bajra (8.6 %) and bengal gram (6.5 %). Due to erratic and less rain fall farmers are having 13.5 % of land under fallow.  In Gudigeri-1 micro watershed, major soils are Maralapur (MLR) series area very deep. On this soil farmers are presently growing sunflower (56 %) and green gram (44 %), Muttal (MTL) soil series are having shallow soil depth cover around 22 per cent of area, major crops grown are sunflower (50%) followed by maize (31%) and bengal gram (19 %). Gatareddaha (GRH) and Nagalapur (NGR) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 11 % and 9 % of area, respectively. The major crop grown is green ram, bengal gram, sorghum and sunflower.  The total cost of cultivation in study area for green gram ranges between Rs.10400/ha in MLR soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs.12356/ha in GRH soil (with BCR of 1.20). 3  In bengal gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 31861/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.43) and Rs. 26165/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.06).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.14580/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.19) and Rs.8589/ha in MLR soil (with BCR of 1.29).  In bajra the cost of cultivation in DRL soil is Rs.12289/ha (with BCR of 1.09).  In maize the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs. 20245/ha (with BCR of 1.05) and sorghum cost of cultivation in NGP soil is Rs. 18171/ha (with BCR of 1.78). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (82 %), bajra (53 %), sunflower (33 to 68 %), green gram (20 to 40 %) and bengal gram (26 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mannur-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 727 ha in Mannur-1 microwatershed in Afzalpur taluk of Kalaburgi district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 680 mm, of which about 482 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 119 mm during north-east and the remaining 79 mm during the rest of the year. 85 per cent area is covered by soils and remaining 15 per cent is by habitation and waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to one soil series and 4 soil phases (mapping units) and one land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 18 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area has very deep (>150 cm) soils n the microwatershed.  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area has non-gravelly soils in the microwatershed.  Entire area of about 727 ha (85%) has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 70 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 15 per cent area is gently sloping (0-1% slope) sloping lands.  An area of about 51 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1), 33 per cent moderately eroded (e2) and less than one per cent soils are severely eroded (e3).  Entire area is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 -9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 36 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 5 per cent area.  Available boron is low (0.5%) in 4.5ppm) in iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Entire area has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 18 major crops (agricultural and horticultural) grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, farm price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 616 (85) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Red gram - 616 (85) Jamun - 616 (85) Sunflower - 616 (85) Musambi 372 (51) 244 (34) Cotton - 616 (85) Lime 372 (51) 244 (34) Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean - 616 (85) Custard apple 611 (84) 5 (<1) Guava - - Amla 375 (51) 244 (34) Mango - - Tamarind - (6165) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the one identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass, which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and help to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Mannur-1 Microwatershed (Mannur sub-watershed, Afzalpur taluk and Gulbarga district) is located in between 17017' – 17019' North latitudes and 7603' – 7606' East longitudes, covering an area of about 727 ha, bounded by Agarkhed, Chikkamanur, Karajgi villages and Maharashtra State with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Mannur-1 Microwatershed (Mannur subwatershed, Afzalpur taluk and Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 65 to 35 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 79 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  About 50 per cent of households having Bhīma and Yashaswini health card.  Only 10.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards for food grain through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30.0 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 10 .0 per cent of farm households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 50.0 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.54 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 72.8 % and irrigated land 27.2 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation is around 91 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 22513 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 168445 per household, about 30 per cent of sample farmers having plough and weeder (30 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 49250 per households; about 73 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 885.7 grams (1944 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 33179 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 1338. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 795.55 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 490059 per year for the total area of 727.02 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 30747/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in onion (Rs.88666) followed by black gram (Rs.14268), redgram (Rs.13686) and bengalgram (Rs. 6367).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengal gram (Rs. 49249) followed by black gram (Rs. 66244), redgram (Rs. 50119) and sugarcane (Rs. 156235). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is bengalgram (37 %) followed by and sugarcane (9 %) and redgram (54 %). 3  In Mannur1 micro-watershed, major soil is Mannur series is having very deep soil. