Es fällt nicht gerade leicht, innerhalb des Dschungels an gegenwärtig zirkulierenden Filmtheoremen Orientierung bzw. Überblick zu gewinnen. Wollte man eine kartografische Zusammenschau der aktuellen Filmansätze erstellen, dann würde wohl jenes Deleuzsche Rhizom herauskommen, das mittlerweile zum Quasi-Dingsymbol postmoderner Vielfalt geworden ist; ein zentrumsloses, enthierarchisiertes Netzwerk an Theoremen und Methoden mit grenzenlosen Koppelungs- und Kombinationsmöglichkeiten, das sich ständig neu formiert. Zwar verdichten sich die unterschiedlichen Forschungsansätze immer wieder zu wirkungsmächtigeren Theoriekonstellationen und Knotenpunkten (Gender Studies, Cultural Studies, New Historicism), von einer "vorherrschenden" bzw. bahnbrechenden Theorie kann jedoch kaum mehr gesprochen werden. Vielmehr sehen wir uns mit einer Perspektivenvielfalt auf das Medium Film konfrontiert. Ging es "klassischen Filmtheoretikern" wie Arnheim, Balázs, Kracauer oder auch Eisenstein noch um Legitimation bzw. Abgrenzung des "Films als Kunst/Sprache" gegenüber anderen Ausdrucksformen und daran anschließend um allgemeingültige, systematisch-normative Aussagen über das Wesen, die Funktionsweise und das (ästhetische, politische, gesellschaftliche) Potential des Films, so haben sich die filmtheoretischen Diskurse in den letzten Jahrzehnten zu einem anderen, geradezu konträren Verständnis von Film entwickelt. Es geht nun nicht mehr um ein essentialistisches Ergründen geniun filmischer Mittel, also nicht mehr um ein (anfänglich vor allem filmpolitisch notwendiges) Ab- und Ausgrenzen, sondern tendenziell um Grenzüberschreitungen, um ein Ent-Grenzen der filmischen "Gattungsgrenzen" gegenüber anderen kulturellen Bereichen. Film wird in zunehmendem Maße als hybrides, intertextuelles bzw. intermediales Konstrukt betrachtet. Vor allem auch ist das Interesse am Akt des Sehens bzw. am Zuseher immer größer geworden. Der Tod des Autors führte zur Geburt des Lesers. "Wie wird Film erfahren?", "Welche Rolle spielt der (filmische bzw. film-erfahrende) Körper als Medium kultureller Erinnerung?", das sind Fragen, die momentan insbesondere innerhalb der Filmphänomenologie als Subdisziplin der Filmphilosophie und der Kognitionspsychologie verhandelt werden. Die Einbettung des Films in immer größere gesellschaftliche Kontexte hängt eng mit den Erkenntnisschüben und theoretischen Impulsen zusammen, die die Filmtheorie im Laufe ihrer Entwicklung aus anderen wissenschaftlichen Unternehmungen erhalten hat und erhält: Semiotik, Strukturalismus Psychoanalyse, Psychologie, Phänomenologie, Philosophie, Feministische Theorie, Soziologie, Textkritik etc. Auch das klassische Dreieck "Filmtheorie-Filmanalyse-Filmgeschichte" erfuhr seit der französischen Filmsemiotik und ihrer Rezeption zahlreiche Umgestaltungen bzw. Demontagen. So wird beispielsweise im Rahmen des gegenwärtig gleichermaßen kontroversiell wie aufmerksam rezipierten neoformalistischen Projekts (David Bordwell, Kristin Thompson, Noel Carroll) durch eine Vernetzung dieser drei Teildisziplinen, die ursprünglich unabhängig voneinander funktionierten, der Versuch unternommen, eine "Historische Poetik des Kinos" zu verfassen. Die Möglichkeiten, sich im deutschsprachigen Raum insbesondere über aktuelle filmwissenschaftliche Theorieformationen zu informieren, sind peinlich gering. Mit Ausnahme der von Franz-Josef Albersmeier herausgegebenen Textkompilation Texte zur Theorie des Films oder mittlerweile schon vergriffenen Einführungen in die Filmtheorie wie die deutsche Übersetzung von Andrew Tudors Film Theories bzw. Peter Wuss' Theoriegeschichte Kunstwert des Films und Massencharakter des Mediums blieben Überblicksdarstellungen im deutschsprachigen Raum bislang eine Leerstelle. Auch die angeregten und ständig expandierenden Filmdebatten aus dem angloamerikanischen Raum oder aus Frankreich werden mit erheblicher Verspätung rezipiert und übersetzt. Hin und wieder erscheinen Bücher, die, ähnlich einem Deus ex Machina, wie gerufen kommen, Versäumnisse nachzuholen, Verwirrungen aufzulösen und in profunder Zusammenschau das zu bieten, was man sich bislang in mühsamer Kleinarbeit aus Aufsätzen und Buchkapiteln zusammensuchen musste. Ein ebensolches Buch ist jüngst im Theo Bender Verlag (Mainz) erschienen. Die von dem Medienwissenschaftler Jürgen Felix in der Reihe filmforschung herausgegebene Einführung in die (post)modernen Filmtheoreme mit dem Titel Moderne Film Theorie hat es sich zum Ziel gemacht, die Lücke auf dem Gebiet der filmtheoretischen Einführungen zu füllen. Dementsprechend beginnt das Vorwort mit einem Kommentar zur aktuellen, vorhin schon skizzierten filmwissenschaftlichen Lage und Misere. Da eine umfassende Darstellung der Geschichte der Filmtheorie von den Anfängen bis heute den "editorischen Rahmen [.] gesprengt" (S. 9) hätte, konzentriert sich der vorliegende Band auf die aktuellen Filmtheorien. Er bildet somit den zweiten Teil eines Großprojektes, im Rahmen dessen wir noch einen Band über die klassische Filmtheorie von Münsterberg bis Kracauer erwarten dürfen. Das Buch ist ein äußerst geglückter Versuch, durch klug angesetzte Stichproben den aktuellen Status quo vadis (Blumfeld) filmtheoretischer Debatten auszumessen, durch Gegenüberstellung von Positionen und Paradigmen Einblick in zentrale Problembereiche und Entwicklungen zu bieten und darüber hinaus - durchaus einem Lehrbuch vergleichbar - dem Leser Anregungen, Einblicke, Mittel und Zwecke bereitzustellen, um das Gelesene in eigenständiger und weiterführender Weise am Material Film zu erproben. Denn es finden sich in dem Buch nicht nur einführende Aufsätze zu den derzeit interessantesten und besten Projekten der neuen Theorie, sondern im Anschluss an die Beiträge (neben ausführlichen Bibliografien) jeweils kurze Filmanalysen (u. a. zu Blue Velvet, Pulp Fiction, JFK, Winterschläfer, His Girl Friday oder Saving Privat Ryan), in denen die zuvor dargestellte Perspektive in exemplarischer Weise veranschaulicht wird. Hier wird nicht in selbstgefälliger und voraussetzender Weise mit Wissen gegeizt, sondern Wissen vermittelt und angewandt. Die Autoren stammen allesamt aus dem Kontext (medien)wissenschaftlicher Forschung und Lehre: Lorenz Engell, Oliver Fahle, Britta Hartmann, Knut Hickethier, Hermann Kappelhoff, Frank Kessler, Heike Klippel, Drehli Robnik, Joachim Paech, Hans J. Wulff und der oben schon genannte Herausgeber Jürgen Felix. Stellt sich nun die Frage, wann und wo so etwas wie ein "Beginn" der Modernen Filmtheorie festgemacht werden kann. Die historische Fixierung kann nur willkürlich sein, ist im Fall des vorliegenden Buches jedoch überzeugend gewählt. Ausgehend von der im Vorwort formulierten Überlegung, wonach die von Truffaut, Godard und Konsorten in den 50er Jahren betriebene Autorenpolitik nicht nur den Beginn des modernen Autorenfilms markiert, sondern sich die Autorentheorie "bis heute als Schnittstelle zwischen den akademischen und den populären Diskursen über das Kino" (S. 10) behauptet hat, bildet ein Beitrag von Jürgen Felix über das Autorenkino den Auftakt des Buches. Felix bietet in seinem Beitrag nicht nur einen ausführlichen Abriss der Geschichte der Autorentheorie, sondern legt sein Augenmerk insbesondere auf die Krisen, Infragestellungen und Neuerungsschübe, die diese Theorie im Laufe ihrer Entwicklung erfahren hat: Wie wurde aus einer "politique des auteurs" die "auteur theory"? Was passierte mit dem Autor-Subjekt, nachdem es vom Strukturalismus für tot erklärt wurde? Gibt es trotz postmoderner Identitätsspiele so etwas wie eine Rückkehr des Autors? - um nur einige Fragestellungen herauszugreifen. Im Gegensatz zu den anderen Beiträgen, die stellenweise etwas zu deskriptiv, gegenüberstellend und neutral verfasst sind - so werden manchmal wichtige Fragen aufgeworfen, ein Beantwortungsversuch bleibt jedoch aus -, macht Jürgen Felix auch seine persönliche Perspektive auf die thematisierten Problembereiche transparent. Knut Hickethier widmet sich in seinem Beitrag einer im deutschsprachigen Raum - zumindest unter diesem Etikett - noch kaum rezipierten Theorie: dem "genre criticism". Genretheorie bzw. Genreanalyse konnten sich vor allem in den 70er Jahren im Windschatten von Strukturalismus und Filmsemiotik etablieren, Genres wurden in Analogie zu sprachlichen Systemen und Strukturen verstanden. "Genretheorie gibt eine Definition des Genres, beschreibt und systematisiert die narrativen Muster eines Genres, liefert eine Ikonographie der Genres, also eine Beschreibung der visuellen Stereotypen und Standards, stellt das Verhältnis von Ideologie und Geschichte dar, untersucht das Verhältnis von Genre und filmindustriellen Produktionszusammenhang und analysiert das Verhältnis von Genre und Autorenschaft." (S. 69) Neben einer Einführung in die allgemeinen Dimensionen und die Geschichte der Genretheorie werden u. a. folgende Problemkomplexe erörtert: Wo verläuft die Grenze zwischen Genre und Gattung? Kann die klassische Dichotomie Autorenkino/Genrekino überhaupt noch Gültigkeit beanspruchen? Welche hinreichenden bzw. notwendigen Elemente müssen gegeben sein, damit von einem Genre gesprochen werden kann? Wie lange beträgt die "Inkubationszeit" eines Genres? Welchen historischen Veränderungen ist ein Genre unterworfen? Können Genres überhaupt in einer systematischen Zusammenschau erfasst und voneinander abgegrenzt werden? Welche Versuche einer solchen Katalogisierung der Genres hat es in der Geschichte gegeben? Wie sieht die Genrepraxis im Kino aus? Wie gestaltet sich das Verhältnis von Genre und Mythos? Neben weiteren Beiträgen über Filmsemiotik (von Frank Kessler), Kino und Psychoanalyse (von Hermann Kappelhoff), Feministische Filmtheorie (von Heike Kippel), Intermedialität des Films (von Joachim Paech) und Neoformalismus, Kognitivismus, Historische Poetik des Kinos (von Britta Hartmann/Hans J. Wulff) seien hier noch zwei Essays hervorgehoben, die sich mit gegenwärtig besonders prominenten Denkweisen über Film beschäftigen. Seit einiger Zeit hat sich ein angeregter Dialog zwischen Philosophie und Film entsponnen. Amerikanische wie europäische Philosophen entdecken zunehmend die epistemologische Bedeutung der filmischen Wahrnehmung und des Film-Sehens. Hierbei rekurrieren sie auf grundsätzliche Fragen, die in der Perspektive anderer Forschungsansätze längst als obsolet und anachronistisch gelten (beispielsweise auf die Frage aller Fragen: "Was ist Film?"), und versuchen eine "Ontologie des Films" zu erarbeiten. Verwiesen sei hier auf Stanley Cavell, die "heute wohl wichtigste filmphilosophische Stimme in den USA",1 und sein Schlüsselwerk The World Viewed. An Ontology of Film sowie auf Gilles Deleuzes wegweisendes filmphilosophisches Werk Das Bewegungs-Bild bzw. Das Zeit-Bild. Deleuze beruft sich bei seinem Versuch einer Klassifizierung der Bilder und Zeichen einerseits auf den Zeichentheoretiker Charles S. Pierce, andererseits setzt er dort an, wo die Filmphilosophie ihre Initialzündung erlebt hat: bei Henri Bergsons Reflexionen über Zeit und Bewegung (Matière et mémoire, 1896), die ungefähr mit der Entstehung des Kinos zusammenfielen. Der Filmphilosophie sind im vorliegenden Buch zwei Beiträge gewidmet: Lorenz Engell und Oliver Fahle zeigen in ihrem Beitrag Film-Philosophie die radikale Sprengkraft von Deleuzes Filmtheorie auf, Drehli Robnik diskutiert in seinem Aufsatz Körper-Erfahrung und Film-Phänomenologie jene aktuelle Denkweise von Vivian Sobchack und Co., die sich in Rekurs auf Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Edmund Husserl, Deleuze und Kracauer mit "Film-Erfahrung als leibhaftige[r] Intersubjektivität" auseinander setzt. Es zählt zu den Vorzügen des Buches, nicht nur Forschungsansätze und Paradigmen zu präsentieren, die der Filmtheorie wichtige Impulse beschert haben, sondern die sich darüber hinaus im Zuge ihrer Vernetzung mit Film entscheidend verändert, weiterentwickelt bzw. von ihren Ursprungsdisziplinen emanzipiert haben. Dadurch ergeben sich interessante Schichtungen, Brechungen bzw. theoretische Grenzerfahrungen. Vor allem auch wird einmal mehr vor Augen geführt, dass Film "die grenz-transversale Kunst schlechthin" ist, weil er ermöglicht, "in mehreren Symbolsystemen gleichzeitig zu denken",2 und mit "Spannungen" unter ihnen spielt. Wir warten jedenfalls gespannt auf den angekündigten ersten Band des vom Bender Verlag auf zwei Bände angelegten bemerkenswerten Projektes FilmTheorie. 1 Ludwig Nagl (Hg.): Filmästhetik. Wien: Oldenbourg 1999 (Wiener Reihe. 10), S. 15. 2 Ebenda, S. 65.
La Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). "Business started long centuries before the dawn of history, but business as we now it is new-new in its broadening scope, new in its social significance. Business has not learned how to handle these changes, nor does it recognise the magnitude of its responsibilities for the future of civilization." Introduzione Negli ultimi decenni la governance del capitalismo globale, consentendo l'affermazione di una economia senza confini, ha reso possibile sia l'abbattimento dei costi sia la facilità d'accesso a materie prime, manodopera e tecnologie ma, al tempo stesso, ha posto alle imprese il problema di ripensare il loro rapporto con i mercati sempre più lontani dall'unico modello di sviluppo capitalistico. "Non esiste "il"capitalismo, non esiste "la" economia di mercato. Esistono più capitalismi, esistono - in special modo – più economie di mercato. I loro elementi costitutivi (la proprietà dei mezzi di produzione, il ruolo del capitale e del lavoro, la destinazione del profitto, lo spazio per la concorrenza e la collaborazione, le forme di controllo, ecc.) possono essere variamente declinati e combinati". E pertanto, nel panorama molto variegato ed eterogeneo del mercato globale interessato dai recenti cambiamenti e da un forte aumento di pressioni esterne, la concezione dell'impresa si è ormai allontanata dall'idea di attore economico finalizzato unicamente a massimizzare il profitto, a guidare la domanda e l'offerta senza doversi occupare della gestione dell'impatto sociale e ambientale della propria attività. Assume, infatti, un'importanza rilevante la comprensione di contenuti, contorni e conseguenze sociali dell'operato di un'azienda che si rende sempre più conto che per ottenere successo e benefici durevoli, è necessario adottare un atteggiamento "responsabile" nei confronti del mercato, dell'ambiente, dei dipendenti e dei consumatori. A tal fine le imprese si stanno sempre più rapportando nello scenario mondiale in un'ottica che tende non solo a creare valore per se stesse, ma che cerca al tempo stesso di costruire un percorso favorevole allo sviluppo di una forte attenzione nei confronti del sociale per creare, cioè, condizioni di benessere e di qualità della vita. Nello scenario odierno in cui il potere delle imprese cresce ed è sempre meno controllabile dal potere politico di un singolo Stato, la CSR è un argomento molto complesso in quanto può essere interpretata in diversi modi e diviene l'anello di congiunzione tra l'azienda e realtà diverse. " La complessità sta proprio nel fatto che l'impresa, la politica e la legislazione, la salute, la cultura, i diritti umani e l'ambiente non rappresentano più ambiti distaccati, ma ognuno di essi diventa un soggetto, un interlocutore funzionale al raggiungimento degli obiettivi di ciascuno", afferma Sabina Mirabile al Convegno su "La responsabilità sociale dell'impresa" organizzato da Aism e Eccellere nel giugno 2008. La tesi muove, pertanto, dall'idea che la responsabilità sociale d'impresa debba essere intesa non semplicemente come strumento di marketing o come semplice definizione dei valori etici, ma come l'impatto causato dalle operazioni aziendali sulla collettività, sull'ambiente in cui l'organizzazione opera e con il quale instaura un rapporto di reciproca interdipendenza. "Socialmente responsabili" sono le imprese che si sforzano di adeguare le proprie iniziative a standard di comportamento attenti al rispetto dei diritti umani, alle condizioni di sicurezza dei lavoratori, all'impatto ambientale ben oltre quanto prescritto da leggi e regolamenti. Adottando tali buone pratiche le imprese forniscono da un lato contributi socialmente qualificati e dall'altro massimizzano il loro valore. Per esigenze di chiarezza espositiva l'elaborato è suddiviso in capitoli che trattano le diverse tematiche concernenti la CSR. Scopo del primo capitolo è, innanzitutto, definire il concetto di responsabilità sociale d'impresa nelle sue diverse accezioni oltre che il dibattito che sta interessando il mondo accademico dalla seconda metà del secolo scorso ai giorni nostri. Il tema è stato affrontato successivamente alla luce del nuovo scenario mondiale globalizzato nei suoi effetti economici, sociali ed ambientali che rendono necessario trovare nuovi equilibri tra funzioni pubbliche e funzioni private, tra Stato e mercato, riconoscendo sia i limiti dello Stato sia i limiti del mercato. E' stata analizzata, pertanto, la problematicità dei processi di sviluppo delle imprese in una chiave di lettura che dia conto del loro impatto ambientale e sociale oltreché dell'evoluzione dei sistemi di welfare: ho approfondito, a tale scopo, le esigenze economiche ma anche le aspettative sociali considerando le problematiche connesse alla gestione strategica delle imprese strettamente collegate alla sostenibilità dello sviluppo, così come auspicato dal Global Compact e dai numerosi incontri organizzati a livello internazionale. Il secondo capitolo offre una ricostruzione di alcune prospettive interpretative (la Stakeholder theory, la teoria contrattualista e la teoria neocontrattualista) relative a moderne teorie economiche dell'impresa al fine di cogliere in ognuna di esse le ragioni della CSR attraverso l'analisi della natura, degli obiettivi e delle finalità delle imprese. Il lavoro prosegue trattando nel terzo capitolo la funzione sociale dell'impresa e le strategie rispondenti alle richieste e ai bisogni della comunità in cui l'azienda opera. Vengono trattati, successivamente, gli strumenti per una gestione responsabile: il Codice Etico, il Bilancio Sociale e il Bilancio di Sostenibilità per una nuova cultura del business. Si è, dunque, cercato di sostenere la correlazione tra la performance aziendale e la CSR attraverso gli studi compiuti negli ultimi anni dall'Harvard Business School e l'implementazione del Socially Responsible Investing oltre che degli indici di borsa "etici". Il quarto capitolo si occupa delle politiche di diffusione della Corporate Social Responsibility adottate dall'Unione Europea a partire dalla pubblicazione nel 2001 del Libro Verde fino alla Comunicazione della Commissione del 2011 concernente la Strategia rinnovata dell'UE per il periodo 2011-14 in materia di responsabilità sociale delle imprese. In seguito sono state affrontate le politiche italiane degli ultimi anni tese a promuovere la cultura della responsabilità sociale all'interno del sistema socio-economico nazionale sino al Piano d'azione sulla Responsabilità Sociale d'Impresa 2012-2014, richiesto dalla Commissione europea a tutti gli Stati membri. Certamente le logiche e le strategie della responsabilità sociale possono essere occasioni affinché le imprese si pongano alcune domande fondamentali sul proprio ruolo e sugli strumenti necessari allo sviluppo che la legge non specifica, né vincola. La responsabilità sociale dovrebbe essere, cioè "un'investire di più", come afferma il Libro Verde 2001 della Commissione Europea, con la logica da un lato di contribuire allo sviluppo sostenibile, dall'altro di aumentare la competitività dell'impresa. Ritengo, comunque, che le idee proposte dalla Commissione abbiano bisogno di più specifici meccanismi di incentivi per poter essere perseguite e che siano indispensabili interventi più decisi da parte dei governi e delle istituzioni attraverso il rafforzamento delle leggi, dei controlli e delle sanzioni nei confronti dei comportamenti riprovevoli delle imprese. Talvolta esiste, infatti, una profonda divergenza tra la teoria e la pratica della CSR: spesso accade che alcune imprese ne facciano un uso puramente strumentale, spinte da motivazioni opportunistiche oppure che, nonostante l'adozione di codici etici e di bilanci sociali, mettano in atto pratiche irresponsabili e abusi di vario genere. Scandali societari, manipolazione dei bilanci, inquinamento ambientale, delocalizzazioni produttive, sono solo alcune delle forme tramite le quali, ai giorni nostri, può manifestarsi l'irresponsabilità sociale delle imprese. Nonostante ciò, dal proliferare di iniziative e strumenti destinati alla sensibilizzazione delle imprese e al sostegno delle buone pratiche, dall'approccio sempre più pragmatico assunto in ambito dottrinale, sembra che vi siano i presupposti per un vero cambiamento culturale che, partendo da una domanda crescente di responsabilità sociale, chiede anche alle imprese di fare "la propria parte" per una crescita equa e compatibile, rispettosa della collettività e dell'ambiente. .
