The very name of this journal, Frontiers in Education, begs the questions of where the "frontiers" should be at present in education research, and how we can ensure that breakthroughs at these frontiers be rapidly put into practice. In this context, this short opinion article argues that in order to answer these two questions adequately, we, educators, should stop zeroing in on the content or skills we want students to have acquired right at the end of a cycle of studies, be it elementary, high school, or university. Instead, we should not be afraid to ask people who are many years, even decades, past formal education what they think we should focus on, where our teaching can be most effective. My own experience with two eye-opening events suggests that from this lifelong perspective, teaching activities that are likely to be most influential over the course of a person's life do not necessarily follow traditional formats. In terms of facilitating implementation of innovative teaching activities, since it seems very arduous to convince schools to add anything to already overloaded curricula, perhaps this is not where we should concentrate our efforts. I argue that the easiest way to implement change may be to first demonstrate practically to future teachers, enrolled in teacher education programs, that even brief learning activities can have enormous merit. Input from the "real world"If one considers that the objective of high-school and university education is to eventually equip students, at the age of 22 or 23, with the "body of knowledge" and skills that are relevant in their field of specialty, then the frontier one needs to consider in research encompasses all the novel approaches currently under development to better achieve this specific objective. Alternatively, one might adopt the perspective that what happens at the end of undergraduate studies is not necessarily that meaningful, given the fact that graduates will generally work for 42 or 43 years afterwards, change jobs a number of times, and end up doing things for which the content and skills acquired during their undergraduate studies may not be relevant at all. In that lifelong context, one could assume that the "frontier" on which our research in education should focus relates to novel activities that would prepare individuals for the constantly changing landscape that they will face all along their life, including, but not exclusively, during their professional career. One way to get ideas about novel teaching activities we should develop in that latter context consists of simply asking individuals who were in school or at the university 20, 30, or even 40 years ago, to identify the part of their education, taken broadly, that was most valuable to them. The idea is not entirely new, of course, since it was adopted 60 years ago already in the pioneering work of Bertrand Schwartz, in preparation for his landmark reform of the School of Mines in Nancy (France) during the late 1950s (Lambrichs, 2009). Nevertheless, given the strong emphasis in education research on psychometric tests and the application of statistical methods to surveys of large cohorts, a perspective centered on individuals' opinions is likely to be criticized as "anecdotalist", potentially biased, and not sufficiently rigorous. Fortunately, it is not necessary to simply rely on individuals' perceptions, which may indeed be occasionally off if questions are not asked appropriately. Over the last few decades, various educational theorists (e.g., Dominicé, 2000; Dhunpath and Samuel, 2009) have proposed and perfected several techniques to indirectly derive meaningful information about the education of individuals by carefully analyzing biographical stories they may have written. Perhaps, as in the field of self-directed learning (Baveye, 2003), this "life history" approach could help us establish on a firm foundation the expanding frontier(s) in education. This message is clearly conveyed by Goodson and Gill (2014), who argue that "life narratives" can help educators shift from a disenfranchised tradition to one of empowerment.Of course, clearly, this incorporation of the experience of people "in the real world" into school and university curricula needs to be carried out cautiously. It would not be appropriate for economic and competitive interests of groups outside the school community to sway the educational process in a direction that is not ultimately in the best interest of students. One also needs to be careful not to disenfranchise teachers or weaken their agency and collaboration. Because they are intimately involved in the educational process, any discussion about its evolution in the future absolutely needs to involve them directly. Anyway, in this context of input "from the real world", the question of which activities were most influential in my education has intrigued me a lot over the last two or three decades. Clearly, the answer is not to be found in the formal lectures I attended, since I promptly forgot just about everything I learned from them, except in a few rare instances where I had a strong prior motivation to learn the material, on my own if need be. Even in these few cases, most of the content and skills I learned back then turned out to be obsolete after a decade, and had little influence on my later career in science. Careful reflection suggests that by far the most significant learning experiences of my entire schooling were associated with two very short, active learning events, which perhaps paradoxically, had nothing at all to do with the training I got at the university.Short teachable moments…The first of these two influential events took place when I was 17, in 1974, many years before Internet or Facebook existed. One of the teachers in my junior year in high school asked our class to attend a politically-motivated street demonstration held during the week end in the nearest big city. The protest was against an exhibition that was organized to promote tourism in a foreign country, which at that time was under a brutal dictatorship. Many non-governmental organizations and citizens' groups were staunchly opposed to the exhibition. The experience of attending the peaceful demonstration, among a crowd we estimated to be around 250,000 to 300,000 people, was eye-opening in itself, but what made it unique was what happened in school the following Monday. In the early morning, the teacher had purchased all the local newspapers he could find. He assigned us to read and analyze the different accounts these newspapers provided of the street demonstration. Whereas left-leaning newspapers reported that upwards of 500,000 people had marched peacefully through the streets, right-wing journals described the demonstration as a small gathering of merely 50,000 people, and commented incorrectly that some of them had become violent. Several newspapers did not report the protest at all. Meanwhile, the police account of the demonstration mentioned an intermediate number of approximately 200,000 people. After less than an hour of reviewing the different articles, many of us admitted in the ensuing discussion that we were stunned by what we had found. Even though nowadays "alternate facts" have become common place, at the time none of us anticipated disparities to be so blatant between different newspapers. In hindsight, I feel that in one hour of hands-on, discovery-based exposure to a variety of perspectives on the same event, I learned more about the need for a critical analysis of texts, and for a proper account of the socio-economic and historical context in which texts are written, than in any of the formal courses I took on the subject later on in college. Undoubtedly, my upbringing in a family of intellectuals made me particularly receptive to this kind of teachable moment, and individuals reared in very different environments may not as fertile ground as I was, but the fact is that I have never looked at the written word after this single exercise as I did before, nor for that matter at anything that lecturers would talk about in the courses I took afterwards (some of which turned out after a little scrutiny to deliver information that was obsolete or even erroneous). The second event occurred during the Summer just before I started attending the university. My high school had made it possible for a group of students to help with development activities in what was still commonly referred to at the time as the "Third World". Specifically, we were supposed to help missionaries in Rwanda with various practical, mostly agricultural, projects. In the evenings, in the tiny village where we were staying, there was very little to do, except play card- and board games. A favorite activity of the missionaries was to play Scrabble. On one of the first nights I was there, we started a game with them, and basically I played the way my mother had shown me, to try to win by placing words that would earn me more points than what the other players could do with their letters. After a couple of moves, the missionaries stopped the game and told me that this was not how they played it at all. They proceeded to show me how each of them was trying to place words in such a way that all players together would eventually make the most points possible. So instead of proudly putting "taxes" in one move, someone would only put down "ax", then another would add a "t", to obtain "tax", then a third could make it "taxes", and finally, someone could add "sur" to come up with "surtaxes". All in all, that means that the points of the very valuable letter "x" would count five times instead of one, increasing the combined score of all the players at the end of the game. The details of the Scrabble strategy do not matter that much, but what was really a revelation in what the missionaries showed me is that rules can easily be changed to maximize the benefits, in this case the enjoyment, for all involved. The original rules of Scrabble require individual competition among players, and they invariably lead to one player being happy at the end while all the others are less so, to put it mildly. The lesson I got was that it is easy to transform the game into something that is eminently collaborative, such that everyone feels pretty much the same way at the end, depending on how well the group did. As a result, what could be a divisive pastime, especially if one of the players happens to be unreasonably competitive, becomes an activity that strengthens the cohesion of the group and enhances team spirit.Long-lasting lessons learned…Over the years, during my subsequent career as a researcher, I have had many occasions to reminisce about these two events. The older I get, the more I realize how extremely significant they were in my education, overshadowing many other aspects of it. As short as it was, the newspapers-related activity singlehandedly shaped my attitude toward the written word. Every single time I now read an article or a book, I remember the fateful Monday when my classmates and I compared multiple newspaper clippings. As a result, I never take any text (or, for that matter, lecture notes) for granted any more, and I am compelled to systematically look for alternative perspectives on the same topics before I formulate my own opinion. This critical attitude toward texts has played a key role in my work, as it has stimulated me not only to keep learning efficiently on my own, as a self-directed learner, from a variety of sources, but also to try to foster self-directed learning in my students (Baveye, 1994). This capacity is particularly crucial in fields in which phenomenal technological breakthroughs occur at very regular intervals, and the need to renew one's knowledge base is constant.