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengalgram (36.3 %), redgram (34.8 %) black gram (19.8 %) and sugarcane(9.1 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sugarcane ranges between Rs. 119647/ha in MAR soil (with BCR with of 1.74).  In redgram cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs 32345/ha (BCR with of 1.48)  In bengalgram cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs. 25724/ha (with BCR of 1.59).  In blackgram cost of cultivation in MAR soil is Rs. 24101/ha (with BCR of 1.59).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengalgram (51.3 %), Sugarcane (44.6 %), redgram ( 24.6 %) and blackgram (1.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Adavalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 427 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 42 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 45 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 10 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35- 80% gravel) soils.  About 49 per cent of the area has very low (200mm/m) available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 12 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) and 85 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (10 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 72 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 25 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 145 (34) 236 (55%) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun - 159 (37) Groundnut - 205 (48%) Musambi 145 (34) 60 (14) Sunflower 145 (34%) 60 (14) Lime 145(34%) 60 (14%) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 159 (37) 222 (52) Drumstick - 205 (48) Amla - 381 (89) Mulbery 381 (89) Tamarind - 159 (37) Pomegranate - 205 (48) Marigold - 381 (89) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 381 (89) Mango - - Jasmine - 176 (41) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Adavalli-1 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 75053' – 75055' East longitudes, covering an area of about 426.80 ha, bounded by Kavalura village. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that among the sample farm households Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 41 to 59 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 groups of population is around 66.6 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 48.1 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 62.5 per cent.  About 25 per cent of households have a Yashiswini health card.  Majority of farm households (100 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 100 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 25 per cent.  Institutional participation is only 13 per cent.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 50 per cent.  Women participation is decisions making are not found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.18 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 33 per cent and Agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 55.56 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 15415 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value are around 2 lacks per household, about 12.5 per cent of sample farmers owned tractors.  The average livestock value is around Rs 30000 per livestock; about 25 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 625 grams (1539 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 32775 per household. About 12.5 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 705 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 7526 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 3100732 per year for the total area of 426.80 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 2552/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs 4009/ha) followed by sorghum (Rs 3383/ha), Bengal gram (Rs. 1554/ha) and Maize (Rs. 1264/ha).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 615/ ha/year of maize crops.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 25587) followed by Sunflower (Rs 16843), sorghum (Rs 16939) and maize (Rs 7043). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is Maize (49.52 %) followed by sunflower (29.26 %), Bengal gram (6.43 %), Sorghum (6.43 %) and green gram (2.36 %).  In Adavalli-1 micro watershed, major soils are Belagatti (BGT) soil series are having very shallow soil depth covers around 6.02 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing is maize. Ravanaki (RNK) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 42.63 % of area, crops growing Sunflower (67.72 %) and Bengal gram (32.28 %). Handral (HDL) soil series are having deep soil 3 depth cover around 24.16 per cent of area; crops are Maize (65.12 %), Sorghum and Sunflower (17.39 %) each.  The total cost of cultivation in the study area for Sunflower ranges between Rs. 15287/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.01) and Rs. 7592/ha in HDL soil (with BCR of 1.56).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 10528/ha in BGT soil (with of 1.06) and Rs. 9779/ha in HDL soil (with BCR of 1.01).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in HDL soil is Rs. 7612/ha (with BCR of 1.31) and Bengal gram cultivation in RNK soil is Rs. 14100/ha (with BCR of 1.1). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (57.5 %), sorghum (18.8 %), sunflower (11.3 %) and bengal gram (9 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigeri-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 552 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by waterbodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 48 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 41 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 8 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 6 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m), 23 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 69 per cent very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 12 per cent area is slightly eroded and about 86 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Entire area is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  Entire area is low in available phosphorus.  