En base a un trabajo a entregar en la Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato di Tella.***Resulta difícil encontrar premisas que puedan ser consideradas verdades en el estudio de la política internacional. Si alguna se acerca a esta condición, esta sería la mutabilidad del poder en el sistema internacional. La distribución de poder es pasajera y quienes están en la cima de la jerarquía internacional hoy, mañana podrían no estarlo. Parafraseando a Toynbee, History as usual. Consecuentemente, el fenómeno más certero que se puede prever en la política internacional es la disminución del abismo de poder que hoy separa a los Estados Unidos de las otras potencias. Ante la posibilidad de una nueva distribución de poder, en la que existan dos o más superpotencias con capacidades y atributos similares, cabe preguntarse si el mundo tenderá a ser más estable o más propenso a los conflictos. La única herramienta con que contamos para establecer algún tipo de política prescriptiva es la teoría; es la vía para simplificar un mundo en extremo complejo y, como ha dicho Kenneth Waltz, conectar hechos que de otro modo serían dispares, mostrando cómo los cambios de algunos fenómenos implican necesariamente cambios en otros. Sin instrumentos teóricos nuestras ideas sobre la política internacional vagarían en la niebla del accionar humano. Se expondrá aquí una formulación teórica que relaciona la distribución de poder con la guerra, y que promete ser de gran ayuda para entender la política del siglo XXI.El trabajo será dividido en tres entregas. La primera presentará, escuetamente, la teoría; la segunda problematizará algunas áreas grises de la misma; y finalmente, en una última entrega, se arrojarán algunas ideas para la reformulación de la misma viéndola a través del prisma de la política internacional de los años venideros.Dentro de la familia del realismo se pueden ubicar una serie de ramificaciones que, manteniendo sendos supuestos comunes, difieren en ciertos enfoques sobre las relaciones internacionales. Así, grosso modo, se puede dividir al realismo en: realismo clásico y neorrealismo, y dentro de este último, defensivo y ofensivo, entre otras propuestas más recientes que han modificado y desarrollado algunas ideas de esta escuela. En dicha diversidad, una premisa se mantiene: el balance de poder. Es decir, afirmar que la acumulación excesiva de poder en un polo suele desestabilizar al sistema generando coaliciones antagonistas que pueden derivar en una guerra. Existe una formulación alternativa que, conservando gran parte de los supuestos realistas, contrapone su visión de la política internacional al tradicional balance de poder. Contrariamente, esta línea de pensamiento sostiene que las concentraciones de poder son factores de estabilidad y que no necesariamente se van a formar coaliciones que busquen balancearlo. Si bien éste no es un grupo homogéneo de pensamiento, consideraremos a efectos del presente trabajo únicamente la teoría de la transición de poder de A.F.K Organski, formulada por primera vez en su libro World Politics en 1958. La teoría de la transición de poder aparece como una alternativa al balance de poder enfrentando la noción de que la igualdad de atributos es la predicción más plausible para la paz internacional. Según Organski, el escenario internacional suele caracterizarse por la existencia de un actor hegemónico que establece un orden con ciertas normas y patrones de conducta entre los estados que hacen más predecible, y por ende estable, al sistema. Desde este punto se desestima el balance de poder; "power parity is dangerous because a 50-50 chance of victory may be sufficient incentive for risk acceptant national leaders to plunge their nations into war." El análisis de la transición de poder es dinámico; la estabilidad que genera una hegemonía va a ser interrumpida por la misma causa que llevó en primer lugar a ese estado al tope de la jerarquía internacional: las diferentes tasas de crecimiento de los estados. Este factor posibilita el surgimiento de actorescontendientes que debido a la transformación en su estructura interna pasan a tener la posibilidad de cuestionar el orden establecido por el hegemón. Es menester señalar que la teoría supone que dos estados con atributos similares –paridad de poder- corren un elevado riesgo de colisionar. Pero, como señala su nombre, el rasgo definitivo que torna más propenso un conflicto armado es la transición del poder en el sistema, es decir, cuando el estado contendiente supera en poder al hegemón, "The dominant nation and the challenger are very likely to wage war on one another whenever the challenger overtakes in power the dominant nation."Las diferentes tasas de crecimiento nacional actúan sobre la capacidad relativa de poder entre los estados. Cuando un estado contendiente, a través de una transformación de rápido crecimiento económico impulsada por la industrialización, alcanza al poder hegemónico, el sistema se encuentra en lo que Gilpin denomina desequilibrio sistémico. La nueva distribución de poder internacional no coincide con el orden establecido por el hegemón; su poder no está de acuerdo con su posición. El contendiente tiene ahora suficiente poder para intentar modificar el lugar que ocupa en la jerarquía del sistema.En la formulación de Organski la guerra -a causa de la arremetida del contendiente en el proceso de transición contra el estado dominante- se hace plausible cuando el aquel está insatisfecho con el status quo. Un estado insatisfecho podría intentar modificar el orden internacional establecido por el dominante, incluso a través de la amenaza de la fuerza. Si, contrariamente, un estado que ha incrementado significativamente su poder, hasta llegar al punto de una transición con el dominante, se encuentra satisfecho con el orden, la transformación en las relaciones interestatales de poder podría sucederse pacíficamente.Así, la teoría queda sustentada en dos variables primarias, siendo la relación entre éstas la estructura que explica la guerra entre las grandes potencias desde la visión de la transición. La primera es la paridad de poder entre el estado dominante y el contendiente, lo que Lemke llama oportunidad para actuar. La segunda sería el grado de insatisfacción con el status quo del poder contendiente o lo que el mismo autor define como voluntad de cambio. Ambas variables se presentan como una condición sine qua non para que el desequilibrio sistémico se solucione a través de una guerra. En otras palabras, se necesita un estado poderoso e insatisfecho para generar un conflicto.La teoría de la transición es uno de los programas de investigación con mejor comprobación empírica en la disciplina. Sendos investigadores han comprobado la relación entra la transición de poder y la guerra, obteniendo un registro empírico llamativo. La primera variable –paridad de poder y guerra- ha sido el núcleo duro de los trabajos de investigación y justificación de la teoría. No se puede decir lo mismo de la segunda –insatisfacción con el status quo. Este es un concepto más elusivo y no tiene una convención establecida sobre la metodología que se debe usar para medirlo (la variable del poder se mide a través del PNB). El por qué de la complejidad de la variable de insatisfacción, así como el desarrollo de dicha área gris serán analizados en la próxima entrega.- Aunque vale aclarar que no se puede estimar con exactitud el momento de la declinación norteamericana. Desde finales de los 60' los analistas han anunciado este momento efusivamente. Lo cierto es que pasadas más de tres décadas sus augurios resultaron falaces. Aun así, esta declinación, o el surgimiento de otros poderes, sucederá tarde o temprano.- Autores como Gilpin y Modelski han estructurado desarrollos teóricos que pueden ser incluidos en los estudios de la transición.- Ver WALTZ, Kenneth, Teoría de la Política Internacional, Grupo Editorial Latinoamericano, 1988, Buenos Aires.- de Soysa et al., Power Transition Theory, The Journal of Conflict Resolution 41: p 511.- ORGANSKI, A.F.K, KUGLER, J., The War Ledger, University of Chicago Press, 1980, Chicago.- Este concepto esencial será desarrollado en las siguientes entregas.- Organski & Kugler (1980), Houweling & Siccama (1988), Kim (1989), Bueno de Mesquita (1990), entre otros. *Candidato a la Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato di TellaBuenos Aires, Argentina
This paper will present our explorative work in software reusability and concurrent programming. This work was divided into two parts. First, in order to abstract the reusable components, three application problems were tried to be solved by means of object-oriented programming using Ada. Second, in order to address how Ada provides an environment for concurrent programming, several concurrent programming concepts were described using Ada. ; Technical Report 2018-07-ECE-005 Technical Report 87-CSE-11 Reusability and Concurrency Issues in the Real-time Use of Ada* W. P. Yin P. H. Liou Murat M. Tanik This technical report is a reissue of a technical report issued May 1987 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birn1ingham July 2018 Technical Report 87-CSE-11 REUSABILITY ABD COBCURREIICY ISSUES IB THE REAL-TIME USE OF Ada• V. P. I:in P. B. Liou H. H. Tanik Department of Computer Science and Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, Texas 75275 May 1987 *Ada is a registered trade mark of the U.S. government, Ada Joint Program Office. Abstract REUSABILITY AND CONCURRENCY ISSUES IN THE REAL-TIME USE OF Ada* W. P. Yin P. H. Liou M. M. Tanik Department of Computer Science and Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, 'IX 75275 This paper will present our explorative work in software reusability and concurrent programming. This work was divided into two parts. First, in order to abstract the reusable components, three application problems were tried to be solved by means of object-oriented programming using A da. Second, in order to address how Ada provides an environment for concurrent programming, several concurrent programming concepts were described using Ada. 1. Introduction Reusability is a general engineering principle . It derives from the desire to avoid duplication and to capture commonality in undertaking classes of inherently similar works[ 1]. When software engineers try to apply this principle to software production, it brings many research questions into the open. The arguments focus on the question that what are the candidates for software reuse, how reusable software components should be stored, how we can locate reusable software components, and how we can incorporate reusable software components into our own software system. Concurrent Programming is the name given to programming notations and techniques for expressing paten tial parallelism and for solving the resulting synchronization and communication problems. Traditionally, the programs that run asynchronously were written in assembly language for the reasons : • High-level languages did not provide the appropriate tools for writing concurrent programs. • High-level languages for concurrent programming were not efficient. However, high-level language programs are easier to test, verify, and modify. Due to the progress on compiler techniques, we can obtain efficient object code for concurrent programs written in a high-level language. Concurrent programming is important because it provides an abstract setting in which studying parallelism becomes possible . The basic problem in writing a concurrent program is to identify the activities which are concurrent. It is also difficult to ensure the correctness of concurrent programs. In addition, concurrent programs are much more difficult to debug than sequential programs. * Ada is a registered trade mark of the U .8. government, Ada Joint Program Offi ce. - 2- Occasionally, asynchronous processes must interact with one another and these interactions can be complex. The following sections constitute a brief presentation of our explorative work for software reusability and concurrent programming using Ada. 2. Reusability Issue 2.1 Software Components and Their Reusability The term "; Computer Software" is used very often by most professionals and many members of the public at large . They feel they understand it. Most professionals have an intuitive feeling of it, but there is no complete and formal definition . Informally, computer software can be regarded as information having two basic formats: non-machine-executable and machine-executable[2]. Any information unit created by a software engineer during software development, such as specification, design, code, data and so on , is a software component. More abstractly, the problem solving knowledge, programming knowledge, problem domain knowledge and other knowledge which are used by software engineers in order to solve a problem by computer software are also software components. These knowledge assume specification, design, code and data as their external formats . Therefore, software reusability manifests itself in many forms . It can roughly be classified into reuse of data, reuse of code including programs, systems and libraries, reuse of programming knowledge including system architecture and detail design , reuse of domain knowledge including specification and reuse of abstract modules[3 ,4] . With respect to the time the reusable components are used , software reusability can be divided into two groups-reusability of components in building a variety of structures and reusability of components in performing a variety of tasks . Figure 1 depicts this idea. 2.2 Software Reusability Problems As a general engineering principle, reusability implies the obvious system benefits of lower cost, increased reliability and easier maintenance. It appears that the reusability principle should be used widely in software engineering. Unfortunately this is not true . According to some statistics, in commercial banking and insurance applications, about 75% of the functions were common ones that occurred in more than one program. There is also statistical data indicating that less than 15% of the code written in 1983 was unique, novel and specific to individual applications while the remaining 85% was more or less generic[3]. The main reason for the above situation is that regardless of the particular programming technique , design methodology or developing environment, software engineering is divided into individual creative processes. The exact nature of those individual process, such as problem identification, conceptual solution , design of implementation, testing of solution and so on , is poorly understood. Hence, reusing the software designed by other people is in general not a simple matter. Besides this , there are other reasons. First, some software is ";malevolent" because it is strongly self-centered and highly proprietary. That means it cannot be reused by organizations other than the developer. Second, even with "; benevolent" software, there are software engineers who may feel that they could produce a "; better" solution anyway. Third, some software may have to be modified excessively to fit the new application precisely. Fourth , some software may require a great effort to be understood in order to be reused. In the last two situations, software engineers would rather rewrite .[ 5] . - 3 - Figure 2 shows reusable component characteristics m terms of their functionality and scope. 2.3. Explorative Work in Software Reusability 2.3.1. The Problems In the following sections three problems are investigated. The problems are the environmental monitor problem[6], the cruise-control problem[7] and the message switching problem [8]. Those three are real-time problems. All of them require parallel processing, realtime control, exception handling and unique input/ output control. 2.3.2. The Method The ";object-oriented methodology" is chosen for solving the problems . Object-oriented methodology is a software approach in which the decomposition of a system is based upon the concept of objects. In real-time systems, often the problem is given by the description of entities, their behaviors and relations among the entities . In addition, object abstraction is a promising avenue for reusability. The object-oriented design methodology has the following steps [6, 7]: • Identify the objects and their attributes. • identify the operations. • Establish the visibility of each object in relation to other objects. • Establish the interface of each object. • Implement each object. 2.3.3. The Language Ada was chosen as the design language. Ada was chosen as a design language because of its rich variety of program units such as subprograms, packages and tasks . It is convenient for software engineers to choose one of the most suitable program units to represent classes of objects, instances of objects and primitive operations of each object. More importantly, the capabilities of Ada make it possible for us to break from the traditional flat, sequential design style into the object-centered design style. In particular, using Ada as a design language can improve the quality of the design by highlighting interfaces and formally capturing many important design decisions. 2.3.4. The Case Studies The case studies are concerned with the use of object-oriented design method for software reusability. The goal of the case-study was to explore how well the object-oriented method can apply the reusability principle. More specifically, how well the object-oriented method can recognize and abstract reusable software components for a specific class of problems (the real-time systems) . In this paper, the detailed case explanations will not be presented. Only are the observations and experiences listed. For each problem, first, a problem definition in problem space is given , then an informal system architecture design in conceptual solution space is presented . In the solution space , the details will be ignored; only objects and their operations are indicated. - 4- 2.3.4.1. Ca.se-1: Environmental Monitor Problem The environmental monitor problem is explained in detail in [6]. The figure 3 is the problem definition abstracted from [ 6] . And the figure 4 is the partial formalization of the system architecture design. Problem~ Objects and their Operations: ( 1) A user interacts with the system by setting the sensor limits, reading the status of all sensors , or q.u.it the system . ( 2) A printer Jlli,n.ts. the current reading of each sensor or s.h.u.t. rl.mYn. by the user. (3) Sensor r.e.ads. temperature or setting limit or s.h.u.t. d.mm. or initialized by user. ( 4) Monitor responds to out-of-limits sensor reading or detects the printer failure by setting an alarm. Also the alarm can be sh.n.t ~ Keeping the object-oriented methodology in mind, the transformation from the figure 3 to figure 4 is straightforward. In the step of identifying the objects and their attributes, the decision for specific representation of objects is delayed . We only take into account what objects in the problem space we are interested in . In general, the nouns denote the objects and the adjectives represent the attributes of each object. After identifying objects, extracting operations appropriate to each object is straightforward . The verbs attached to each object can be abstracted as corresponding operations . Those operations are visible outside. The object together with its operation forms one unit which can be defined by one program unit. The arrows are used to indicate the operation application direction . If there is one arrow from object A to object B, it indicates that the object A does one operation requiring something from B, or triggering B's operation . In this situation , the object A is an active object. If A is a passive object which does not have operations, all the arrows connected to A must point to A. System Specification in A.d.a package PRINTER is task THEYRINTER is entry PRINT_READING (THE_ITEM: in STRING); entry SHUT_DOWN; end THEYRINTER; end PRINTER; package ALARM is task THE_ALARM is entry REPOR T_OF LIMIT; entry REPORTYRINTER_ERROR; entry SHUT_DOWN; end THE_alarm; end ALARM; generic type NAME is ( ); type VALUE is range ; SENSE_RATE: in DURATION; - 5 - with function VALUE_OF (THE_NAME m NAME) return VALUE; with procedure SOUND_ALARM; package SENSORS is task type SENSOR is entry START (THE_NAME : in NAME) ; entry SET_LIMIT (THE_VALUE : in VALUE) ; entry GET_8TATUS (THE_VALUE : out VALUE; OUT_OF LIMITS : out BOOLEAN); entry SHUT_D OWN; end SENSOR; end SENSORS; type COMMAND is (SET_LIMIT, GET_8TATUS, SHUT_DOWN); procedure MONITOR is -- local type declarations -- ALARM task specification -- PRINTER task specification -- SENSOR task specification -- USER_COMMAND declaration -- task bodies begin -- manipulation of USER_COMMAND end MONITOR; Abstractions from ease-l: 1 Object-oriented design methodology is fundamentally different from traditional functional methods. Traditional functional methods factor system in problem space into operational modules in solution space , in which each operation module represents a major step in the overall transformation process. The object-oriented design method decomposes problem around objects that exist in the real world. 2 The object-oriented design method needs different requirement analysis to support. During the problem definition step, the requirement analyst must keep object orientedness in mind, because different analysis will get different problem decompositions. During the problem analysis , a good domain knowledge certainly helps a lot. 3 4 - 6 - It is necessary to use object-oriented system specification methodology during the system specification step. The specification is the result of a process of requirements analysis, and represents the first complete description of the conceptual solution. It contains clear descriptions of the external view of the system the user required along with any related or implied system constraints. The object-oriented system specification ideally closely matches the user's problem. It is desirable to make system specification consistent, completely, comprehensible and traceable to the requirement. Also , the object-oriented s specification will make the transaction between system specification and system design smooth, and easy. It is desirable to keep the system specification to be independent from the implementation . That means the transaction from problem space to conceptual solution space should not be restricted by implementations, especially not limited by the capability of implementation tools. Ada has the design description capability, but there is no direct notations for objects. 2.3.4.2. Ca.se-2: Cruise-Control System The Cruise-Control system problem is given in [7]. A data flow diagram (figure 5) is used to express the problem. This problem is more complicated than the environmental monitor system problem. The data flow diagram gives a clear view of each main step of the system transaction . Using object-oriented method the problem space is abstracted as in figure 6. From problem space the system architecture was abstracted using the object-oriented method (figure 7) . First, the objects and their operations are identified . Especially, the passive objects (no operations) and active objects (having operations) are distinguished; the required operations (triggered externally) and suffered operations (not triggered by outside world) are distinguished. For example, brake and accelerator are passive objects, others are active objects. Throttle has two v visible operations which are triggered by other objects and one invisible operation which is hiding in throttle's body. That invisible operation can only be seen by throttle itself. Problem~ Objects and their Operations: ( 1) Pulse from wheels: A pulse is. 5.f.D.t for every revolution of the wheel (2) Clock: Timing~ every milli-second. ( 3) Driver: If the driver s.fls. system on, it denotes that the cruise-control system should maintain the car speed. Also , the driver may require increasing or decreasing maintained speed when cruise-control on . Or, the driver requires resuming the last maintained speed. ( 4) Brake: If brake is. pressed, then cruise-control temporarily reverts to the manual control. ( 5) Brake state: Cruise-control requires the current brake state . ( 6) Engine state: If engine-on, the cruise-control may be active. (7) Accelerator: Accelerator state is. required by the cruise-control system. (8) Throttle: Setting the throttle value . Abstraction from case-2: - 7 - 1 An object is an entity that exists in time and space . An obje ct also has state . The operations indicate the object's state. Each object will be in one state at one time . The object state may change by the activity of other objects or as the time changes. We can trace the system activity in the state space . 2 We need facilities to indicate the time constraints of the system . For example, the clock's and wheel's operations must be synchronized. and the throttle has one operation-desired speed which can be visible by all the three operations of control increase, decrease and resume . 3 The ease-l and case-2 deal with different problems. The objects abstracted from these two problems are different, except one situation that the control object in cruise-control system is interacting with driver's requirement, the monitor object in environmental monitor system is interacting with user's command. Both system needs an interface with the user who will dynamically input his requirements / commands. This interface can be a reusable component. 2.3.4.3. Ca.se-3: Message Switching System The message switching problem is addressed in [8] . Figure 8 is the problem abstraction . The message switching system consists of a network of switching nodes connected via trunk lines. Each switching node is locally attached to subscribers , an operator, archive tape , and auxiliary memory. The operator can send and receive messages like any subscriber. In addition , the operator monitors and controls the node activity. The function of each node is to route input messages to one or more output destinations . Three successive phases are involved in processing each message: input, switch and output. inputReading input from a local subscriber or trunk link and storing the message on both auxiliary memory and an archive tape . switch Each input message contains a header, body and end marker. The header is examined to determine the output destination. For each destination , a directory is consulted to determine the appropriate output line to use and a copy of the message is queued for output on each distinct line. output A message is retrieved from auxiliary memory and written on the appropriate output line . Each message contains a priority as part of its header so that, at all times, the highest priority message for an output line is transmitted . If preempted, a message is later transmitted in its entirety. Having the experience of solving previous two problems, abstract objects and their operations can be obtained by repeatedly using the object-abstraction. Thus, we get the problem definition in object space (figure 9) and the concept solution (figure 10~. Pro b 1e m 8.p.a.c.e. Objects and their Operations: (1) Switches i.n.p.u.t message head and control signal. (2) Switches s.tu.r.e. the message on the auxiliary memory. (3) Switches archive message on the tape. . 8 . ( 4) Switches consult the cross-reference table to determine the appropriate output port. (5) Switches handle th e output message priority and preemption-output queue. (5) Switches output the message head and control signal to the output port. (7) Operator monitors the switch system . (8) Output ports retrieve the message body. This problem solution must solve the following four problems: • maximize I/ 0 parallelism , • control different I/0 devices, • coordinate mode activity, • handle output message preemptions. System Specification in A.d.a type MSG_A.DDR is STRING(l.20); type MSG is record HEAD : STRING(l.20); BODY: STRING(l.lOO); end record; task type ARCHIVE_TAPE is entry ARCHIVE (THE_NISG: in MSG); end ARCHIVE_TAPE; task type AUX_MEM is entry OUTPUT_NISG (THE_NISG_A.DDR in MSG_A.DDR); entry INPUT . MSG (THE_NISG_A.DDR : in MSG_A.DDR); end AUX_MEM; task type OUTPUT_CONTROL IS entry OUTPUT. . Jv1SG ( OUTPUT_pORT THE_NISG_A.DDR : in end OUTPUT_CONTROL; task type SWITCH is in STRING(1.20); MSG_A.DDR); entry INPUT_CONTROL (THE_NISG in MSG); end SWITCH; task type OPERA TORS is entry INPUT_MSG (THE_MSG m MSG); end OPERA TORS; task type SUBSCRIBER is entry INPUT.Jv1SG (THE_NISG in MSG); end SUBSCRIBER; OPERA TOR : OPERATORS; task body OPERA TOR is -- local type declarations -- ARCHIVE TAPE task declaration - g - -- AUXILIARY MEMORY task declaration -- OUTPUT CONTROL task declaration -- REFERENCE TABLE data structure declaration -- OUTPUT QUEUE data structure declaration THE.BUBSCRIBER : array ( 1.100) of SUBSCRIBER; task body THE.BUBSCRIBER is task OUTPUT_MSG; • • • end THE.BUBSCRIBER; THE.BWITCH : SWITCH; task body THE.BWITCH is procedure STORE_MSG (THE_MSG in MSG); procedure ARCHIVE_MSG (THE_MSG : in MSG); procedure CONSULT_TABLE (OUTPUT _FORT : out STRING( 1.10); THE_MSG : in MSG) ; procedure PREEMPTION (THE_MSG : in MSG; -- subprogram body • • • end THE.BWITCH ; -- other task bodies begin loop PRIORITY : out INTEGER); accept INPUT_MSG ( THE_MSG in MSG) do • • • end INPUT_MSG; end loop; end OPERATOR; - 10- Abstractions from case-3: 1 2 Using the object-oriented method to do system design really requires a great deal of real world knowledge and intuitive understanding of the problem, especially for abstracting operations. Listing the goal of the system requirements helps to decide which object should do which operation . For example, for this specific problem, the solution must solve the maximizing I / 0 parallelism and control different I/0 devices, it had better make auxiliary memory and archive-tape become active objects. The control issue and time constraint are important. It definitely needs some facilities to specify them . For example, the input-control for switch needs to specify its input trigger is exclusive OR, its output is sequential. In system architecture design using Ada, it seems that Ada's program units are not sufficient for this specification. 3 The three case studies come from different application fields. The software systems are required for different purposes. They deal with totally different objects. From the domain object level, it is not clear what is the reusable component. 2.3.5. Summary of Reusability Concepts 1 2 3 Software reusability is an attribute of software relative to its applicability in different computational contexts as well as different application areas. The object-oriented methodology is a better fit for real applications than other traditional methodologies. It is at least useful to apply reusability principle in the same application domain. Reusable software components tend to be objects or classes of objects. Given a rich set of reusable software components, the implementation would proceed via composition of these parts, rather than further decomposition. The greater abstraction of object models provides greater potential reusability. The level of abstraction has a great effect on reusability. Higher the abstraction, the greater overhead it may require for interpretation and it provides less intuitive understanding. Lower the abstraction, the chance of recognizing reusable components become less. 3. Concurrency Issues 3.1. Synchronization In a real time system, several processes may access the same data at the same time . This situation may result in inconsistent data. A language dealing with concurrent programming must guard against this possibility. That is, the language must provide the means to guard against time-dependent errors. When a process is accessing shared data, the process is said to be in its critical section ( or critical region). The concept of allowing only one process into its critical region at a time is known as mutual exclusion. An elegant software implementation of mutual exclusion was presented by Dekker. Dijkstra also abstracted the key notation of mutual exclusion in his concept of semaphores [10] . 3.1.1. Semaphores A semaphores is a protected integer variable which can take on only non-zero values and whose value can be accessed and altered only by the operations P(s), stands for wait, and V(s), stands for signal, and an initialization operation. Binary semaphores can accept only the - 11 - values 0 or 1. General semaphores can accept non-negative integer values . The definition of P and S is as follows : P(s): If s > 0 then s :=s- 1 else the execution of the process that called P(s) is suspended. V(s) :If some process P has been suspended by a previous P(s) on the semaphores then wake up P else s := s + 1 3.1.2. Monitors The above methods are so primitive that it is difficult to express solutions for more complex concurrency problems, and their presence in concurrent programs increases the existing difficulty of proving program correctness [ 12]. Another drawback of the above methods was that every procedure had to provide its own synchronization explicitly. A desire to provide the appropriate synchronization automatically led to the development of a new construct, a monitor [10]. A monitor is a concurrency construct that contains both the data and the procedures needed to perform allocation of a shared resource or group of shared resources. The monitor enforces information hiding - processes calling the monitor have no idea of, nor access to, data inside the monitor. Mutual exclusion is rigidly enforced at the monitor boundary- only one process at a time is allowed to enter. If a process inside the monitor cannot proceed until a certain condition becomes true, the process calls wait (variables name) and waits outside the monitor on a queue for ";variables name" to be signaled by another process. To ensure that a process already waiting for a resource eventually does get it, the monitor gives higher priority to a waiting process relative to a new requesting process attempting to enter the monitor. A process calling wait is threaded into the queue; a process calling signal causes a waiting process to be removed from the queue. 3.2. Ada Rendezvous Ada is a higher-level program mg language which can be used for conventional programming. In this section, we are concerned with the features of Ada related to concurrent programming. Central to these features is the concept of the task which is a program module that is executed asynchronously. Tasks may communicate and synchronize their actions through : 1 accept statement: It is a combination of procedure calls and message transfer. 2 select statement : It is a non-deterministic control structure based on guarded command construct. The BNF of them are : accept statement has the form : accept entry~imple_name [( entry_index)] [formal_part] do sequence_of~tatemen ts end [ entry~imple_name]; select statement has the form : select [when boolean_expression =>] - 12- acce p L.s tate men t seq ue n ce_of .s tatements {or [when boolean_expression =>] acce pt.s tatemen t} se qu ence_of.s tatemen ts [else se quence _of.s tatemen ts] end select; Following sections are Ada programs that implement the above mentioned concurrent problems. 3.2.1. Dekker's Algorithm procedure DEKKER is FAVOREDPROCESS : INTEGER; Pl WANTSTOENTER, P2WANTSTOENTER : BOOLEAN; procedure TWOYROC (PlWANTSTOENTER, P2WANTSTOENTER : in out BOOLEAN; FAVORED PROCESS : in out INTEGER) is task Pl; task body Pl is begin loop Pl WANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; while P2WANTSTOENTER loop if FAVOREDPROCESS = 2 then Pl W ANTSTOENTER := FALSE; while FAVOREDPROCESS = 2 loop null; busy waiting end loop; PlWANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; end if; -- you can enter critical region for Pl from here FAVOREDPROCESS := 2; PlWANTSTOENTER :=FALSE; -- you may put other s tuff here end loop; end loop; endPl; task P2; task body P2 is begin P2WANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; while Pl WANTS TO ENTER loop - 13 - ifF A VORED PROCESS = 1 then P2WANTSTOENTER := FALSE; while FAVORED PROCESS = 1 loop null; busy waiting end loop; P2WANTSTOENTER :=TRUE; end if; -- you may enter critical region for P2 form here FAVOREDPROCESS := 1; P2WANTSTOENTER :=FALSE; --you may put other stuff here end loop; end loop; endP2; begin null; -- main program for TWO_pROC end TWO_pROC; begin P1 W ANTSTOENTER := FALSE; P2WANTSTOENTER :=FALSE; FAVORED PROCESS := 1; TWO_pROC (P1wantstoenter, P2wantstoenter, favoredprocess) ; end DEKKER; 3.2.2. Semaphore (Binary) The following are two approaches of Binary Semaphore . The first one is described in [10] and the second one exactly follows the original definition of sem aphore. 