Convergence of scientific and artistic language in the interpretation of the unknown natural reality Marina Iorio Istituto di Scienze Marine Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISMAR-CNR) marina.iorio@cnr.it The scenic transcoding of virtual scientific realities, invisible to the human eye (for example the morphology of the ocean floor or the discovery of buried geothermal reservoirs) through the search for new artistic and aesthetic forms in the performative thought and in the field work of Marina Iorio: ten years of dialogue with an extra-scientific audience. Science Art, Virtual images, Digital Art, Abstract Art, Oceans Transpositions of languages Ékphrasis, or a transcoding experiment The Observation Wheel Lorena Grigoletto Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli lorigrigoletto@gmail.com The purpose of this essay is to examine the process of transcoding by which certain philosophical concepts have been translated into the characters of my fairy tale The Observation Wheel. This fairy tale is about a giant merry-go-round to which a motor is added and which, as a result, undergoes such an acceleration that its perceptual capacity is profoundly transformed, as well as its ability to know itself and others. In the introductory essay, I comment on the relationship between philosophy and fairy tales, on the rhythmic character of this literary genre, and on the concepts on which my own fairy tale is built, namely temporality, technologization, acceleration, alienation, and death. However, given that the essay is written in a phase subsequent to the creation of the tale, it carries out a double movement, namely the representation of the experience of transcoding concepts towards the specific characters and structure of the tale and, at the same time, from these towards the recovery, of the same concepts through a mnemonic operation, which is therefore necessarily retroactive and deformative, revealing the essential ekphrastic nature of the thought processes. Ekphrasis, Fairy Tale, Philosophy, Rhythm, Acceleration. A Dialog about Passions: Malebranche and Gaetani Alessandro Stile Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) stile@unina.it In this virtual interview between Nicolas Malebranche ad Niccolò Gaetani dell'Aquila d'Aragona, the philosophers discuss the theme of Passions, and the answer they give to the interviewer's questions faithfully reproduce the texts of the two authors. Interview, virtual dialogue, stoicism, pleasure, virtue Rebellion and recognition Albert Camus Fiorinda Li Vigni Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici fiorinda.livigni@gmail.com Le premier homme, the posthumous novel by Albert Camus, offers the key to the whole of the writer's work and to his sensitivity. It is linked to the first notes of the Cahiers (1935) and to the writings collected in the book L'envers et l'endroit (1937), where the nostalgia for a lost poverty and the image of a silent mother come to the fore. In the setting of the Algiers of his childhood, a world of light and freedom, Camus's choice to fight for the humiliated is outlined, without renouncing to beauty and admiration: the rebellion keeps men united in the name of a value that binds and transcends them. Poverty, World, History, Value, Solidarity Camus 2020 Working Notes Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Text of the melologue that closes the Trilogy on Recognition. The show has not yet been made due to the pandemic. In the work, the Author presents a critical analysis of the absurd in Albert Camus in the form of reading notes. Absurd, Music, Theater, Commitment, Politics L'Infinito by Leopardi melologue for thre reciting voices, viola and cello Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com The Author presents an experiment of linguistic transposition between poetry and music. Leopardi's famous poem, L'Infinito, and some thematically related fragments from Zibaldone become the text of a melologue in which the poetic text interacts with the sound and helps to indicate the principles of musical composition. Dissemination, Composition, Restricted view, Atonality, Counterpoint _Imitation_ melologue for two reciting voices, viola, cello and recorded voice Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com The Author presents an experiment of linguistic transposition in which the structure, the pitches of the sounds and the compositional techniques of the melologue are obtained with the title and content of a poem by Giacomo Leopardi, Imitation, inspired by a composition by a French poet Antoine-Vincent Arnault, Le Feuille [The leaf]. Dissemination, Transposition, Composition, Giacomo Leopardi, Antoine-Vincent Arnault The Intermediality between Writing and Music About a Recent Book Rossella Gaglione Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli rossellagaglione@hotmail.com The paper aims to highlight some themes from a recent book by Franco Gallo and Paolo Zignani, Nietzsche e Schumann. Musica, scrittura, forma e creazione, about the relationship between Schumann's music and Nietzsche's thought. Within the interpretative horizon of the paradigm of intermediality, the writing first analyzes the compositional forms of both artists, gestures of breaking with respect to tradition. However, Schumann and Nietzsche are also the pretext to explore other foundational themes of the relationship between music and philosophy. Philosophy, Theorein, Praktein, Musical Composition Tribute to Stravinsky Fifty Years after his Death Benedetta Tramontano Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli bene_98@hotmail.it Four illustrations commissioned by RTH / PTH to Benedetta Tramontano and dedicated to Stravinskij for the fifty years of the composer's death. Theodor W. Adorno, The Rite of Spring, Sergej Pavlovič Djagilev, Composition, Poetics of music ; Convergenza del linguaggio scientifico e di quello artistico nell'interpretazione della realtà naturale ignota Marina Iorio Istituto di Scienze Marine Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISMAR-CNR) marina.iorio@cnr.it La transcodificazione scenica di realtà virtuali scientifiche invisibili all'occhio umano (per esempio la morfologia dei fondi oceanici o il ritrovamento di serbatoi geotermici sepolti) attraverso la ricerca di nuove forme artistiche ed estetiche nel pensiero performativo e nel lavoro sul campo di Marina Iorio: dieci anni di dialogo con un pubblico extrascientifico. Arte scientifica, Immagini virtuali, Arte digitale, Arte astratta, Oceani Trasposizioni di linguaggi Ékphrasis, ovvero un esperimento di transcodifica La ruota panoramica Lorena Grigoletto Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli lorigrigoletto@gmail.com Questo lavoro si propone di esplorare il processo di transcodifica attraverso cui determinati concetti filosofici sono stati tradotti nelle figure della mia fiaba La ruota panoramica, che narra di una gigantesca giostra animata cui viene implementato un motore e che, pertanto, subisce un'accelerazione tale da trasformare nel profondo tanto la sua capacità percettiva quanto la possibilità di riconoscere e di riconoscersi. Nel saggio introduttivo si riflette sulla relazione tra filosofia e fiaba, sul carattere ritmico di questo genere letterario, nonché sui concetti a partire dai quali la fiaba è stata costruita, ovvero temporalità, tecnologizzazione, accelerazione, alienazione, morte. Tuttavia, essendo stato scritto in una fase successiva alla creazione narrativa, il saggio realizza un doppio movimento, di presentazione dell'esperimento di transcodifica dai concetti alle figure e alla struttura specifiche della fiaba e, al tempo stesso, da queste al rinvenimento, attraverso un'operazione mnemonica, quindi necessariamente retroattiva e deformante, di quegli stessi concetti, rivelando la natura essenzialmente ékphrastica dei processi di pensiero. ékphrasis, Fiaba, Filosofia, Ritmo, Accelerazione Dialogo sulle Passioni: Malebranche e Gaetani Alessandro Stile Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) stile@unina.it In questa intervista virtuale tra Nicolas Malebranche e Niccolò Gaetani dell'Aquila d'Aragona, i due filosofi discutono sul tema delle passioni. Le risposte che danno all'intervistatore riproducono fedelmente i testi dei due Autori. Intervista, dialogo virtuale, stoicismo, piacere, virtù Rivolta e riconoscimento Albert Camus Fiorinda Li Vigni Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici fiorinda.livigni@gmail.com Le premier homme, il romanzo postumo di Albert Camus, offre la chiave del complesso dell'opera dello scrittore e fornisce la cifra della sua sensibilità. Esso si riallaccia alle prime note dei Cahiers (1935) e agli scritti raccolti nel volume L'envers et l'endroit (1937), dove a venire in primo piano sono la nostalgia per una povertà perduta e l'immagine di una madre silenziosa. Sullo sfondo dell'Algeri della sua infanzia, di un mondo di luce e di libertà, si delinea così la scelta di Camus di lottare per gli umiliati senza rinunciare alla bellezza e all'ammirazione, in una rivolta che tiene gli uomini uniti in nome di un valore che li lega e li trascende. Povertà, Mondo, Storia, Valore, Solidarietà Camus 2020 Note di lavoro Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Testo del melologo che chiude la Trilogia sul riconoscimento. Lo spettacolo non è stato ancora realizzato a causa della pandemia. Nel lavoro l'Autore presenta un'analisi critica dell'assurdo in Albert Camus nella forma di note di lettura. Assurdo, Filosofia, Musica, Teatro, Politica L'Infinito di Leopardi melologo per tre voci recitanti, viola e violoncello Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com L'Autore presenta un esperimento di trasposizione linguistica fra poesia e musica. La famosa poesia di Leopardi, L'Infinito, e alcuni frammenti tematicamente affini tratti dello Zibaldone diventano il testo di un melologo in cui il testo poetico interagisce con il suono e contribuisce a indicare i principi della composizione musicale. Disseminazione, Composizione, Veduta ristretta, Atonalità, Contrappunto _Imitazione_ melologo per due voci recitanti, viola, violoncello e voce registrata Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com L'Autore presenta un esperimento di trasposizione linguistica in cui si ricava l'intera struttura, le altezze dei suoni e le tecniche compositive del melologo dal titolo e del contenuto di una poesia di Giacomo Leopardi, Imitazione, ispirata a un componimento di un poeta francese Antoine-Vincent Arnault, Le Feuille [La foglia]. Disseminazione, Trasposizione, Composizione, Giacomo Leopardi, Antoine-Vincent Arnault L'intermedialità tra scrittura e musica A proposito di un recente libro Rossella Gaglione Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli rossellagaglione@hotmail.com Il lavoro ha lo scopo di rilevare alcuni temi che emergono da un recente libro di Franco Gallo e Paolo Zignani, Nietzsche e Schumann. Musica, scrittura, forma e creazione, a proposito della relazione tra la musica di Schumann e il pensiero di Nietzsche. All'interno dell'orizzonte interpretativo del paradigma dell'intermedialità, lo scritto analizza anzitutto le forme compositive di entrambi gli artisti, gesti di rottura rispetto alla tradizione. Schumann e Nietzsche sono però anche il pretesto per approfondire altri temi fondativi del rapporto tra musica e filosofia. Filosofia, Theorein, Praktein, Composizione musicale Omaggio a Stravinskij A cinquant'anni dalla morte Benedetta Tramontano Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli bene_98@hotmail.it Quattro illustrazioni commissionate dalla RTH/PTH a Benedetta Tramontano e dedicate a Stravinskij per i cinquant'anni della morte del compositore. Theodor W. Adorno, Sagra della primavera, Sergej Pavlovič Djagilev, Composizione, Poetica della musica
Thank you Chairman I would like to extend a warm welcome to our keynote speakers, David Byrne of the European Commission, Derek Yach from the World Health Organisation, and Paul Quinn representing Congressman Marty Meehan who sends his apologies. When we include the speakers who will address later sessions, this is, undoubtedly, one of the strongest teams that have been assembled on tobacco control in Europe. The very strength of the team underlines what I see as a shift – a very necessary shift – in the way we perceive the tobacco issue. For the last twenty years, we have lived out a paradox. It isnÃ'´t a social side issue. I make no apology for the bluntness of what IÃ'´m saying, and will come back, a little later, to the radicalism I believe we need to bring – nationally – to this issue. For starters, though, I want to lay it on the line that what weÃ'´re talking about is an epidemic as deadly as any suffered by human kind throughout the centuries. Slower than some of those epidemics in its lethal action, perhaps. But an epidemic, nonetheless. According to the World Health Organisation tobacco accounted for just over 3 million annual deaths in 1990, rising to 4.023 million annual deaths in 1998. The numbers of deaths due to tobacco will rise to 8.4 million in 2020 and reach roughly 10 million annually by 2030. This is quite simply ghastly. Tobacco kills. It kills in many different ways. It kills increasing numbers of women. It does its damage directly and indirectly. For children, much of the damage comes from smoking by adults where children live, study, play and work. The very least we should be able to offer every child is breathable air. Air that doesnÃ'´t do them damage. WeÃ'´re now seeing a global public health response to the tobacco epidemic. The Tobacco Free Initiative launched by the World Health Organisation was matched by significant tobacco control initiatives throughout the world. During this conference we will hear about the experiences our speakers had in driving these initiatives. This Tobacco Free Initiative poses unique challenges to our legal frameworks at both national and international levels; in particular it raises challenges about the legal context in which tobacco products are traded and asks questions about the impact of commercial speech especially on children, and the extent of the limitations that should be imposed on it. Politicians, supported by economists and lawyers as well as the medical profession, must continue to explore and develop this context to find innovative ways to wrap public health considerations around the trade in tobacco products – very tightly. We also have the right to demand a totally new paradigm from the tobacco industry. Bluntly, the tobacco industry plays the PR game at its cynical worst. The industry sells its products without regard to the harm these products cause. At the same time, to gain social acceptance, it gives donations, endowments and patronage to high profile events and people. Not good enough. This model of behaviour is no longer acceptable in a modern society. We need one where the industry integrates social responsibility and accountability into its day-to-day activities. We have waited for this change in behaviour from the tobacco industry for many decades. Unfortunately