Major area of about 91 per cent has high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about 6 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 80 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 18 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in major area of about 88 per cent and sufficient in 10 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 266 (48) 271 (49%) Guava - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Bajra - - Jamun 379 (69%) Groundnut - 27 (5%) Musambi 252(46%) 255 (46%) Sunflower 252 (46%) 255 (46%) Lime 252(46%) 255 (46%) Chilli - - Cashew - - Tomato - - Custard apple 266 (48) 271 (49) Drumstick - 507 (92%) Amla 536 (97%) Mulberry - 536 (97%) Tamarind 379 (69%) Mango - 127 (23%) Marigold 536 (97%) Sapota - - Chrysanthemum 536 (97%) Pomegranate 508 (92%) Jasmine 29 (5%) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Gudigeri-4 micro-watershed is located in between 15018' – 15020' North latitudes and 75055' – 75057' East longitudes, covering an area of about 552.30 and bounded by Kavalura, and Gudigeri villages in Koppal taluk and district. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 daysWe used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54 to 46 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age groups of population is around 47 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent.  Around 50 % of farmers have taken yeshaswini health cards.  Majority of farm households (75 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 83 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 583 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 10.7 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 17 per cent of farm households.  Women participation is decision making is not found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.2 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 52 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 24 per cent of sample households. 2  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 7874 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets values is around 1.01 lakhs, about 17 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors.  The highest livestock population of bullocks are 16.7 per cent for cultivation of land.  The average per capita food consumption is around 665 grams (1692 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 100 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 40366 per household. About 50 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 763 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 8516 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 4233959 per year for the total area of 552.3 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 9515/ ha/year Per ha food production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs 10859 /ha) followed by bengal gram (Rs 9404), green gram (Rs 8824/ha) and bajra (Rs 964).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 673/ ha/year. Per ha fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs 726 /ha) followed by bengal gram (Rs 576 /ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bajra (Rs 66123) followed by bengal gram (Rs 56627), green gram (Rs 40362), sunflower (Rs 21197) and sorghum (Rs 11071). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is sunflower (32 %) followed by green gram (24 %), sorghum (18 %), bengal gram (15 %) and bajra (5.4 %).  In Gudigeri-4 micro watershed, major soils are Kavalur (KVR) series are having deep soil deep cover around 25 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing green gram (17 %), sunflower (49 %), sorghum (26 %) and bengal gram (8 %). Bardur (BDR) and Kadagathu (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 35 per cent and 22 per cent of area, respectively, major crops grown are bengal gram (25 %), green gram (50 %), sunflower (25 %) and bajra. 3  The total cost of cultivation in study area for bengal gram ranges between Rs. 23449/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.16) and Rs. 17274/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 2.23).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs 18426/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 1.92) and Rs. 12619/ha in BDR soil (With BCR of 1.23).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 16642/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.32) and Rs. 10307/ha in KVR soil (with BCR of 1.08).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in KVR soil is Rs. 6751/ha (with BCR of 1.08) and Bajra the cost of cultivation in KDT soil is Rs. 13452/ha (with BCR of 1.21). Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (2.9 to 12.7 %), green gram (7.2 to 21.2), sorghum (80.4 %) and sunflower (52.4 to 38.4). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Niall Ferguson ha completado una rigurosa saga sobre las virtudes, limitaciones, ascenso y declinación de Occidente. Su último trabajo, "Civilization, the West and the Rest" (Penguin, 2011), es por sí solo un notable análisis histórico del inédito "liberal Project" que se desarrolló en un extremo de Eurasia desde el siglo XVI en adelante. Sin embargo, es posible e incluso necesario tomarlo como la secuela de "Empire, The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power" (Allen Lane, 2003) y "Colossus, The Price of America´s Empire" (Penguin, 2004). Como parte de una trilogía, este libro posee un notable valor histórico y analítico. El libro comienza detallando la considerable supremacía y el alto nivel de desarrollo que hace 500 años Oriente mostraba sobre aquello que hoy conocemos como Occidente. Por ejemplo, la comparación que Ferguson lleva a cabo entre el nivel de desarrollo tecnológico de la armada china y la armada española es reveladora. Paso seguido, el autor señala las 6 características que explican el exitoso desempeño primero de Europa continental y, luego, de esa otra parte de Europa que esAmérica: la competencia, la ciencia, la propiedad o estado de derecho, la medicina, la sociedad de consumo y la ética del trabajo.Una revolución geopolítica y económica representa el ascenso de uno(s) y la declinación de otro(s). Ferguson sostiene que asistimos a un cambio de paradigma después de 500 años de dominación Occidental y desarrolla una rigurosa explicación sobre las razones que llevaron a Occidente a comenzar a superar a Oriente (mas particularmente, a China) a partir del año 1500. El autor remarca que"…the principal question addressed in this book increasingly seems to be the most interesting question a historian can ask. Just why, beginning around 1500, did a few small polities of the Western end of the Eurasian landmass come to dominate the rest of the