3.2.2.1. procedure BINARY ,SEMAPHORE is ta.sk SEMAPHORE is entry P; entryV; end SEMAPHORE; ta.sk body SEMAPHORE is begin loop accept P; only after P has been called that V accept V; can be accepted and vice versa end loop; end SEMAPHORE; task Pl; task body P 1 is begin loop - 14- -- you may put the remainde r of the program one here SEMAPHORE.P; -- call the P entry -- now you can go ahe ad to access the critical region SEMAPHORE.V; -- call the V entry end loop; end Pl; task P2; task body P2 is begin loop -- you may put the remainder of the program one here SEMAPHORE.P; -- call the Pen try -- now you can go ahead to access the critical region SEMAPHORE.V; -- call the V entry end loop; end P2; begin -- main program for BINARY_8EMAPHORE null; end BINARY_8EMAPHORE; 3.2.2.2. According to the definition, semaphore is a protected variable whose value can be accessed and altered by operations P and V and initial operation. So, we declare semaphore as private type and only those subroutines inside this package can access its value package BIN_8EMAPHORE is type SEMAPHORE is private; procedure P (S: in out SEMAPHORE); procedure V (S: in out SEMAPHORE); procedure INITIAL_8EMAPHORE(S: in out SEMAPHORE; VALUE : in INTEGER); private type SEMAPHORE is record VAL : INTEGER; end record; end; package body BIN.SEMAPH ORE is NO_ WAITING :INTEGER := 0; - 15 - -- Il:um her of processes that have been suspended task CONTROL is entry SUSPEND ; entry W AKE_UP; end; task body CONTROL is begin loop accept WAKE_UP do accept SUSPEND; end; end loop; end CONTROL; procedure P (S : in out SEMAPHORE) is begin if S.VAL > 0 then S.VAL := S.VAL - 1; else NO_ WAITING := NO_WAITING + 1; CONTROL.SUSPEND; -- suspend the process end if; endP; procedure V (S : in out SEMAPHORE) is begin if NO_ WAITING > 0 then CONTROL.WAKE_UP; -- wakeup one of the suspended processes NO_WAITING := NO_WAITING- 1; else S.VAL := S.VAL + 1; end if; end V; procedure INITIAL.SEMAPHORE (S: in out SEMAPHORE; VALUE : in INTEGER) is begin S.V AL :=VALUE; end INITIAL_sEMAPH ORE; end BIN_sEMAPH ORE; - 16 - with BIN_sEMAPHORE; use BIN_sEMAPHORE; procedure SEMAPH ORE_EXAMPLE is S: SEMAPHORE; procedure TWOYROC is task PROCESSONE; task body PROCESSONE is begin loop -- put some stuff here P(S); -- now you are inside the critical region one V(S); -- put some other stuff here end loop; end PROCESSONE; task PROCESSTWO; task body PROCESSTWO is begin loop -- put some stuff here P(S); -- now you are inside the critical region two V(S); end loop; end PROCESSTWO; begin null; -- main program for two_proc end TWOYROC; begin -- main program for semaphore example INITIAL_sEMAPHORE(S, 1); TWOYROC; -- now, two processes are executing concurrently - 17 - end SEMAPH ORE_EXAMPLE; 3.2.3. Binary Semaphore Using Monitor Concept In the following example we describe the implementation of a binary semaphore by a monitor written in Ada. generic package GENERIC_MONITOR is task type COND PTR is entry WAIT; entry SIGNAL; end COND PTR; type CONDITION is access COND PTR; -- This condition type of variab le provides a queue for wait entry, also for the signal entry. end GENERIC_MONITOR; package body GENERIC_MONITOR is task body COND PTR is begin loop accept SIGNAL do accept WAIT; end; end loop; end CONDPTR; end GENERIC_MONITOR; with GENERIC_MONITOR; procedure SEMAPHORE_USE_MONITOR is This package(monitor) performs information hiding. Procedures calling the monitor have no idea of, nor access to, data inside the monitor. package MONITOR is procedure P; procedure V; end MONITOR; package body MONITOR is - 18- package TEMP is new GENERIC_MONITOR; use TEMP; NOT_BUSY : CONDITION; BUSY: BOOLEAN := FALSE; procedure P is begin if BUSY then NOT_BUSY.WAIT; -- wait entry provides a queue for the -- procedures waiting to be accepted end if; BUSY :=TRUE; endP; procedure V is begin BUSY := FALSE; NOT_BUSY.SIGNAL; -- wake up the procedure at the first -- on the queue of wait entry endV; end MONITOR; use MONITOR; procedure TWOYROC is task P1 ; task body P1 is begin loop P; -- you can enter the critical region 1 now V ; -- you may put the rest of the stuff here end loop; endP1; task P2; task body P2 is begin loop P; -- you can enter the critical region 2 now V; -- you may put the rest of the stuff here end loop; end P2 ; - 1 g - begin -- main program of two_proc null; now Pl and P2 are executing concurrently end TWOYROC; begin -- main program of SEMAPHORE_USE_MONITOR TWO_?ROC; end SEMAPHORE_USE_MONITOR; 3.3. Real-Time Interrupt Handling Efficient interrupt handling is critical in real-time environments. Interrupts are used to control the transfer of data to and from external devices, which often generate interrupts at high frequencies. If the interrupt is not handled quickly, external data can be lost or overall efficiency of the system can be severely degraded . Real-time performance requirements are determined by the minimum time between arrival of interrupts and the maximum time that can elapse while an interrupt is pending before data are lost or a hardware time-out occurs. When an interrupt occurs, a processor must begin executing code in another environment. Context switching is machine dependent, and in most modern computers it is supported by special privileged instructions. Interrupt handling takes at least two context switches, one from the program currently running to the interrupt handler and one at the completion of the interrupt handler. However, neither of these need to be full context switches, nor do interrupts need to be disabled for long. 3.3.1. Language Mechanisms for Interrupt Handlers in Ada Most real-time software for embedded systems use interrupt handlers to control and communicate with external devices . Interrupt handlers are usually responsible for initializing devices, initiating physical I/0 operations and responding to both anticipated and unanticipated interrupts. Ideally, interrupts would arrive only as a direct consequence of a previously issued software command. However, in practice, interrupts can arrive unexpectedly or fail to arrive when expected. Interrupt handlers have traditionally been written in assembly language because few high-level languages provide support for interrupts and because interrupt handlers must often meet severe real-time constraints [15] . Mechanisms for implementing interrupt handlers provided by systems programming languages such as Concurrent Pascal and Modubv-2 are usually not optimized for real-time applications. Since Ada was intended for embedded applications, interrupt-handling mechanisms were integrated into Ada. The Ada Language Reference Manual (LRM) [18] briefly describes interrupt handlers and their semantics (in sec. 13.7) . The following example from the LRM illustrates the specification of an interrupt handler: t.a.sk INTERRUPT_HAND LER is entry DONE; for DONE use at 16#40#; end INTERRUPT_HANDLER; - 20- The task specification n, or interface, de fines each externally visible task operation , referred to as an entry. The semantics of an interrupt is defined in terms of the rendezvous which was dis- [ cussed in previous sections. Each Ada process, or task, declares a list of entry procedures that can be called by other tasks. A rendezvous occurs between a calling task and the serving task when the caller is waiting to execute an entry call, and the server is waiting to accept the en try call. Each task specification must have a corresponding body that contains the executable code of the task. The following is a more realistic example of an interrupt handler for a printer device [ which illustrates some of the hardware and software run-time support actions that must be considered when programming interrupt handlers. task PRINTER_8ERVER is entry OUTPUT__LINE (ST : in STRING); entry IO_INTERRUPT; for IO_INrERRUPT use at 16#1234#; end PRINTER_8ERVER; task body PRINTER_8ERVER is HARDWAREYORT : CHARACTER; for HARDWAREYORT use at 16#1234#; begin loop accept OUTPUT__LINE (ST : in STRING) do for INDEX in ST'RANGE loop HARDWAREYORT := ST(INDEX); accept IO_INTERRUPT; end loop end OUTPUT__LINE; HARDWAREYORT := ASCII.CR; accept IO_INTERRUPT do HARDWAREYORT := ASCII.LF; end IO_lNTERRUPT; accept IO_INTERRUPT; end loop; end PRINTER_8ERVER; The above example illustrates how it is possible in Ada to serve the same interrupt entry point with different accept bodies. 3.3.2. Interrupt Handling Model in Ada Hardware interrupts generated by a device or its controller are usually described informally by means of flowcharts and timing diagrams, in contrast to software whose behaviour is defined by a program . A uniform description of both the hardware and software makes it possible to define a model for a general-purpose , interrupt-handling mechanism [17]. The complete chain of control from the hardware to the server can be modeled by three Ada tasks , where the first two are asynchronous tasks external to the server. The first task - 21 - represents a hardware device, which is a producer of interrupts and a producer or consumer of data. The second task represents the hardware /software interface , and performs interrupt enabling , disabling and context switching outside the normal Ada rendezvous mechanisms. The task specifications are as follows: HARDWARE_DATA : DEVICE_DEPENDENT; task ASYNCHRONOUS_HARDWARE; task INTERFACE is entry D ISPA TCHJNTERRUPT; end INTERFACE; task SERVER is entry OUTPUT_LINE (ST: in STRING) ; entry IOJNTERRUPT; for IOJNTERRUPT use at 16#1234#; end SERVER; The advantage of adopting an Ada model for devices and their run-time support is that the semantics of interrupt handling can be defined entirely in Ada. This model can be used conveniently to illustrate some of the problems an effective implementation must be able to handle : 1. hardware that generates interrupts at power-up and in error situations where there is no Ada program or handler ready to serve interrupts 2. hardware that generates spurious interrupts when the interrupt handlers are not ready to serve interrupts 3. hardware that requires immediate action on the interrupt to prevent the loss of data 4. a hardware interrupt that demands a specific program action to mask it out so that it is not constantly pending. 3.3.2.1. The Hardware/Software Interface The interface is modeled by a task representing the connection between the hardware and server tasks that are running concurrently on two conceptually different processors with a need to communicate. The hardware task has no knowledge of the state of the software and can try to interact with it at unexpected times. Some hardware tasks must be serviced immediately, even if the server is not ready, and can therefore generate unexpected interrupts (and race conditions in the server) when interrupt handlers are too slow to handle successive interrupts. A model for robust and usable interrupt support environment must provide services for situations in which either software or hardware is malfunctioning. This kind of failure handling can be represented by the following body of the interface task . task body INTERFACE is begin loop - 22- accept DISPATCHJNTERRUPT do select-- conditional en try call SERVER.IOJNTERRUPT; else FAIL URE_8ERVER.SERVER_NOT_READ Y; end select; end DISPATCHJNTERRUPT; end loop; end INTERFACE; 3.3.2.2. The Hardware Task The Ada hardware task example below models many of the problems caused by actual hardware . In the ex ample , the server and interface tasks communicate with the hardware task v1a a global HARDWARE_DATA variable, which includes the fields INTERRUPT_ENABLED , STARTJO and IO_DA TA. task body ASYNCHRONOUS_HARD WARE is -- lo cal declarations procedure GENERATEJNTERRUPT(TIMEOUT NATURAL) is begin PENDING JNTERR UPT: for I in O . TIMEOUT loop if HARDWARE_DATA.INTERRUPT_ENABLED then select -- conditional en try call INTERF A CE.D ISPA TCHJNTERRUPT; ifDATA_UNSTABLE then HARDWARE_DATA.IO_DATA := IND ETERMINANT; end if; exit PENDINGJNTERRUPT; else if DATA_UNSTABLE then HARDWARE_DATA.IO_DATA end if; end select; end if; end loop PENDINGJNTERRUPT; end GENERA TEJNTERRUPT; begin loop IND ETERMINANT; SERVICEJNTERVAL := SERVICEJNTERV AL + 1; if SERVICEJNTERVAL > SERVICE_TIMEOUT then GENERATEJNTERRUPT (INTERRUPT_TIMEOUT) ; SERVICEJNTERVAL := 0; end if; if HARDWARE_DATA.STARTJO then - 23- for I in O . DO_IO_TIME loop null; end loop; HARD WARE.J) ATA.IO_DA TA :=VALID _DATA; GENERA TE_INTERRUPT ( IO_D ONE_TIMEOUT); end if; end loop; end ASYNCHRONOUS.JIARD WARE; The hardware and interface model is sufficiently general to cover a wide range of hardware devices and enables a specification of requirements for designing a system hardware support package. Without such a formal definition, it is difficult to verify the correctness of the interrupt run-time support package. In addition, the model permits a software task to simulate a hardware device and test the interrupt run-time support package. 3.4. Conclusion The traditional approach to implementing interrupt handlers using assembly language le ads to systems that are difficult to develop, maintain or adapt to new hardware and software requirements. By providing a high-level interface, Ada simplifies the design and maintenance of interrupt handlers . And Ada defines the semantics of tasking mechanism, making it possible to construct asynchronous and synchronous programming models. Ada not only provides a powerful tool from software resuability point of view but also provides a powerful tools for concurrent programming. It really is "; The Language for the 1980s ";(May be 1990s). References [1] P.Wegner ";Capital-Intensive Software Technology,"; IEEE Software, Vol. 1, No.3, July, 1984, p. 3-45. [2] R. S. Pressman, Software Engineering, McGRAW-HILL, Inc. 1987, p. 5-8. [3] T . C. Jones , ";Reusability In Programming: A Survey of the State of the Art,"; IEEE Trans. Software Eng., Vol. SE-10, No.5, sept. 1984, p. 488-497. [ 4] G. Jones, ";Software Reusability: Approaches and Issues,"; Pro c. of IEEE computer Software f3 Applications Gonf., Nov. 1984, p. 476-477 . [ 5] M. D . Lubars, ";Code Reusability in the Large vs . in the Small,"; AG!vf SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, Vol. 11, No.1, Jan. 1986, p. 21-27. [6] G . Booch, Software Engineering With Ada, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., 1987, p. 334-354. [7] G. Booch, "; Object-Oriented Development,"; IEEE Trans. software Eng., Vol. SE-12, No. 2, Feb. 1986, p. 211-221. [8] G . R. Andrews, ";The Design of a Message Switching System : An Application and Evaluation of Modula,"; IEEE Trans. Software Eng., Vol. SE-5, No.2, Mar. 1979, p. 138- 147. [9] J. G . P. Barnes, Programming in Ada, Addison-Wesley, 1984. - 24- [10] M. Ben-Ari, Principles of Concurrent Programming, Prentice-Hall International, 1983. [11] G. Booch , Software Engineering with Ada, Benhamin/Cummings, 1983. [ 12] H. M. D eitel, An Introduction to Operating System, Addison-Wesley, 1983. r [13] J. Peterson and A. Silberschatz, Operating System Concepts, Addison-Wesley, 1983 . [ 14] M. M. Tanik, ";A Comparative Study of Synchronization Models Exploitable for Real [ Time Software Development Environment Design and Testing", SMU Technical Report 87-CSE-1, 1987. M. M. Tanik, ";Message Based Kernel in Communications", AACI Tech . Report, 1984. ( [ 16] ";Analyzing Ada Concurrent Programming", ACM Ada LETTERS, March-April, 1987. [ 17] J. B. Rasmussen and B. Appelbe, ";Real-time Interrupt Handling in Ada", Software Practice and Experience, Vol. 17, No. 3, Mar. 1987, p.197-213. [18] United States Department of Defense, Reference Manual for the Ada Programming Language, ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A, Feb. 1983.
»Der Faktor Mensch bestimmt den Unternehmenserfolg« – die zentrale Managementerkenntnis wird in kaum einem Unternehmen umgesetzt. Jörg Knoblauch spricht Klartext: Wer im Vertrauen auf das Bauchgefühl neue Mitarbeiter auswählt, wer sich darauf verlässt, dass sich die Fehlbesetzung noch zum Performer entwickeln wird, wer unter Personalentwicklung nur das jährliche Mitarbeitergespräch versteht, der darf sich nicht wundern, wenn sein Team in eine Abwärtsspirale gerät. Knoblauch zeigt, warum das Personalmanagement in die Unternehmensführung gehört und warum es ein entscheidender Wettbewerbsvorteil ist, wenn Mitarbeiterauswahl, -förderung und -führung oberste Priorität bekommen.
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How hospitable will the global environment be for economic growth in the developing world as we come out of the present financial crisis? The answer depends on how well the author manage the following tension. On the one hand, global macro stability requires that we prevent external imbalances from getting too large. On the other hand, growth in poor nations requires that the world economy be able to absorb a rapid increase in the supply of tradable produced in the developing world. It is possible to render these two requirements compatible, but doing so requires greater use of explicit industrial policies in developing countries, which have the potential of encouraging of modern tradable activities without spilling over into trade surpluses. The 'price' to be paid for greater discipline on real exchange rates and external imbalances is greater use (and permissiveness) towards industrial polices.
10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 1/7 Features | Around Campus | Events | Recognition | Service | SEARCH ARCHIVES October 2015 - Vol. 19, No. 2 P' M This is an exciting time for the University! Fresno State is stronger than ever – a place of growingdiscovery, diversity and distinction. Applications from talented and diverse undergraduates from throughoutthe Valley and state hit a record number this year. In fact, our applications have increased at a rate that istwice the CSU average. As I meet these students on campus, I am impressed with the excellence theybring to Fresno State. As we strengthen our student success initiatives, we are seeing our graduation ratesteadily improving. The six-year rate is projected to increase to nearly 58 percent this year. That is morethan a 9 percentage-point increase in the past two years. Our goal is to achieve a 70 percent graduationrate by 2023, and we are well on our way! Thanks to the bold efforts of our faculty and staff, there is muchto be proud of at Fresno State. F Dr. Mohan Dangi: a Fresno State action hero in Nepal One moment Dr. Mohan Dangi was on his way back to Fresno after helping with Nepal earthquake relief efforts, and thenext he was about to be pulverized by a huge rock headed right for his vehicle. The driver gunned it, and thus Dr. Dangisurvived a mortal threat which is reminscent of an Indiana Jones movie. See more . Autism Center is all about serving families Making a big difference is what the Autism Center @ Fresno State is all about. Reaching out to the community, it has10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 2/7 already established a new center in Madera county. See more . Dr. Andrew Fiala examines the big questions in life Thinking and questioning can lead to a satisfying life, according to Dr.Andrew Fiala, professor and chair of the Philosophy Department and directorof the Ethics Center at Fresno State. "We're not all alike, and we don't haveto be," Fiala said. "Socrates, Galileo, Martin Luther, Einstein — theinnovators have been the unique individuals who think differently than themajority." See more . International Student Services and Programs For the second year in a row, Fresno State has been selected for a nationalExcellence and Innovation Award from the American Association of StateColleges and Universities (AASCU). This year, it's for internationalization efforts. See more . The Castros' first two years at Fresno State Remember key moments with President Joseph I. Castro and First Lady Mary Castro. Photos by Cary Edmondson. Seeslideshow . Trek with TimeOut Enjoy some of the fun times with TimeOut, Fresno State's beloved mascot. Photos by Cary Edmondson. Additionalphotos courtesy of Athletics Marketing and Promotions. See slideshow . A C Submit your input for the strategic planning process President Castro and the Strategic Planning Committee invite members of the campus community to offer input for thestrategic planning process that will identify campus priorities for the next five years. An online form for input is available here . Information about the draft Mission Statement and Strategic Plan priorities is available here. Nursing students take free services to the Valley This September saw the launch of School of Nursing's Community Health Mobile Unit, which offers free health servicesto rural communities. The mobile unit, made from a deconstructed RV, has two exam rooms for services such asimmunizations and diabetes and blood pressure screenings, plus health assessments, education and referrals.Throughout the fall semester, the mobile unit will travel to rural areas in Fresno County, providing free services to thosewho do not have readily available access to health care. See more . New name for Student Affairs, offices The Division of Student Affairs has been renamed the Division of Student Affairs and Enrollment Management. Officeswithin the division have also changed their names: Career Development Center (formerly Career Services), Cross Culture and Gender Center (formerly Center for Women and Culture), and University Health and CounselingCenter (formerly University Health and Psychological Services). Admissions and Records also had offices that changedtheir names: Degree Advising Office (formerly the Evaluations Office) and Student Conduct Office (formerly JudicialAffairs). Also, the Dream Outreach Center is a new office within Student Affairs and Enrollment Management, housed inUniversity Outreach Center's office. Athletics honors academics This season at home sporting events, extraordinary teaching at the University is being showcased by selected facultymembers — such as Miles Ishigaki (Music) and Betsy Hays (MCJ) — who present the game ball to President Joseph I.Castro in front of thousands of Bulldog football fans. Faculty members from the Jordan College of Agricultural Sciencesand Technology are also recognized during football games as the "Actagro Faculty Member of the Game," with CathyPay Zhu (Agricultural Business) and Hend Letaief (Viticulture and Enology) recently receiving this honorary recognition.Additional recognition for academics takes place during Men's Basketball College Nights, which introduces theaccomplishments of the University's colleges and schools to the community and provides the opportunity to bring donors,alumni, staff, faculty and students from together for a fun evening. Athletics also recognizes faculty and staff with anappreciation day, one for each sport (excluding football) which offers faculty and staff free admission. For moreinformation, or if you know an extraordinary faculty or staff member you would like to see honored at a future event,please contact aslater@csufresno.edu .10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 3/7 $10,000 grant will help Fresno State serve students in recovery Fresno State has received a $10,000 Early Seed Grant from Transforming YouthRecovery (TYR), a non-profit charity created by the Stacie Mathewson Foundation,which creates and brings together innovative and sustainable scholastic recoverycommunities. The three-year grant provides funding and technical assistance with agoal to help Fresno State "build a recovery community from the inside out by focusingon community-based assets and mobilizing relationships between individuals,associations and institutions." The grant will help Fresno State spearhead recoveryefforts on campus. Activities include the following: Identifying of a small group of students in recovery to help lead the way to developmentof a program. Conducting a survey and convening focus groups of students in recovery to obtainfeedback on the type of support they need in order to have a successful academiccareer. Based on the results, the University may consider bringing Alcoholics Anonymous meetings or otherrecovery support group meetings to Fresno State. Working with Transforming Youth Recovery on an ongoing basis to develop and strengthen our recovery program. For more information, contact Kathy Yarmo at kyarmo@csufresno.edu . WASC team will visit campus Oct. 20-22 The WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC) will be at Fresno State Oct. 20-22 in connection withthe University's accreditation. The team typically schedules open meetings with students, staff and faculty to provide anopportunity for informal input from all members of the campus community about their experiences with the institution.Individuals who are unable to attend the meetings may contact the WSCUC team through Oct. 22 using this confidentialemail: csufr@wascsenior.org . For more information about Fresno State WASC accreditation, click here. E Keyboard Concerts presents Isabelle Demers on Oct. 4 Isabelle Demers performs works by Vierne, Prokofiev, H. Martin, Reger, J.S. Bach, Laurin, andThalben-Ball at 3 p.m., Oct. 4 in the Concert Hall. A French-Canadian artist, she is rapidlybecoming recognized as one of America's most virtuosic organists. Recent highlights of hervast performance activities include her debuts at Davies Hall in San Francisco and Disney Hallin Los Angeles as well as a fourteen concert tour of England and Germany. General admissionis $25, seniors $18, and students $5. For reservations and other information, call 278.2337.This concert is co-sponsored with the San Joaquin Valley Chapter, American Guild ofOrganists and L'Alliance Francaise de Fresno. Farm to Fork Exhibition open through December; Great Grape Event is Oct. 10 Henry Madden Library's exhibition, "Farm to Fork: Food, Family, Farming," features the immigration history of the Valley'slargest ethnic populations, as well as their contributions to agriculture in the Central Valley. It will also showcase antiquefarming equipment as part of a "non-petting zoo." The exhibition is free and open to the public through December 18. Inaddition, a series of related "Farm to Fork" events are being planned throughout the year, beginning with "The GreatGrape" on Saturday, Oct.r 10, from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. at the Department of Viticulture and Enology (located on Barstowbetween Cedar and Maple). For more information, visit www.fresnostate.edu/library or contact Cindy Wathen at 278.1680or ciwathen@csufresno.edu . Universal Design Day is Oct. 16 Universal Design Day is Oct. 16 from 9 a.m.-3 p.m. at the Henry Madden Library, starting at DISCOVERe Hub, first floor.This event is held bring awareness of universal design and accessibility to our campus. Attend a showcase of resourcesand best practices. "Pop-in" to 30-minute workshops. Features include food, prizes, and opportunities in universaldesign. See more . Licensing and Tradmark Vendor Fair is Oct. 22 A Licensing and Tradmark Vendor Fair will be held Oct. 22 from 9 a.m.-2 p.m., North Gym 118, to inform faculty and staffof how to order products with Fresno State's trademark. Companies licensed to provide promotional materials will bepresent with vendor booths and samples. Presentations will be made at 10 a.m., 11 a.m., and 1 p.m. For moreinformation, contact gbehrens@csufresno.edu .10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 4/7 Pianist Sahan Arzruni performs Oct. 25 The Keyboard Concerts series offers a special event with pianist Sahan Arzruniperforming on Sunday, Oct. 25, at 3 p.m. Arzruni has become a familiar figurethrough many television broadcasts such as Johnny Carson and Mike Douglasshows. He has also been featured in a number of PBS specials. The recital is co-sponsored with the Fresno State Armenian Studies Program and the Thomas A.Kooyumjian Family Foundation. General admission is $25, seniors $18, and students$5. For reservations and other information, call 278.2337. University Theatre 2015-16 season begins The upcoming University Theatre season includes the following: Yellowman , by Dael Orlandersmith, Oct. 2-4 and 6-10, Dennis and Cheryl Woods Theatre A Midsummer Night's Dream , by William Shakespeare, Oct. 30-Nov. 1 and Nov. 3-7, Dennis and Cheryl WoodsTheatre Really Really , by Paul Downs Colaizzo, Dec. 4-6 and 8-12, John Wright Theatre Contemporary Dance Ensemble, artistic director Kenneth Balint, Feb. 12-14 and 16-20, John Wright Theatre Malpractice, or Love's the Best Docto r, adapted from The Comedies of Moliére , March 11-13 and 15-19, Dennisand Cheryl Woods Theatre Blue Willow , by Pamela Sterling, May 6-8 and 10-14, John Wright Theatre Tickets are $17 for adults, $15 for Fresno State faculty, staff, alumni, seniors citizens and military, and $10 for studentsand are available at www.fresnostate.edu/theatrearts . Fresno State Concert Schedule To see the entire concert and recital schedule visit the website .Tickets prices are subject to change, Jazz Composer's Orchestra - Oct. 5 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall Fresno State Guitar Studio - Oct. 6 at 8 p.m., Wahlberg Recital Hall Faculty Brass Recital - Oct. 7 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall Cello Fresno – International Cello Festival Concert I, Symphony Orchestra - Oct. 9 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall,General: $15, Employee: $10, Senior: $10, Student: $5 Cello Fresno – International Cello Festival Concerto Competition - Oct. 10 at 8 p.m. Concert Hall, General:$15, Employee: $10, Senior: $10, Student: $5 FSSO/Cello Festival Final Gala Concert - Oct. 11 at 7 p.m., Concert Hall, General: $15, Employee: $10, Senior:$10, Student: $5 Symphonic Band Concert I - Oct. 13 at 7:30 p.m., Concert Hall Wind Orchestra Concert - Oct. 15 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall, General: $15, Employee: $10, Senior: $10, Student:$5 Invitational Choral Festival - Oct. 21-23, Concert Hall Keyboard Concerts Special Event - Sahan Arzruni – Oct. 25 at 3 p.m. Concert Hall, General: $25, Senior: $18,Student: $5. Not a part of the regular Keyboard Concert series Faculty Recital - Oct. 28 at 8 p.m. Concert Hall Jazz-O-Ween - Oct. 29 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall Conley Gallery Exhibitions Gallery hours during shows: Monday - Thursday, 10 a.m. - 4 p.m. unless otherwise noted. See the website for more. Nov. 2 - 5: Miguel Flores Reception: Thursday, Nov. 5, 5-8 p.m. Save the date: Oct. 9 - RAD American Women reception and presentation, University Dining Hall, 6 p.m. Oct. 28 - Fall Faculty/Staff Breakfast, 7:30 a.m.-9:30 a.m., Residence Dining Hall East Wing (reservations required) Oct. 29-30 - California Latino Leadership Education Summit10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 5/7 Nov. 15-18 - Accreditation site visit for entry-level Department of Physical Therapy Nov. 19 - President's Forum for Faculty and Staff, 10-11 a.m., North Gym 118 R Brad Hyatt (Construction Management) was appointed by Mayor Ashley Swearengin to the city of Fresno's Capital ProjectsOversight Board. Sam Lankford (Recreation Administration) had his report, "The Impact of the Arctic Winter Games: A Social Capital Perspective,"published this summer. It is the culmination of his 23 years of research on the social benefits of the Arctic Winter Games. Read more . Miguel Perez (Public Health) led 15 public health students on a global service learning course in the Dominican Republic, where theyprovided health education activities to some of the region's most destitute individuals. He also won an HonoraryProfessor award from the Universidad Central del Este (Central University of the East, UCE) in the Dominican Republicas part of UCE's Global Health Week. Kathie Reid-Bevington and Geoffrey Thurner (Jordan College) are participants in the Fresno County Farm Bureau's Future Advocates for Agriculture Concerned aboutTomorrow Class XIII, which is an eight-month educational program for community leaders who want to discussagriculture, labor and immigration, air quality, land-use planning, food production and more. Scott Sailor (Kinesiology) was officially inducted as president of the National Athletic Trainers Association. In this role, he'll lead39,000+ athletic trainers from across the nation, including Fresno State's Dr. Paul Ullucci (Physical Therapy), whoreceived the Most Distinguished Athletic Trainer Award at the 66th Annual NATA Meeting this summer in St Louis. Readmore . Anil Shrestha (Plant Science) was named Winrock International's August Volunteer of the Month for his recent work in two separatethree-week projects in Nepal. See more . Bhupinder Singh (Physical Therapy) presented his research, "Balance Control during Common Rehabilitation Exercises in ObeseFemales," at the American Society of Biomechanics meeting in Columbus, Ohio, this summer. S Save Mart Center's Shehady Tower turned red for Blood Cancer Awareness Fresno State teamed up with the Save Mart Center, Leukemia Lymphoma Society, Central California Blood Center andthe new Be the Match On Campus student group to support Blood Cancer Awareness Month in September. The partnersmet for a kick-off in the early morning hours of Sept. 9 to view Shehady Tower illuminated in red lights. The lighting is partof the national Leukemia Lymphoma Society campaign, to light iconic buildings in cities across America red. Iin addition to the tower lighting, Fresno State also hosted an on-campus blood drive and marrow registry drive Sept. 16-18. Hundreds of generous members of the Fresno State community donated blood and registered for the national Be theMatch marrow registry. The next on-campus blood drive and marrow registry drive will take place Nov. 17-19. For more information about Be the Match on Campus, contact Giuffrida at 559.278.5716 or tgiuffrida@csufresno.edu . Forthe Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, contact Korina Mendoza at 559.490.6943 or korina.mendoza@lls.org . For theFresno State blood drives contact Renee Delport at 559.278.7063 or rdelport@csufresno.edu .10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 6/7 Taste of Service Event introduces students to Fresno State's Culture of Service Taste of Service, a new addition to the annual Community ServiceOpportunities Fair took place in early September. In addition to learningabout community benefit organizations and volunteer opportunities theyoffer, the new area provided students the opportunity to try out several on-the-spot service projects. More than 650 students participated in the event that took place adjacent tothe traditional Service Fair. The service projects included writing advocacyletters with the Fresno State Food Recovery Network, making pinwheel toysand cards for patients at Valley Children's Hospital, and writing thank youcards for military veterans who live in the Fresno Veteran's Home. The event was coordinated by the Jan and Bud Richter Center forCommunity Engagement and Service-Learning and sponsored by Associated Students, Inc., Humanics, and StudentInvolvement. Make a Difference Day is Oct. 24 "Make a Difference Day," a national community service event encompassingthe most comprehensive nation-wide day of helping others, is Saturday, Oct. 24from 8 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. The Richter Center for Community Engagement andService-Learning is asking all faculty, staff, students, and alumni to participate.Volunteers may participate individually or as a group. More information aboutthe event, including registration details, is available at http://www.fresnostate.edu/academics/cesl/about/events.html In case you missed it: Fresno State's football win against Abilene Christian Relive the Fresno State Bulldogs' 34-13 football win against Abilene Christian Wildcats, Bulldog Stadium, Sept. 3,2015. See slideshow . Fall 2015 Residence Hall move-in See highlights from the Residence Hall move-in this fall. Photos by Cary Edmondson. See slideshow . New Student Convocation 2015 Fresno State welcomed new freshman, transfer and graduate students at the New Student Convocation in theSave Mart Center Aug. 24. See the slideshow . Ribbon cutting for Physical Therapy and Intercollegiate Athletics Building The University celebrated the opening of its new state-of-the-art 22,000-square-foot building with a ribbon cuttingSept. 15. The facility houses the Department of Physical Therapy, as well as athletics offices, and is located atBarstow Avenue and Campus Drive. See the slideshow . Bienvenida! Enjoy scenes from the Bienvenida celebration in the Fresno State Peace Garden, September 16. See theslideshow . Slideshow photos by Cary Edmondson. 10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 7/7 Still looking for more news? For the latest University press releases, visit FresnoStateNews.com. For sports news, visit GoBulldogs.com . Find announcements, events, and more on BulletinBoard . For the academic calendar, see the catalog . Find additional calendars through Academic Affairs . A listing of season stage performances is available through Theatre Arts and music performances through the Music Department . Campus News is the Fresno State employee newsletter published online the first day of each month – or the weekday closest to the first – fromSeptember through May. The deadline for submissions to the newsletter is 10 days prior to the first of each month. Please e-mail submissions to campusnews@csufresno.edu ; include digital photos, video clips or audio clips that are publishable online. Phone messages, PDFs, faxes, and printedhard copies will not be accepted. President , Joseph I. Castro Vice President for University Advancement , Paula Castadio . Campus News is published by the Office of University Communications. Archives | Academic Calendar | FresnoStateNews | Campus News Deadlines | University Communications Print this Page
Das vorliegende Datenhandbuch soll der Forschung zu den Aspekten internationaler Migration das adäquate Datenmaterial an die Hand geben. Anregung für diese Datensammlung wurde 1924 durch das Komitee zu den wissenschaftlichen Aspekten menschlicher Wanderung des Social Science Research Council gegeben. Die Durchführung der statistischen Studie wurde dem National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) in New York (Prof. Dr. Willcox) anvertraut, welches unterstützt wurde von der Abteilung Migration des International Labour Office (ILO bzw. Internationale Arbeitsorganisation (IAO), Prof. Dr. Ferenczi) in Genf (Schweiz). Das vorliegende Datenhandbuch geht über die Zusammenstellung bekannter, vorliegender Statistiken der einzelnen Länder hinaus. Viele Materialien wurden neben den schon publizierten öffentlichen Statistiken in den Archiven zusätzlich gesichtet und aufbereitet.