the documents disclosed during litigation in the USA and from other sources make very depressing reading; it is clear from them that any trust society placed in the tobacco industry in the past to address the health problems associated with its products was misplaced. This industry appears to lack the necessary leadership to guide it towards just and responsible action. Instead, it chooses evasion, deception and at times illegal activity to protect its profits at any price and to avoid its responsibilities to society and its customers. It has engaged in elaborate Ã'´spinÃ'´ to generate political tolerance, scientific uncertainty and public acceptance of its products. Legislators must act now. I see no reason why the global community should continue to wait. Effective legal controls must be laid on this errant industry. We should also keep these controls under review at regular intervals and if they are failing to achieve the desired outcomes we should be prepared to amend them. In Ireland, as Minister for Health and Children, I launched a comprehensive tobacco control policy entitled "Towards a Tobacco Free Society". OTT?Excessive?Unrealistic? On the contrary – I believe it to be imperative and inevitable. I honestly hold that, given the range of fatal diseases caused by tobacco use we have little alternative but to pursue the clear objective of creating a tobacco free society. Aiming at a tobacco free society means ensuring public and political opinion are properly informed. It requires help to be given to smokers to break the addiction. It demands that people are protected against environmental tobacco smoke and children are protected from any inducement to experiment with this product. Over the past year we have implemented a number of measures which will support these objectives; we have established an independent Office of Tobacco Control, we have introduced free nicotine replacement therapy for low-income earners, we have extended our existing prohibitions on tobacco advertising to the print media with some minor derogations for international publications. We have raised the legal age at which a person can be sold tobacco products to eighteen years. We have invested substantially more funds in health promotion activities and we have mounted sustained information campaigns. We have engaged in sponsorship arrangements, which are new and innovative for public bodies. I have provided health boards with additional resources to let them mount a sustained inspection and enforcement service. Health boards will engage new Directors of Tobacco Control responsible for coordinating each health boardÃ'´s response and for liasing with the Tobacco Control Agency I set up earlier this year. Most recently, I have published a comprehensive Bill – The Public Health (Tobacco) Bill, 2001. This Bill will, among other things, end all forms of product display and in-store advertising and will require all retailers to register with the new Tobacco Control Agency. Ten packs of cigarettes will be banned and transparent and independent testing procedures of tobacco products will be introduced. Enforcement officers will be given all the necessary powers to ensure there is full compliance with the law. On smoking in public places we will extend the existing areas covered and it is proposed that I, as Minister for Health and Children, will have the powers to introduce further prohibitions in public places such as pubs and the work place. I will also provide for the establishment of a Tobacco Free Council to advise and assist on an ongoing basis. I believe the measures already introduced and those additional ones proposed in the Bill have widespread community support. In fact, youÃ'´re going to hear a detailed presentation from the MRBI which will amply illustrate the extent of this support. The great thing is that the support comes from smokers and non-smokers alike. Bottom line, Ladies and Gentlemen, is that we are at a watershed. As a society (if youÃ'´ll allow me to play with a popular phrase) weÃ'´ve realised itÃ'´s time to Ã'´wake up and smell the cigarettes.Ã'´ Smell them. See them for what they are. And get real about destroying their hold on our people. The MRBI survey makes it clear that the single strongest weapon we have when it comes to preventing the habit among young people is price. Simple as that. Price. Up to now, the fear of inflation has been a real impediment to increasing taxes on tobacco. It sounds a serious, logical argument. Until you take it out and look at it a little more closely. Weigh it, as it were, in two hands. I believe – and I believe this with a great passion – that we must take cigarettes out of the equation we use when awarding wage increases. I am calling on IBEC and ICTU, on employers and trade unions alike, to move away from any kind of tolerance of a trade that is killing our citizens. At one point in industrial history, cigarettes were a staple of the workingmanÃ'´s life. So it was legitimate to include them in the Ã'´basketÃ'´ of goods that goes to make up the Consumer Price Index. It isnÃ'´t legitimate to include them any more. Today, IÃ'´m saying that society collectively must take the step to remove cigarettes from the basket of normality, from the list of elements which constitute necessary consumer spending. IÃ'´m saying: "We can no longer delude ourselves. We must exclude cigarettes from the considerations we address in central wage bargaining. We must price cigarettes out of the reach of the children those cigarettes will kill." Right now, in the monthly Central Statistics Office reports on consumer spending, the figures include cigarettes. But – right down at the bottom of the page – thereÃ'´s another figure. Calculated without including cigarettes. I believe that if we continue to use the first figure as our constant measure, it will be an indictment of us as legislators, as advocates for working people, as public health professionals. If, on the other hand, we move to the use of the second figure, we will be sending out a message of startling clarity to the nation. We will be saying "We donÃ'´t count an addictive, killer drug as part of normal consumer spending." Taking cigarettes out of the basket used to determine the Consumer Price Index will take away the inflation argument. It will not be easy, in its implications for the social partners. But it is morally inescapable. We must do it. Because it will help us stop the killer that is tobacco. If we can do it, we will give so much extra strength to health educators and the new Tobacco Control Association. This new organisation of young people who already have branches in over fifteen counties, is represented here today. The young adults who make up its membership are well placed to advise children of the dangers of tobacco addiction in a way that older generations cannot. It would strengthen their hand if cigarettes move – in price terms – out of the easy reach of our children Finally, I would like to commend so many public health advocates who have shown professional and indeed personal courage in their commitment to this critical public health issue down through the years. We need you to continue to challenge and confront this grave public health problem and to repudiate the questionable science of the tobacco industry. The Research Institute for a Tobacco Free Society represents a new and dynamic form of partnership between government and civil society. It will provide an effective platform to engage and mobilise the many different professional and academic skills necessary to guide and challenge us. I wish the conference every success.
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Mary Elizabeth King on Civil Action for Social Change, the Transnational Women's Movement, and the Arab Awakening
Nonviolent resistance remains by and large a marginal topic to IR. Yet it constitutes an influential idea among idealist social movements and non-Western populations alike, one that has moved to the center stage in recent events in the Middle East. In this Talk, Mary King—who has spent over 40 years promoting nonviolence—elaborates on, amongst others, the women's movement, nonviolence, and civil action more broadly.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is, according to you, the central challenge or principal debate in International Relations? And what is your position regarding this challenge/in this debate?
The field of International Relations is different from Peace and Conflict Studies; it has essentially to do with relationships between states and developed after World War I. In the 1920s, the big debates concerned whether international cooperation was possible, and the diplomatic elite were very different from diplomats today. The roots of Peace and Conflict Studies go back much further. By the late 1800s peace studies already existed in the Scandinavian countries. Studies of industrial strikes in the United States were added by the 1930s, and the field had spread to Europe by the 1940s. Peace and Conflict Studies had firmly cohered by the 1980s, and soon encircled the globe. Broad in spectrum and inherently multi-disciplinary, it is not possible to walk through one portal to enter the field.
To me it is also important that Peace and Conflict studies is not wary of asking the bigger hypothetical questions such as 'Can we built a better world?' 'How do we do a better job at resolving conflicts before they become destructive?' 'How do we create more peaceable societies?' If we do not pose these questions, we are unlikely to find the answers. Some political scientists say that they do not wish to privilege either violence or nonviolent action. I am not in that category, trying not to privilege violence or nonviolent action. The field of peace and conflict studies is value-laden in its pursuit of more peaceable societies. We need more knowledge and study of how conflicts can be addressed without violence, including to the eventual benefit of all the parties and the larger society. When in 1964 Martin Luther King Jr received the Nobel Peace Prize, his remarks in Oslo that December tied the nonviolent struggle in the United States to the whole planet's need for disarmament. He said that the most exceptional characteristic of the civil rights movement was the direct participation of masses of people in it. King's remarks in Oslo were also his toughest call for the use of nonviolent resistance on issues other than racial injustice. International nonviolent action, he said, could be utilized to let global leaders know that beyond racial and economic justice, individuals across the world were concerned about world peace:
I venture to suggest [above all] . . . that . . . nonviolence become immediately a subject for study and for serious experimentation in every field of human conflict, by no means excluding relations between nations . . . which [ultimately] make war. . . .
In the half century since King made his address in Oslo, nonviolent civil resistance has not been allocated even a tiny fraction of the resources for study that have been dedicated to the fields of democratization, development, the environment, human rights, and aspects of national security. Many, many questions beg for research, including intensive interrogation of failures. Among the new global developments with which to be reckoned is the enlarging role of non-state, non-governmental organizations as intermediaries, leading dialogue groups comprised of adversaries discussing disputatious issues and working 'hands-on' to intervene directly in local disputes. The role of the churches and laity in ending Mozambique's civil war comes to mind. One challenge within IR is how to become more flexible in viewing the world, in which the nation state cannot control social change, and with the widening of civil space.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about IR?
I came from a family that was deeply engaged with social issues. My father was the eighth Methodist minister in six generations from North Carolina and Virginia. The Methodist church in both Britain and the United States has a history of concern for social responsibility ― a topic of constant discussion in my home as a child and young adult. When four African American students began the southern student sit-in movement in Greensboro, North Carolina, on February 1, 1960, by sitting-in at a Woolworth's lunch counter, I was still in college. Although I am white, I began to think about how to join the young black people who were intentionally violating the laws of racial segregation by conducting sit-ins at lunch counters across the South. Soon more white people, very like me, were joining them, and the sweep of student sit-ins had become truly inter-racial. The sit-in movement is what provided the regional base for what would become a mass U.S. civil rights movement, with tens of thousands of participants, defined by the necessity for fierce nonviolent discipline. So, coming from a home where social issues were regularly discussed it was almost natural for me to become engaged in the civil rights movement. And I have remained engaged with such issues for the rest of my life, while widening my aperture. Today I work on a host of questions related to conflict, building peace, gender, the combined field of gender and peace-building, and nonviolent or civil resistance. At a very young age, I had started thinking as a citizen of the world and watching what was happening worldwide, rather than merely in the United States.
Martin Luther King (to whom I am not related) would become one of history's most influential agents for propagating knowledge of the potential for constructive social change without resorting to violence. He was the most significant exemplar for what we simply called The Movement. Yet the movement had two southern organizations: in 1957 after the success of the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955-56, he created, along with others, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The other organization was the one for which I worked for four years: the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pron. snick), which initially came into being literally to coordinate among the leaders of the student sit-in campaigns. As the sit-ins spread across the South, 70,000 black, and, increasingly, white, students participated. By the end of 1960, 3,600 would have been jailed.
SCLC and SNCC worked together but had different emphases: one of our emphases in SNCC was on eliciting leadership representing the voices of those who had been ignored in the past. We identified many women with remarkable leadership skills and sought to strengthen them. We wanted to build institutions that would make it easier for poor black southern communities to become independent and move out of the 'serfdom' in which they lived. Thus we put less prominence on large demonstrations, which SCLC often emphasized. Rather, we stressed the building of alternative (or parallel) institutions, including voter registration, alternative political parties, cooperatives, and credit unions.