world, including the most populous and in many ways more sophisticated of Eastern Eurasia? My subsidiary question is this: if we can come up with a good explanation for the West past ascendancy, can then we offer a prognocis for its future? Is this really the end of the West´s world and the advent of a new Eastern epoch?" (1).En "Colossus", Ferguson había marcado el benigno papel del imperio informal americano en el largo siglo XX. La democracia mas antigua del mundo no solo se había convertido en imperio sino que ello suponía una condición necesaria para la prosperidad global, particularmente para aquellos actores secundarios y terciarios que no teníanlos mecanismos ni la capacidad para incorporarse por si solos a la nueva economía. Sin embargo, en "Colossus" Ferguson también exponía como el imperio informal americano ha carecido de determinadas herramientas burocráticas presentes, por ejemplo, en la notable vocación imperial británica. En parte, "Colossus" refleja que la necesaria presencia imperial americana pudo incluso tener secuelas mas promisorias si ese imperio informal, que ahora llega a su fin, hubiera asumido genuina y profundamente su rol en la historia contemporánea. "Civilization, The West and theRest" viene a fundamentar que ese noble rol ya no puede ser jugado ni por EE.UU. ni por Occidente.En un tema tan trillado es difícil ser original y el autor lo logra. Para ello, recurre a un sofisticado análisis histórico y analítico basado, al menos en parte, en una hipótesis: Oriente, particularmente China, ha incorporado eficientemente 5 de las 6 características que han generado el inédito bienestar contemporáneo de las sociedades Occidentales. Para Ferguson, solo faltaría la propiedad o el estado de derecho. Sin embargo, podemos pensar que el estado de derecho o Rule of Law es, junto a la competencia y la ética del trabajo, los principales pilares de la exitosa experiencia que, a lo largo de 500 años, ha sido Occidente. En una medida, no es posible argumentar a favor (o en contra) de la economía de mercado y el libre comercio sin hacerlo primero sobre el marco institucional que le da vida. Un párrafo aparte merece la relevancia que alcanza para el autor el papel de la ética del trabajo. Basándose en el clásico libro de Max Weber, Ferguson rescata el papel que la ética protestante ha tenido en el desarrollo de los EE.UU. Por otro lado, el autor menciona que esta ética no es propiedad exclusiva de esa expresión religiosa. Es que hay una ética del trabajo en el catolicismo, budismo o confusionismo. Es posible que una de ellas sea mas eficiente que las otras, pero es claro que no existe solo una ética del trabajo para alcanzar el desarrollo. El libro realiza una selección de fotos reveladoras y una de ellas es la de un maduro Max Weber.El papel civilizador que ha tenido el imperio informal moderno que simboliza Occidente ha dejado secuelas positivas que trascenderán su incipiente declinación. El liberalismo como proyecto universal ha fracasado. Sin embargo, permanece vigente un conjunto de normas formales e informales que se han consolidado espontáneamente a lo largo de 500 años inéditos en la historia de la humanidad.Si bien en sus sucesivos libros es posible ver un intento premeditado de ser políticamente incorrecto, en "Civilization"Fergusonbusca y logra sopesar los grandes aciertos junto a las grandes miserias de Occidente. Solo después llega a la sólida conclusión que los aciertos han contribuido a un escenario donde el bienestar se ha democratizado. Este proceso de democratización del bienestar acontecido contemporáneamente en Occidente es inédito en la historia universal. En este punto, Ferguson hace bien en ser todo lo políticamente incorrecto que se pueda, ya que esta descripción posee una dimensión ética innegable: la academia, bien representada en la sofisticada costa este de los EE.UU., ha pasado gran parte de las últimas décadas cuestionando y exponiendo sólo las miserias de Occidente. Si bien ello ha sido para estos exponentes políticamente correcto y profesionalmente sofisticado, Ferguson expone las falencias de esta particular forma que ha tomado la hipocresía (Occidental).En cierto sentido, podemos marcar que para Ferguson es secundario cuánto le debe o deberá la nueva prosperidad de Oriente a las ideas, políticas e instituciones aprendidas de Occidente. No es este el punto principal. La nobleza de la civilización Occidental trasciende a la mayor o menor permanenciade sus ideas e instituciones en el "Eastern Project". En cambio, el valor de estos 500 años de preeminencia Occidental hay que encontrarlos en la aparición de una vocación universal que supuso incorporar la igualdad y la libertad como valores y aspiraciones mutuamente necesarias. Si es que Occidente y el "Liberal Project" descansaron en esta aspiración, su declinación relativa será relevante como situación geopolítica pero secundaria como símbolo. Mas aún, el siglo o la época de Oriente que comienza estará de alguna forma influido por estos 500 años donde la igualdad y la libertad han aparecido como valores universales, mas allá de su fracaso o incapacidad de devenir o permanecer (universalmente)en la nueva geopolítica global.Todo trabajo ambicioso tiene necesariamente puntos débiles y criticables. "Civilization" no es la excepción. Ferguson abusa del papel que, supuestamente, tienen los malos libros de historia en la formación parcial de las nuevas generaciones. Menciona demasiadas veces (en el libro, en sus clases o en sus reiteradas apariciones televisivas) que sus profesores de Historia tenían una visión global sobre el papel de Occidente mucho mas sofisticada que los profesores de sus hijos. Tal vez sea cierto. Sin embargo, tal vez sea solo una buena anécdota.Por otro lado, en el apartado sobre la propiedad (capítulo 3), el autor ocupa demasiado tiempo en la repetida y consabida comparación entre la conquista británica de América del Norte y la conquista ibérica, particularmente española, de América del Sur. El punto es importante y, ciertamente, relevante para el enfoque del libro. Sin embargo, mas allá de anécdotas puntuales, Ferguson no innova en la cuestión y se repite en innecesarias citas que reflejan la vocación autoritaria de personajes (como Bolívar) relevantes para América Latina pero poco relevantes para el objetivo del libro.Ferguson no es un historiador económico sino un original historiador que incorpora en sus análisis la rigurosidad de la