Die Forscher sammelten nationale Statistiken und stellten sie in internationalen Tabellen zusammen, soweit es die Datenlage erlaubte. Die besondere Herausforderung dieser Arbeit lag in der Tatsache, dass die Unvollständigkeit der nationalen Migrationsstatistiken steigt, je weiter die Daten in die Vergangenheit zurückreichen. Für jedes Land wurde die Anzahl der Auswanderer nach dem von ihnen angegebenen Zielland bzw. Einwanderungsland erhoben. Weiterhin wurden im Gegenzug für jedes Land die Einwanderer nach dem Land ihrer Abfahrt erfasst. Damit sollte für jedes Land ein Überblick der dieses Land betreffenden Migrationsflüsse erstellt werden. Interkontinentale Wanderungsbewegungen stellen den Schwerpunkt dieser Studie dar. Die kontinentale Wanderung innerhalb Europas und anderen Teilen der Welt wurde jedoch ebenfalls erfasst.
Das Material für die Statistiken wurde beschafft durch die Korrespondenz mit dem ILO und seinen Mitglieds-Staaten (Vereinte Nationen), durch die Zusammenarbeit mit den statistischen Ämtern der jeweiligen Länder und durch Sichtung der Archive.
In den nationalen Datentabellen werden die Migranten zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Abreise aus dem Land ihres gegenwärtigen Aufenthalts bzw. zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Ankunft in dem Land ihres zukünftigen Aufenthaltes erfasst. Bevölkerungsstatistiken oder Arbeitsmarktstatistiken, in denen auch die ausländische Bevölkerung erfasst wird und die daher eine indirekte Schlussfolgerung auf Wanderungsbewegungen zulassen, sind von den Autoren nicht berücksichtigt worden. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 67) Dort, wo Migrationsstatistiken auf der Basis von unterschiedlichen Methoden erhoben wurden, wie z.B. Hafen-Statistiken, Reisepass-Statistiken, oder Grenz-Statistiken, sind die entsprechenden Werte berücksichtigt worden und in den Tabellen wurde auf die Quelle hingewiesen. Dort, wo in den nationalen Migrationsstatistiken Auswanderer nach dem Zielland oder Einwanderer nach ihrem Herkunftsland klassifiziert wurden, wird sich in der Statistik indirekt auf ein anderes Land bezogen. Für die jeweiligen anderen Länder, welche in diesen nationalen Datentabellen erwähnt werden, stellen diese Statistiken eine Art 'indirekte Wanderungsstatistik' dar. Indirekte Statistiken beziehen sich normalerweise auf die Nennung von Ländern (z.B. Herkunftsland). Dort, wo diese Nennungen fehlen, wurde die Nationalität oder die Volkszugehörigkeit der Migranten herangezogen. Weiterhin wird in den Daten zwischen Bürgern des Landes (Dänen, d.h. in Dänemark geborene Bürger) und Ausländern unterschieden. Hierbei wurde immer die Definition des jeweiligen Landes für Staatsbürger und für Ausländer bei der Datenerhebung herangezogen. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 67) Ebenfalls wurde zwischen kontinentalen und interkontinentalen Migrationsbewegungen unterschieden. Eine Migration wird als kontinental bezeichnet, wenn sie zwischen den Territorien verschiedener Länder des gleichen Kontinents stattfindet. Sie wird als interkontinental bezeichnet, wenn Länder unterschiedlicher Kontinente betroffen sind. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 68) Als Regel geben die Autoren folgende persönliche Charakteristiken der Migranten an: Geschlecht, Alter, Nationalität, Beruf, Land des letzten ständigen Aufenthaltsortes und das Land des zukünftigen ständigen Aufenthaltsortes. Diese Eigenschaften wurden auf der Basis der 'International Labour Conference' von 1922, Empfehlung Nr. 19, gewählt. Für Migrations-Statistiken sind die staatlichen Territorien von besonderer Bedeutung. Historische Grenzverläufe und ihre Veränderungen über die Zeit sind von besonderer Bedeutung. So ist es z.B. irreführend, den heutigen Begriff des 'Vereinten Königreichs von England' (United Kingdom) zu verwenden, da seine heutige Bedeutung durch die Etablierung des Freien Irischen Staates sich verändert hat. Daher wird der Begriff 'Britische Inseln' von den Autoren verwendet. Dort, wo sich historische Territorien über die Zeit verändert haben, wurde das neue Territorium in der Hauptüberschrift und das ältere Territorium unterhalb der Hauptüberschrift genannt (z.B.: Ungarn – vor dem Krieg und nach dem Krieg; Irish Free State – Ireland, etc.) (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 68) Wo frühere Territorien aufgehört haben, ein selbständiges politisches oder administratives Gebiet zu sein, wurde es unter dem früheren vorherrschenden Gebiet klassifiziert (z.B. wurden Bosnien und Herzegovina unter Österreich plaziert). In allen Tabellen werden die Migranten in 12-Monats-Perioden dargestellt, soweit es möglich war. Rechnungsjahre wurden meistens von Kalenderjahren getrennt dargestellt, wobei eine Information über die exakte Periode des Rechnungsjahres in den Anmerkungen gegeben wurde. Wo Statistiken nur für Fünfjahres- oder Zehnjahres-Zeiträume vorlagen, wurde in den Originalquellen nach den jeweiligen Jahresdaten recherchiert. Es kamen für die Studie nur Statistiken offizieller Quellen zur Anwendung. Nur in seltenen Fällen wurde auf sekundäre Quellen zurückgegriffen (Briefe, offizielle Korrespondenzen). Der Vorzug wurde den offiziellen Statistiken mit dem spätesten Datum gegeben. Die Nationalen Statistiken des vorliegenden Datenhandbuches berichten die Berufe in der Klassifikation, die in den Quellen verwendet wurde. Wo möglich, wurde die Untergliederung mit den sechs Klassen 'Landwirtschaft', 'Industrie und Bergbau', 'Transport und Handel bzw. Kommunikation', 'Hausdienstleistungen und Handwerk', 'freie Berufe und öffentliche Dienstleistungen', sowie 'andere Berufe, keinen Beruf, Beruf unbekannt' gewählt. Familienmitglieder, die nicht berufstätig waren, wurden in Kategorie 6 (andere Berufe, keinen Beruf, Beruf unbekannt) eingeordnet. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 70) In den nationalen Datentabellen, in denen die Einwanderer nach dem Land des letzten ständigen Aufenthaltsortes oder nach ihrer Nationalität aufgeführt werden, wurde meistens die Klassifikation der genutzten offiziellen Quelle des jeweiligen Landes beibehalten, wobei die genutzte Klassifikation der USA als Arbeitsgrundlage für eine Vereinheitlichung der Kategorien diente. Wenn die jeweiligen nationalen Untergliederungen sehr viel mehr Klassifikationen hatten als jene der USA, wurden diese Untergliederungen den größeren Gruppen der US-Klassifikation angepasst. Wo es schwierig war, ein Territorium einem Land zuzuordnen, wurde die Klassifikation des 'International Statistical Institute' (ISI) herangezogen. In anderen Fällen wurde die Nationalität oder die Volkszugehörigkeit nach geographischen oder politischen Gesichtspunkten gewählt (z.B.: Juden (nicht spezifiziert) wurden unter den Gruppen 'andere Europäer' aufgeführt. Juden (polnisch) wurden unter 'Polen' aufgeführt. Türken (nicht spezifiziert) wurden unter 'Türken in Asien' aufgeführt, etc.). (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 70)
Deutschland
I. Statistik der genehmigten Auswanderung Vor 1871 durften Bürger ein deutsches Land nur verlassen, wenn sie dafür von den Behörden eine Genehmigung bekommen haben. Daten zur Auswanderung stammen für die Zeit vor dem Deutschen Reich von den Genehmigungsstatistiken der einzelnen deutschen Länder. Bei den dargestellten Werten sind folgende Probleme zu berücksichtigen: Die gesetzlichen Regelungen für die Erteilung einer Auswanderungsgenehmigung unterschieden sich zwischen den deutschen Ländern. Darüber hinaus wurden Auswanderungsgenehmigungen nicht regelmäßig den zuständigen Behörden gemeldet. Fälle der Auswanderung ohne Erlaubnis – sogenannte illegale Auswanderungen – sind statistisch nicht erfasst.
II. Hafen-Statistik: Vor 1873 wurden die Statistiken zur Migration von den Hafenbehörden erfasst, ab 1874 übernahm das Statistische Amt des Deutschen Reichs die Aufgabe und veröffentlichte umfassende Migrationsberichte in den Vierteljahresheften zur Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Für Bremen und Hamburg geht die Hafenstatistik zurück bis 1832 und 1836. Die Erfassung der Statistiken wurde durch mehrere polizeiliche Vorgaben und Regeln durchgeführt. Die Verantwortlichen der Schiffsagenturen mussten Passagierlisten zur interkontinentalen Migration erstellen und den polizeilichen Behörden übergeben. Für Hamburg wurde ab 1846 und für Bremen ab 1866 zwischen deutschen Bürgern und Ausländern bei den Auswanderern unterschieden. Leider wurden die Zielländer der Auswanderung in Bremen erst ab 1866 und in Hamburg erst ab 1872 erfasst.
Bremen definierte Auswanderer wie folgt: a) Europäer, die ihr Land mit der Intention verlassen, in einem in Übersee liegenden Land zu siedeln. b) Europäer, die ihr Land verlassen mit der Absicht, bessere Arbeitschancen wahrzunehmen, die aber beabsichtigen, wieder zurückzukehren. c) Touristen aus aussereuropäischen Ländern auf der Heimfahrt.
Hamburg definierte Auswanderer wie folgt: a) Alle Passagiere und Auswanderer auf Schiffen der transatlantischen Schifffahrt, die für mehr als 25 Passagiere Platz haben. b) Personen von Schiffen, die von den Schifffsagenturen ausdrücklich als Emigranten in ihren Listen für die polizeilichen Behörden aufgeführt wurden.
Bremen hat daher eine schärfere Fassung des Begriffs 'Auswanderer' vorgenommen und diese Personengruppe besser erfasst. Hamburg identifizierte als Auswanderer nicht nur einen Teil nicht-europäischer Passagiere (wie auch Bremen), sondern einen gewissen Anteil normaler Europäischer Passagiere.
Auch für die nachfolgende Zeit existierte keine einheitliche Definition des Begriffs 'Auswanderer'. Hinzu kommt, dass Kabinen-Passagiere (d.h. wohlhabendere Passagiere, die für die Fahrt eine Kabine mieten konnten und nicht im Zwischendeck übernachten mussten) grundsätzlich aus der Erfassung der Migranten ausgeschlossen wurden. Daher spiegeln die berichteten Zahlen nicht die tatsächlichen Auswanderungszahlen wieder.
Auf Grundlage einer Verordnung von 1851 zur Übertragung von Auswanderern, die über Hamburg in andere Länder mittels anderer Häfen in Europa gelangten, erfasste die Hamburger Hafenbehörde sogenannte 'indirekte Auswanderer'. Die meisten dieser Gruppe wanderten über englische Häfen aus. Indirekte Auswanderung über Bremen wurde nicht erfasst. Die Tabellen B.01 bis B03a (Table II und Table III in der Publikation) listen die indirekte Auswanderung auf.
Eine Expertenkommission von 1870 schloss Auswanderungen über die Häfen in andere europäische Länder von der Erfassung der Migranten aus aufgrund der Annahme, dass die Unterscheidung zwischen normalen Passagieren und Emigranten nicht möglich sei. Ungeachtet dieser Entscheidung wurden dennoch diese Passagiere zwischen 1899 und 1923 erfasst (Tabelle B.06 oder Table VI in der Publikation).
Für die Jahre 1837 bis 1839 sind Daten für den Hafen von Havre verfügbar. In dem entsprechenden Dokument wurden Passagiere deutscher Nationalität dezidiert erwähnt. Der Deutsche Konsul von Havre berichtete 1840, dass Passagiere, die an diesem Hafen in die Schiffe steigen, sehr häufig von deutscher Nationalität sind. Das Preussische Ministerium für ausländische Angelegenheiten verfasste ein Rundschreiben für die Erfassung deutscher Auswanderer in den Häfen Havre, Rotterdam und Antwerpen. Für die Jahre 1841 und 1842 konnten keine Daten erhoben werden. Ab 1843 sind offizielle Daten für Antwerpen zugänglich, für die Jahre 1844 und 1845 sind ausführliche Statistiken für Havre, Dunkirk, Antwerpen, sowie holländische und englische Häfen erhältlich. Für 1846 bis 1854 dagegen erhält man nur die Gesamtzahl der deutschen Auswanderer über ausländische Häfen.
Nach 1885 veröffentlichte das Statistische Reichsamt detaillierte Zahlen zu den deutschen Emigranten über Antwerpen, Havre, Rotterdam und Amsterdam.
Daten in histat:
A. Genehmigungs-Statistiken (I)
A.01 Auswanderung deutscher Staatsbürger aus Deutschland – Statistik der genehmigten und illegalen Auswanderungen unterschiedlicher Deutscher Staaten), 1836-1870.
B. Hafenstatistiken (II-VI)
B.01 Auswanderung von Deutschen und Ausländern über deutsche Häfen (Hamburg und Bremen zusammen), 1832-1870. B.02 Auswanderung über die deutsche Häfen Bremen (direkte Auswanderung) und Hamburg (direkte und indirekte Auswanderung), 1832-1870. B.03 Auswanderung über Hamburg und Bremen nach Zielland, 1832-1870. B.03a Direkte Auswanderung über Hamburg nach Zielland, 1836-1870. B.04 Auswanderung deutscher Staatsbürger über deutsche und ausländische Häfen, 1844-1854. B.05 Auswandernde Deutsche über den Hamburger Hafen nach Geschlecht und Alter, 1855-1870 B.06 Interkontinentale Auswanderung deutscher Bürger über deutsche und ausländische Häfen, 1871-1924
C. Beschreibung der Auswanderer (Alter, Geschlecht, Beruf, Zielland)
C.01 Auswanderung deutscher Bürger nach Alter und Geschlecht, 1871-1924 C.02 Auswanderung deutscher Bürger nach Zielland, 1871-1924 C.03 Auswanderung deutscher Bürger nach Bildung und Geschlecht, 1899-1924
D. Durchgangs-Migration ausländischer Migranten (X-XII)
D.01 Durchgang ausländischer Migranten (abfahrende Bewegungsströme), 1871-1924 D.02 Auswandernde Ausländer über deutsche Häfen nach Herkunftsland, 1871-1924 D.03 Auswandernde Ausländer über deutsche Häfen nach Zielland, 1871-1924 D.04 Kontinentale Migration ausländischer Arbeitnehmer, 1910-1924
Das vorliegende Datenhandbuch soll der Forschung zu den Aspekten internationaler Migration das adäquate Datenmaterial an die Hand geben. Anregung für diese Datensammlung wurde 1924 durch das Komitee zu den wissenschaftlichen Aspekten menschlicher Wanderung des Social Science Research Council gegeben. Die Durchführung der statistischen Studie wurde dem National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) in New York (Prof. Dr. Willcox) anvertraut, welches unterstützt wurde von der Abteilung Migration des International Labour Office (ILO bzw. Internationale Arbeitsorganisation (IAO), Prof. Dr. Ferenczi) in Genf (Schweiz). Das vorliegende Datenhandbuch geht über die Zusammenstellung bekannter, vorliegender Statistiken der einzelnen Länder hinaus. Viele Materialien wurden neben den schon publizierten öffentlichen Statistiken in den Archiven zusätzlich gesichtet und aufbereitet.
Die Forscher sammelten nationale Statistiken und stellten sie in internationalen Tabellen zusammen, soweit es die Datenlage erlaubte. Die besondere Herausforderung dieser Arbeit lag in der Tatsache, dass die Unvollständigkeit der nationalen Migrationsstatistiken steigt, je weiter die Daten in die Vergangenheit zurückreichen. Für jedes Land wurde die Anzahl der Auswanderer nach dem von ihnen angegebenen Zielland bzw. Einwanderungsland erhoben. Weiterhin wurden im Gegenzug für jedes Land die Einwanderer nach dem Land ihrer Abfahrt erfasst. Damit sollte für jedes Land ein Überblick der dieses Land betreffenden Migrationsflüsse erstellt werden. Interkontinentale Wanderungsbewegungen stellen den Schwerpunkt dieser Studie dar. Die kontinentale Wanderung innerhalb Europas und anderen Teilen der Welt wurde jedoch ebenfalls erfasst.
Das Material für die Statistiken wurde beschafft durch die Korrespondenz mit dem ILO und seinen Mitglieds-Staaten (Vereinte Nationen), durch die Zusammenarbeit mit den statistischen Ämtern der jeweiligen Länder und durch Sichtung der Archive.
In den nationalen Datentabellen werden die Migranten zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Abreise aus dem Land ihres gegenwärtigen Aufenthalts bzw. zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Ankunft in dem Land ihres zukünftigen Aufenthaltes erfasst. Bevölkerungsstatistiken oder Arbeitsmarktstatistiken, in denen auch die ausländische Bevölkerung erfasst wird und die daher eine indirekte Schlussfolgerung auf Wanderungsbewegungen zulassen, sind von den Autoren nicht berücksichtigt worden. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 67) Dort, wo Migrationsstatistiken auf der Basis von unterschiedlichen Methoden erhoben wurden, wie z.B. Hafen-Statistiken, Reisepass-Statistiken, oder Grenz-Statistiken, sind die entsprechenden Werte berücksichtigt worden und in den Tabellen wurde auf die Quelle hingewiesen. Dort, wo in den nationalen Migrationsstatistiken Auswanderer nach dem Zielland oder Einwanderer nach ihrem Herkunftsland klassifiziert wurden, wird sich in der Statistik indirekt auf ein anderes Land bezogen. Für die jeweiligen anderen Länder, welche in diesen nationalen Datentabellen erwähnt werden, stellen diese Statistiken eine Art 'indirekte Wanderungsstatistik' dar. Indirekte Statistiken beziehen sich normalerweise auf die Nennung von Ländern (z.B. Herkunftsland). Dort, wo diese Nennungen fehlen, wurde die Nationalität oder die Volkszugehörigkeit der Migranten herangezogen. Weiterhin wird in den Daten zwischen Bürgern des Landes (Dänen, d.h. in Dänemark geborene Bürger) und Ausländern unterschieden. Hierbei wurde immer die Definition des jeweiligen Landes für Staatsbürger und für Ausländer bei der Datenerhebung herangezogen. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 67) Ebenfalls wurde zwischen kontinentalen und interkontinentalen Migrationsbewegungen unterschieden. Eine Migration wird als kontinental bezeichnet, wenn sie zwischen den Territorien verschiedener Länder des gleichen Kontinents stattfindet. Sie wird als interkontinental bezeichnet, wenn Länder unterschiedlicher Kontinente betroffen sind. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 68) Als Regel geben die Autoren folgende persönliche Charakteristiken der Migranten an: Geschlecht, Alter, Nationalität, Beruf, Land des letzten ständigen Aufenthaltsortes und das Land des zukünftigen ständigen Aufenthaltsortes. Diese Eigenschaften wurden auf der Basis der 'International Labour Conference' von 1922, Empfehlung Nr. 19, gewählt. Für Migrations-Statistiken sind die staatlichen Territorien von besonderer Bedeutung. Historische Grenzverläufe und ihre Veränderungen über die Zeit sind von besonderer Bedeutung. So ist es z.B. irreführend, den heutigen Begriff des 'Vereinten Königreichs von England' (United Kingdom) zu verwenden, da seine heutige Bedeutung durch die Etablierung des Freien Irischen Staates sich verändert hat. Daher wird der Begriff 'Britische Inseln' von den Autoren verwendet. Dort, wo sich historische Territorien über die Zeit verändert haben, wurde das neue Territorium in der Hauptüberschrift und das ältere Territorium unterhalb der Hauptüberschrift genannt (z.B.: Ungarn – vor dem Krieg und nach dem Krieg; Irish Free State – Ireland, etc.) (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 68) Wo frühere Territorien aufgehört haben, ein selbständiges politisches oder administratives Gebiet zu sein, wurde es unter dem früheren vorherrschenden Gebiet klassifiziert (z.B. wurden Bosnien und Herzegovina unter Österreich plaziert). In allen Tabellen werden die Migranten in 12-Monats-Perioden dargestellt, soweit es möglich war. Rechnungsjahre wurden meistens von Kalenderjahren getrennt dargestellt, wobei eine Information über die exakte Periode des Rechnungsjahres in den Anmerkungen gegeben wurde. Wo Statistiken nur für Fünfjahres- oder Zehnjahres-Zeiträume vorlagen, wurde in den Originalquellen nach den jeweiligen Jahresdaten recherchiert. Es kamen für die Studie nur Statistiken offizieller Quellen zur Anwendung. Nur in seltenen Fällen wurde auf sekundäre Quellen zurückgegriffen (Briefe, offizielle Korrespondenzen). Der Vorzug wurde den offiziellen Statistiken mit dem spätesten Datum gegeben. Die Nationalen Statistiken des vorliegenden Datenhandbuches berichten die Berufe in der Klassifikation, die in den Quellen verwendet wurde. Wo möglich, wurde die Untergliederung mit den sechs Klassen 'Landwirtschaft', 'Industrie und Bergbau', 'Transport und Handel bzw. Kommunikation', 'Hausdienstleistungen und Handwerk', 'freie Berufe und öffentliche Dienstleistungen', sowie 'andere Berufe, keinen Beruf, Beruf unbekannt' gewählt. Familienmitglieder, die nicht berufstätig waren, wurden in Kategorie 6 (andere Berufe, keinen Beruf, Beruf unbekannt) eingeordnet. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 70) In den nationalen Datentabellen, in denen die Einwanderer nach dem Land des letzten ständigen Aufenthaltsortes oder nach ihrer Nationalität aufgeführt werden, wurde meistens die Klassifikation der genutzten offiziellen Quelle des jeweiligen Landes beibehalten, wobei die genutzte Klassifikation der USA als Arbeitsgrundlage für eine Vereinheitlichung der Kategorien diente. Wenn die jeweiligen nationalen Untergliederungen sehr viel mehr Klassifikationen hatten als jene der USA, wurden diese Untergliederungen den größeren Gruppen der US-Klassifikation angepasst. Wo es schwierig war, ein Territorium einem Land zuzuordnen, wurde die Klassifikation des 'International Statistical Institute' (ISI) herangezogen. In anderen Fällen wurde die Nationalität oder die Volkszugehörigkeit nach geographischen oder politischen Gesichtspunkten gewählt (z.B.: Juden (nicht spezifiziert) wurden unter den Gruppen 'andere Europäer' aufgeführt. Juden (polnisch) wurden unter 'Polen' aufgeführt. Türken (nicht spezifiziert) wurden unter 'Türken in Asien' aufgeführt, etc.). (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 70)
Ungarn
I Statistik ausländischer Häfen Da die nationale Statistik Ungarns erst ab 1899 Wanderungen erfasst, wurden für die früheren Jahre die Hafen-Statistiken für die Zusammenstellung der Wanderungsdaten verwendet. Deutsche Häfen sind in diesem Fall die bedeutendsten für Ungarn. Die Werte von Antwerpen und Genua sind ebenfalls von Bedeutung, während die Zahlen von Amsterdam und Rotterdam vernachlässigt werden können. Ab 1904 wurde der Hafen von Fiume bedeutsam für die Einwanderung. Detaillierte Informationen über Ungarns Auswanderer über ausländische Häfen sind nur von den Statistiken des Hamburger und Bremer Hafens erhältlich. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 710)
II Ungarische Pass/ Reisepass-Statistik und die Statistik der Schifffahrts-Unternehmen auf der Grundlage der Transport-Verträge Von 1899 bis 1904 basierte die Auswanderungsstatistik Ungarns auf sehr unvollständige Meldungen der Bürgermeister und Notare. Durch das starke Ansteigen der Auswanderung sah man sich gezwungen, diese Meldungen mit dem Register der Pass-Büros über Personen, die einen Pass erhalten haben, zu kombinieren. Das Pass-Register enthält Personen, die eine Pass gemäß des Gesetzes VI von 1903 erhalten haben. Während der Kriegsjahre von 1916 bis 1920 sind keine Statistiken erstellt worden. Es besteht jedoch das Problem bei dieser Statistik, dass interkontinentale Auswanderer nicht eindeutig von anderen Reisenden unterschieden werden können. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 711) Der Ungarische Minister für das Innere ordnete daher 1921 an, dass bei allen Personen, die nach Amerika reisen, die Polizeibehörden feststellen sollten, ob es sich dabei um Reisende oder um Auswanderer gemäß des Paragraphen 1 des Gesetzes VI handelt. In diesem Paragraphen werden ausreisende Personen als Auswanderer definiert, die Ausreisen mit der Intention, am neuen Zielort dauerhaft zu arbeiten und zu leben. Da die Pass-Statistik unvollständig ist, wurden von den Wissenschaftlern noch die Statistiken der Schifffahrts- Unternehmen herangezogen. Sie wurden auf der Grundlage von Transport-Vereinbarungen dazu angehalten, Listen der ausreisenden Fahrgäste zu erstellen.