What would a student need (dispositions, skills) to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?
One requirement is a subject that has virtually disappeared from the schools in the United States: the field of geography. It used to be taught on every level starting in kindergarten, but has now been melded into a mélange called 'social sciences'. You would be surprised at how much ignorance exists and how it affects effectiveness. I served for years on the board of directors of an esteemed international non-profit private voluntary organization and recall a secretary who thought that Africa was a country. This is not simplistic — if you don't know the names of continents, countries, regions, and the basic political and economic history, it's much harder to think critically about the world. Secondly, students need to possess an attitude of reciprocity and mutuality. No perfect country exists; there is no nirvana without intractable problems in our world. No society, for example, has solved the serious problems of gender inequity that impede all spheres of life. Every society has predicaments and problems that need to be addressed, necessitating a constant process. So we each need to stand on a platform in which every nation can improve the preservation of the natural environment, the way it monitors and protects human rights, transitions to democratic systems, the priority it places on the empowerment of women, and so on. On this platform, concepts of inferior and superior are of little value.
You also co-authored an article in 1965 about the role of women and how working in a political movement for equality (the civil rights movement) has affected your perceptions of the relationship between men and women. Do you believe that the involvement of women in the Civil Rights Movement brought more gender equality in the USA and do you think involvement in Nonviolent Resistance movements in other places in the world could start such a process?
From within the heart of the civil rights movement I wrote an article with Casey Hayden, with whom I worked in Atlanta in the main office of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and in the Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964. Casey (Sandra Cason) and I were deeply engaged in a series of conversations involving other women in SNCC about what we had been learning, the lessons from our work aiding poor black people to organize, and asking ourselves whether our insights from being part of SNCC could be applied to other forms of injustice, such as inequality for women. The document reflected our growth and enlarging understanding of how to mobilize communities, how to strategize, how to achieve lasting change, and was a manifestation of this expanding awareness. The title was Sex and Caste – A Kind of Memo. Caste is an ancient Hindu demarcation that not only determines an individual's social standing on the basis of the group into which one is born, but also differentiates and assigns occupational and economic roles. It cannot be changed. Casey and I thought of caste as comparable to the sex of one's birth. Women endure many forms of prejudice, bias, discrimination, and cruelty merely because they are female. For these reasons we chose the term caste. We sent our memorandum to forty women working in local peace and civil rights movements of the United States. The anecdotal evidence is strong that it inspired other women, who started coming together collectively to work on their own self-emancipation in 'consciousness raising groups.' It had appeared in Liberation magazine of the War Resisters League in April 1966 and was a catalyst in spurring the U.S. women's movement; indeed, the consciousness-raising groups fuelled the women's movement in the United States during the 1970s. Historians reflect that the article provided tinder for what is now called 'second-wave feminism', and the 1965 original is anthologized as one of the generative documents of twentieth-century gender studies.
We have to remember that women's organizations are nothing new, but have been poorly documented in history and that much information has been lost. Women have been prime actors for nonviolent social change in many parts of the world for a long time. New Zealand was the first country to grant women the vote, in 1893, after decades of organizing. Other countries followed: China, Iran, later the United States and the United Kingdom. Women in Japan would not vote until 1946. IR expert Fred Halliday contends that one of the most remarkable transnational movements of the modern age was the women's suffrage movement. The movement to enfranchise women may have been the biggest transnational nonviolent movement of human history. It was a significant historical phenomenon that throws light on how it is sometimes easier to bring about social and political change now than in the past.
Nonviolent movements seem to be growing around the world, and not only in dictatorships but also in democracies in Europe and the USA. How do you explain this?
I think that the sharing of knowledge is the answer to this question. Study in the field of nonviolent action has accelerated since the 1970s, often done by people who are both practitioners and scholars, as am I. Organizing nonviolently for social justice is not new, but the knowledge that has consolidated during the last 40 years has been major. The works of Gene Sharp have been significant, widely translated, and are accessible through the Albert EinsteinInstitution. His first major work, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, in three volumes, came out in 1973 (Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers). It marked the development of a new understanding of how this form of cooperative action works, the conditions under which it can be optimized, and the ways in which one can improve effectiveness. Sharp's works have since been translated into more than 40 languages. Also valuable are the works and translations of dozens of other scholars, who often stand on his shoulders. Today there may be 200 scholar-activists in this field worldwide, with a great deal of work now underway in related fields. Knowledge is being shared not only through translated works, but also through organizations and their training programs, such as the War Resisters League International and the International Fellowship of Reconciliation, each of which came into existence in Britain around World War I. Both are still running seminars, training programs, and distributing books. George Lakey's Training for Change and a new database at Swarthmore College that he has developed are sharing knowledge. So is the International Center for Nonviolent Conflict, which has built a dramatic record in a short time, having run more than 400 seminars and workshops in more than 139 countries. The three major films that ICNC has produced (for example, 'Bringing Down a Dictator'), have been translated into 20 languages and been publicly broadcast to more than 20 million viewers.
After its success, leaders from the Serbian youth movement Otpor! (Resistance) that in 2000 disintegrated the Slobodan Milošević dictatorship formed a network of activists, including experienced veterans from civil-resistance struggles in South Africa, the Philippines, Lebanon, Georgia, and Ukraine to share their experiences with other movements. People can now more easily find knowledge on the World Wide Web, often in their original language or a second language, and they can find networks that share information about their experiences, including their successes and failures.
I reject the Twitter explanation for the increased use of nonviolent action or civil resistance, because all nonviolent movements appropriate the most advanced technologies available. This pattern is related to the importance of communications for their basic success. Nonviolent mobilizations must be very shrewd in putting across their purpose, their goals and objectives, preparing slogans, and conveying information on how people can become involved. In order for people to join—bearing in mind that numbers are important for success—it is critically important to make clear what goal(s) you are seeking and why you have elected to work with civil resistance. This decision is sometimes hard to understand for people who have suffered great cruelty from their opponent, and who maintain 'but we are the victims', making the sharing of the logic of the technique of civil resistance vital.
What would you say is the importance of Nonviolent Resistance Studies in the field of International Relations and Political Science? And how do you counter those who argue that some forms of structural domination are only ended through violence?
In this case we can look at the evidence and stay away from arguing beliefs or ideology. Thanks to political scientists Erica Chenoweth and Maria J. Stephan, who have produced a discerning work, Why Civil Resistance Works (2011), we now have empirical evidence that removes this question from mystery. They studied 323 violent and nonviolent movements that occurred between 1900 and 2006 and found that the nonviolent campaigns were twice as effective as violent struggles in achieving their goals, while incurring fewer costly fatalities and producing much greater prospects for democratic outcomes after the end of the campaign. They found only one area in which violent movements have been more successful, and that is in secessions. So, we don't need to dwell in the realm of opinion, but can read their findings. Other scholars have written about the same issues using qualitative data ― by doing interviews, developing case studies, and analytical descriptions ― but the work of Chenoweth and Stephan is quantitative, putting it in a different category due to its research methods.
Reading 'Why Civil Resistance Works' it caught my eye that nonviolent campaigns seem less successful in the Middle East and Asia than in other regions. Did you see that also in your own work? And if so, do you have an explanation for it? In addition, do you believe that the 'Arab Awakening' is a significant turn in history, or did the name arise too quickly and will it remain a temporary popular phrase?
What I encountered in working in the Middle East was an expectation, notion, or hope among people that a great leader would save them and bring them out of darkness. This belief seems often to have kept the populace in a state of passivity. Sometimes such pervasive theories of leadership are deeply elitist: one must be well educated to be a leader, one must be born into that role, one must be male, or the first son, etc. Such concepts of leadership discourage the taking of independent civil action.
I think that the Arab Awakening has been significant for a number of reasons. As one example, there had been a widespread (and patronizing) assumption in the United States and the West that the Arabs were not interested in democracy. We have heard from various sources including Israel for decades that Arabs are not attracted to democracy. As a matter of fact, I think that all people want a voice. All human beings wish to be listened to and to be able to express their hopes and aspirations. This is a fundamental basis of democracy and widely applicable, although democracy may take different forms. The Arab Awakening rebutted this arrogant assumption. This does not mean that the course will be easy. One of my Egyptian colleagues said to me, 'We have had dictatorship since 1952, but after Tahir Square you expect us to build a perfect democracy in 52 weeks! It cannot happen!'
Among the first concessions sought by the 2011 Arab revolts was rejection of the right of a dictator's sons to succeed him. The passing of power from father to son has been a characteristic of patriarchal societies, in the Arab world and elsewhere. Anthropologist John Borneman notes, 'The public renunciation of the son's claim to inherit the father's power definitively ends the specific Arab model of succession that has been incorporated into state dictatorships among tribal authorities'. In Tunisia to Egypt, Libya, Syria, and Yemen (not all of which are successes), such movements have sought to end the presumption of father-son inheritance of rule.
I believe that we are seeing the start of a broad democratization process in the Middle East, not its end. The learning and preparation that had been occurring in Egypt prior to Tahrir Square was extensive. Workshops had been underway for 10 to 15 years before people filled Tahrir Square. Women bloggers had for years been monitoring torture and sharing news from outside. One woman blogger translated a comic book into Arabic about the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr, from the 1960s, and had it distributed all over Cairo. Labor unions had been very active. According to historian Joel Beinin, from 1998 to 2010 some 3 million laborers took part in 3,500 to 4,000 strikes, sit-ins, demonstrations, and other actions, realizing more than 600 collective labor actions per year in 2007 and 2008. In the years immediately before the revolution, these actions became more coherent. Wael Ghonim, a 30-year-old Google executive, set up a Facebook page and used Google technologies to share ideas and knowledge about what ordinary people can do. The April 6 Youth Movement, set up in 2008, three years before Tahrir, sent one of its members to Belgrade in 2009, to learn how Otpor! had galvanized the bringing down of Milošević. He returned to Cairo with materials and films, lessons from other nonviolent movements, and workshop materials. This all goes back to the sharing of knowledge. Yet the Egyptians have now come to the point where they must assume responsibility and accountability for the whole and make difficult decisions for their society. It will be a long and difficult process. And it raises the question of what kind of help from outside is essential.
Why do you raise this point; do you think outside help is essential?
I know from having studied a large number of nonviolent movements in different parts of the globe that the sharing of lessons laterally among mobilizations and nonviolent struggles is highly effective. African American leaders were traveling by steamer ship from 1919 until the outbreak of World War II to the Indian subcontinent, to learn from Gandhi and the Indian independence struggles. This great interchange between black leaders in the United States and the Gandhian activists, as the historian Sudarshan Kapur shows in Raising Up A Prophet (1992), was critically significant in the solidification of consensus in the U.S. black community on nonviolent means. I have written about how the knowledge moved from East to West in my book Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King. Scholarly exchanges and interchanges among activists from other struggles are both potentiating and illuminating. Most observers fail to see that nonviolent mobilizations often have very deep roots involving the lateral sharing of experience and know-how.