economía. Es capaz de pasar de una mención sobre los agentes económicos relevantes en la revolución de 1848a describir el comportamiento probable del bono a 10 años del tesoro de los EE.UU. y mencionar como una agencia crediticia china (Dagong) ha rebajado en noviembre de 2010 la nota de la deuda de EE.UU. (de AA a A+, con perspectiva negativa) o a enumerar en la pagina 317 la estrategia de la inserción china en África.Paso seguido, en la página 319 el autor se pregunta: "What could go wrong for the ascending chinese dragon?". En principio, hay 4 diferentes hipótesis elaboradas por quienes pronostican un traspié. La primera es débil y se basa en la comparación con la experiencia japonesa de finales de los 80´. Es claro que si muchos analistas pronosticaron que Japón superaría a EE.UU. y fallaron, eso poco informa sobre la nueva confrontación por la supremacía. La segunda es mas sólida: China podría sucumbir ante incipientes demandas e incluso explosiones sociales, como efectivamente ha sucedido en el pasado en distintos procesos de modernización. Un tercer escenario es también razonable como problema: una creciente clase media articulándose para demandar una mayor participación política. La cuarta y última sostiene que el creciente poderío chino podría generar alarma en sus vecinos, haciendo que éstos buscaran un balance de poder, coaligándose con EE.UU.Como mencionamos, la notable secuela de Ferguson comienza en 2003 con la historia del auge y caída del imperio británico. El enfoque allí estaba dirigido a cuestionarse cuánto y qué puede aprender el imperio americano de su antecesor y mentor, el imperio británico. En 2004 Ferguson publica el original "Colossus". Entre 2003 y 2011, fecha de la publicación de "Civilization", el autor escribe una historia de la moneda ("TheAscent of Money, A Financial History of theWorld" (Penguin, 2008)). En alguna medida, podemos pensar que es una pieza que enriquece esta notable trilogía de la declinación de Occidente.Es posible ver tres presentaciones sobre "Civilization" (dos relativamente breves (una de las cuales es en BBC radio 4 y la otra en TED) y otra mas larga) en:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LxpO5SKlmPA http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpnFeyMGUs8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AORm8Nvoud4Niall Ferguson tiene una página web con información académica y de actualidad:http://www.niallferguson.com(1).-Fergusson, Niall (2011): "The west and the rest". Preface to the UK Edition.Página XV. En la mismalógica, el autor continua: "Put differently, are we witnessing the waning of an age when the greater part of the humanity was more or less subordinated to the civilization that arose in western Europe in the wake of the Renaissance and Reformation-the civilization that, propelled by the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, spread across the Atlantic and as far as the Antipodes, finally reaching its apogee during the Ages of revolution, Industry and Empire?"Página XV.*Licenciada en Relaciones Internacionales (Universidad Torcuato Di Tella-Argentina), maestrando en Arquitectura Urbana (Universidad Di Tella-Argentina)Ha sido Profesora Adjunta en Historia Economica (Universidad Di Tella-Argentina) *New York: Penguin, 2011. 402 páginas

Hacia fines de Septiembre tendrán lugar en Venezuela las elecciones legislativas para su Asamblea Nacional. Como resultado de la fallida estrategia abstencionista adoptada por las fuerzas opositoras durante las legislativas de 2005, este órgano de gobierno se encuentra ampliamente dominado por el Chavismo. Aquella derrota dejó su enseñanza y los opositores se reorganizaron logrando la mayoría para el "No" en el plebiscito lanzado por Chávez durante 2007; plebiscito que tenía la intención de lograr una reforma constitucional que posibilitara su reelección indefinida. Este objetivo, sin embargo, sería alcanzado por Chávez en Enero de 2009, al tiempo que se hacía evidente la siguiente situación: en tanto ninguna fuerza opositora logre erigirse como legítima representante de un proyecto reformista, democrático y popular, las bases del chavismo seguirán respondiendo al llamado de su líder. Esto pese a la decadente situación económica, social y política que afecta al conjunto de la sociedad venezolana. Ocurre que habiendo visto postergadas las respuestas a diversas problemáticas durante tanto tiempo, las clases pobres y sectores de la estrecha clase media venezolana no son permeables al discurso opositor, elaborado, básicamente, en torno a la condena al estilo antidemocrático del gobierno de Hugo Chávez. Para peor, las credenciales democráticas de muchos de estos críticos se vieron seriamente afectadas por su participación o apoyo al frustrado golpe de Estado de 2002. En tal contexto: a) el progresivo recorte de las libertades individuales y políticas, b) el avance sobre la propiedad privada, c) el estricto control de los medios de comunicación, d) el creciente uso de la intimidación y la violencia, e) la estigmatización de imaginarios enemigos externos, y f) la depredación de la otrora eficiente industria petrolera, son los fundamentos en que se apoya el régimen Chavista. Son comprensibles entonces las expectativas depositadas por distintos actores domésticos e internacionales en las próximas elecciones. De acuerdo a las razones antes enumeradas, el caso de Venezuela puede comprenderse empleando el concepto de illiberal democracy introducido por Fareed Zakaria. (1) El chavismo puede autodefinirse formalmente democrático por celebrar elecciones, pero ha hecho a un lado el conjunto de garantías y libertades propias de la tradición liberal, sin las cuales no es posible organizarse efectivamente para la competencia democrática. Chávez ha demostrado gran capacidad para controlar a la sociedad venezolana operando sobre distintas variables en el nivel doméstico. Sin embargo, el futuro de Venezuela está tan atado al mercado mundial del petróleo como lo estuvo su pasado, y en este mercado no existen artilugios retóricos, políticos, legales o militares capaces de alterar cuestiones tan objetivas como el volumen de petróleo exportado, la inversión requerida, la ubicación geográfica de las refinerías que procesan el petróleo extra-pesado y ácido de Venezuela, o el rol de Arabia Saudita al interior de la OPEC. Recientemente se ha re-abierto el debate en torno a los motivos del fracaso del proyecto industrial-nacional venezolano que tuvo por corolario el Caracazo de 1989.