III. Statistik der Einreisegenehmigung von Einwanderern Die ungarischen Statistiken erfassen ebenso Ausländer, denen von den Behörden eine Einreisegenehmigung erteilt wurde, um im Land wohnen zu dürfen. Die Publikation dieser Statistik wurde 1915 ausgesetzt. Statistiken über die Anzahl der Wanderungen von Ungarn nach Argentinien, Brasilien, Kanada, Kuba und in die USA sind in den entsprechenden Tabellen dieser Länder zu finden. Statistiken über die Anzahl der Rückwanderungen nach Ungarn von den USA sind in den Datentabellen zu den USA enthalten. (Ferenczi und Willcox, 1969, S. 712)
Daten in histat:
A. Statistik ausländischer Häfen – Interkontinentale Migration
A.01 Hafenstatistik: Interkontinentale Auswanderung ungarischer Bürger nach ausländischen Häfen, 1871-1913 A.02 Hafenstatistik: Interkontinentale Auswanderung ungarischer Bürger nach Zielland, 1871-1913 A.03 Hafenstatistik: Verteilung der auswandernden ungarischen Bürger mit Ziel in außereuropäischen Ländern nach Geschlecht, 1871-1884 (Table VII, S. 718)
A.04 Hafenstatistik: Auswanderer mit Ziel eines außereuropäischen Landes nach Alter, 1921-1924
B. Pass- und Reisepass-Statistiken
B.01 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderung nach Zielland, 1899-1913 B.02 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderer nach Amerika nach Beruf, 1905-1913 B.03 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderer von Ungarn nach Amerika nach Geschlecht, 1901-1913 B.04 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderer von Ungarn nach Europa nach Geschlecht, 1901-1913 B.05 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderer nach Deutschland, Rumänien und andere Länder (ohne Amerika) nach Alter, 1905-1913 B.06 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderer aus Ungarn nach Europa nach Beruf, 1905-1913 B.07 Pass-Statistik: Auswanderung und Einwanderung von ungarischen Bürgern nach Teilen des Königreichs Ungarn (Ungarn; Kroatien und Slawonien), 1899-1913 B.08 Pass-Statistik: Auswandernde Bürger nach Teilen des Königreichs (Ungarn; Kroatien und Slawonien) und nach Geschlecht, 1899-1913 B.09 Pass-Statistik: Auswandernde Bürger nach Teilen des Königreichs (Ungarn; Kroatien und Slawonien) und nach Alter, 1905-1913 B.10 Pass-Statistik: Auswandernde Bürger nach Beruf, 1905-1913 B.11 Pass-Statistik: Auswandernde Bürger nach Sprache, 1905-1913
C. Statistik der Einreise- und Aufenthaltsgenehmigungen
C.01 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Bürger nach Land des letzten Aufenthalts, 1901-1913 C.02 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Bürger aus Amerika nach Teilen des Königreichs (Ungarn; Kroatien und Slawonien), 1899-1913 C.03 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Bürger nach Geschlecht, 1905-1913 C.04 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Bürger nach Alter, 1905-1913 C.05 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Bürger nach Beruf, 1907-1913 C.06 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Bürger nach Sprache, 1907-1913 C.07 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Ausländer nach Herkunftsland, 1907-1913 C.07 Aufenthaltsgenehmigungs-Statistik: Einreisende Ausländer nach Sprache bzw. Volkszugehörigkeit, 1907-1913
What is a radical? Somebody who goes against mainstream opinions? An agitator who suggests transforming society at the risk of endangering its harmony? In the political context of the British Isles at the end of the eighteenth century, the word radical had a negative connotation. It referred to the Levellers and the English Civil War, it brought back a period of history which was felt as a traumatic experience. Its stigmas were still vivid in the mind of the political leaders of these times. The reign of Cromwell was certainly the main reason for the general aversion of any form of virulent contestation of the power, especially when it contained political claims. In the English political context, radicalism can be understood as the different campaigns for parliamentary reforms establishing universal suffrage. However, it became evident that not all those who were supporting such a reform originated from the same social class or shared the same ideals. As a matter of fact, the reformist associations and their leaders often disagreed with each other. Edward Royle and Hames Walvin claimed that radicalism could not be analyzed historically as a concept, because it was not a homogeneous movement, nor it had common leaders and a clear ideology. For them, radicalism was merely a loose concept, « a state of mind rather than a plan of action. » At the beginning of the nineteenth-century, the newspaper The Northern Star used the word radical in a positive way to designate a person or a group of people whose ideas were conform to those of the newspaper. However, an opponent of parliamentary reform will use the same word in a negative way, in this case the word radical will convey a notion of menace. From the very beginning, the term radical covered a large spectrum of ideas and conceptions. In fact, the plurality of what the word conveys is the main characteristic of what a radical is. As a consequence, because the radicals tended to differentiate themselves with their plurality and their differences rather than with common features, it seems impossible to define what radicalism (whose suffix in –ism implies that it designate a doctrine, an ideology) is. Nevertheless, today it is accepted by all historians. From the mid-twentieth century, we could say that it was taken from granted to consider radicalism as a movement that fitted with the democratic precepts (universal suffrage, freedom of speech) of our modern world. Let us first look at radicalism as a convenient way to designate the different popular movements appealing to universal suffrage during the time period 1792-1848. We could easily observe through the successions of men and associations, a long lasting radical state of mind: Cartwright, Horne Tooke, Thomas Hardy, Francis Burdett, William Cobbett, Henry Hunt, William Lovett, Bronterre O'Brien, Feargus O'Connor, The London Society for Constitutional information (SCI), The London Corresponding Society (LCS), The Hampden Clubs, The Chartists, etc. These organizations and people acknowledged having many things in common and being inspired by one another in carrying out their activities. These influences can be seen in the language and the political ideology that British historians name as "Constitutionalist", but also, in the political organization of extra-parliamentary societies. Most of the radicals were eager to redress injustices and, in practice, they were inspired by a plan of actions drawn on from the pamphlets of the True Whigs of the eighteenth-century. We contest the argument that the radicals lacked coherence and imagination or that they did not know how to put into practice their ambitions. In fact, their innovative forms of protest left a mark on history and found many successors in the twentieth century. Radicals' prevarications were the result of prohibitive legislation that regulated the life of associations and the refusal of the authorities to cooperate with them. As mentioned above, the term radical was greatly used and the contemporaries of the period starting from the French Revolution to Chartism never had to quarrel about the notions the word radical covered. However, this does not imply that all radicals were the same or that they belong to the same entity. Equally to Horne Tooke, the Reverend and ultra-Tory Stephens was considered as a radical, it went also with the shoemaker Thomas Hardy and the extravagant aristocrat Francis Burdett. Whether one belonged to the Aristocracy, the middle-class, the lower class or the Church, nothing could prevent him from being a radical. Surely, anybody could be a radical in its own way. Radicalism was wide enough to embrace everybody, from revolutionary reformers to paternalistic Tories. We were interested to clarify the meaning of the term radical because its inclusive nature was overlooked by historians. That's why the term radical figures in the original title of our dissertation Les voix/voies radicales (radical voices/ways to radicalism). In the French title, both words voix/voies are homonymous; the first one voix (voice) correspond to people, the second one voies (ways) refers to ideas. By this, we wanted to show that the word radical belongs to the sphere of ideas and common experience but also to the nature of human beings. Methodoloy The thesis stresses less on the question of class and its formation than on the circumstances that brought people to change their destiny and those of their fellows or to modernize the whole society. We challenged the work of E.P. Thompson, who in his famous book, The Making of the English Working Class, defined the radical movements in accordance with an idea of class. How a simple shoe-maker, Thomas Hardy, could become the center of attention during a trial where he was accused of being the mastermind of a modern revolution? What brought William Cobbett, an ultra-Tory, self-taught intellectual, to gradually espouse the cause of universal suffrage at a period where it was unpopular to do so? Why a whole population gathered to hear Henry Hunt, a gentleman farmer whose background did not destine him for becoming the champion of the people? It seemed that the easiest way to answer to these questions and to understand the nature of the popular movements consisted in studying the life of their leaders. We aimed at reconstructing the universe which surrounded the principal actors of the reform movements as if we were a privileged witness of theses times. This idea to associate the biographies of historical characters for a period of more than fifty years arouse when we realized that key events of the reform movements were echoing each other, such the trial of Thomas Hardy in 1794 and the massacre of Peterloo of 1819. The more we learned about the major events of radicalism and the life of their leaders, the more we were intrigued. Finally, one could ask himself if being a radical was not after all a question of character rather than one of class. The different popular movements in favour of a parliamentary reform were in fact far more inclusive and diversified from what historians traditionally let us to believe. For instance, once he manage to gather a sufficient number of members of the popular classes, Thomas Hardy projected to give the control of his association to an intellectual elite led by Horne Tooke. Moreover, supporters of the radical reforms followed leaders whose background was completely different as theirs. For example, O'Connor claimed royal descent from the ancient kings of Ireland. William Cobbett, owner of a popular newspaper was proud of his origins as a farmer. William Lovett, close to the liberals and a few members of parliament came from a very poor family of fishermen. We have thus put together the life of these five men, Thomas hardy, William Cobbett, Henry Hunt, William Lovett and Feargus O'Connor in order to compose a sort of a saga of the radicals. This association gives us a better idea of the characteristics of the different movements in which they participated, but also, throw light on the circumstances of their formation and their failures, on the particular atmosphere which prevailed at these times, on the men who influenced these epochs, and finally on the marks they had left. These men were at the heart of a whole network and in contact with other actors of peripheral movements. They gathered around themselves close and loyal fellows with whom they shared many struggles but also quarreled and had strong words. The original part of our approach is reflected in the choice to not consider studying the fluctuations of the radical movements in a linear fashion where the story follows a strict chronology. We decided to split up the main issue of the thesis through different topics. To do so, we simply have described the life of the people who inspired these movements. Each historical figure covers a chapter, and the general story follows a chronological progression. Sometimes we had to go back through time or discuss the same events in different chapters when the main protagonists lived in the same period of time. Radical movements were influenced by people of different backgrounds. What united them above all was their wish to obtain a normalization of the political world, to redress injustices and obtain parliamentary reform. We paid particular attention to the moments where the life of these men corresponded to an intense activity of the radical movement or to a transition of its ideas and organization. We were not so much interested in their feelings about secondary topics nor did we about their affective relations. Furthermore, we had little interest in their opinions on things which were not connected to our topic unless it helped us to have a better understanding of their personality. We have purposely reduced the description of our protagonists to their radical sphere. Of course we talked about their background and their intellectual development; people are prone to experience reversals of opinions, the case of Cobbett is the most striking one. The life of these personalities coincided with particular moments of the radical movement, such as the first popular political associations, the first open-air mass meetings, the first popular newspapers, etc. We wanted to emphasize the personalities of those who addressed speeches and who were present in the radical associations. One could argue that the inconvenience of focusing on a particular person presents a high risk of overlooking events and people who were not part of his world. However, it was essential to differ from an analysis or a chronicle which had prevailed in the studies of the radical movements, as we aimed at offering a point of view that completed the precedents works written on that topic. In order to do so, we have deliberately put the humane character of the radical movement at the center of our work and used the techniques of biography as a narrative thread. Conclusion The life of each historical figure that we have portrayed corresponded to a particular epoch of the radical movement. Comparing the speeches of the radical leaders over a long period of time, we noticed that the radical ideology evolved. The principles of the Rights of Men faded away and gave place to more concrete reasoning, such as the right to benefit from one's own labour. This transition is characterized by the Chartist period of Feargus O'Connor. This does not mean that collective memory and radical tradition ceased to play an important part. The popular classes were always appealed to Constitutional rhetoric and popular myths. Indeed, thanks to them they identified themselves and justified their claims to universal suffrage. We focused on the life of a few influent leaders of radicalism in order to understand its evolution and its nature. The description of their lives constituted our narrative thread and it enabled us to maintain consistency in our thesis. If the chapters are independent the one from the other, events and speeches are in correspondences. Sometimes we could believe that we were witnessing a repetition of facts and events as if history was repeating itself endlessly. However, like technical progress, the spirit of time, Zeitgeist, experiences changes and mutations. These features are fundamental elements to comprehend historical phenomena; the latter cannot be simplified to philosophical, sociological, or historical concept. History is a science which has this particularity that the physical reality of phenomena has a human dimension. As a consequence, it is essential not to lose touch with the human aspect of history when one pursues studies and intellectual activities on a historical phenomenon. We decided to take a route opposite to the one taken by many historians. We have first identified influential people from different epochs before entering into concepts analysis. Thanks to this compilation of radical leaders, a new and fresh look to the understanding of radicalism was possible. Of course, we were not the first one to have studied them, but we ordered them following a chronology, like Plutarch enjoyed juxtaposing Greeks and Romans historical figures. Thanks to this technique we wanted to highlight the features of the radical leaders' speeches, personalities and epochs, but also their differences. At last, we tried to draw the outlines and the heart of different radical movements in order to follow the ways that led to radicalism. We do not pretend to have offered an original and exclusive definition of radicalism, we mainly wanted to understand the nature of what defines somebody as a radical and explain the reasons why thousands of people decided to believe in this man. Moreover, we wanted to distance ourselves from the ideological debate of the Cold War which permeated also the interpretation of past events. Too often, the history of radicalism was either narrated with a form of revolutionary nostalgia or in order to praise the merits of liberalism. If the great mass meetings ends in the mid-nineteenth-century with the fall of Chartism, this practice spread out in the whole world in the twentieth-century. Incidentally, the Arab Spring of the beginning of the twenty-first-century demonstrated that a popular platform was the best way for the people to claim their rights and destabilize a political system which they found too authoritative. Through protest the people express an essential quality of revolt, which is an expression of emancipation from fear. From then on, a despotic regime loses this psychological terror which helped it to maintain itself into power. The balance of power between the government and its people would also take a new turn. The radicals won this psychological victory more than 150 years ago and yet universal suffrage was obtained only a century later. From the acceptance of the principles of liberties to their cultural practice, a long route has to be taken to change people's mind. It is a wearisome struggle for the most vulnerable people. In the light of western history, fundamental liberties must be constantly defended. Paradoxically, revolt is an essential and constitutive element of the maintenance of democracy. ; Die radikalen Strömungen in England von 1789 bis 1848 Formulierung der Problematik Was ist ein Radikaler? Eine Person die vorgefassten Meinungen zuwiderhandelt? Ein Agitator, der die Gesellschaft verändern will und dabei das Risiko eingeht, sie aus dem Gleichgewicht zu bringen? Im politischen Kontext, in dem sich die britischen Inseln am Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts befanden, hatte dieser Begriff eine negative Konnotation. Er erinnert nämlich an die levellers und an den Bürgerkrieg. Diese historische Epoche, die als traumatisches Erlebnis empfunden wurde, hat bei den politischen Führern Stigmata hinterlassen, die immer noch vorhanden sind. Die Herrschaft Cromwells hatte bestimmt einen direkten Einfluss auf die Aversion der Engländer gegen jede heftige Form des Protestes gegen die herrschende Macht, vor allem wenn er politisch vereinnahmt wird. Im politischen Kontext in England versteht man unter Radikalismus verschiedene Versuche, eine Parlamentsreform durchzusetzen, die das allgemeine Wahlrecht einführen sollte. Natürlich bedeutet dies nicht, dass die Befürworter solch einer Reform eine gesellschaftliche und ideologische Nähe verband. In der Tat waren sich die reformistischen Verbände oft untereinander nicht einig und ihre jeweiligen Führer hatten wenige Gemeinsamkeiten. Edward Royle und Hames Walvin erläutern, dass der Radikalismus historisch nicht wie ein Konzept analysiert werden kann, da er keine einheitliche Bewegung war, da sich die Führer untereinander nicht einig waren und da keine eindeutige Ideologie vorhanden war. Der Radikalismus war ihrer Meinung nach nur eine vage Ansammlung bunter Ideen. Er sei « eher eine Einstellung als ein Aktionsplan» gewesen. Am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts verwendete die Zeitung Northern Star den Begriff « radikal » in einem positiven Sinne, um eine Person oder eine Gruppe zu bezeichnen, deren Ideen mit den Ihrigen im Einklang standen. Gegner der Parlamentsreformbewegungen haben diesen Begriff im negativen Sinne verwendet. Der Radikale wurde dann also als Bedrohung wahrgenommen. Der Gebrauch des Begriffes radikal scheint kein semantisches Problem darzustellen im Vergleich zur Verwendung des Wortes Radikalismus dessen Suffix -ismus eine Doktrin bzw. eine Ideologie voraussetzt. Die Tatsache, dass die Radikalen so unterschiedliche Gesinnungen vertraten, scheint eine Definition des Radikalismus unmöglich zu machen. Trotzdem wird sein Gebrauch heute von allen Historikern akzeptiert. Man könnte also behaupten, dass es seit der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts gängig wurde, mit dem Begriff Radikalismus jede Bewegung zu bezeichnen, die Ideen durchsetzen wollte, die nach unserem heutigen Verständnis als demokratisch verstanden werden. Wir können den Begriff Radikalismus zwischen 1792 und 1848 also erst einmal als eine praktische Bezeichnung für die verschiedenen radikalen Volksbewegungen, die das Ziel verfolgten, das allgemeine Wahlrecht einzuführen, betrachten. Diese radikale Einstellung findet man bei einer ganzen Reihe von Menschen und Organisationen wieder. Cartwright, Horne Tooke, Thomas Hardy, Francis Burdett, William Cobbet, Henry Hunt, William Lovett, Bronterre O'Brien Feargus O'Connor, die London Society for Constitutional information (SCI), die London Corresponding Society (LCS), die Hampden Clubs, die Chartisten, usw. Man kann viele Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen den Protagonisten erkennen, die sie sich auch eingestanden haben. Auβerdem wird auch der Einfluss erkennbar, den sie aufeinander ausgeübt haben, um ihre Aktionen zu gestalten. Diese Einflüsse findet man sowohl in der Sprache und in der politischen Ideologie wieder, die von den britischen Historikern als « konstitutionalistisch » bezeichnet wurden, als auch in der politischen Organisation von auβerparlamentarischen Gruppierungen. Alle Radikalen wollten die Ungerechtigkeiten beheben, und in der Praxis haben sie sich von einem Aktionsplan anregen lassen, den sie im 18. Jahrhundert in den Pamphleten der true whigs gefunden haben. Wir müssen teilweise das Argument zurückweisen, dass die Radikalen nicht kohärent und einfallsreich waren, oder dass sie nicht genau wussten, wie sie ihre Ziele umsetzen konnten. Ganz im Gegenteil: Die innovativen Formen des Protestes, die ihnen zuzuschreiben sind, waren bezeichnend und haben eine Spur in der Geschichte hinterlassen. Das Zaudern der Radikalen war erstens auf die prohibitive Gesetzgebung zurückzuführen, der die Verbände unterlagen und zweitens auf die kategorische Ablehnung der Behörden zu kooperieren. Die Zeitgenossen der Epoche, die sich von der Französischen Revolution bis zum Chartismus erstreckt, haben nie über den Sinn des Begriffs radikal debattiert. Dies bedeutet allerdings nicht, dass alle Radikalen gleich waren, oder dass sie zu derselben Einheit gehörten. Horne Tooke und der Priester Stephens waren beide Radikale, so wie der Schuster Hardy und der extravagante Burdett. Ob man ein Adliger, ein Mitglied des Bürgertums, ein Handwerker, ein Gutsbesitzer oder ein Mann der Kirche war: Nichts hinderte einen daran, ein Radikaler zu sein. Jeder konnte auf seine Art ein Radikaler sein. In dem Radikalismus gab es in der Tat eine groβe Bandbreite, die sich vom revolutionären Radikalismus bis zum paternalistischen Torysmus erstreckte. Wir waren daran interessiert, genau zu verstehen, was der Begriff radikal bedeutet, denn sein integrativer Charakter wurde von Historikern übersehen. Wir haben uns deshalb so genau mit der Bedeutung des Begriffs « radikal » beschäftigt, weil dieses Adjektiv im Plural im Titel die radikalen Strömungen enthalten ist. Mit dem im französischen Titel enthaltenen Gleichklang zwischen den Wörtern « voie » (Weg, Strömung) und « voix » (Stimme) wollten wir zeigen, dass sich der Begriff « radikal » sowohl auf ein Ideenbündel als auch auf eine Person bezieht. Die methodische Vorgehensweise In dieser Arbeit richtet sich unser Augenmerk weniger auf die Frage, wie eine Gesellschaftsschicht entstanden ist, als auf die Umstände, die die Menschen dazu bewogen haben, ihrem Schicksal und dem Ihresgleichen oder gar der ganzen Gesellschaft eine andere Wendung zu geben. Wir stellten das Werk von E.P.Thompson in Frage, welcher in seinem bekannten Buch "The Making of the English Working Class" radikale Bewegungen, entsprechend einer Vorstellung von Klasse, definiert. Wie kam es, dass ein einfacher Schuster wie Thomas Hardy, während eines Prozesses, in dem er beschuldigt wurde, eine moderne Revolution anzuzetteln, im Zentrum der Öffentlichkeit stand? Wie kam es, dass ein Autodidakt und ein Anhängiger der Ultra- Tories wie William Cobbett sich nach und nach für das allgemeine Wahlrecht einsetzte, zu einer Zeit, in der es unpopulär war? Wie kam es, dass sich die ganze Bevölkerung in Massen um Henry Hunt scharte, einen Gutsbesitzer, der nicht gerade dazu bestimmt war, sich für die Belange des Volkes stark zu machen? Unser Ziel ist es, das Universum, in dem die wichtigsten Beteiligten lebten, wiederzugeben, so als wären wir ein privilegierter Zeuge dieser Epochen. Die einfachste Art diese Fragen zu beantworten und die Beschaffenheit der Volksbewegungen zu verstehen besteht unserer Meinung nach darin, das Leben jener Männer zu studieren, die sie gestaltet haben. Wir hatten den Einfall, mehrere Männer, die in einem Zeitraum von mehr als 50 Jahren gelebt haben, miteinander in Verbindung zu bringen, als uns aufgefallen ist, dass Schlüsselmomente der Reformbewegungen miteinander korrespondieren, wie z.B der Prozess von Thomas Hardy und das Massaker von Peterloo 1819. Je mehr wir uns mit diesen Ereignissen beschäftigten, desto mehr weckte dies unsere Neugier auf das Leben jener Menschen, die sie verursacht haben. Schlussendlich konnte man sich fragen, ob radikal zu sein nicht eher eine Frage des Charakters als eine Frage der Klassenzugehörigkeit war. Die verschiedenen Volksbewegungen für eine Parlamentsreform haben in der Tat viel mehr unterschiedliche Menschen vereint und waren um einiges vielfältiger als es die Historiker behauptet haben. So war es zum Beispiel Thomas Hardys Vorhaben, die Führung des Verbandes einer intellektuellen Elite unter Horne Tookes Kommando zu überlassen, nachdem er es geschafft haben würde, genug Mitglieder der Arbeiterschicht zu versammeln. Auβerdem haben die Sympathisanten mit Freude Führer akzeptiert, deren Schicksal sehr wenig mit dem Ihrigen gemeinsam hatte. O'Connor z. B erhob den Anspruch, der Nachkomme eines irischen Königs zu sein. Cobbett, der Besitzer einer bedeutenden Zeitung, erinnerte daran, dass er aus einer Bauernfamilie stammte. William Lovett, der den Liberalen und einigen Parlamentsmitgliedern nahe stand, stammte aus einer armen Fischerfamilie. Wir haben diese fünf Männer Thomas Hardy, William Cobbett, Henry Hunt, William Lovett und Feargus O'Connor in Verbindung gebracht, um gewissermaßen eine Saga der Radikalen zu erstellen. Dies erlaubte es uns, uns ein genaueres Bild zu machen von den Merkmalen der verschiedenen Bewegungen, an denen sie teilgenommen haben, von dem Kontext, in dem die Bewegungen entstanden sind, von ihren Misserfolgen, von der besonderen Atmosphäre, die in diesen unterschiedlichen Epochen herrschte, von den Männern, die diese Bewegungen beeinflusst haben und zuletzt von dem Zeichen, das sie gesetzt haben. Diese Männer waren im Mittelpunkt eines Netzwerkes und standen in Verbindung mit anderen Akteuren, die an peripheren Bewegungen beteiligt waren. Sie waren umgeben von treuen Weggefährten, mit denen zusammen sie viele Kämpfe ausgetragen haben, oder mit denen sie sich heftig gestritten haben. Unsere Vorgehensweise ist insofern neu, als wir die Fluktuationen der radikalen Bewegungen weder linear bzw. chronologisch beleuchten, noch in einer zersplitterten Weise, indem wir die Problematik in mehrere Themen unterteilen. Wir sind ganz einfach dem Leben der Männer gefolgt, die am Ursprung dieser Bewegung standen. Jedes Kapitel behandelt eine historische Person und die gesamte Abhandlung ist chronologisch aufgebaut. Manchmal war es notwendig, Rückblenden einzubauen oder die gleichen Ereignisse mehrmals zu erwähnen, wenn verschiedene historische Personen daran beteiligt waren. Die radikalen Bewegungen wurden von Menschen aus verschiedenen Horizonten beeinflusst. Verbunden waren sie vor allem durch ihr Bestreben, eine Normalisierung der politischen Welt zu erreichen, gegen die Ungerechtigkeiten zu kämpfen und eine Parlamentsreform durchzusetzen. Wir haben uns auf die Momente konzentriert, in denen das Leben der Männer mit einem aktiven Handeln in der radikalen Bewegung oder mit einer Veränderung ihrer Ideen oder in ihrer Organisation einherging. Ihre emotionalen Beziehungen und ihre Einstellung zu belanglosen Fragen interessierten uns nicht. Ihre Meinungen zu Fragen, die unser Studienobjekt nicht betreffen, waren auch nicht Gegenstand dieser Abhandlung, es sei denn sie ermöglichten es uns, ihre Persönlichkeit besser zu umreiβen. Unser Augenmerk richtete sich ausdrücklich und vor allem auf die radikale Tätigkeit der Beteiligten. Natürlich haben wir auch die Lebensumstände und die geistige Entwicklung dieser Männer geschildert, denn wir wissen, dass Meinungen sich im Laufe eines Lebens ändern können, wie es der bemerkenswerte Fall von Cobbett verdeutlicht. Das Leben dieser Personen fiel zeitlich mit markanten Momenten in der radikalen Bewegung zusammen, wie z. B die ersten politischen Organisationen der Arbeiterschichten, die ersten Massendemonstrationen oder die ersten politisch ausgerichteten Volkszeitungen. Wir wollten die menschlichen Züge jener Männer wiedergeben, die Reden gehalten haben und die in den radikalen Verbänden anwesend waren. Man könnte uns vorwerfen, dass wir- wenn wir uns auf eine historische Person konzentriert haben- andere Fakten oder Personen, die nicht zu ihrem Umfeld gehörten aber dennoch an der Bewegung beteiligt waren, ausgeblendet haben. Uns schien es aber wesentlich, die analytische Methode oder die historische Chronik, die die Studien über die radikalen Bewegungen maßgeblich prägt, aufzugeben. Unser Ziel war es nämlich, diese Schilderungen zu vervollständigen, indem wir den menschlichen Aspekt in den Vordergrund stellten. Dazu haben wir die biografische Perspektive gewählt und unserer Studie angepasst. Schluss Jeder Mann, dessen Rolle wir hervorgehoben haben, lebte in einer bestimmten Phase der radikalen Bewegung. Der Vergleich der Reden, die sie in verschiedenen Epochen gehalten haben, hat aufgezeigt, dass die radikale Ideologie sich im Laufe der Zeit verändert hat. Die Verteidigung der Menschenrechte verlor an Bedeutung und die Argumentation wurde konkreter: Es ging z. B mehr und mehr um das Recht, die Früchte seiner Arbeit zu genieβen. Dieser Wandel fand in der chartistischen Epoche Feargus O'Connors statt. Die Traditionen des Radikalismus und die Erinnerung daran spielten jedoch weiterhin eine wichtige Rolle. Die Rhetorik des Konstitutionalismus und der Volksmythos waren Themen, mit denen die Arbeiterschichten sich immer identifiziert haben, und die ihre Forderung nach dem allgemeinen Wahlrecht gerechtfertigt haben. Wir haben uns auf das Leben einiger einflussreicher Männer des Radikalismus konzentriert, um seine Entwicklung und sein Wesen zu verstehen. Ihre Lebensläufe haben uns als Leitfaden gedient und haben es uns ermöglicht, eine Kohärenz in unserer Abhandlung zu wahren. Zwar sind die Kapitel unabhängig voneinander, aber die Ereignisse und die Reden korrespondieren miteinander. Man könnte manchmal den Eindruck haben, dass sich Fakten, Handlungen und die Geschichte im Allgemeinen endlos wiederholen. Allerdings ist der Zeitgeist im ständigen Wandel begriffen, so wie dies auch beim technischen Fortschritt der Fall ist. Wir sind der Ansicht, dass diese Besonderheiten fundamentale Elemente sind, die es ermöglichen, historische Phänomene zu begreifen, die nicht auf philosophische, soziologische oder historische Konzepte reduziert werden können. Die Geschichte als Wissenschaft weist die Besonderheit auf, dass die physische Realität und die erwähnten Phänomene auch eine menschliche Realität sind. Daher ist es wesentlich, bei der intellektuellen Auseinandersetzung mit einem historischen Phänomen den menschlichen Aspekt nicht aus den Augen zu verlieren. Wir wollten einen Weg einschlagen, der dem vieler Historiker entgegengesetzt ist. Unser Augenmerk richtete sich zunächst auf die Männer, die ihre jeweiligen Epochen maβgeblich geprägt haben, bevor wir uns mit Konzepten beschäftigt haben. Die Männer, die wir auserwählt haben, gaben uns einen neuen und frischen Blick auf den Radikalismus und brachten uns diesen näher. Natürlich sind wir nicht die ersten, die sich mit diesen historischen Personen beschäftigt haben. Durch die chronologische Anordnung unserer Abhandlung, wollten wir- so wie Plutarch, der griechische und römische historische Personen miteinander in Verbindung brachte- die Wesensmerkmale ihrer Reden, Persönlichkeiten und Epochen aber auch ihre Unterschiede in den Vordergrund rücken. Wir haben also versucht, eine Bewegung zu umreiβen und im Kern zu erfassen und die Wege nachzuzeichnen, die zum Radikalismus führten. Wir behaupten nicht, dass wir eine neuartige und ausschlieβliche Definition dieser Bewegung geliefert haben. Wir haben nur versucht, die Wesensmerkmale eines Radikalen zu begreifen und herauszufinden, aus welchen Gründen tausende Männer an diesen Mann geglaubt haben. Wir wollten uns von der ideologischen Debatte über den Kalten Krieg losmachen, die sogar auf die Interpretation zurückliegender Ereignisse abgefärbt hat. Zu oft wurde die Geschichte des Radikalismus mit einer Art revolutionären Nostalgie erzählt, oder mit der Absicht, die Vorzüge des Liberalismus zu preisen. Der Chartismus leitete zwar im 19. Jahrhundert das Ende der groβen Massenbewegungen in England ein, aber diese Methode hat sich im 20. Jahrhundert überall auf der Welt verbreitet. In der Tat zeigt der arabische Frühling am Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts, dass die zahlenmäβige Überlegenheit das beste Druckmittel des Volkes ist, um seine Rechte einzufordern und das bestehenden Regime zu destabilisieren. Ein Volk, das demonstriert, zeigt, dass es keine Angst mehr hat. Von dem Moment an, in dem ein autoritäres Regime diese psychologische Waffe, die es ihm ermöglicht hat, an der Macht zu bleiben, verliert, kehrt sich das Machtgefälle zwischen der autoritären Staatsgewalt und dem unterworfenen Volk um. Diesen psychologischen Sieg haben die englischen Radikalen vor mehr als 150 Jahren errungen. Jedoch wurde das allgemeine Wahlrecht erst ein Jahrhundert später eingeführt. Damit es also nicht bei Prinzipienerklärungen bleibt, sondern die Freiheiten in die Wirklichkeit umgesetzt werden, bedarf es einer Bewusstseinsänderung, die nur durch eine langwierige Arbeit zustande kommen kann. Für die Schwächsten ist dies ein langer Kampf. In Anbetracht der abendländischen Geschichte muss man die Freiheiten als Rechte betrachten, die es immer wieder zu verteidigen gilt. Paradoxerweise scheint die Revolte also eine grundlegende und unabdingbare Bedingung zu sein, um die Demokratie zu erhalten.