You have written a book about the first uprising, or 'intifada', in the Occupied Palestinian Territories between 1987 and 1993. The second Palestinian uprising did not contain much nonviolent tactics though. Do you foresee another uprising soon? If not, why? If yes, do you think that Nonviolent Actions will play again an important role in that uprising, or is it more likely to turn violent?
Intifada is linguistically a nonviolent word: It means shaking off and has no violent implication whatsoever. (This word is utterly inappropriate for what happened in the so-called Second Intifada, although it started out as a nonviolent endeavor.) In the 1987 intifada, virtually the entire Palestinian society living under Israel's military occupation unified itself with remarkable cohesion on the use of nonviolent tools. The first intifada (1987-1993, especially 1987-1990) benefited from several forces at work in the 1970s and 1980s, about which I write in A Quiet Revolution (2007), one of which came from Palestinian activist intellectuals working with Israeli groups, who wanted to end occupation for their own reasons. These Israeli peace activists thought the occupation degraded them, made them less than human, in addition to oppressing Palestinians. The second so-called intifada was not a 'shaking off'. For the first time, it bade attacks against the Israeli settlements, which had not occurred before.
Let me put it this way: in virtually every situation, there is some potential for human beings to take upon themselves their own liberation through nonviolent action. We may expect that such potential is dormant and waiting for enactment. Disciplined nonviolent action is underway in a number of village-based struggles against the separation barrier in the West Bank right now, in which Israeli allies are among the action takers. As another example, the Freedom Theatre in Jenin is using Freedom Rides, a concept adopted from the U.S. southern Civil Rights Movement, riding buses to the South Hebron Hills villages and along the way using drama, music, and giant puppets as a way of stimulating debate about Israeli occupation. Bloggers and writers share their experiences (see e.g. this post by Nathan Schneider). For the first time, as we speak, the Freedom Bus will travel from the West Bank to make two performances in historic pre-1948 Palestine (Israel), in Haifa and the Golan, in June 2013. A Palestinian 'Empty Stomach' campaign, led by Palestinian political prisoners in Israel, has had some success in using hunger strikes to press Israeli officials for certain demands. With the purpose of prevailing upon Israel to conform to international resolutions pertaining to the Palestinians and to end its military occupation, Palestinian civic organizations in 2005 launched a Boycott, Divestment Sanctions (BDS) campaign, drawing upon the notable example of third-party sanctions applied in the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. The Palestinian Authority has called for non-state observer status at the United Nations and supports the boycotting of products from Israeli settlements resistance.
More and more Palestinians are now saying, 'We must fight for our rights with nonviolent resistance'. Many Israelis are also deeply concerned about the future of their country. I recently got an email from an Israeli who was deeply affected by reading Quiet Revolution and has started to reach out to Palestinians and take actions to bring to light the injustices that he perceives. Tremendous debate is underway about new techniques, novel processes, and how to shift gears to more effective mutual action. The United States government and its people continue to pay for Israel's occupation and militarization, which has abetted the continuation of conflict, although it is often done in the name of peace! The United States has not incentivized the building of peace. It has done almost nothing to help the construction of institutions that could assist coexistence.
Also, it is very important for the entire world, including Israelis, to recognize intentional nonviolent action when they see it. The Israeli government persisted in denying that the 1987 Intifada was nonviolent, when the Palestinian populace had been maintaining extraordinary nonviolent discipline for nearly three years, despite harsh reprisals. Israeli officials continued to call it 'unending war' and 'the seventh war'. Indeed, it was not perfect nonviolent discipline, but enough that was indicative of a change in political thinking among the people in the Palestinian areas that could have been built upon. Although some Israeli social scientists accurately perceived the sea change in Palestinian political thought about what methods to use in seeking statehood and the lifting of the military occupation, the government of Israel generally did not seize upon such popularly enacted nonviolent discipline to push for progress. My sources for Quiet Revolution include interviews with Israelis, such as the former Chief Psychologist of the Israel Defense Force and IDF spokesperson.
Your latest book is about the transitions of the Eastern European countries from being under Soviet rule to independent democracies. You chose to illustrate these transitions with New York Times articles. Why did you chose this approach; do you think the NY Times was important as a media agency in any way or is there another reason?
There is another reason: The New York Times and CQ Press approached me and asked if I would write a reference book on the nonviolent revolutions of the Eastern bloc, using articles from the Times that I would choose upon which to hang the garments of the story. The point of the work is to help particularly young people learn that they can study history by studying newspapers. The book gives life to the old adage that newspaper reporters write the first draft of history. In the book's treatment of these nonviolent revolutions, I chose ten Times articles for each of the major ten struggles that are addressed, adding my historical analysis to complete the saga for each country. It had been difficult for Times reporters to get into Poland, for example, in the late 1970s and the crucial year of 1980; they sometimes risked their lives. Yet it's in the nature of journalism that their on-the-spot reportage needed additional analysis; furthermore newspaper accounts often stress description.
After the 1968 Prague Spring, when the Soviet Union sent 750,000 troops and tanks from five Warsaw Pact countries into Czechoslovakia, crushing that revolt, across Eastern Europe a tremendous amount of fervent work got underway by small non-official committees, often below the radar of the communist party states. This included samizdat (Russian for 'self published'), works not published by the state publishing machinery, underground publications that were promoting new ways of thinking about how to address their dilemma. Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Lithuania were the most active in the Eastern bloc with their major but covert samizdat. As it was illegal in Czechoslovakia for a citizen to own a photocopy machine, 'books' were published by using ten pieces of onion-skin paper interspersed with carbon sheets, 'publishing' each page by typing it and its copies on a manual typewriter.
The entire phenomenon of micro-committees, flying universities, samizdat boutiques, seminars, drama with hidden meanings, underground journals, and rock groups transmitting messages eluded outside observers, who were not thinking about what the people could do for themselves. The economists and Kremlinologists who were observing the Eastern bloc did not discern what the playwrights, small committees of activist intellectuals, local movements, labor unions, academicians, and church groups were undertaking. They did not imagine the scope or scale of what the people were doing for themselves with utmost self-reliance. In essence, no one saw these nonviolent revolutions coming, with the exception of the rare onlooker, such as the historian Timothy Garton Ash. Even today the peaceful transitions to democracy of the Eastern bloc are sometimes explained by saying 'Gorby did it', when Gorbachev did not come to power until 1985. Or by attributing the alterations to Reagan's going to Berlin and telling Gorbachov to tear down the Wall.
By December 1981, Poland was under martial law, which unleashed a high degree of underground organizing, countless organizations of self-help, reimagining of the society, and the publishing of samizdat. Still, even so, some people believe that this sweeping political change was top-down. It is indisputably true that nonviolent action usually interacts with other forces and forms of power, but I would say that we need this book for its accessible substantiation of historically significant independent nonviolent citizen action as a critical element in the collapse of the Soviet Union.
You also mention Al Jazeera as an important media agency in your most recent blog post at 'Waging Nonviolence'. You wrote that Al Jazeera has an important role in influencing global affairs. Could you explain why? And more generally, how important is diversification of media for international politics?
Al Jazeera generally has not been taking the point of view of the official organs of governments of Arab countries and has usually not reported news from ministries of information. Additionally, it often carries reports from local correspondents in the country at issue. If you are following a report from Gaza, it is likely to be a Gazan journalist who is transmitting to Al Jazeera. If it is a report from Egypt, it may well be an Egyptian correspondent. Al Jazeera also has made a point of reporting news from Israel, and utilizing reporters in Tel Aviv, which may be a significant development. Certainly in the 2010-2011 Arab Awakening, it made a huge difference that reports were coming directly from the action takers rather than the official news outlets of Arab governments.
President George W. Bush did not want Al Jazeera to come to the United States, because he considered it too anti-American. I remember reading at the time that the first thing that Gen. Colin Powell said to Al Jazeera was 'can you tone it down a little?' when asking why Al Jazeera couldn't be less anti-American in its news. To me, either you support free speech or you do not; it's free or it's not: You can't have a little bit of control and a little bit of freedom.
Until recently, Al Jazeera was not easily available in the United States, except in Brattleboro, Vermont; Washington, DC; and a few other places. It was difficult to get it straight in the United States. I mounted a special satellite so that I could get Al Jazeera more freely. This does not speak well for freedom of the press in the United States. This may change with the advent of Al Jazeera America, although we still do not know to what degree it will represent an editorially free press.
News agencies are important for civil-resistance movements for major reasons. Popular mobilizations need good communications internally and externally! People need to understand clearly what is the purpose and strategy and to be part of the making of decisions. Learning also crucially needs to take place inside the movement: activist intellectuals often act as interpreters, framing issues anew, suggesting that an old grievance is now actionable. No one expects the butcher, the baker, or the candlestick maker, and everyone else in the movement to read history and theory.
When news media are interested and following a popular movement of civil resistance, they can enhance the spread of knowledge. In the U.S. civil rights movement, the Southern white-owned newspapers considered the deaths of black persons or atrocities against African Americans as not being newsworthy. There was basically a 'black-out', if you want to call it that, with no pun. Yet dreadful things were happening while we were trying to mobilize, organize, and get out the word. So SNCC created its own media, and Julian Bond and others and I set up nationwide alternative outlets. Eventually we had 12 photographers across the South. This is very much like what the people of the Eastern bloc did with samizdat — sharing and disseminating papers, articles, chapters, even whole books. The media can offer a tremendous boost, but sometimes you have to create your own.
Last question. You combine scholarship with activism. How do you reconcile the academic claim for 'neutrality' with the emancipatory goals of activism?
To be frank, I am not searching for neutrality in my research. Rather, I strive for accuracy, careful transcription, and scrupulous gathering of evidence. I believe that this is how we can become more effective in working for justice, environmental protection, sustainable development, pursuing human rights, or seeking gender equity as critical tools to build more peaceable societies. Where possible I search for empirical data. So much has been ignored, for example, with regards to the effects of gendered injustice. I do not seek neutrality on this matter, but strong evidence. For example, since the 1970s, experts have known that the education of women has profoundly beneficial and measurable effects across entire societies, benefiting men, children, and women. Data from Kerala, India; Sri Lanka; and elsewhere has shown that when you educate women the entire society is uplifted and that all indicators shift positively. The problem is that the data have for decades been ignored or trivialized. We need much more than neutrality. We need to interpret evidence and data clearly to make them compelling and harder to ignore. I think that we can do this with methodologies that are uncompromisingly scrupulous.