(2) Durante años la tesis de la "paradox of plenty" presentada por Terry Karl (3) explicó el destino venezolano a partir de una causalidad entre la abundancia de petróleo y el surgimiento de aparatos estatales centralizados, corruptos e ineficientes que daban lugar a luchas facciosas por la captura de la renta. De acuerdo a esta tesis fueron tales luchas las que descompusieron el sistema de partidos venezolano hasta hacerlo colapsar. Jonathan Di John, en su reciente libro,(4) ha enfatizado el rol que juegan las estrategias políticas de desarrollo, de modo tal que puedan comprenderse las diferencias en la performance venezolana previa a la década del 80' y con posterioridad a esta. Sin profundizar este debate, basta destacar aquí que Venezuela es altamente dependiente de su industria petrolera y que la misma se encuentra en un profundo estado de decadencia.DependenciaLa dependencia venezolana respecto del petróleo se expresa tanto en el plano doméstico como en el internacional. Fronteras adentro, Petróleos de Venezuela S.A. (PDVSA) es la mayor empleadora de fuerza de trabajo venezolana. Es responsable de dos terceras partes del PBI, del 50% de los ingresos gubernamentales, y del 80% de las exportaciones nacionales. (5) No resulta exagerado decir que lo que sucede en PDVSA se refleja inexorablemente en la sociedad venezolana. La exportación de petróleo ha sido en el pasado, y es en la actualidad, lo que hace posible el financiamiento de toda política gubernamental. En el mercado mundial del crudo, cuya elevada integración comercial ha dado lugar a la expresión "todo el petróleo proviene del mismo barril," Venezuela no sólo es dependiente del mercado estadounidense, sino que no puede escapar de las dinámicas globales que determinan el precio del crudo o el tipo de combustible demandado. Los volúmenes de petróleo importado por los EE.UU. proveen a Venezuela el 80% de sus divisas. Además, es en este país en donde se encuentran instaladas las refinerías y distribuidoras Venezolanas Citgo, creadas durante la década del 60'. Este complejo es capaz de procesar el pesado y ácido petróleo venezolano que llega al país luego de navegar por mar tan sólo cinco días. Si bien Chávez ha publicitado pomposamente los acuerdos comerciales con China, el país asiático aún no posee instalaciones para refinar el crudo. Mientras que la construcción de éstas supone una empresa billonaria. Por otra parte, las transacciones con China son encarecidas por el costo que implica trasportar durante seis semanas el crudo desde costas caribeñas al oriente asiático. DecadenciaEn respuesta a la huelga que los trabajadores de PDVSA llevaron adelante en 2002, Chávez despidió a 19.000 de los entonces 39.000 empleados. Entre los despedidos se encontraban dos tercios de los operarios más calificados: ingenieros y directores formados en la empresa durante décadas.(6) Los conflictos gremiales no han concluido y la expertise perdida no ha sido recuperada. Las estimaciones más confiables calculan que los volúmenes exportados por PDVSA han sufrido una reducción del 42% en el período que se extiende de 1997 a 2008, habiendo exportado 2,95 y 1,71 millones de barriles diarios respectivamente.(7) Mientras los EE.UU no han tenido inconvenientes para reemplazar el petróleo venezolano por petróleo nigeriano, el país de Chávez ha experimentado una pérdida neta de sus ganancias por exportación. Tan grave como el hecho de haberse reducido sus volúmenes de producción y exportación es que la empresa nacional venezolana se encuentra trabajando en su máxima capacidad; viéndose desprovista de lo que representa en el mercado mundial del petróleo el mayor atributo de poder de un productor: la capacidad ociosa instalada. Si bien las posibilidades reales que posee la OPEC para actuar como un cartel regulando el precio del crudo a partir del control de los volúmenes que ingresan al mercado son objeto de debate, no caben dudas de que en ciertas coyunturas Arabia Saudita ha demostrado tener ese poder, así como la voluntad política para utilizarlo. Este país posee las mayores reservas comprobadas, y dada su dotación de recursos, su política petrolera consiste en la venta sostenida y estable de grandes volúmenes en el largo plazo. Un jugador así en un mercado tan integrado representa un obstáculo formidable para actores como Chávez, que sin preocuparse por los volúmenes producidos buscan realizar ventas al mayor precio posible especulando durante coyunturas geopolíticas o alzas de precios traccionadas por la demanda. Si Brasil ingresara a la OPEC en el futuro cercano con una política afín a la de Arabia Saudita, la decadencia de Venezuela sería puesta aún más en evidencia. El pico alcanzado por el precio del petróleo en 2008 debido a la pérdida de capacidad ociosa a nivel global fue un fenómeno pluricausal: 1) los mercados de países desarrollados exigen cada vez más combustibles altamente refinados generando un cuello de botellas en las refinerías, 2) las crisis políticas en países productores como Iraq, Venezuela, Irán y Nigeria resultaron en ansiedad y reducciones reales, 3) durante el periodo 2004-2006 la creciente demanda de China e India se hizo sentir en los mercados.(8) El boom ha pasado y la experiencia histórica demuestra que al repuntar la demanda, esta nunca alcanza niveles previos dado que los consumidores introducen medidas de reducción del consumo.Hugo Chávez se vio beneficiado por un boom petrolero que le permitió contar con cuantiosas sumas de dinero y financiar así sus políticas internas. Sin embargo, la industria petrolera que proveyó dicho bienestar se encuentra en profunda decadencia y revertir tal proceso implicaría un proyecto de inversiones billonarias y trabajo sostenido en el largo plazo. Chávez y sus acólitos no parecen querer dedicarse a dicha iniciativa. Las compras millonarias de armamentos a Rusia o los ruidosos vínculos con el régimen iraní, no contribuyen en nada para alterar estos hechos, sino que anegan cada vez más al gobierno venezolano en el lodo de la confrontación a nivel internacional. Las reservas de petróleo venezolano se cuentan entre las principales del mundo y por tal motivo seguirán pesando en el mercado global. En la actualidad, los países consumidores y las compañías privadas han aprendido a vincularse con Venezuela de manera cautelosa, adoptando estrategias adaptativas. Trágicamente, la sociedad civil venezolana se encuentra en una disímil situación: tiene que enfrentar un constante deterioro de su calidad de vida y convivir con la reducción de las divisas que sostienen a un gobierno incrementalmente antidemocrático.