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It speaks volumes that the death of Henry Kissinger, announced on Wednesday, drew major news obituaries that rivaled those of late American presidents' in length and depth. The news was met with equal parts of vitriol and paeans across social media, the former reflected in words like "war criminal" and "monster," the latter, "genius" and "master."His intellectually-driven, hard-nosed statecraft and strategy has long been embraced by realists who appreciate Kissinger's rejection of ideological doctrine in favor of interest-driven realpolitik. They credit him with détente and managing the Soviet threat in the Cold War. His critics say his approach was responsible for government-led massacres in developing nations and Washington's scorched earth policies in Indochina. Humanity suffered while the "great game" was played, no matter how well, from the Nixon White House and in later presidencies (12 total) for which Kissinger advised.But was his impact on U.S. foreign policy ultimately positive or negative? We asked a wide range of historians, former diplomats, journalists and scholars to pick one and defend it.Andrew Bacevich, George Beebe, Tom Blanton, Michael Desch, Anton Fedyashin, Chas Freeman, John Allen Gay, David Hendrickson, Robert Hunter, Anatol Lieven, Stephen Miles, Tim Shorrock, Monica Duffy Toft, Stephen WaltAndrew Bacevich, historian and co-founder of the Quincy InstituteI met Kissinger just once, at a small gathering in New York back in the 1990s. When the event adjourned, he walked over to where I was sitting and spoke to me. "Did you serve in the military?" "Yes," I said. "In Vietnam?" "Yes." His tone filled with sadness, he said: "We really wanted to win that one."I did not reply but as he walked away, I thought: What an accomplished liar.George Beebe, Director of Grand Strategy, Quincy InstituteHenry Kissinger's impact on American foreign policy, although controversial, was on balance overwhelmingly positive. As he entered office in 1968, America was overextended abroad and beset by domestic political conflict. An increasingly powerful Soviet Union threatened to achieve superiority over America's nuclear and conventional arsenals. The United States needed to extract itself from Vietnam and focus on domestic healing, yet any retreat into isolationism would allow Moscow a free hand to intimidate Western Europe and spread communism through the post-colonial world. Kissinger's answer to this problem, conceived in partnership with President Nixon, was a masterwork of diplomatic realism. Seeing an opportunity to exploit tensions between Moscow and Beijing, he orchestrated a surprise opening to Maoist China that reshaped the international order, counterbalancing Soviet power and complicating the Kremlin's strategic challenge. In parallel, the United States pursued détente with Moscow, producing a landmark set of trade, arms control, human rights, and confidence-building arrangements that helped to constrain the arms race and make the Cold War more manageable and predictable.By comparison to 1968, the scale of the problems we face today seems more daunting. The Cold War architecture of arms control and security arrangements is in tatters. Our middle class is more distrustful and disaffected, our international reputation more damaged, and our ability to manage the challenges of a peer Chinese rival more limited. A statesman with Kissinger's strategic acumen and diplomatic skill is very much needed. Tom Blanton, Director, National Security Archive, George Washington UniversityThe declassified legacy of Henry Kissinger undermines the triumphant narrative he labored so hard to build, even for his successes. The opening to China, for example, turns out to be Mao's idea with Nixon's receptiveness, initially dissed by Kissinger. His shuttle diplomacy in the Middle East did reduce violence but it took Anwar Sadat and then Jimmy Carter to make the peace that Kissinger failed to accomplish. The 1973 Vietnam settlement was actually available in 1969, but Kissinger mistakenly believed he could do better by going through Moscow or Beijing. Meanwhile, Kissinger's callousness about the human cost runs through all the documents. Millions of Bangladeshis murdered by Pakistan's genocide while Kissinger stifled dissent in the State Department. A million Vietnamese and 20,000 Americans who died for Kissinger's "decent interval." Some 30,000 Argentines disappeared by the junta with Kissinger's green light. Thousands of Chileans killed by Pinochet while Kissinger joked about human rights. Untold numbers of Cambodians dead under Kissinger's secret bombing.Adding insult to all these injuries, Kissinger cashed in over the past 45 years through sustained influence peddling and self-promotion, paying no price for repeated bad judgments like opposing the Reagan-Gorbachev arms cuts, and supporting the 2003 Iraq invasion. A dark legacy indeed.Michael Desch, Professor of International Relations at the University of Notre Dame Almost all of the obituaries for Henry Kissinger characterize him as the quintessential realist, harkening back to a bygone era of European great power politics in which statesmen played the 19th century version of the board game Risk otherwise known as the balance of power. Kissinger seemed straight out of central casting for this role with his deep, sonorous voice and perpetual Mittel-Europa accent. All that was missing was a monocle and a Pickelhaube. But in reality, Kissinger was at best an occasional realist. His best scholarly book — "A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace 1812-22" — came out in 1957 and was more of a work of history than an articulation of a larger realpolitik theory of global politics in which power is used, and more importantly not used, to advance a country's national interest.And while his (and Richard Nixon's) opening to the People's Republic of China in 1972 remains a masterstroke of balance of power politics in action, at the drop of an egg-roll dividing the heretofore seemingly monolithic Communist Bloc, he was more often an inconstant realist.At times Kissinger embraced a crude might-makes-right approach (think of the Athenians bullying of the Melians in Book V of Thucydides) epitomized by the escalation to deescalate the war in Vietnam by invading Cambodia and the meddling in the fractious politics of Third World countries like Chile, seemingly to no other end than that's what great powers do. More recently, he's worked to remain the indispensable statesman through an embarrassingly obsequious pattern of making himself indispensable to nearly every subsequent president, whether or not they were really interested in sitting at the knee of the master realpolitiker. His hedged endorsement of George W. Bush's disastrous Iraq war is exhibit A on this score.Kissinger kept himself in the limelight for much of his career but not as a consistent voice of realism in foreign policy.Anton Fedyashin, associate professor of history, American UniversityIn his long and distinguished career, Henry Kissinger made many decisions that history may judge harshly, but oversimplifying and exaggerating complex geopolitical issues was not one of them. With their instinctive aversion to the trap of conceptual binarism, Kissinger and Nixon applied their flexible realism to China and the USSR in 1972. Abandoning the assumption that all communists were evil forced Beijing and Moscow to outbid each other for U.S. favors. Treating the USSR as a post-revolutionary state that put national interests above ideology, Nixon and Kissinger decided to bring the Soviets into the American-managed world order while letting them keep their hegemony in Eastern Europe.In Kissinger's realist version of containment, statesmanship was judged by the management of ambiguities, not absolutes. As Kissinger put it in an interview with The Economist earlier this year, "The genius of the Westphalian system and the reason it spread across the world was that its provisions were procedural, not substantive." Kissinger's realist wisdom would serve American leaders well as they navigate the rough waters of transitioning to a multipolar world order. The era of great power balancing is back, and non-binarist realism can help Washington manage hegemonic decline rather than catalyzing it.Ambassador Chas Freeman, visiting scholar at Brown University's Watson Institute for International and Public AffairsKissinger embodied a global and strategic view and because it was global, it often offended specialists in regional affairs. Because it was strategic, he often made tactical sacrifices for strategic gain. And the tactical sacrifices that he made were often rather ugly at the regional or local level. The classic example of that is the refusal to intervene in the war in Bangladesh. Obviously, he had nothing but contempt for ideological foreign policy. This has led ideologues, of which we have an abundance, to see him as an enemy, and you're seeing this now with some of the coverage after his passing.Kissinger's achievement of detente at a crucial point in the Cold War will be remembered for its brilliance, as will his significant scholarship. His statecraft and scholarship were inseparable. He was a very good negotiator and probably had more experience negotiating great power relations than any secretary of state since early in the Republic. He was moderately successful in the short term. He was not successful in the long term because his interlocutors correctly perceived that he was manipulative. If one wishes to keep relationships open to future transactions, one must not cheat on current transactions. But this problem is not uncommon. It's very typical in American politics. For example, Jim Baker was famously uninterested in nurturing relationships. He was interested in immediate results in his dealings with foreign governments. He left a lot of anger and dissatisfaction in his wake. Kissinger less so, but the same for different reasons, reflecting his personality, his character, and the character of the president he served.John Allen Gay, Executive Director, John Quincy Adams SocietyKissinger's legacy in the Third World commands the most attention and criticism. He has been made the face of the tremendous toll the Cold War took on the wretched of the earth. Yet his work on great power relations deserves more regard. The opening to China he engineered with President Richard Nixon was a masterstroke to exploit division in the Communist world. Granted, the Sino-Soviet split had happened long before, and the opening was more a Nixon idea, but Kissinger set the table. And Kissinger was also a central figure in détente with the Soviet Union.Both policies were deeply unpopular with the forerunners to the neoconservative movement, but reflected the Continental realist mindset that Kissinger, along with thinkers like Hans J. Morgenthau, brought into the American foreign policy discourse. The opening to China and détente were, in fact, linked. As Kissinger pointed out, the opening to China challenged the Soviet Union to prevent the opening from growing; contrary to the advice of Sovietologists, this did not prompt new Soviet aggression, but made the Soviets more pliable. As Kissinger wrote in his 1994 book "Diplomacy" — "To the extent both China and the Soviet Union calculated that they either needed American goodwill or feared an American move toward its adversary, both had an incentive to improve their relations with Washington. […] America's bargaining position would be strongest when America was closer to bot communist giants than either was to the other." And so it was. Today's practitioners of great-power politics would do well to borrow more from this happier part of Kissinger's legacy. They have instead helped drive China, Russia, Iran, and North Korea together, and have no answer to this emerging alignment beyond lectures and sanctions. The19th century European statesmen Kissinger admired would have seen the failure of such a policy. David Hendrickson, author, "Republic in Peril: American Empire and the Liberal Tradition"The great oddity of Nixon and Kissinger's record in foreign policy is that they gave up as unprofitable and dangerous the pursuit of ideological antagonism with the Great Powers (the Soviet Union and China), but then pursued the Cold War crusade with a vengeance against small powers. Kissinger's diplomatic career reminds me of the charge that Hauterive (a favorite of Napoleon's) brought against the confusions of the ancien regime, that it applied "the terms sound policy, system of equilibrium, maintenance or restoration of the balance of power . . . to what, in fact was only an abuse of power, or the exercise of arbitrary will."Parts of Kissinger's record, like the bombing of Cambodia, are indefensible, but there are good parts too: had Henry the K been in charge of our Russia policy over the last decade, we could have avoided the conflagration in Ukraine. He was sounder on China and Taiwan than 90 percent of the howling commentariat. He was, in addition, a serious scholar who wrote some good books about the construction of world order (A World Restored, Diplomacy). Young people should take his thought seriously, not consign him to the ninth circle.Robert Hunter, former U.S. Ambassador to NATOLike all outstanding teachers, Henry Kissinger was also a showman — and he could be fun. He used his accent and self-deprecating humor as weapons for his policies and getting them taken seriously. Journalists might at times scorn what he was doing and how he did it, but they were still charmed and tended so often to give him the benefit of the doubt — as well as the credit, even when not deserved. Everyone recalls his roles in promoting détente with the Soviet Union and, even more, the opening to China, with Richard Nixon following in his wake. In fact, both policies sprang from Nixon's mind. But when the dust settled, Kissinger was the Last Man Standing."Henry," we could call him who never worked for him (!), made intelligent and literate speeches on foreign policy that everyone could understand, bringing it into the limelight. A man of great ego, he still recruited and inspired talented acolytes at the State Department and White House — matched only by Brent Scowcroft and Zbig Brzezinski. He had other policy positives in the Middle East ("shuttle diplomacy") but major negatives in Chile, in prolonging the Vietnam War, and bombing Cambodia.Take him altogether, a true Man of History.Anatol Lieven, Director of the Eurasia Program at the Quincy InstituteThe problem about any just assessment of Henry Kissinger is that the good and bad parts of his record are organically linked. His Realism led him to an awareness of the vital interests of other countries, a willingness to compromise, and a prudence in the exercise of U.S. power that all too many American policymakers have altogether lacked and that the United States today desperately needs. This Realist acceptance of the world as it is however also contributed to a cynical disregard for basic moral norms — notably in Cambodia and Bangladesh — that have forever tarnished his and America's name.When in office, reconciliation with China and the pursuit of Middle East peace took real moral courage on Kissinger's part, given the forces arrayed against these policies in the United States. But in his last decades, though he initially criticized NATO expansion and called for the preservation of relations with Russia and China, he never did so with the intellectual and moral force of a George Kennan.Perhaps in the end the best comment on Kissinger comes from an epithet by his fellow German Jewish thinker on international affairs Hans Morgenthau: "It is a dangerous thing to be a Machiavelli. It is a disastrous thing to be a Machiavelli without Virtu" — an Italian term embracing courage, moral steadfastness and basic principle.Stephen Miles, President, Win Without WarNearly as many words have been spilled marking the end of Henry Kissinger's life as the lives he's responsible for ending, but let me add a few more. It would be easy to simply say that the devastating impact of Kissinger on U.S. foreign policy was clearly and wholly negative. As Spencer Ackerman noted in his essential obituary, few Americans, if any, have ever been as responsible for the death of so many of their fellow human beings. But Kissinger's true impact was not just in being a war criminal but in setting a new standard for doing so with impunity. Earlier this year, he was feted with a party for his 100th birthday attended not just by crusty old Cold Warriors remembering 'the good ole days,' but also by a veritable who's who of today's elite from billionaire CEOs and cabinet members to fashion megastars and NFL team owners. Sure, he may have been responsible for a coup here or a genocide there, but shouldn't we all just look past that and recognize his influence, power, and intellect? Does it really matter what he used those talents for?And in the end, that's the benefit of Kissinger's horrific life and decidedly not-untimely death. By never making amends for the harm he did and never being held accountable for the horrors he caused, he made clear just how truly broken and flawed U.S. foreign policy is. Perhaps now that he has finally left the stage, we can begin to change that. Tim Shorrock, Washington-based journalistKissinger nearly destroyed three Asian countries by causing the deaths of thousands in U.S. bombing raids, covertly intervened to subvert democracy in Chile, and encouraged an Indonesian dictator to invade newly independent East Timor and inflict a genocide upon its people. These were criminal acts that should have made him a pariah. Instead, he is lauded as a visionary by our ruling elite. And it was mostly accomplished through lies and deceit, in the name of corporate profit.I'll never forget in 1972 watching Kissinger declare "peace is at hand" in Vietnam. After years of protesting this immoral war, I truly thought that Vietnam's suffering, and my own countrymen's, was finally over; they had won and we had lost. But my hope was shattered that Christmas, when Kissinger and Nixon ordered B-52s to carpet-bomb Hanoi in an arrogant act of defiance and malice. Afterwards, a shaky peace agreement was signed that could have sparked an honorable U.S. withdrawal. But it took 3 more years of bloodshed before the United States was forced out.Kissinger broke my trust in America as a just nation and overseas sparked a deep hatred of U.S. foreign policy. Few statesmen have caused such harm.Monica Duffy Toft, Professor of International Politics and Director, Center for Strategic Studies, Fletcher School, Tufts UniversityI have a pair of midcentury teak chairs once belonging to the late eminent scholar Samuel P. Huntington in my office. Sam was a colleague and friend of Henry Kissinger's, and a mentor to me. Sam and I sat in these chairs discussing world politics and the everyday challenges of running a scholarly institute. When a new set of chairs arrived, Sam insisted I take the old ones, but not before emphasizing their significance — reminders of the hours he and Kissinger spent in deep debate and casual banter. These chairs have history.Henry Kissinger was, and shall remain, a controversial figure. His gifts were two. First, across decades of U.S. foreign policy challenges, he remained consistent in his conception of power, and how U.S. power should be used to enhance the security of the United States. Second, he was gifted at assembling, mentoring, and deploying cross-cutting networks of influential people. Like many of my colleagues who study international politics, there are policies — his support of Salvador Allende's ouster in Chile, for example — I find odious. I am also uncomfortable with Kissinger's elitism: his preferred policies favored those with wealth and political power at the expense of those without.But what I admire about Kissinger's U.S. foreign policy legacy and, by extension, international politics, was his profound grasp of the importance of historical context: a thing as important to sound U.S foreign policy today as it is rare; and of which I am pleasantly reminded every time I sit in one of Sam's chairs.Stephen Walt, Quincy Institute board member, professor of international affairs at the Harvard Kennedy SchoolHenry Kissinger was the most prominent U.S. statesman of his era, and that era lasted a very long time. His main achievements were not trivial: a long-overdue opening to China, some high-wire "shuttle diplomacy" after the 1973 October War, and several useful arms control treaties during the period of détente. But he was also guilty of some monumental misjudgments, including prolonging the Vietnam War to no good purpose and expanding it into Cambodia at a frightful human cost. His diplomatic acrobatics in the Middle East were impressive, but they were only necessary because he had missed the signs that Egypt was readying for war in 1973 in order to break a diplomatic deadlock that he had helped orchestrate. His indifference to human rights and civilian suffering sacrificed thousands of lives and made a mockery of U.S. pretensions to moral superiority.Kissinger owed his enduring influence not to a superior track record as a pundit or sage but to his own energy, unquenchable ambition, unparalleled networking skills, and the elite's reluctance to hold its members accountable. After all, this is a man who downplayed the risks of China's rise (while earning fat consulting fees there), backed the disastrous invasion of Iraq in 2003, opposed the 2015 nuclear deal with Iran, and dismissed warnings that open-ended NATO enlargement would make Europe less rather than more secure. Kissinger also perfected the art of transmuting government service into a lucrative consulting career, setting a troubling precedent for others. Debates about his legacy will no doubt continue, but one suspects that the reverence that his acolytes exhibit today will gradually fade now that he is no longer here to sustain it.Dear RS readers: It has been an extraordinary year and our editing team has been working overtime to make sure that we are covering the current conflicts with quality, fresh analysis that doesn't cleave to the mainstream orthodoxy or take official Washington and the commentariat at face value. Our staff reporters, experts, and outside writers offer top-notch, independent work, daily. Please consider making a tax-exempt, year-end contribution to Responsible Statecraft so that we can continue this quality coverage — which you will find nowhere else — into 2024. Happy Holidays!
THE USE OF NATURALLY OCCURRING MOOD- altering substances is deeply rooted in the traditions and cultures of many communities worldwide. As documented in other societies and historical records,1,2 various compounds have been employed for altering consciousness and for their curative effects.3 Two substances traditionally used in the Middle East include hashish and khat.4 Hashish, as cannabis, has been known in the region since ancient times.5 Khat, also known as chat, derived from the leaves and young shoots of the khat plant (Catha edulis), is used for its stimulant effect.6 Technological advances that enable high purification of drugs and transporting them fast, and increasing urbanisation, have caused these mood altering substances to be taken out of their traditional role in societies and have come to pose new, complex and challenging threats.7 These threats have been manifested in two important ways: () wider use of drugs, and (2) a shift from natural drugs to the more potent purer forms. Globally, illegal money derived from illicit drug transactions amounts to 400 billion dollars annually, and is second only to the arms trade.8,9 The countries of the Arabian Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) offers an interesting study area because their diverse cultures have experienced rapid acculturation, a phenomenon often equated with a rise in psychosocial stress.10 Psychosocial stress has often been associated with vulnerability to self poisoning11 and substance abuse.12 Although there are no adequate statistical studies to indicate the incidence of substance dependency in the GCC, it is clear that substance abuse is not a minor problem considering the number of reported drug seizures by the authorities.13 In real terms, the drugs seized by law enforcement authorities constitute only 5–0 percent of the actual quantity.14 Comprehensive data on the pattern of substance dependency is hampered by the criminal and moral stigma associated with substance dependency. Whatever the real number of people afflicted with addiction, substance dependency is a severe problem when considered in terms of personal distress, family disruption and interference with productivity and economic growth. Efforts have been undertaken in GCC countries to reduce the demand for drugs and to prevent drug abuse before it occurs. These efforts are coordinated through the Demand Reduction Committee, created in 200 with members from all countries of the GCC. The committee provides leadership in coordinating and facilitating strategies in this area including law enforcement, rehabilitation and leading and assisting the community in the task of education and prevention of substance abuse. Some studies have suggested that substance dependency occurs in adolescents in all strata of the society.14–16 However, these studies are limited to self-report questionnaires based on secondary school students. Although peer pressure is likely to play a significant part in the initiation of substance abuse,16 the subsequent heavy abuse is often associated with various psychosocial factors. It has been suggested that of all the social factors that predispose individuals to substance abuse, boredom is the most significant.14,17 The recent affluence and modernisation of the GCC societies have led many people to have a lot of spare time, as household chores are carried out by expatriate servants.14 The detrimental effects of such a lifestyle, including substance dependency, have been speculated in the literature.13,18–21 In a study cited by Al-Harthi14 of personality profiles and descriptive analyses of typical substance users enrolled in a treatment centre in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the most frequently stated reason for indulging in drugs was to escape boredom. This view, though substantiated by other studies in the region,22,23 has not taken into account the relationship of individual temperament to substance abuse. Recent studies have suggested that phenotypical "risk takers" or "sensation seekers" are often not inhibited from yielding to various illicit practices including substance abuse.24 Future studies in the region should examine the association between personality types, risk taking behaviour and boredom. The premise that the rise in substance dependency might be precipitated by erosion of traditional family networks and skewed social expectations might be relevant to GCC countries. Al-Hashmi18 has suggested that modernisation has resulted in the Omani family becoming nuclear at the cost of the traditional extended family. Concurrently, domestic servants brought from overseas, often illiterate in the dominant language, are providing much of the socialisation to children. Reinforced by frequent international travelling, satellite televisions and the Internet, acculturation appears to have occurred too quickly in GCC societies. Smith has remarked that these changes have brought these communities development that took a thousand years in Europe in less than 20 years.25 Studies from other parts of the world that have experienced similar rapid pace of modernisation have shown disintegration of native culture and identity as well as dissolution of the social network, to which individuals had previously turned for help when in trouble.26 In addition, the spread of education have resulted in higher levels of expectations. In the new social order, individuals in the region tend to regard employment opportunities, guaranteed higher levels of income, and especially, higher social standing, as acquired rights. Frustration of the desire to climb the social ladder leads to social insecurity.14 The present situation of society in transition fits with the classical sociological observations of Ibn Khaldun and Emile Durkheim: rapid transformation leads to breakdown of traditional social cohesion.14As a result, the sense of belonging becomes a luxury, leading to social drift, alienation, and the proliferation of social misfits. The society itself may become anomic. The relationship between acculturation, anomie and drug taking has received empirical support.27 The present tendency is to view substance abuse in its psychosocial context rather than on moral terms. While more studies that are comprehensive are needed to examine the pattern of use and misuse of drugs in the GCC countries, there are various reasons to assume that substance dependency is likely to continue to pose a problem in the region. First, the geography helps both trafficking and consumption. GCC countries are located close to the "Golden Triangle" or "Drug Belt", a part of Asia where underdevelopment and political instability have fuelled drug driven economies. Second, being on a major route for international airlines and sea routes by virtue of being in the middle of the world, GCC countries are at constant risk of being used as trans-shipment points for drug trafficking. The Arabian Peninsula has a vast coastline with its horizon overlooking major sea routes to different continents. Even if vigilance to guard its borders is heightened, such a long coastline would remain porous. Moreover, effective surveillance would require more allocation of resources and work force, drawing vital resources away from establishing essential remedial and rehabilitation services for the victims of substance abuse. Thirdly, the increasing number of visitors and the presence of foreign labour in the GCC also help make the "Gulf route" a crossroad for trans-world drug supplies. Some individuals may fall prey to the fallouts from these passing illegal shipments even though they may be destined elsewhere. It is also possible that an increase in consumption of illicit substances among the local population has in itself escalated the demand. In support of the latter view are the rising statistics on the mortality related to drug abuse and the number of clients seeking treatment in rehabilitation centres in the GCC states.15,28 Dispensing accurate information on issues related to substance abuse is a key component to fighting drug abuse. Studies are needed to illuminate the effect of substance dependency in the GGC countries as the mass media often tends to downplay the risks of drug use, or sometimes even glamorises it. Evidence is emerging on the personal consequences of substance dependency. Okasha, in the context of Egypt, has demonstrated that substance dependency is likely to lead to underachievement at school or work and exacerbate family stress, financial burdens and exposure to criminal activity.29 However, literature does not discern whether these social problems are the cause or the effect of the substance dependency. Substance dependency is often associated with psychiatric morbidity30 but it is not clear whether this is cause or effect. Karam et al in their report from Lebanon suggest a strong relationship between addiction to substances of abuse and psychiatric diagnoses.31 These authors further suggest that certain personality types often abuse specific substances. However, such a simplistic view appears to be merely reiterating the chicken-or-the-egg argument. Some authors have suggested that substance dependency is a form of self-medication, which implies that individuals with substance dependency have high levels of psychosocial distress and use illicit drugs in an attempt to alleviate their distress. This is relevant to the suggestion that some psychiatric symptoms may mimic withdrawal effects of chronic substance dependency and withdrawal symptomatology co-varies with cognitive and psychological functioning.32 In addition to psychiatric illness, substance dependency has been seen to increase the risk of adverse drug reactions. A well-known complication of substance dependency is the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and other infections.33 VISIBLE PATTERNS IN THE GCC The discovery of oil in the GCC has brought rapid modernisation as well as unprecedented material progress and economic security.34 Although GCC nationals, like other cultural groups in developing countries, are thought to have beliefs that protect them against developing substance dependency, such beliefs appear to be eroding with the rising tide of acculturation and economic restructuring. Demographic factors such as the preponderance of adolescents in the population will continue to elude those advocating demand reduction policies even if harsher penalties are decreed for traffickers and users. Approximately 60% of the population in the region are less than 20 years old.35 As reported elsewhere, 36 adolescents are prone to risk taking behaviour, a temperament that has been associated with developmental milestones including the underdevelopment of the orbital-frontal cortex.34 In GCC countries, the rate of juvenile delinquency has, in a span of 0 years, increased approximately by 400%. Unless the needs of such a large and important segment of society as its young people are addressed, this may present a demographic time-bomb with unpredictable social consequences. With a fast growing population, competitions for social and occupational roles are likely to be more intense, leaving many failed individuals behind. With such a demographic trend, it is likely that many individuals carry a greater risk of developing various adjustment difficulties including substance dependency.37 Data emanating from other developing countries suggest that drug peddlers tend to target the poor and the unemployed. Whereas substance dependency in other parts of the world is often associated with economic and social breakdown,38 no study has examined whether substance dependency in the GCC countries follows the same pattern.39 Preliminary observations in Oman suggest that there is relationship between unemployment and propensity for substance abuse.14 Interestingly, the study suggests that addiction to illicit drugs is likely to interfere with employment, often rendering some individuals to lose their jobs. In the midst of such conflicting views, further studies are needed to ascertain the conditions that trigger drug dependency in the community.40 While more information is needed in order to make an informed policy on substance dependency, there is some evidence pointing to which substances are widely abused in GCC countries. First, clinical reports suggest that solvent misuse is extensive although no formal studies have been conducted. Hafeiz41 has suggested that abuse of solvents often occurs in order to overcome the boredom of modern living. There is also increasing evidence to suggest that some of these agents cause mental disorders42 as well as neurological complications.43 The chemicals in question include glues, liquid shoe polish, deodoriser, petrol, cologne and insecticides.44,45 A special pattern of substance dependency associated with social deviancy and delinquency also involves a home-made mixture of dates and ointments as well as inhalation of intoxicating fumes derived from burning the wings of cockroaches and ants with volatile substances. Habitual inhaling of these substances is often associated with a failure to thrive.42 Secondly, inhaling smoke derived from nicotine based substances is now common in many GCC countries.46,47 Tobacco is often chewed, snuffed or smoked either in cigarettes or in sheesha. The latter (also known as hookah) is a smoking device, widely used in some communities of the Arabian Peninsula, to smoke jurak, a cooked tobacco-fruit mixture, and burnt by an electrical device or by charcoal. The produced smoke passes