Mary Elizabeth King is professor of peace and conflict studies at the UN-affiliated University for Peace and and is Scholar-in-Residence in the School of International Service, at the American University in Washington, D.C. She is also a Distinguished Fellow of the Rothermere American Institute at the University of Oxford, in the United Kingdom. Her most recent book is The New York Times on Emerging Democracies in Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C.: Times Reference and CQ Press/Sage, 2009), chronicling the nonviolent transitions that took place in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, the Baltic states, Serbia, Georgia, and Ukraine in the late 1980s and early 1990s. She is the author of the highly acclaimed A Quiet Revolution: The First Palestinian Intifada and Nonviolent Resistance (New York: Nation Books, 2007; London: Perseus Books, 2008), which examines crucial aspects of the 1987 uprising overlooked or misunderstood by the media, government officials, and academicians.
Related links
King's personal page Read the book edited by King on Peace Research for Africa (UNU, 2007) here (pdf) Read the book by King Teaching Model: Nonviolent Transformation of Conflict (UNU, 2006) here (pdf)
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
0 0 1 5902 33646 School of Global Studies/University of Gothenburg 280 78 39470 14.0
The present study documents a language educator's reflection on two transitions that mirror current curricular changes in undergraduate language programs in the United States. The first chronicles her personal pedagogical transformation from a general-purposes Spanish language professor and her adjustment to teaching as a visiting professor in a Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) language-learning environment at the United States Air Force Academy. The second reports the evolution over several decades of the Spanish language program at University of Alabama at Birmingham from a traditional general Spanish-language program to a multipurpose program. The study suggests that SSP and liberal arts values are not mutually exclusive, and it explores what Spanish for General Purposes (SGP) can learn from SSP. Spanish programs that find common ground and hybridize to respond to multiple demands of today's Spanish learners are likely to be the most successful in the future. ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 88 The Unexpected Spanish for Specific Purposes Professor: A Tale of Two Institutions Sheri Spaine Long United States Air Force Academy University of Alabama at Birmingham Abstract: The present study documents a language educator's reflection on two transitions that mirror current curricular changes in undergraduate language programs in the United States. The first chronicles her personal pedagogical transformation from a general-purposes Spanish language professor and her adjustment to teaching as a visiting professor in a Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) language-learning environment at the United States Air Force Academy. The second reports the evolution over several decades of the Spanish language program at University of Alabama at Birmingham from a traditional general Spanish-language program to a multipurpose program. The study suggests that SSP and liberal arts values are not mutually exclusive, and it explores what Spanish for General Purposes (SGP) can learn from SSP. Spanish programs that find common ground and hybridize to respond to multiple demands of today's Spanish learners are likely to be the most successful in the future. Keywords: language learning curriculum, liberal arts, medical Spanish, military language learning, Spanish for General Purposes (SGP), Spanish instruction, Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP), United States Air Force Academy, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) Introduction This academic year, I dubbed myself the unexpected Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) professor because specialized career-focused instruction became part of my pedagogical repertoire. Working in a SSP language-learning environment has made me take stock of what mainstream language educators can gain from exposure to the philosophy and instructional techniques of languages for specific purposes. I am serving currently as Distinguished Visiting Professor of Spanish at the United States Air Force Academy. I am a permanent Professor of Spanish at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). In this reflective paper, I chronicle two transitions. First, I share observations about my transition from general purposes language instruction to the more focused language-learning setting at the United States Air Force Academy. Language learning at the United States Air Force Academy exemplifies the definition of a Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) program because it is dedicated to the goal of educating future Air Force officer-leaders with a global perspective. Secondly, I narrate from an administrative/ administrator's point of view UAB's evolution from a traditional Spanish curriculum to a dual-purpose program that includes a SSP certificate. I conclude that both the United States Air Force Academy and UAB Spanish language programs provide unique insights into the curricular changes and challenges in language teaching that have emerged during the last several decades in higher education. My experiences in these respective undergraduate Spanish programs show that signature language curricula have been and can be developed to serve diverse missions of learners and institutions and that intellectual and practical needs simultaneously helped mold these A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 89 programs. The United States Air Force Academy and UAB Spanish language programs are traditional and nontraditional at the same time. I posit they will resemble our future hybridized Spanish language programs. For purposes of this paper, I understand hybridized to mean multipurpose programs that have SSP components and a liberal arts foundation. The subfield of SSP can be defined as a practice that gives language learners access to the Spanish that they need to accomplish their own academic or occupational goals (Sánchez-López, 2013). It is necessary to locate SSP within the domain of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) in order to recognize that SSP is not a departure from current theory or practices in foreign language education. The counterpoint to SSP is Spanish for General Purposes (SGP). SGP is a broad descriptor for the teaching and learning of Spanish in ways that can be exploratory in nature. It is language teaching and learning that is likely not to have a singular career focus. Along with the concept of language learning for cultural breadth, traditionally SGP has been ensconced within the notion of liberal arts education. After almost 20 years of teaching principally undergraduate SGP at UAB, I relocated to Colorado Springs to experience anew the teaching and learning of Spanish in a different context. The learning environment that I envisioned at the service academy would be focused on the specific Air Force mission within undergraduate higher education. By contrast, I am the product of a liberal arts education that was not singularly focused on a specific career. For the last several decades, I have taught students with a variety of goals, both professional and personal. The teaching and learning environment with which I am the most familiar is rooted in the model of a liberal education that has historically framed SGP programs across the United States over the last 75 years. Goals of the liberal arts education include such attributes as thinking critically, possessing broad analytical skills, learning how to learn, thinking independently, seeing all sides of an issue, communicating clearly (orally and in writing), exercising self-control for the sake of broader loyalties, showing self-assurance in leadership ability, and participating in and enjoying (cross-)cultural experience (Blaich, Bost, Chan, & Lynch, 2010). By reviewing some attributes commonly found in definitions of a liberal arts education, I highlight the cornerstone of numerous undergraduate programs in higher education. My goal is not to produce a comprehensive list of its characteristics. In fact, one finds variations in the definition of the liberal arts education tailored to suit institutional realities and needs. The elements that I emphasize in the present discussion are particular characteristics, such as analytical and critical thinking, leadership development, civic responsibility and cultural breadth, which are especially relevant to how these two Spanish language programs evolved at both the United States Air Force Academy and UAB. Although critical thinking may not be one of the characteristics that spring to mind within military education given the realities of obedience, discipline and hierarchy, critical thinking is an essential characteristic of military officers that must make decisions in complex situations. The teaching/learning of the ability to analyze critically is key in military service academies and in civilian institutions, such as UAB. UAB and arrived at the United States Air Force Academy in summer 2011. Because of the courses that I had been asked to design and teach, I knew that the United States Air Force Academy's curriculum was not about technical instruction as in Spanish for Military Purposes. In fact, my fall courses had mainstream course titles that one might find in any Spanish program: Literature and Film of Spain and Latin American Civilization and Culture. My military supervisors told me that I was invited here to bring a different perspective and pedagogy into the classroom. As my first semester unfolded, I set out to learn from diverse A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 90 pupils and faculty members and to absorb and adapt to the differences before me. The United States Air Force Academy's mission fits neatly on a sign that everyone reads upon entering the military installation: "Developing Leaders of Character." The United States Air Force Academy (2011) is an undergraduate institution, awarding the BS degree as part of its mission to inspire and develop officers with knowledge, character and discipline. Undergraduates are referred to as cadets, and this underscores both the military and academic focus of the learners. After a few weeks at the United States Air Force Academy, I realized that I had landed in a one-of-a-kind educational setting. The institution subscribes to and emphasizes many of the key core values that I associate with a liberal arts education while additionally providing technical training. As Pennington (2012) pointed out in her recent commentary in The Chronicle of Higher Education, we need to acknowledge that preparing for work and pursuing a liberal arts education are not mutually exclusive. Considering liberal arts principles and professional training as polar opposites is a deeply ingrained notion by many individuals in higher education and in society at large. This belief needs to change because of the type of complex preparation that today's students will need to flourish in the future. Below is the complete list of shared outcomes of the Unites States Air Force Academy. Even with a cursory examination, one finds intertwined traditional liberals arts concepts and elements associated with technical education for engineers, scientists and warriors: Shared United States Air Force Academy Outcomes (2011) Commission leaders of character who embody the Air Force core values. . . . . .committed to Societal, Professional, and Individual Responsibilities Ethical Reasoning and Action Respect for Human Dignity Service to the Nation Lifelong Development and Contributions Intercultural Competence and Involvement . . .empowered by integrated Intellectual and Warrior Skills Quantitative and Information Literacy Oral and Written Communication Critical Thinking Decision Making Stamina Courage Discipline Teamwork . . .grounded in essential Knowledge of the Profession of Arms and the Human & Physical Worlds Heritage and Application of Air, Space, and Cyberspace Power National Security and Full Spectrum of Joint and Coalition Warfare A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 91 Civic, Cultural and International Environments Ethics and the Foundations of Character Principles of Science and the Scientific Method Principles of Engineering and the Application of Technology Source: http://www.usafa.edu/df/usafaoutcomes.cfm?catname=Dean%20of%20Faculty Values such as critical thinking, ethics and ethical reasoning, respect for human dignity, lifelong development and contributions, intercultural competence, and oral and written communication are integral to a liberal arts education and are the foundation of cadet education. The first phrase that frames the entire list—"Commission leaders of character who embody the Air Force core values. . ."