(1) Zakaria, Fareed, ¨The Rise of Illiberal Democracy¨, Foreign Affairs, Noviembre-Diciembre de 2007. (2) Con este nombre se conoce a la serie de protestas cívicas que estallaron en Febrero de 1989 durante el gobierno de Carlos Andrés Pérez en respuesta a su plan de reformas estructurales conocido como ¨el paquetazo.¨ Aun hoy se desconoce el número de muertos, pero se lo estima en cientos.(3) Karl, Terry. The Paradox of Plenty, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1997.(4) Di John, Jonathan, From Windfall to Curse?: Oil and Industrialization in Venezuela, 1920 to the present. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009.(5) Sam, Fletcher; "PeMex, PDVSA, PetroBras: How strategies results differs", Oil and Gas Journal, 3 Agosto de 2009, Vol. 107.29(6) Espinasa, Ramon; "The Performance of the Venezuelan Oil Sector 1997-2008: Official vs. International and Estimated Figures," Energy Cooperation and Security Task Force, 26 de Febrero de 2009.(7) Ibidem.(8) Maugeri, Leonardo, ¨Understanding Oil Price Behavior through an Analysis of a Crisis¨, Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, 2009, 3:2, pp 147-166.*Sociólogo, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA)Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (Tesista) Schusterman Center for Israel Studies Fellow, Brandeis University

The project is based on the possibilities of a form of 'table-top' video sculpture, part architectural model, part video installation. Four of these 'table-top' pieces are be arranged in a darkened gallery, each simultaneously projecting perfectly synchronised, choreographed video sequences of the interior of four related architectural spaces. Each location has been shot using a repertoire of specific camera 'moves'. These movements were devised in strict relation to the particularity of the spaces and their features and are physically subject to the building itself. For this we had custom built two camera mounts - a three axis 360-degree pan and tilt head and a dolly or 'sled' to use balustrades or handrails as guides for tracking. With these devices the building were be literally used as the armature for a mobile camera. We were interested in architectural locations that are stylistically related, with strong linear organisation yet with distinctly different functions. We identified the work of Erich Mendelsohn and in particular the De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhill on Sea, the Schocken Department store building in Chemnitz, The Metal Workers' Union (IGM) Building in Berlin and the B'nai Amoona Synagogue in St. Louis, USA, (now the Centre of Contemporary Arts). Each of these 'signature' buildings offers the potential for treatment - curving stairways, projecting mezzanine floors etc. as well as being of significance beyond, in terms of architectural modernism, European design and European history. In addition to the three European buildings, the B'nai Amoona Synagogue, while not completing the story, more fully plots Mendlesohn's career; his origins in the East, his work in West Germany, his flight to England, and eventual residence in America. Obviously this is a story which is not untypical of that generation and that historical moment. Its significance is considerable in terms of the European influence on American art and design and the shift of a perceived centre, away from Europe, through the work of other celebrated German émigré architects such as Mies Van der Rohe and Walter Gropius. The video footage has been edited 'across' the three screens of each of the four table top 'models' to produce a fluid space in which the architecture of the building, and the experience of it, are re-drawn through the synchronised, continuous movement of three points of view, in, and across the four sites simultaneously. The work aims to construct an analogy between the serpentine fluidity of Mendelsohn's buildings, as canonical modernist architecture, the complex significance of the buildings and the 'motion-path' of a camera as it glides through this space. Formally, Motion Path engages with the problem of how to film a building - the relationship between cinematic poetics, that is; how to approach a building cinematically, and documentary; how to fuse the factual documentary film or the industrial film with abstract cinema? Initially we were interested in using work we had developed based on the idea of a virtual camera in a 3D computer-modelling programme. We wanted to attempt to move a camera through a real building as if it were in a digital 'fly through'. Here a number of connections can be made. Firstly; the history of architectural film and the use of film to introduce the public to modernist architecture; the idea of architectural film speaking directly to the public and generating an experience of modernist architecture that remained true to the characteristics of the building, and was perhaps even superior to the direct experience of that building (the space in it's idealised form). Examples here would be the films of Pierre Chenal, Man Ray and Hans Richter that emphasise the dynamics of modernist architecture. Their emphasis is on movement and circulation in order to experience the building as a set of changing relationships between vistas, voids, solids and apertures. Secondly there is much academic and historical writing on the links between architecture and film, and in particular the connection between the moving, restless camera in early architectural film and the distracted gaze of the spectator of architectural modernism. Here film is seen as the ideal medium for rendering the dynamism of modern architecture and the connection between the roving camera and the mobile spectator as detailed in Beatriz Colomina's work on Le Corb and the architectural promenade are important. A final example of the context to the work to note is the recent publication in England of 'Zoomscapes; Architecture in Motion and Media' by Mitchell Schwarzer (Princeton) which presents many very interesting and closely related ideas - specifically the ways in which architecture is not solely experienced through the direct encounter with a built space but equally (if not predominantly) from the car, train