through the water at the base of the sheesha and then a long-tube before it is inhaled. Though most smokers consider sheesha less harmful to health than cigarette smoking,48 this has not been substantiated in regional studies.48,49 Experimental and clinical studies have found that nicotine, an active ingredient of both sheesha and cigarettes, not only triggers cardiovascular diseases, but also predisposes frequent users to various neuropsychiatric disorders.50 The question remains whether smoking triggers mental illness or people with mental illness are more likely to smoke.51 Pharmacological studies have unequivocally shown that nicotine is as addictive as other well-known psychoactive drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines.52 However, GCC countries have given a low priority to this a public health issue. Demand for nicotine has been falling in industrialised nations, 53 but a similar picture is not emerging from middle and low income countries. Cigarette companies are now targeting the developing world.53 Moreover, cigarette companies are manufacturing products of differing quality for sale in different markets. It has been shown that cigarettes of the same brand sold in developing countries have higher tar content than in the country of origin.54 Some studies have suggested that certain cigarettes are made from more potent, hence, more addictive, nicotine.53,55 As there is no known effective program to educate people about the dangers of smoking, prevention and smoking cessation appear to an unattainable goals. To compound the problem, some proponents of the "gateway phenomenon" suggest that smoking is a springboard to hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin, 56 though there is also evidence to contradict this view.57 The social problems precipitated by alcoholism have not yet been reported in the GCC countries though some reports suggest that drinking problems are proliferating.13,44,58 The World Health Organisation59 estimates that more then 5 million people are disabled because of alcohol use, making it the fourth leading cause of worldwide disability. Theobald has suggested that approximately 0% of alcohol consumers will at some time experience serious health problems related to their drinking habit.60 As many individuals are now facing the daily challenges of modern living and the pressures of modern life, alcohol abuse is thought to be one of the elusive antidotes to modern insecurity.17 Some recent findings suggest that individuals who have a high subjective level of insecurity in their lives are likely to abuse alcohol to ward of their psychosocial stress. Interestingly, people with such attributes have been seen to have refractory types of alcoholism.61 Alcohol syndromes such as delirium tremens and Korsakoff's psychosis are known to occur among people who consume it regularly.50 Persons at risk of drinking problems cannot be reliably identified in the population; therefore the pattern of drinking and its psychosocial correlates are indicated for the GCC countries. The bulk of the studies21,45,58 have focused solely on exploring the validity of research instruments on cross-cultural application of drinking attitude and behaviour. Little is known on the effect of alcohol repackaged as "cologne" available in some GCC countries.62,63 Colognes or ethyl alcohol-containing perfume and after-shave are sometimes ingested as an alcohol substitute.64 Relevant to this, it would be important to determine whether the availability of alcohol and other soft drugs deters people from going into narcotics that are more dangerous. One suggestion is that in those societies of GCC where there is a relaxed attitude towards alcohol, there are fewer propensities towards heroin and other dangerous drugs.14 It also not clear how such information would be helpful in planning intervention programs in GCC countries, as the experiences from other societies suggest a complex relationship between alcohol and substance abuse. The "gateway theory" would suggest that using alcohol leads people to use harder drugs like cocaine and heroin.65 There is also scant information on the pattern and psychosocial correlates of over-the-counter medications in the GCC countries. Though generally viewed as harmless, many of them have the potential for abuse, particular those that are considered to be amphetamine-like stimulants.66 These includes nasal decongestants, bronchodilators, appetite suppressants and energy pills and drinks. While there is no evidence to suggest that cocaine and hallucinogens are widely consumed in the GCC countries, 13 the story of opiate use is somewhat different. Historical documents suggest that opium was considered as a medicinal substance in the Middle East. It was recommended by various towering Arab figures such as Ibn Sina.1 More recently, however, its semi-synthetic counterpart, heroin, far removed from its cultural context, is becoming the drug of choice for addicts in the GCC countries. Being close to heroin producing regions of the world, GCC appears to be the trafficker's place of choice. Being capable of causing compulsive dependency within a short time, heroin has a devastating effect on the user and society in general. To those who are addicted to heroin, it appears the habit leaves them little time for meaningful life. To compound the problem, as 90% of GCC heroin addicts use it intravenously, sharing of contaminated needles causes infections of human immune deficiency virus and a high incidence of other infections.33 Similarly, the number of cases of heroin addiction is often directly related to the number of crimes.27 Despite stringent regulations to reduce the supply and demand, the habit proliferates. Judging from the quantities of drugs seized by the authorities, the last decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of cases of heroin addiction, the number of addicts seeking rehabilitation, and death due to heroin overdose.PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE Rehabilitation for addiction is often in the hands of psychiatric or penitentiary services though some specialised centres have emerged in some GCC countries.16 Culturally sensitive interventions seem to be often relegated to fringe importance. Medical interventions are likely to grow considering the many claims about new pharmacological tools that take advantage of the chemical properties of alcohol and other drugs. However, drug treatment for substance dependency should not hold up the search for psychosocial predisposing factors, which, in turn, could be a springboard for educational strategies to reduce demand. Indeed, blind adherence to pharmacological intervention not only seems similar to drug peddling, but also may be counterproductive in the long term. A biomedical explanatory model of substance dependency may lead to stigma, and lessen the individual and societal accountability in tackling compulsive dependency. Stressing personal responsibility, on the other hand, motivates one to change, as well as help one understand the challenges ahead and evolve coping mechanisms.67 As distress and stress are experienced in a socio-cultural context, rehabilitation services should avoid committing what Kleinman has called a "category fallacy", where a view of human nature developed for one cultural group is uncritically applied to members of another group for whom its validity has not been established.68 According to Kleinman, this results in a "distortion of pathology" rather than a critical understanding of the ways in which the members of a different cultural group perceive, experience and communicates beliefs and distress. One of the essential grounds for formulating enlightened policies toward drug dependency is to consider the society's outlook towards mood altering substances. Despite the documented frequency of substance abuse in GCC countries, a review of the literature reveals no objective studies on knowledge, attitude and perception. Opinion towards substance dependency among citizens of GCC countries is likely to have a wide-ranging influence, affecting issues as diverse as personal consequences of substance dependency, prevention, care and management of people with substance abuse. Historical and cross-cultural studies have suggested that individuals with substance dependence are likely to encounter active discrimination and harassment which, in turn, exacerbates their psychosocial predicament and perpetuates their relapse into drug taking.37 Similarly, it has been suggested that social attitudes can be more devastating than the addiction itself, and the addict's family suffers as well.69 Although many victims of substance dependency could benefit from treatment, attitudes of society towards them is likely to hamper their seeking rehabilitation. As a result, many are likely to stay underground until addiction has reached an advanced stage of irreversible pathology. This not only increases pessimism of the victims and those around them but also shatters the prospect of recovery. Therefore, more research in GCC countries should be conducted in order to shed light on socio-cultural factors that precipitate individuals to succumb to substance abuse. This would open the door for contemplating strategies to achieve a reasonable level of prevention as well as to prioritise which aspects of services are pertinent to the region. Grinspoon and Bakalar have suggested that of all the mistakes repeated, the most serious is trying to free society of drugs via legislation and regulation.70 Indeed, many studies1 suggest that no punitive measure deters availability and abuse of drugs.14 It appears that financial gain is one of the strongest determining factors. Globally, though consensus from the experts in the field suggests that substance dependency is a disease, public opinion often considers it a form of moral degeneracy that can destroy social values. As a result, victims of substance dependency are sent to the prison. Many countries have pursued the idea of creating a national consensus towards zero tolerance for substance abuse and death penalty for drug traffickers. The policies fluctuate between curbing trafficking, reducing demand and decriminalisation of certain classes of drugs.71 Some countries have considered decriminalizing soft drugs and the debate continues on the rationale of dispensing heroin to heroin-addicts.72 Although more time is needed to assess the long-term outcome of these new programs, history has shown that none of the previous campaigns to curb the spread of substance misuse has worked. Instead, the situation appears to be summed up in Bob Marley's lyric, "So you think you have found the solution; But it's just another illusion". CONCLUSION The problem of drug abuse in the GCC is a multi-dimensional one without easy solutions. This paper has touched upon several of these issues. Even though for zero tolerance to substance dependency is advocated, no program has been found to be universally successful in reducing drug dependence. Historically, many societies have tried both criminalisation and decriminalisation but to no avail. Despite all the technologies to monitor and legal authority to bring the drug traffickers to justice,including the threat of death penalty, dealing with substances that cause addiction is becoming a global challenge of ever increasing magnitude. More discouraging, the problem has even affected societies where one would expect cultural factors to protect them from the attraction of drugs. The purpose of this paper, thus, is to "point a finger to the moon", the moon symbolising the complexity of substance dependency. One should not confuse the moon with the finger that points to it.
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Prices always right The Lutheran paWication^ocieiJ No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel- • op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address ■ HENRY. S. BONER, Supt. The CDerea^y. The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XIV. GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER 1906. No. 6 CONTENTS "THE POWER OF SMALL THINGS "—Oration. . . 152 ELSIE A. GERLACH, '07. "POE: WIZARD OR CHARLATAN "—Essay. . 155 W. WlSSLER HACKMAN, '08. "THE TRAGEDY OF A SOUL"—Oration. . . . 158 CLIFFORD E. HAYS, '07. "TIME—ITS DEMANDS AND GIFTS "—Oration. . . 164 SARA B. BRUMBAUGH, '07. " CONSCIENCE AND SUPERSTITION ''—Essay. . . 167 D. L. BAKER, '08. "CO-OPERATIVE COLLEGE GOVERNMENT "—Essay. 169 '08. "THE STUDENT AND COLLEGE "—A LIFE LONG RELA-TION— Essay . .171 ROY E. SMITH, '08. "A TOURNAMENT "—Story. 172 LEVERING TYSON, '09. EDITORIALS, . 176 EXCHANGES, 179 152 THE MERCURY. THE POWER OF SMALL THINGS. ELSIE A. GBRLACH, '07. EVER since Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence civilized people have stood in awe before the grandeur of the mighty flood of Niagara Falls. They have thought and talked and written about its tremendous power, its majesty and grand beauty; but no one ever considered its source, or thought of it in its parts. It was always thought of as one grand whole, until suddenly the world was startled by the fact that the beau-tiful Niagara was threatened. Then it was that the beauty loving Americans realized that out of small things great things grow, when they saw that the use of the great mass of water, little by little for supplying the manufacturing establishments, would steal away the greatness of the world's greatest falls. You all know the result of the awakening, that popular opinion prevailed and Niagara was saved from a gross sacrifice to mercenary motives. I have used the illustration only to show how often we forget the importance of little things. It is a world old subject, this fact of small beginnings. We know that the mighty avalanche, sweeping everything before it and burying whole towns with its millions of tons of snow, is made up of the feathery flakes. We know, in fact, that the entire universe, in all its immensity, is composed of atoms; yet do we realize the significance of the small things in nature. History speaks plainly of the power of little things. The importation of the first slaves into America may have seemed a thing of trifling moment; yet the war of the rebellion grew out of it. Again, it was but a small band of Pilgrims that landed at Plymouth Rock; yet their coming was the begin-ning of the career of the grandest nation of the world. The world of finance in the great Hippel embezzlement pre-sents a striking illustration of the principle we are considering. Do you think that when the respected banker stole seven million dollars, it was his first offence? Of course not. If all the facts were known his crime could be traced back along a line of ever lessening thefts, perhaps even to the small sum of a few dollars borrowed, but never returned to the bank. Mr THE MERCURY. 153 His first theft, whatever it was, may have seemed a trifling thing. But what a result! For an example in politics take the system of graft, recently uncovered in Philadelphia. No doubt the grafters were timid at first, and took but little from the public funds ; but they kept growing bolder until the enormity of their crimes could no longer be-concealed. We can see the value of a trifle in every day life. The true story, told of the man on the tower, goes to prove this fact. He was a common day-laborer and was assisting in the com-pletion of an immense chimney on a large factory. He was working on the farther side from the others, and did not notice that they had all finished and descended, and that the scaffold-ing was removed. In a very short time, however, his absence was noticed, and a large crowd gathered below, filled with horror at the thought of the awful death which stared him in the face, for the only possible way to reach him was by scaf-folding, which it would take weeks to build. But suddenly the crowd was quiet as the wife of the man, suspended between heaven and earth, appeared. She had evidently heard, for she was very pale, but calm. Putting her hands to her mouth she shouted, " Unravel your stocking." A cheer burst from the crowd, as they grasped at this feeble hope of rescue. Before long a thin grey thread was lowered, and to this they tied a cord. The yarn was homespun and it carried the cord in safety to the waiting man. The cord in turn drew up a rope and the rope a cable, by which the man descended. Practical application of the subject can be made in every phase of life. To be happy we must be careful of the little things in our home life. To be successful the business man applies the old adage, " Take care of the pennies and the dollars will take care of themselves." To become a college graduate, worthy of the name, the ambitious student must weigh the little things. It is a small thing to prepare a debate or read-ing for the literary society, or an essay for our monthly journal. It may not seem so at the time when you think you can't pos-sibly spare even an hour or so. But it is a small thing when compared to the benefit received from regular literary work: 154 THE MERCURY. first, of course, the benefit gained in preparation, then the power to think on your feet and to accustom yourself to hearing your voice in public speaking. The time given to athletics does not cost much, considering the benefit received. A short time spent in exercising every day helps to bring about the relation of "Sana metis in corpore sano." And it isn't much trouble to really study the lessons assigned. It takes only two hours to prepare a Latin or Greek lesson. To be sure the easier way, by means of " helps," sometimes seems almost pardonable when there is work to be made up on account of sickness, or when import-ant outside work demands the time. But this habit of shirk-ing grows so easily that it must be avoided or the college edu-cation will prove a failure. The seeming trifles at college are very numerous. But these few examples will serve to illustrate their value. The power of small things is strongly brought out by Longfellow in the words: . " Nothing useless is or low ; Each thing in its place is best; And what seems but idle show Strengthens and supports the rest." Oh, but how great a thing it is, how glad, To live in this our day ! when plain strong sense, Free knowledge and Religious influence, Build up a wall against the false and bad, And give the good both temple and defense : To live—when ancient enmities intense Turn to new brotherhood till now unknown ; When science and invention bless the world, Banishing half our pains and troubles hence ; When time seems lengthened, distance nearer grown ; When tyranny from every throne is hurled ; When Right is Might, and Reason holds her own : O, happy day ! fur prophets, priests and kings Have longed in vain to see such glorious things. —Tupper. THE MERCURY. 155 POE: WIZARD OR CHARLATAN? W. WISSLER HACKMAN. I. INTRODUCTION. THE ENIGMA. IN these papers it is not our purpose to rehash any biography of Poe, and such points of his life as may come up in these discussions will do so because they are, in our opinion, essen-tial in throwing light upon the problem in hand. That Poe's heredity, environment and temperament do as much toward heightening as toward solving the mystery that surrounds his literary attitudes and motives may not be denied, much less ignored. Brilliant, versatile, volatile; Byronic in egotism, Pickwickian in fantastic fancy, a Stevenson in action and a Uoyle in plot, he presents an enigma among American authors; an enigma that invites even while it defies investigation. Sensitive, proud and weak ; yes, almost despicably weak he stands the most tragic figure in the realm of American letters ; a tragic success ; a most brilliant failure. A graphic portraitist, a skillful manipulator of plot and atmosphere, a poet surcharged with a shadowy mysticism, a philosopher and scientist in amateur, possessed of an un-bridled daring of conception, a critic, dreamer and prophet— what is he not? Candid and unshrouded he sets himself be-fore us ; frankly and unhesitatingly he draws aside the mantle of his personality and uncloses to vulgar gaze the very wheels and cogs of his literary machinery. And yet, andyet— he is too like the famous chess player he so skillfully exploits, wheels and cogs and cunning mirrors casting deceptive re-cesses, and within, the man, whom none see, smiling derisively on the easy credulity of his admirers. That is just the ques-tion, that the crux of the entire matter of Poe, the genuine-ness of his attitudes. Let sincerity be the touchstone to the man. Is he a great soul struggling through an imperfect me-dium toward revelation, has his genius labored out of the in-tangible depths some magic philosophers stone whereby to convert the dross of earth into the divine gold of ideality ? Again, dare we accept his own implied claim, and treat him as 11 ■ 156 THE MERCURY. the clear-eyed discoverer of a profound unity of all substance and energy, or is he a mere mechanic who frames soul-stirring verse on an arithmetical basis making poetry a matter of mathematical proportions? Or after all is he a base juggler or at lea.st a clever trickster ? Is he king or impostor, prophet or pretender, wizard or charlatan ? Have you never felt the uncomfortable impression intrude itself through the charming plausibility of his philosophy, the eerie beauty of his verse, or the creeping horror of his tales that at your shoulder, as it were, stood Poe, his sensitive lips curled in proud scorn while about them played a smile of mockery and derision almost mephistophelian ? Take his por-trait, search his features carefully—do you not find an in-tangible contempt lurking there? Is it for you or for a stiff-necked, hard-headed people who will be sordid and material-istic ? Take his lighter stuff—plainly you can feel the under-current of banter, whether innocent or malevolent, I dare not yet say. That Poe's was an analytical intellect of the highest type must be conceded, for that he is capable of a keenness of in-sight abnormally acute, we have proof in his own exploits. The unravelling of the "Murders of the Rue Morgue" and the death of " Marie Roget" under circumstances that would have daunted the most optimistic of sleuths are evidences that go far toward establishing Poe's integrity. Had he been on or even near the scenes of these tragedies, for they were real, we might attribute his success to some fortunate discovery, some hidden inkling. But removed as he was from the pos-sible presence of data, his only aids newspaper clippings col-lected by himself, we must admit that success was—in fact could only be—due to the reasoning of a powerful intellect. Whatever Poe is, he is no shallow montebank ; if he resorts to dishonest trickery, it is not because he is incapable of higher things. Yet he does juggle, yet he does descend to the plane of monte-bank. How the same hand that projected " Eureka," that marvelous prose-poem, could perpetuate such worthless, school boy click-clack as abounds in the life of Thingum Bob, seems, - —--'-—- * w THE MERCURY. 157 to say the least, remarkable. It is just this apparent incon-sistency— it does not merit the term versatility—that makes Poe the enigma he is. The fabric of his literary work pre-sents a strange mosaic of pearls and tawdry brass side by side and intermingled in a strange, disconcerting confusion. Thus far we have dealt in generalities ; generalities of, I fear, a vague and dissatisfactory haziness. It has been our aim in this paper to, in a general manner, outline our intended method of procedure. The * following papers will be written with the author's text close to our elbow with a view of being read in like manner. Now in the conclusion of our introduction let us advance one tenet of our literary faith, to wit: Sincerity should be the guide and touchstone in all literary criticism. Much as we dislike the imputation of egotism we shall fear-lessly work out our conclusions independent of popular senti-ment or accepted views on this particular phase of Poe. Not in that we feel ourselves better equipped than others but because we believe that no man should suppress or subvert his own individuality to the authority of another while there exsits the faintest possibility of new discovery. * NOTE—This is the first of a series of six articles to appear in the MER-CURY treating on this particular phase of Poe viewed from four stand-points. Let it be suggested that the succeeding articles be read in con-nection with the authors text. The next article will treat him as Poet —ED. (AM,, .i 158 THE MERCURY. THE TRAGEDY OF A SOUL. CLIFFORD E. HAYS, '07. ALL progress lies through evolution or revolution. Start-ling as this may seem, nevertheless it is true in Religion, Politics and the Industrial World. Progress is the giving up of the old condition and the advance to the new. The pro-gress of a nation or organization is measured by that of the individuals who compose it, and every time a man gives up a long accustomed ideal there is enacted a tragedy of the soul. Two hundred years ago a handful of patriots decided to leave behind the old order of things and set sail on that dark and unknown sea of Democracy. All those men were the de-scendants of races accustomed to monarchy and Despotism, and it was natural that there should be a long and desperate struggle before they could give up the old. No American History disregards the bitter debates of that gloomy period when the Continental Congress was in secret session and our nation's destiny hung in the balance, yet few of us indeed realize what it meant for those men to affix their names to the Declaration of Independence. Up to July 4, 1776, but a few radical dreamers had thought of separation and fewer desired Democracy. The clanging of that old bell caused a struggle in the soul of many a true and noble man before he went either to the Revolutionists or the Torys. And the tragedy of their souls has often been repeated and is now being rehearsed in the Peterhof in Russia. On May 18, 1868 a boy baby was born in St. Petersburg in the recesses of a fortified palace during a period of darkest despotism, the reaction of the spasmodic lenient period of the stormy reign of Nicholas I. During the babes' early years his grandfather Alexander II was harassed by many for-eign wars and internal troubles which ended in the Czar's as-sassination. The 3rd Alexander, the boy's father, took control, but the revolutionists were so active that he remained in con-finement two years before his coronation. Thus this youth was born and reared in a household con-tinually threatened and fearing, yet a household which held sacred the belief in historic Czarism. All his education was THE MERCURY. 159 to prepare him to be a Czar such as former Czars had been, although the fierceness of his ancestors was somewhat miti-gated by the state of affairs during which he was born, yet that one idea, that he would some day be God's vicegerent to rule that vast empire by his own absolute will, was constantly drilled into him. Surrounded and influenced by the bureau-cracy, his inherited autocratic spirit was intensified. Accus-tomed to think and hear that alone, it is not at all surprising that he should come to the throne a thorough autocrat. When twenty-six his father died, after a stormy reign filled toward the close with attempts at assassination. Then Czar Nicholas the II, this youth brought up in utter ignorance of the true condition of his country, secluded and taught aristo-cracy, with a mind and body inherited from a long line of despots, took the government of the vast Empire of Russia and her 140,000,000 souls steeped in ignorance and practically slaves to the nobles for seven centuries. It is a wild dream to think that Nicholas, the crystallized product of a line of Czars ruling for centuries in the same despotic course, should come to the throne filled with noble determination to free his people and set up a democracy. He knew no more of his people and democracy than his people knew of him personally. At court he was surrounded by that crowd of political vam-pires, the Bureaucracy, that class of nobles, the offspring of the Middle Ages, which inherited its rights for centuries. It is a nobility such as no other country knows. Dependent on the Czar and Czarism for their life liberty and property, they cling to the tottering throne of despotism as a vine to a mould-ering wall. Planted when the wall was erected, they have grown old and useless with it, and although they see the wall crumbling and tottering with every fresh blow from the tides of Democracy, yet they must cling to the wall for life. All enlightenment and culture is limited to the palaces of the nobles. "With their enlightenment and widened horizon which includes in its circle both Czar and the people, they see clearer than anyone else the true condition and the only solu-tion. They loathe Czarism which they are forced to support, and fear the people whom they must keep in submission. til Ilk ill'.) I.,.I. 160 THE MERCURY. They see this and fear, yet are bound to the throne for the maintenance of their life; they cling with death like grip to the thing they looth, yet cannot leave. Bureaucracy hangs between life and death, despotism and Democracy, progression and retrogression, but worst of all, knows that either way the pendulum swings aristocracy must vanish as a dream and they with it. Thus it is to their interest to keep the Czar in ignor-ance and their heads above water. With such a spirit ruling them and such interests at stake they drove Nicholas I mad, and hindered his useful reforms. This Czar broke through the ignorance, superstition and teachings of the Czar's and tried to better his people. He instituted education, lessened the censorship of the press, heard embassies from the people, and emulated foreign progress. Yet all this was undone by the bureaucracy who saw in this their ruin. They as ministers bowed to the Czar and promised faithfully to further his work, but out of his presence issued counter orders and altogether blocked his reforms. Real conditions were kept from him, till harassed on all sides, the Czar lost faith in everything, loathed civilization, hated progress and instituted such a despotic re-action that the country was plunged deeper than ever in the dungeon of ignorance. Such is the pitiful struggle in Russia's high places that the nobles in their mad race for life and posi-tion bind upon the Czar, in childhood, the shackles which en-able them to hinder him all through his reign. Surrounded by such conditions, Nicholas II came upon the throne of Russia in the year 1904. Brought up in seclu-sion and study during childhood, taught autocracy and militar-ianism in his youth, surrounded completely by the Bureaucracy, knowing little of Democracy, considering himself the vicege-rent of God and responsible to Him alone, and entirely ignor-ant of the condition of his people he kept the beaten path of his ancestors and it should cause no surprise that he did not immediately accept our western views of things. The recent war broke out and during it the young ruler be-came acquainted with his people. Suddenly into the dark chamber in which he sat and ruled, shut off from the world, a ray of light entered. He heard low grumblings. Then *,. THE MERCURY. 161 his dazzled eyes and startled ears gave evidence of the flames of Revolution and the demands of his people. One minute he was sitting in unsuspecting security; the next he was swept from his feet by that awful whirlwind of plunder and murder. Stunned and lost for awhile it seemed as if all must give way. Forces on all sides dragged him hither and thither. The people clamored, they howled, burned, pillaged, murdered ! Some demanded liberty ; some representation ; while others urged harsher despotism. He had no rest; one said this, another that. One cried " The Police ! Suppress! Trample ! Lash ! " Now came the urgent appeal, give the con-stitution or all is lost. Throw Autocracy to the winds or Russia is lost. Hear your people or your are doomed. The whole world mocked, the nations laughed at this poor imbe-cillic prince, who sat and held the power yet did not act. Yet were they right? Was he imbecillic and weak ? Most assuredly, No! He had always aimed to do the right, and but one thing was opened up to him as the right; therefore he did it in sincerity. On that eventful morning when after sleep-less nights, he signed the decree for the national assembly, he said to Count Witte : " I have never valued aught but the weal of my subject, and have always used autocratic power for that and never wittingly exercised it for any other purposes, I was always convinced that the welfare of the empire demanded this, but now I lay a portion of my power aside because I have good reason to believe it is to the advantage of Russia to do so." Thus drilled and taught Czarism, he came to the crisis blinded ; and when his eyes were opened he did not imme-diately fly to Democracy, and the nations mocked. He, Czar Nicholas, who believed himself to be of divine appointment, descended from a line of despots, did not break away from all precedent, undo the work of his ancestors for ages, did not deny his entire nature and change his mode of thinking in a moment, in immediate need and under great stress without hesitation, thought, or fear, and they said he was a weakling, an imbecile, a child! He loves his country, his whole pride is Russia, therefore he could not deny his moderate and prudent nature, which he 162 THE MERCURY. undoubtedly has, and plunge his people headforemost into our occidental iorm of Government, so strange to a European mind. And, if the truth were only known, the world would see but a handful of rash extremists, followers of such as Maxim Gorky, raving for liberty. What the people want is not so much the reins of government, but a little release from the oppression of the hated nobles. In this awful whirlpool of unrest the Czar could not loose all moorings from absolu-tism and expect to sail clearly and safely to any definite condi-tion. Place our own beloved President in such a position. If he should suddenly awake to the fact that Democracy was crush-ing his people that he had always been deluded, and at the same time four ways of acting, all contrary to his very nature, should be opened to him, he could not tear himself from Democ-racy ; he could not in one day decide what was best for this enlightened people. Let us then be reasonable. Let us consider the Czar with his bias due to a weight of despotic ancestry, hedged about by the autocracy, living in ignorance of the true conditions of his people, coming suddenly to the realization that something must be decided ; pushed hither and thither, all the while re-maining cool and collected, and at last giving that most mag-nificent testimony of a- clear brain and a deep desire for the right by signing the ukase by which he limited his autocratic power, and brought to a close centuries of despotism, and gave an earnest of liberty to 140,000,000 of people. Universal suffrage, a right to levy taxes, supervision over all branches of the government, and " civic liberty based on real inviolability of the person and freedom of conscience, speech, union and association," were on the 19th of August, 1905, conferred on a nation which had remained in ignorance and serfdom for seven centuries. And all this was decided upon by a conservative, prudent and strong willed man. But the most marvelous of all things which this young Prince, this laughed at " Little Father," accomplished; was the inner vic-tory in his soul over his imperial psychic nature, the accumu-lation and inheritance of ages. We are told that in order to THE MERCURY. 