—is key to my contention that the United States Air Force Academy's type of SSP is the teaching and learning of languages in the broader context of leadership education. The direct relationship between what one associates with well-informed leaders and liberal arts values emphasizes the importance of nurturing future leaders (whether cadets or college students) that are civically and globally astute. Leadership development clearly underpins both liberal arts values and those of the United States Air Force Academy. Like many undergraduate institutions in the United States, Spanish is widely taught at the United States Air Force Academy. According to Diane K. Johnson, an institutional statistician, there are a total of more than 500 cadets (out of a total cadet enrollment of over 4,000) that are in Spanish classes (introductory through advanced) in spring semester 2012. There are also cadets enrolled in 7 other languages that are labeled strategic or enduring. Notably, there is no language major at the United States Air Force Academy. However, there is a Foreign Area Studies major. Also, cadets can declare a minor in a language. There were 327 cadets with minor in languages at the time of this spring semester 2012 snapshot. The specific mission statement of the United States Air Force Academy's Department of Foreign Languages is: "To develop leaders of character with a global perspective through world-class language and culture education." Language and culture are embedded in the concept of the kind of global perspective that a 21st-century leader must possess. From Washington DC to Wall Street, there is agreement that future leaders internationally—both military and civilian—need to be multilingual and culturally adept to be able to navigate and lead in the 21st century (Education for global leadership, 2006). According to Lt. Col. Western (2011), it is imperative that our military comprehend that maintaining world leadership and security requires a broad understanding of other languages, cultures and thought processes. Although the Department of Defense's report (2012) on "Sustaining United States Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense" does not directly address language and cultural expertise, many of theses priorities rely on knowledge from military leaders with considerable language and cultural acumen. Historically, the language department has always had a dual purpose that has consisted of SSP focusing on developing future Air Force officers, while providing many elements of a liberal arts education. From the following list, you will see a sampling of the generic course titles. They are not a departure from what one might find at other institutions: Basic Spanish I & Basic Spanish II (Spanish 131–132), Intermediate Spanish A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 92 I & Intermediate Spanish II (Spanish 221–222), Advanced Spanish I & Advanced Spanish II (Spanish 321–322), Civilization and Culture (Spanish 365), Current Events in the Spanish-Speaking World (Spanish 371), Introduction to Peninsular Literature (Spanish 376), Introduction to Latin American Literature (Spanish 377), Advanced Spanish Readings (Spanish 491), and Special Topics (Spanish 495). The course titles do not offer clues as to how these classes might differ from the average civilian college or university classes with similar names. In my experience teaching and/or observing these classes, differences do stand out because language learners at the United States Air Force Academy focus on application of language as a skill combined with cultural and historical knowledge. The cadets also seek intellectual breadth through the analysis of multiple perspectives particularly found in intermediate- to upper-level Spanish language classes. In the first six months in residence at the United States Air Force Academy, I observed that cadets are more intellectually broad than I assumed at the outset. Cadets read about literature and culture, analyzed film, and even wrote poetry in Spanish with gusto. They do perform in the classroom with a defined career in mind. The focus on the military profession and leadership changes the daily routine in the language classroom. By emphasizing deliberate leadership and language teaching and/or learning opportunities, crosspollination enhances the classroom exper-ience and improves institutional learning outcomes. Form cannot be divorced from function in language learning, so the synthesis of leadership development and language/cultural learning occurs. Recent studies from interdisciplinary research with the neurosciences and education show that fusion between disciplines can provide effective pathways to learning (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010). Teaching Spanish at the United States Air Force Academy altered my preparations and delivery. Because of SSP, I adapted to differences that are administrative, operational, pedagogical, experiential and conceptual. First, I experienced the surface-level administrative transformations from SGP to the special brand of SSP at this institution. I learned about: Classroom rituals that include military protocols, such as calling the class to attention in Spanish, inspecting students' regulation dress and upholding other classroom standards in the target language; References to Air Force traditions and military rank in the target language; And, lock down, active shooter and natural disaster drills that might happen during class time in the target language. Additionally, there were different details in course design that reshaped my pedagogical filter. During an examination of all Spanish language course syllabi at the United States Air Force Academy, I noticed that the communities standard from the 5Cs in the Standards for Foreign Language Learning (1999) is often replaced with a different C that stands for Careers. The focus on the professional use of Spanish is starkly emphasized through this substitution. On an operational level in the classroom, staying abreast of current events in the Spanish-speaking world and being able to interpret them—such as changes in government officials, political and economic transitions in the target culture—take on greater importance while teaching at the United States Air Force Academy. For example, when A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 93 learners know that they might be assigned to carry out tasks in any Latin American country in the future, the learners understandably pay more attention to geographical details, how economic conditions impact political situations, how longstanding historical realities affect the current mood, and so on. The language-learning environment carries with it a cachet of practical information, and it also supplies complex situations and problem-solving scenarios on which future Air Force decision makers can cut their teeth. Language practice includes creating a number of hypothetical SSP situations in which cadets participate in order to foreshadow their leadership roles, such as role-play opportunities that are relevant to Air Force operations. For example, cadets might be asked what they would do and say as a United States Air Attaché or an intelligence officer stationed in Latin America. On the conceptual level, I am currently organizing and creating a seminar that is titled War in the Arts, Literature and Film in Spain and Latin America. It is a themed-humanities seminar that offers a rich lexical environment and an opportunity to focus on the profession of war, ethics, conflict and peacekeeping in the context of film, art and print texts of the Spanish-speaking world. Considering, for example, the representation of the warrior in a literary work provides an opportunity to discuss ethics and strategies and to analyze the representation of leaders across cultures. At the United States Air Force Academy, I have participated in preparing cadets to go on semester-long exchanges to foreign military academies. Some of this is done through wayside teaching at our Spanish conversation table, emphasizing the type of current and relevant social, linguistic, and cultural information that a cadet might need to function abroad in a variety of contexts and represent the United States. One way to prepare for going abroad has been to encourage and mentor cadets to volunteer for selection to host visiting military dignitaries, such as ranking delegations from the Colombian and Mexican Air Force. To prepare cadets, instructors share with them tips about how to interact appropriately and to display leadership through social intelligence and knowledge of protocol in the target language and culture. As a follow up, debriefing after these events is essential to discuss perceptions and observations and to develop cross-cultural competence. Much like teaching and interacting with SGP students, there are immediate needs, and then, there is the important long-range goal of encouraging life-long learning in Spanish. In the context of the United States Air Force, there are programs that make this objective more concrete than what is generally experienced by students in civilian colleges and universities. To take advantage of what the Air Force has to offer, I have also learned about LEAP (Language Enabled Airman Program), which provides for structured life-long language learning for specific purposes in the Air Force. According to the Air Force Culture and Language Center ("Air force culture," 2012), LEAP is designed to sustain, enhance and utilize the existing language skills and talents of Airmen in the program. The stated goal of LEAP is to develop a core group of Airmen across specialties and careers possessing the capability to communicate in one or more foreign languages. To become a participant in LEAP, Airmen must already possess moderate to high levels of proficiency in a foreign language. Individuals that apply and are accepted into the LEAP program receive regular training both face to face and online in the target language as well as have immersion opportunities at intervals during their careers. Working to encourage and help cadets apply for LEAP is another SSP goal at the United States Air Force. A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 94 These are an overview of my unexpected SSP experiences at the Air Force Academy. My transformation from SGP to SSP started with learning and applying new vocabulary that focuses on cadets' professional needs. Later, I began to think of my learners as future leaders that will need to perform and apply knowledge to make judgments about the Spanish-speaking individuals and groups. This motivated me to reorganize courses and reconceive of them with a keener eye toward performance and to explore ways to get cadets to think beyond their immediate milieu. With the overlay of leadership development and military culture, this teaching experience has driven me to operate in a more interdisciplinary fashion than before. I experienced first hand a teaching and learning climate that offers a unique hybrid of liberal arts and technical education in a military context. Perhaps the best lesson that SSP teaches is to constantly question the relevance of what you are doing in the classroom: to whom is it relevant and for what purpose? Within the Department of Foreign Languages at the United States Air Force Academy, the SSP focus on career preparation in language instruction and the liberal arts connection with leadership evolved simultaneously. This dual focus of the curriculum contrasts the reality in most civilian language departments where there was one general focus and departments are being (or have been retrofitted) to include new curricula and/or tracks. Many civilian language departments are currently transitioning from SGP programs and integrating more SSP language options. In the late 1980s and on into the 1990s, Spanish for Business and Medical Spanish courses appeared. The integration of professional courses happened in response to societal needs (Doyle, 2010). The Department of Foreign Languages at the United States Air Force Academy offers a rare, fully integrated model of the curricular common ground of career-focused language learning with an underpinning of liberal arts breadth. Conversely, civilian language programs have transitioned to dual-purpose or multipurpose programs for different reasons. In many cases, motives for transitioning programs have been to maintain relevance and enrollments. The latter was clearly the case with the Spanish language program at UAB in the 1990s. This two-fold reality raises the palpable issue of how best to organize these dual-purpose programs from both a curricular and an administrative point of view. Undergraduate language departments and programs have to meet the needs of both their general and specific constituencies. There is a general consensus in the language discipline that multiple paths to the language major, as advocated by the Modern Language Association in the report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007), will be a necessity for the future survival of undergraduate language programs. With curricular reform underway, how do traditional language programs best transition from general purposes programs to hybridized programs that also house languages for specific purposes? Another obvious driver of dual-purpose Spanish language programs is the limited support for language teaching and learning. As programs transform, we need to be mindful of the realities that face most undergraduate language programs: 1) limited financial resources to support language programs, 2) staffing limitations because of faculty back-ground and adaptability, 3) reward systems that favor faculty members who work in the more established subdisciplines in the language field, and 4) multifoci and/or shifting interests of undergraduate students. Because of these conditions, exploring ways that resources can be shared intentionally and constructively will be essential to benefit general A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 95 and specific purposes language programs at the same time. The UAB Spanish language program learned to share resources and evolved into a multipurpose program. The UAB Spanish language program transitioned from SGP to include SSP gradually over several decades. This transformation aligns the department with the institution's vision and mission, which is outlined below: The UAB Vision UAB's vision is to be an internationally renowned research university—a first choice for education and health care. The UAB Mission UAB's mission is to be a research university and academic health center that dis- covers, teaches and applies knowledge for the intellectual, cultural, social and eco- nomic benefit of Birmingham, the state and beyond. Source: http://www.uab.edu/plan/ Reflecting the mission and vision at UAB, these statements clearly present the dual role of the institution: it is both medical and educational. When I joined the faculty 20 years ago, we spoke of the medical side and the academic side of campus in a way that implied a scant relationship between the two. Therefore, the undergraduate curriculum in the language department in the early years of my appointment had no relationship with the health sciences. This separation slowly eroded over the years. When I was hired in 1992, the curriculum for the UAB undergraduate language major would best be described as traditional: language and literature. UAB students studied languages for a variety of reasons, ranging from enrichment to the fulfillment of the compulsory language requirement. We had a multiquarter language requirement that was rescinded in the mid-1990s as a result of the politics between the state's community colleges and the universities. Currently, UAB has no foreign language requirement. Almost 650 students were enrolled in