or plane and through its representation in film, TV and photography. On Mendelsohn's 'America: An Architect's Picturebook' of 1926, he suggests that: "it focuses on the precise appearance of individual structures. A leading German architect of the interwar period, Mendelsohn was less interested in covering the totality of the modern city than in disseminating captivating visual information. In a review of the book, El Lissitzky writes, "a first leafing through the pages thrills us like a dramatic film. Before our eyes move pictures that are absolutely unique. In order to understand some of the photographs you must lift the book over your head and rotate it. The architect shows us America not from a distance but from within, as he leads us into the canyon of its streets". The relationship to the project is striking and is one of many connections that have emerged as the project has progressed. We are interested in Mendlesohn's public buildings for several reasons. Firstly; their extraordinary fluidity that seems to invite, demand even, a mobile gaze and the architectural language Mendlesohn uses in a deliberate way to captivate the viewer or user. (The demand to promenade is most apparent in the department store and particularly the seaside pavilion) Secondly; the ways his buildings aimed to render visible, or perform, ideological claims in terms of a syntax of use - the way the buildings were designed around the idea of a circulation and movement that is rhetorical. For instance, Mendlesohn designed the Metalworkers Union building to make visible the social and political claims of the union - the workers and union officials move through the building in a way that enacts the principles of democratic decision-making. Similarly he designed the St. Louis synagogue to render visible the idea of a community of faith, merging school with temple and community centre. The temple itself is organised around a 'spine' of light flooding from the Torah Shrine upwards and across the curve of the ceiling. The shooting, completed in December 2005 was helped greatly by the current users or owners of the buildings; Renee Dressner of the GGG (a Germany agency not unlike English Heritage in Britain), Peter Senft of the IGM (the German Metal Workers' Union) and Kathryn Adamchick in St. Louis, and Celia Davies at De La Warr Pavilion. All provided us with every practical help we needed as well extensive historical information about the buildings. In Berlin we were told a great deal about the relationship between the design and how it is intended to embody the ideological priorities of the union - the stairway in particular being the means by which the general membership moves from the street to the congress hall at the top of the building to then pass down its decisions to the offices below. Similarly the role that each building plays in the history and 'self-image' of the respective towns and cities, as well as their histories of use, reuse, decline and refurbishment, is of great interest. Much of what we were told by the numerous people we met does not exist in print, in English translation at least, as far as we are aware. It is of great relevance to the work and suggests the value of a catalogue documenting the work and presenting this research in the future. That the four buildings are either involved in or have a history of restoration, 'adaptive re-use' and refurbishment is also a very productive coincidence. The GGG in Chemnitz are yet to begin the planned refurbishment of the Schocken building, it is currently empty and suffering from its earlier neglect. The IGM building was entirely rebuilt after the Second World War (during which it was destroyed, as a Nazi Workers headquarters, by the Red Army as they captured Berlin) and is in beautiful condition. The De La Warr Pavilion benefits from a recently completed refurbishment and development, and the B'nai Amoona is currently undergoing some alterations. There is a 'sub-textual' importance to this ongoing process and as we have recognised it we shot the buildings with this, amongst many others factors, in mind. Each of the buildings was shot in a single day from early morning to night. We approached each of the four buildings quite differently, reflecting their very different qualities and current state. The large open spaces and gradual curves of the frontage of the Schocken building lent themselves to the use of the dolly and 360 degree pan and tilt head. A series of travelling spiral passes were made through the various levels. We also used the 'sled' mount to travel down the linear handrails of the stairways. In the IGM building we focussed on the extraordinary glass, marble and copper spiral staircase. Using the 360-degree pan and tilt head we mimicked the sinuous movement of the stairs and concentrated on the complex of reflections in the metal and glass elements as the users of the building moved from floor to floor. This use of an approach specific to each site and creating a distinct quality to each of the 'models' produced was continued in the shooting of the final location, the De La Warr Pavilion. Each of the separate 'buildings' has been edited as a set of three adjacent and slightly overlapping screens. These three sets of three screens were then adjusted or re-edited in relation to one another to achieve a strict and synchronised interrelationship, or choreography between all twelve moving images. The first exhibition of the finished work was commissioned by and staged at the De La Warr Pavilion. The work is specifically an environmental installation and the configuration of the tables in the space has been the final stage in the construction of the work – through shooting, to editing and installation. The arrangement of the tables has been devised in relation to the exhibition space itself and subject to a number of specific considerations – that there be no single straight route through the space, rather that the space has to be deliberately 'navigated', and that there was a position from which all twelve screens could be seen (if for some only at a distance) simultaneously to allow the synchronised movement across all twelve to play a primary part in the experience of the work. The size of the screens both allows for this 'overview' of movement across all twelve screens but by also avoiding the risk of overwhelming spectacle, draws the viewer into their relatively intimate individual size.