163 judge fairly an individual's actions " we must take into consider-ation his position, his character, his past, his individual feel-ings, his moral and physical powers. We must keep in view the incentives from without, the circumstances and limitations among which he moves." Then we can say that the Czar was not a puppet. He was not a mirror reflecting every one's opinion. With but a few short months of earnest thought after his awakening and under tempestuous conditions, he signed that manifesto. On that eventful morning, when Russia's new sun arose and the darkness of absolutism received its first blow, Czar Nicho-las II arose, calmly attended to some minor duties, then went to the Chamber of State where spread upon the table was that document. Standing on his right was Count Witte that diplo-mat of Russia who saved his country's honor in the financial crisis; he who gained a bloodless victory at Portsmouth ; the champion of the people; stood trembling as the Czar made the cross and wrote N-i-c-o-l-a-i, thus signing away his in-herited power. In the ante-room were assembled the minis-ters of Russia, members of the Bureaucracy, waiting to see the doom of their class. As Nicholas calmly signed, arose, and without a word left the chamber as if routine business had been transacted and with stately dignity and composure, passed out, these ministers burst into tears and sank into uncontroll-able grief. As thus we take under review the events of the past few months, we see a man, by the power of his will, in response to the imperative of a noble nature, breaking through all the bounds of influence, throwing off the bias of his inheritance,, changing his whole psychic nature and giving the funda-mentals of freedom to one-tenth of the earth's population. The struggle through which he passed ; the heartache, the doubt, the fear, the loneliness—who shall measure it ? There in his palace, if anywhere on earth, was enacted the silent but awful Tragedy of a Soul. 164 THE MERCURY. TIME—ITS DEMANDS AND GIFTS. '07. IN this, the Autumn season, there sometimes intrudes upon us a resentful feeling, that Time, is ruthless in his van-dalism. We stand before the ruins of the past and read new meaning in the oft-repeated phrase " time passes by." Time passes by—ah, yes! — and never did Attilla leave more devastation in his wake. The wind whispers the news of his arrival and sweet flowers fade, myriads of bright leaves fall. He breathes over the child, and the sparkling eyes become dulled, the rosy cheeks pale and seared. Shaken by his heavy onward tread, mighty columns crumble, beautiful statues fall prostrate. He passes his hand over the masterpieces of a DeVinci or a Titian and the exquisite coloring fades. He steals away the rich voice of a prima donna by whose power and sweetness the world was uplifted and rejoiced. He cramps the flexible fingers of the musician and no more the ravishing strains are heard. He leads captive the devoted statesman to whom a distracted people are anxiously looking for direction. He stalks over a mighty nation and only the record of history remains. But what strange scene is this ? I see a scholar bending over to examine a yellow crumpled volume. With an indrawn sigh of pleasure he whispers—" Ah ! it is old, old." I see a cultured woman wave aside sparkling cut glass and fragile painted china, and picking out a bit of rude discolored ware she exclaims, " Oh, give me this." I see a romping boy eagerly grasp a ragged stamp or black-ened coin. He tosses his cap in thj air and shouts—" Whew this is old." I see a traveller turn his indifferent glance from the most magnificent, the most beautiful of modern architectural achieve-ments and with face lit up with admiration, almost reverence, feast his eyes upon the crumbling columns of the Parthenon or the gloomy walls of a mediaeval castle. I see one turn from the blooming freshness of childhood to the silver hair and lined face of age, as though he had dis-covered some rarer beauty there. - - THE MERCURY. I65 V-Why should we thus stoop to kiss the hand that smites us? Go, ask the scnolar and he will lead you back to the age when men first conceived the idea of transmitting their thoughts by laboriously hewing a few symbols out ot solid rock. Cen-turies pass by until the alphabet appears and slowly, fitfully, at the cost of inconceivable labor, and often personal danger, our great treasury of thought was added to. Now it is the immortal Epics of Homer, now the philosophy for which Socrates willingly forfeited his life. Here and there are scat-tered the works of a Shakespeare, Milton, Hegel, Bacon, and the scholar in gratitude exclaims: "These are my jewels, the gift of Father Time." Ask the scientist and he will place in your hand a clod of earth or lump of coal; then leading you through the once dark avenue of scientific research, with its many windings and stumbling blocks, will turn on one by one, the many illumina-ting theories, and laws by which the by-ways of medicine, mathematics, chemistry and astronomy, have been lit up by that master-workman Time. Ask the musician and he will tell you of the rude ancient lyres which were played by the wind blowing over the strings ; or of the Grecian pipes, having but two or three stops. Then he will place you in a dimly lighted cathedral while a mighty organ peals forth a Handel's Largo, or a full orchestra, one of Beethoven's Symphonies or a single violin—a melody of Reu-benstines. Ask the patriot and he will show you a brave pioneer hew-ing his way through the limitless forest, fighting savages, de-prived of every comfort. He will show you a brave little com-pany of men boldly signing their name to what semed virtu, ally their own death warrant. He will show you a Valley Forge and a Gettysburg. He will show you a country which is regarded as the Paradise of the World. Ask the little child and he will clap his hands and lead you into an enchanted land, peopled with elves and fairies—with Santa Claus, with giants, mermaids, and Grecian heroes. Ask the aged man and he will lay before you memory's book from which the kindly hand of Time has erased all small- j66 THE MERCURV. nesses and disfiguring blots ; and upon the last page you will find inscribed not " Finis," but the expression of the " great conception in which the belief in the human race and its des-tines triumphantly asserts itself"—continued through eternity. UP HIGHER. Every time you miss or fail, Start in on a higher scale, Let each tear, and sigh and moan, Only be a stepping stone ; Let each dark experience Point you to an eminence Up higher. Every stab that racks your heart, Fits you for a stronger part, Every stunning blow of pain, Lifts you to a broader plane. Every foe that can appear, Trains you for a larger sphere Up Higher. Never pause, and ne'er look back O'er the fast-receding track. There's a ghost there, grim and gaunt— IVhat's ahead is what you want. Turn; and you will stand aghast: Never search the bitter past, Look higher ! From each crushing blow of pain, Rise and go ahead again. Though your days fly swiftly past, Push to conquer to the last. Upward yet, and upward ever ; Onward still, and backward never ! Even when you hear the sound Of Death's whisper iook beyond, Up higher. —Joseph Bert Smiley THE MERCURY. l67 V-CONSCIENCE AND SUPERSTITION. D. L. BAKER, '08. conscience and Superstition—what relation can exist be-tween them ? A by no means readily seen one. It is only when we consider each in relation with a third, that their intimacy makes itself apparent. This third factor shall be Religion. Now every known religion sets forth certain staple rules for right living ; none but strives at a certain ethical standard; all hold out a certain reward, present or beyond, for faithful con-formance with its own particular doctrines and precepts. By even a mere passing analysis of the fundamental tenets of varied religion there may be readily discovered a startling con-flict in ethical ideals. Conscience is that peculiar essence which by common con-sent is credited with the office of approval and censure passed upon the actions of self. A violation of moral or ethical law is supposed to entail an unpleasant activity on the part of the conscience bearing a close resemblance and relation to remorse. Strange to say when we refer to the activities of conscience, it is almost always censure we note and rarely approval. Are we then to conclude that conscience is a threatening scourge, a lurking nemesis awaiting some unprotected Sin to pounce upon ? It is when we assume this attitude and then rake them, the infinite fields of superstition, that we are struck by a startling parallelism. As to-day the dreaded cellar fiends and garret spooks invariably lie in wait for the unruly youngster, so throughout the history of mythology it is the evil ones on whom the scourges of fiends and the terror of the Furies fell. Superstition is apparently as inherent in man as conscience itself. The most intelligent of us feel its icy fingers clutch our throats at certain limes—and those times—usually when our consciences are not easy. We perform a misdeed—the natural and legitimate result to expect, is punishment. The sin or crime may have been a secret one ; we know it was unwitnessed —yet racial habit is so over-ruling that we nevertheless expect punishment; intuitively, expect it. In such case, intelligence 168 THE MERCURY. or rather consciousness strives to justify and clothe intuition. Then there is nothing to fear from the human will; if fear con-tinues it must be of the superhuman. At night, when darkness hides danger, the hereditary ani-mal in us fears the lurking creatures of the dark pre-historic beasts of prey—but intelligence denies their existence. The animal fear triumphs and the mind creates a thousand super-stitious horrors to justify it. Any uneasy conscience multi-plies them a thousandfold, e. g., Fields' juvenile poem—"See-ing Things at Night," and Riley's, " Little Orphant Annie." Shall we then say, superstitious fear is merely a modified fear of retribution supernaturally administered because of absence of human agents ? We can say the same of conscience. Dare we then say conscience and superstition are merely dif-ferent manifestations of fear of punishment? If so, how can we explain that individuals of low intelligence are most susceptible to superstition and most callous in con-science ? Can we then define conscience as a source of super-stition ? Here we find ourselves in deep water—very deep ; conscience is supposed to set the standard for absolute right. If so, how can we explain the antagonism in religious dogmas cited in the beginning of this discussion? It seems then as though conscience was dependent on re-ligion. But every religion is burdened by a large amount of superstition, which superstition seems to exert a stimulus on conscience. Which shall we say—conscience is the product of superstition—or superstition, the product of conscience ? The revelation is undoubtedly close, closer in fact than we like or dare to admit. THE MERCURY. 109 CO-OPERATIVE COLLEGE GOVERNMENT. '08. BY cooperative college government we mean the uniting of the faculty with the student body, and the two operating jointly to promote the same end. We do not wish to make an attack on the present form of government with any malice whatever; but having been on trial before the faculty, and several times called into the Presi-dent's office, in company with a body of representative men, to consider questions relative to college government, we feel that a frank expression of our views will not be mistaken. Knowing the sentiments of many of our Alumni and that of the entire student body we are truly convinced that the present form of government is unsatisfactory, and believe that some form of cooperative government would meet with hearty approval. The predominating dissatisfaction with our present form of government is that our faculty do hot stand in close enough relation with the students, to readily understand each indi-vidual and thus are unable to correct his faults while they are yet in bud. Under the present form of government the will of the faculty is absolute. In this one body are vested the Legislative, the the Judicial and the Executive powers. The students are mute as far as government is concerned. The student upon entering the institution is handed a copy of the rules and regulations. He reads them and lays them aside. Soon he has forgotten their contents and violates a minor clause, soon another and then another till he has broken many, and it has now become a habit with him. Suddenly he is notified by the Proctor to appear before the faculty to give an account of himself. All available evidence has been collected by the faculty beforehand and he is asked to make his defense. Occasionally it so hap-pens that he cannot satisfy the faculty as to his innocence and he is given a period of suspension or expulsion, If at the outstart of his transgressions he had been visited by a com-mittee and cautioned as to his conduct, probably he would have avoided this humilation. 170 THE MERCURY. We do not believe that it would be wise to put all power of government into the hands of the students, but we believe they should be given some power. Where could be found a more fitting place for teaching the lessons of citizenship than in the govermental affairs of a college ? Our students have demonstrated that they are capable of taking up the various activities of college life and of hand-ling them successfully. We have our athletic council. In that council are representatives from every class. Why couldn't cooperative college government be run on the same plan ? The Faculty or Trustees electing their members, and each class electing theirs, this body being given full legislative power. Then a committee of students appointed by this couucil to educate the new men with the legislation, this same committee to watch a young man after he had been reported by some student for neglect or misconduct. Then if he persists in his efforts, cautioned, and then if he heeds not, brought before the com-mittee and then if they find him incorrigible, reported to the faculty, who finding out all the facts in the case take definite action. With a system of this kind, we think the faculty would be relieved of much of its burdensome care, and that all hazing and " rough housing " would be eliminated ; for those most annoyed, certainly would report to the committee and this committee being a body of honorable men could do nothing other than deal justice. Also a greater college spirit would be created, for no man would be permitted to become boorish in his manner, and each would know that part of the welfare of the college rested upon him the same as the true citizen knows that part of the nation's welfare rests upon him. When we get a system of college government such as this, then College Spirit will be a kin to Patriotism. THE MERCURY. 171 STUDENT AND COLLEGE LIFE—A LIFE LONG RELATION. ROY E. SMITH, '08. EVER since the custom of having a particular sight, dedi. cated to the instruction of those wishing to become more fully acquainted with the higher learning in science, philosophy, rhetoric and all departments of knowledge, was instituted; since certain ancients, renowned in their knowledge of certain arts, had their "schools" of followers, there has been a relation preserved between master and pupil; between their alma-mater and themselves, rivaling the ties of home and kindred and ever remembered as one of the dearest of their lives. What is this relation which binds with bonds of affection so strong that they last for a life time ? Why is it that we cling to one and repudiate the other ? ' It is the old story of affection through association. Since the beginning of time men have regarded with affection and left with regret things which may have seemed despicable to them at first. The thief does not follow his craft for love of it when he first takes it up, but later he glories in narrow es-capes and gloats over a successful raid. So it is with our college life. We, in time, become a part of our surroundings and when the time comes for our graduation, or when we must of necessity leave, it is with a pang of regret as if we were losing something that held a peculiarly warm spot in our hearts. And we are. For what is like the friendships formed be-tween instructors and those whom they teach ? What besides home affections, can rival those formed with our fellow stu-dents? Those who, having passed through their college life, are struggling with the difficult problems presented to them by the world can best answer these questions. How often do they live over again the good old days when they were Fresh-men ? They can again hear the soft knock at their door and feel over again their sensations of wonder, and then of terror, as they see man after man enter to demand entertainment. Then they thought that something like shame and humility 172 THE MERCURY. crept in as they rowed an imaginary boat in a veritable tem-pest for an imaginary shore, or gave extemporaneous speeches on subjects suggested by the audience. But no touch of bit-terness entered in now. Those things which appeared inde-corous then served only to stamp more vividly in their minds the wonderfnl good-fellowship which underlay all their gruff manners. They even wondered how they escaped getting it harder. Then they would think of their first admittance, involun-tarily and unwished for, let it be said, into the presence of the faculty; and of their mingled feelings as they were told that it was for the good of the College, generally, that they keep out of all scrapes or else go home. Truly these roses, albeit with their thorns, appear sweet and the thorns, as well as the roses, help to bind one more closely to his undergraduate life and also to his Alma Mater. Can we ever forget our undergraduate days ? As well forget the home of our childhood, or the love of a faithful friend ! A TOURNAMENT. LEVERING TYSON, '09. IN the central part of Germany, situated along the banks of the Rhine, and overlooking its surface, stood the stern fore-boding castle of Prince Vonholm. This imposing structure had been the residence of the Vonholm's for many centuries, and the aged, ivy grown walls had long since begun to crumble. The Prince and his family moved into the lowlands, shutting up the habitable part of the ancestral home, seeking the pleas-ures of court life and the education of his children. The Princes' one care was his son Richard. He was a stocky, medium-sized young fellow, muscular and especially well suited for the tournament, the principle source of amusement to the aristocrats of that day. It so happened that Sir Henry Dismusch, a favorite of the king, also had a son about Roger Vonholm's age. He was skilled in all manner of war-like exercises and held the office of head 'squire in the king's retinue. This he acquired by his strict attention to af- THE MERCURY. 173 fairs of the court and also by the aid of his father who, next to Prince Vonholm, was considered the best knight in all the country round about. While Henry Dismusch, Jr., was coursing with his father with blunt spears, Roger Vonholm would take his horse and game bag and would ride off into the woods, leaving the mes-sage that he was going hunting. This he continued to do for two years. Every evening he would come home, completely, tired out with his exertions, but with empty game bag; Yet he was as cheerful as any one in good health could possibly be. His mother was busy tending to Court affairs and his father was off to the war, so Roger's only companion was a middle aged soldier whom the Prince always left at home while he was away on his travels to guard his family. This soldier was the constant companion of Roger and was always by his side on his journeys through the woods; so the Princess Vonholm was not greatly alarmed about the safety of her son. Near the summer residence of the Vonholm's were the huge lists of Crancy. The arena was oval-shaped, six hundred feet long and about four hundred wide. Around this was a circular enclosure about twelve feet wide for the attendants, clerks of the course, and the heralds. This was to be the scene of one of the most interesting tournaments held within many miles of the castle. The young Squire Henry Dismusch was going to defend his title as head squire against all comers. Only young men under twenty years of age were eligible to compete for the honor. A contest of this kind had never been held in the Crancy lists, and the people of the surrounding country did all in their power to please their sovereign by their atten-dance. The all important day dawned fair and cloudless. Before it was time to commence the contest, every available seat in the huge amphitheatre was occupied, and still huge crowds surged through the entrances. Sir Dismusch and his family were seated near the king, awaiting with confidence the combats which meant so much to them. Prince Vonholm sat next to the king watching the surges of humanity for his son, who, for ,^,'^WuH'iti u 174 THE MERCURY. some reason or other, was delayed and could not accompany his father to the lists. At last the Prince turned his attention to the games, as the heralds had announced the preliminary contests. They were well waged but of little interest to the king and his court. These were awaiting anxiously the challenge fight for head 'squireship. The heralds had no sooner announced the proclamation of the knight defender, than a trumpet blast sounded from the far end of the lists, and there entered the arena a knight clad all in sable armor with a white cross upon his shield and a leopard rampant upon his helmet, accompanied by a knight clad all in crimson armor, a gold cross upon his shield and a double eagle on his helmet. The sable knight came forward to the centre of the lists, and raising the visor of his helmet, showed himself to be, King Howard, the brother of the king, the ruler of the neighboring kingdom. He acted as voucher for the knight challenger, saying that he wished to keep his identity unknown until after the contest. The heralds then sounded their trumpets for the contest to start. Various preliminaries were gone through, until at last the knight in crimson armor stood stock still at the northern end of the lists and the knight defendant, at the opposite station. The unknown knight was armed with a sword, mace, and dagger, and rode a huge black charger. His opponent be-strode a milk white steed and his armor was entirely white. He carried a mace hung at his saddle bow, and besides his dagger also carried^a kind of truncheon, a cross between a sword and one of the huge coursing spears generally used in tourna-ments. This last weapon was just becoming popular with the younger knights and 'squires, and Henry Dismusch had also adopted it. It could be convenien-tly wielded on horseback and was not as bulky as the spear. At the blast of the herald's trumpet, both men dug the spurs into the flanks of the horses and thundered down the lists nearer and nearer to each other. With the noise like a clap of thunder the two chargers met and recoiled, each rider doing his best to unseat the other. After the first recoil, the knights m THE MERCURY. 175 fought fiercely hand to hand. The horse of the unknown knight was unruly and the spectators could see that his actions were greatly retarding the strokes of his rider. The combat clashed on. The knight challenger was charging to meet the attack of the knight defendant, when his horse suddenly reared and received the point of the truncheon in his side. Giving a snort, he jumped forward, unseating his rider and falling heavily to the earth a short distance away, dragging the un-known knight with him in his fall. Then the knight defender seeing the knight challenger at his mercy rode over to him to end the contest. Riding his horse beside his fallen opponent, he thrust at him with his truncheon. The knight on the ground was powerless to rise, as the weight of his armor was too great for him. He knew death was imminent and waited for the finishing stroke. When the blow from the truncheon fell he seized the truncheon above the head and held. Had the knight chalen-ger just let go of the handle or stopped his steed, he would have conquered the fallen knight easily. The horse sprang forward and the very stroke that should have ended the knight's career was the means of saving him. He was dragged along the ground for a short distance and then managed to seize his opponent's stirrup. With this aid, he managed to seize the mace hanging to the saddle bow; and tearing it from its fas-tenings, with a mighty blow struck the knight challenger full in the neck and hurled him completely from the saddle. The clerks of the course declared the contest won by the knight challenger F.nd ran up just in time to catch him as he fell from exhaustion. A mighty shout arose when the result of the contest was seen ; but this changed to a roar, when the victor's name was declared by the herald. The surprise and wonder were universal and the amazement of the king was great, but none were more surprised or dumbfounded than Prince Von-holm ; for the name of the victor, which the herald announced, was " Richard Vonholm, this day rightlead squire to his Majesty, King Frederick." M tt,.»:\i,.'iii u THE MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter VOL. XIV GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1906 No. 6 Associate Editors GEO. W. KESSI.BR, '08 J. K. ROBB, '08 EDMUND L. MANGES, '08 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Editor-in-chief WARD B. S. RICE, '07 Exchange Editor THOS. E. SHEARER, '07 Business Manager THOMAS A. FAUST, '07 AssH Bus. Managers. HENRY M. BOWER, '08 H. WATSON DAVISON, '08 Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. POETRY. W e will acknowledge that some persons are more poetic in their thoughts than others, yet we believe that there are a larger number who could write poetry worth reading, if they would make the attempt. There is more of the mechanical in writing poetry than appears on the surface. In reading a poem we are so affected with the loftiness ot thought or the elegance of style that we do not think of the ground work or THE MERCURY. 177 plan by which it was effected. Poetry is not idle rhyme but a well developed plan, the discription of a beautiful thought. We notice a great difference between poetry and prose, both in style and effect. This distinction is difficult to describe; just as the metallic lustre, of a mineral, we know it is a prop-erty but can not thoroughly define it." We notice that poetry is more ornate; it is crowded with thought and beauty ; it pierces the very soul. For example take the quotation from Bell: " Rich were the sable robes she wore." This is animat-ing and suggestive ; but suppress the emphasis by a rearrange-ment of the words : " She wore rich sable robes." You now notice how flattered, how less attractive it is. Often too, rhyme lends charm to the poem, though not necssarily so, as some of the best are written in blank verse. The requisites for writing worthy poetry are out of the ordinary, but by no means unat-tainable. Furthermore we must not think that our work has been a failure because it does not measure up to the master-pieces, which are often the work of genius or years of exper-ience. THE READING One of the most important advantages afforded ROOMS. the students by the college authorities is the reading rooms and the provision for the management of the same. It is there that we have placed before us the daily news-papers, the weekly and monthly magazines. In them we have news of all kinds ; the daily occurrences and happenings, the papers depicting the sportive side of life, and the magazines which contain the latest discussions, from different points of view, by men who are leaders and thinkers. We are obliged to search the pages of history for the past, but we only have to open our eyes to see the present as it is being acted before us. It is surprising to note the small number who really take advantage of this great opportunity, and to see the large number of magazines on the shelves during the open hours. Many confine most of their time to the athletic news and the papers of jest. We do not condemn a certain amount of this kind of reading-but are obliged to do so when it is engaged in to a i78 THE MERCURY. fault. Our ignorance of the times places us at a decided dis-advantage especially in college life. We are unable to handle impromptu speaking ; we will find ourselves lacking in material for -debate, and are at a loss as to what to write on an essay subject, if we have not read an thus formed some opinion and conclusion of our own. Let us form a conclusion of our own, for what we have read is only an opinion and one of the pos-sible attitudes to the subject. By reading we become ac-quainted with the facts from which we are able to draw our conclusion. A short time each day spent in the reading rooms is not only the privilege but the duty of every one who is seek-ing a thorough college training. M The question ot literary societies is an old LITERARY SOCIETIES. Qne^ but js of such jmportance that it can not be emphasized to often. There seems to be somewhat of a renewal of the literary spirit this year; the weekly meetings show a larger attendance and a new enthusiasm in the work. This is to be highly commended ; for we can not say too much of the influence which this kind of work has upon those who actively engage in it. It seems to broaden a man in every way ; he learns to think and talk before audiences without pre-vious preparation; it is a good help in training one to express his thoughts clearly and concisely; one is soon aware of a cer-tain ease with which he recites his lessons; there is even noti-ceable more freedom in ordinary conversation. Over one half of the first term has passed. Have you joined one of the so-cieties ? If you have not done so, do it at once. Either one of them will amply repay you for the time spent in it. How-ever we do not wish to be understood to say that your name upon the roll or even your presence at the meetings will bene-fit you ; those facts only give you the opportunity; you must do the rest. For a time it may be burdensome for you to take part in the program, but through constant effort it will soon be-come a pleasure. We assure you that if you join with a de-termination to work, and make service your motto, success will be yours. THE MERCURY. 179 EXCHANGES. There are many excellent points about the exchanges this month, among which is an article in The Dickinsonian written by an alumnus, " Preparing a Debate." The writer is an ex-perienced and successful debatorand consequently the methods which he sets forth should not be passed over lightly by those who are desirous of becoming good debators. Only a few of the points can be reproduced here. " A debate is not won alone by the brilliant work done upon the platform, but is largely won in the laborious and silent days of preparation. It is then that they construct their line of defense and obtain the undeniable facts upon which they are to erect their fortress of argument. * * * * Again a whole volume of argument must be contracted into a ten minute thunderbolt, and victory usually rests with the men who can make the most of that fleeting ten minutes. This work requires ability and carelul thought. * * * * We collected all of the arguments, pro and con, and discussed them. Our next move was to construct as strong a brief as we possibly could of our opponents' case. This is well as it forces one to build his own case with a thorough understand-ing of the opposition, and he therefore puts a truer valuation on the worth of the arguments which enter into his brief of debate. After this was done we began the construction of our own cose. * * * * We took up every possible argu-ment for our opponents and carefully prepared an answer to each point which we thought they might present. Do not de-pend on constructing answers on your feet, from your general knowledge of the subject, but be prepared with facts, skill-fully marshalled, under whose fire their arguments will be swept away. In addition to this we endeavored to anticipate the possible answers which our opponents would make to our own arguments and to construct counter rebuttals." In addi-tion to all this, physical training is necessary ; for " nothing so requires vigor and thorough command of one's nerves as a debate contest; " so this debator trained just like an athlete. He was careful of his eating hours and of what he ate; he avoided pastry and most desserts; he took an extra amount of i8o THE MERCURY. light exercise in the open air, and took plenty of sleep—never buring the midnight oil. So when the night of debate came he was in the best possible condition both mentally and phy-sically. His success has given ample proof of the efficiency of his methods. " Extinction of The American Indian " in The Drury Mirror is one of those articles, often met with, which seem to be products of over-heated brains, or diseased imaginations. Do you think that it was after a calm, deliberate and just in-vestigation of the facts that the following was written ? " Call not this result barbarism succumbing to civilization ; call it not the survival of the fittest; call it rather the result of hypo-critical intrigue, of broken agreements. Let us lay the charge of this terrible obliteration at the doors of our own character. Avaricious, we mercilessly seized the Indian's lands; domi-neering, we overrode the rights of the Redman and disre-regarded our duty to him ; impatient, we refused the savage time and opportunity to accustom himself to the great change civilization brought; non-assimilative, we said, " the only good Indian was a dead one." * * * * And now! The last chapter has been written ; "congress, the vote-seeking, hold-out-your- had-for money congress, although breaking treaties and agreements, although shattering the sacred ho^e of the terri-tory Indians for separate statehood, has done the thing most feared and dreaded—brought Indian Territory and Oklahoma into the Union as one state, under the name Oklahoma." We are glad to acknowledge receipt of the following ex-changes : Otterbein Aegis, The Haverfordian, Western Mary-land Monthly, The Oivl, The Philomathean Monthly, The Col-lege Student, The Drnry Mirror, The Augsburg S. S. Teacher, The Mountaineer, The Dickinsonian, The State Collegian, The Forum, The Crimson and White, The Albright Bulletin, The Argus, The Youth's Companion, The Siisquehanna, The Jitniatd Echo, 'The Amulet, The Manitou Messenger, The Hartivick Seminary Monthly, The Augustana Observer, The High School News, (Lancaster), The Viatorian, and The Midland. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISER'S FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. H. IB. IBend-er 37 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. The Windsor Hotel 1217=2 Filbert St., Philadelphia. Headquarters for Students. Thoroughly Renovated, Refurnished and Remodeled FRANK M. SCHEIBLEY, Manager. ^Graduate of Lafayette College 1898. A* G. Spalding & Bros. Largest Manufacturers in the World of Official Athletic Supplies Base Ball Lawn Tennis Foot Ball Archery Roque Quoits Cricket Lacrosse Golf Implements for all Sports Spalding's Official Base Ball Guide for 1906. Edited by Henry Chadwick. The most complete and up-to-date book ever published oh the subject. Fully illustrated. Price 10 Cents. Spalding's Official League Ball is the adopted ball of the National League, and must be used in all match games. Every requisite for Lawn Ten-nis and Golf. For over a quarter of a century Spalding's Trade-Mark on Base Ball implements has marked the advancement in this particular sport. Spalding's Trade Mark on our Athletic Implement gives you an advantage over the other player as you have a better article, lasts longer, gives more satisfaction. Every Base Ball Manager should send at oncefor a copy of Spalding's Spring and Sun:' mer Catalogue—FREE. A. G. SPALDING «S BROS. New York, Chicago, Boston, Buffalo, Washington, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Kansas City, Montreal, Canada, New Orleans, London. England, Denver, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Syracuse, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Baltimore, Hamburg, Germany PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. 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