Spanish in spring 2012 out of an undergraduate population of close to 12,000 students ("UAB student profile," 2011). Ironically, the lack of a language requirement in the undergraduate curriculum set the department on a path toward popularizing SSP. At that time, the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures began to turn its attention to providing courses that the students demanded. As a result in the mid-1990s, UAB offered its first medical Spanish classes for undergraduate students. From that time on, I became interested increasingly in SSP for reasons that had to do with the institution's human capital both faculty and student. Also from 2002–2009, I served as chairperson of the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures. I took an administrator's interest in growing and integrating a SSP program into the existing general Spanish program. The medical Spanish courses were a good match for the interests of our student body. Approximately 40% of the freshmen that enroll at UAB declare that they are on the premedicine track. Many students are attracted to our campus because UAB houses an internationally known School of Medicine, although many freshmen abandon the premedicine track for other health-related fields. A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 96 Student interest grew in professionally focused language courses and key faculty members invested in SSP as well. In 2001, our first applied linguist in Spanish was hired in the language department. She shared her vision of starting a SSP program by offering a few courses to appeal to pre-professionals. She became the director of the nascent SSP program. Over the years, the SSP program became so popular that it evolved into a more defined and elaborate SSP certificate program ("UAB Spanish for specific purposes program," 2012) that had 62 students enrolled in the program in spring 2012. It was the first undergraduate certificate program on the UAB campus. As the program grew, the SSP Director was successful in convincing existing junior faculty to take professional development seminars in SSP and develop additional SSP courses, such as Intermediate Spanish for the Professions, Advanced Business Spanish and Advanced Spanish for Health Professionals. In 2007, we hired a Spanish instructor to develop and expand the medical Spanish courses in the undergraduate curriculum under the umbrella of SSP. She began to collaborate with the Schools of Nursing, Medicine, and Dentistry to provide short courses to their graduate students. Over time, signs of curricular integration increased between the medical and academic sides of campus. Also, there was a confluence of external events in the state of Alabama and internal events on the UAB campus that occurred in the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century that promoted the success of the SSP program. Prior to the 2007 recession, a rapidly growing Spanish-speaking population in Alabama had health professionals in a reactive mode because they were not prepared to handle patients that spoke limited English ("Demographic profile of Hispanics in Alabama," 2012). In 2005, UAB hosted campus-wide events around its first freshmen discussion book The Spirit Catches you and you Fall Down: A Hmong Child, her American Doctors and the Collision of two Cultures by Ann Fadiman (1997). The book was widely read across campus, especially in the School of Medicine. Fadiman's volume chronicled Hmong (not Spanish) speakers. Nevertheless, the book captured the timely problem of the critical need for communication with the foreign born in the health professions. From that year on, the importance of cross-cultural communication became part of the UAB campus dialogue. Also around this time, UAB's prominent, grant-funded Minority Health and Research Center unofficially broadened its definition of minority to include Latinos. Meanwhile, within the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures we were able to offer our first scholarship award for a Spanish major on the premedicine track in 2003. Beginning in 2003, I recall anecdotally receiving periodic inquiries from ranking individuals in the School of Medicine that wanted to collaborate. Typically, they requested the assistance of Spanish-speaking faculty with informed-consent forms. There were repeated requests for help with interpretation until the UAB clinics developed protocols to deal with Spanish-language only patients. In January 2010, we piloted a short course in Spanish (Davidson & Long, 2012) that was offered as part of the medical school elective curriculum. In 2002, the staff of the language department informally observed a trend in the increase of undergraduate students who declared a double major in Spanish and Biology/Chemistry. I procured a modest donation from a local physician for the aforementioned scholarship. All of these events fueled the popularity of the UAB SSP program and clearly defined the need for it. The current SSP program and certificate houses a number of preprofessional courses that are not limited exclusively to SSP students. The full program description can A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 97 be viewed at http://www.uab.edu/languages/languages-programs/ssp. The number of general versus pre-professional students varies from course to course, but courses such as Spanish Translation and Interpretation tend to enroll students from both cohorts, whereas Spanish for the Health Professionals enrolls few general-purposes students. Of course, the faculty members have noticed over time that our student clientele had slowly changed: two very different types of students were sitting in the same classroom. Professionally focused Spanish students and general Spanish students enrolled in the some of the same courses. This presented new pedagogical challenges for our faculty members and raised the issue: how does one meet the needs of both groups (SSP and SGP) in the context of our institution's student body? To date, this matter has not been systematically dealt with in the UAB Spanish Division. Individual professors have developed strategies, like individualizing projects, and yet, other faculty members teach to one group to the exclusion of the other. The curricular changes discussed by the Modern Language Association have come about in many language departments, and they have been welcomed by some faculty members but not by all. Embracing the notion that the traditional liberal arts language learner can cohabitate with the interdisciplinary and/or career-focused language learner (as demonstrated at the United States Air Force Academy) is key. Highlighting the philo-sophical common ground rooted in a liberal arts education is what may be perceived by some individuals as strictly technical training may help ease the transition. The next phase will be to articulate relevant practices for educators and administrators, as well as shared values and outcomes, and to provide models that show transitional programs how to achieve what I would like to call 'constructive hybridity.' I define constructive hybridity as a positive and collective effort to sort out and integrate the best of traditional Spanish language programs with different SSP practices evidencing more focused professional goals. The next task is to define the 'shared canon' between the various tracks in any given Spanish program. Obviously, this is not a one-size-fits-all charge due to different student, societal and institutional needs, but there is foundational work to be done in order to come up with more consensuses. Given my administrative experiences as a faculty member at UAB and my teaching experience at the United States Air Force Academy, I have come to realize that both general and specific missions in Spanish-language learning are not mutually exclusive. In June 2011, I marched off to Colorado to teach and to learn. I have learned that there is a place for time-tested liberal arts values within SSP programs and that hybridized programs (liberal arts and SSP) can be successful and beneficial to the learner. As suggested by the United States Air Force Academy and UAB programs, future programs in Spanish-language instruction will need to focus on our common ground to serve multiple purposes. Thus, I return to the concept that I mentioned at the outset: it is time to think hybrid. Our future undergraduate language programs will have multiple tracks/purposes. This hybridization can be as positive and enriching for both faculty members and language learners as it has been for me during this phase of my career as a language educator. Returning to my own narrative as a committed, career Spanish professor, I have no doubt that, in the future, my newfound SSP instructional acumen and orientation will inform my future general purposes classes and improve them. A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 98 Disclaimer The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the United States Air Force Academy, the United States Air Force, The Depart-ment of Defense or the United States Government. References Air force culture and language center. (2012, May). Retrieved from http://www.culture.af.mil/leap/index.aspx Blaich, C., Bost, A., Chan, E., & Lynch, R. (2010). Defining liberal arts education. Retrieved from http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/storage Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content and language integrated learning (p. 25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davidson, L., & Long, S. S. (2012). Medical Spanish for US medical students: A pilot case study. Dimension, 1–13. Retrieved from http://scolt.webnode.com/ Demographic profile of Hispanics in Alabama. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.pewhispanic.org/states/state/al/ Doyle, M. S. (2010). A responsive, integrative Spanish curriculum at UNC Charlotte. Hispania, 93(1), 80–84. Education for global leadership: The importance of international studies and foreign language education for US economic and national security. (2006). Washington, DC: Committee for Economic Development. Fadiman, A. (1997). The spirit catches you and you fall down: A Hmong child, her American doctors, and the collision of two cultures. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Foreign languages and higher education: new structures for a changed world. (2007) MLA ad hoc committee on foreign languages. Profession published by the Modern Language Association, 2007 (May), 1–11. Pennington, H. (2012, April 13). For student success, stop debating and start improving. The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. A33–A34. Sánchez-López, L. (2013). Spanish for specific purposes. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century. (1999) Lawrence, KS: National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, Allen Press. Sustaining US global leadership: Priorities for 21st century defense. (2012) Washington DC: Department of Defense. UAB Spanish for specific purposes program. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.uab.edu/languages/ssp UAB Student profile. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.uab.edu/home/about/student-profile-accomplishments United States Air Force Academy curriculum handbook 2011–2012. (2011). USAF Academy, CO: Academy Board. Western, D. J. (2011). How to say 'national security' in 1,100 languages. Air & Space Power Journal, 48–61. Retrieved from http://www.airpower.au.af.mil
Die Anforderungen an Rohrleitungen aus glasfaserverstärktem Kunststoff (GFK) sind im Hinblick auf die Dichtheit, die Medienbeständigkeit und die Betriebssicherheit in den letzten Jahren gestiegen. Dennoch müssen die Betreiber chemischer Anlagen mit Rohrleitungen aus glasfaserverstärktem Kunststoff mit Losflanschen aus sheet-molding-compound (SMC) diese nachweislich sicher betreiben. Die Motivation zu dieser Arbeit liegt darin, dieses Bestreben mit der Auswahl von geeigneten PTFE-Dichtungen und mit der Untersuchung und Optimierung des mechanischen Verhaltens der SMC-Losflansche sowie ihrer analytischen Berechnung zu unterstützen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse sind im Folgenden zusammengefasst. • Optimierung der Dichtungen In diesem Themenbereich wurden neun verschiedene Dichtungen aus Polytetrafluorethylen (PTFE) und zwei Gummidichtungen hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung für den Einsatz in GFK-Flanschverbindungen untersucht. Die Basis der Untersuchungen bildeten die Dichtungskennwerte nach DIN EN 13555, welche unter reduzierten Anfangspressungen im Leckage- und Stauchversuch und bei niedrigerer Steifigkeit und verlängerter Versuchsdauer im Kriechrelaxationsversuch ermittelt wurden. Vier PTFE-Dichtungen stellten sich im Leckageversuch als besonders geeignet heraus. An diesen wurden zusätzlich Untersuchungen zum Rückfeder- und Kriechrelaxationsverhalten durchgeführt. Die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse aus der Dichtungsprüfung sind zum einen, dass das Leckageratenkriterium der TA Luft mit 0,01 mbar•l/(s•m) bei 40 bar Helium von einigen PTFE-Dichtungen auch bei den in GFK-Flanschverbindungen typischen Flächenpressungen unterhalb 10 MPa eingehalten werden kann. Zum anderen entspricht das Rückfederverhalten der PTFE-Dichtungen dem der Gummidichtungen und die Kriechrelaxation der PTFE-Dichtungen unter den Bedingungen in GFK-Flanschverbindungen ist mit etwa 80% verbleibender Flächenpressung im Betrieb akzeptabel. Der Verlust der Vorspannkraft der Flanschverbindung im Betrieb resultiert maßgeblich aus der Kriechrelaxation der GFK-Flansche. Zur Optimierung von PTFE-Dichtungen werden von den Dichtungsherstellern verschiedene Maßnahmen getroffen, wie zum Beispiel die Kombination unterschiedlicher Werkstoffe oder Variation der Dichtungsgeometrie, welche das Abdichtverhalten verbessern. Um die Auswirkungen dieser Modifikationen rechnerisch erfassen zu können, wurde ein zweistufiges numerisches Konzept entwickelt, welches die Durchlässigkeit der Dichtung mit einem Transportansatz beschreibt. Dafür wird im ersten Schritt in einer Finite-Elemente-Simulation die Flächenpressungsverteilung der Dichtung bestimmt. Die lokale Dichtheit kann mit dem Leckageversuch nach DIN EN 13555 bestimmt und in einem zweiten Schritt der in Finite Elemente diskretisierten Dichtung örtlich zugewiesen werden. Die Lösung des Transportproblems führt zur Druckverteilung innerhalb der Dichtung und zur globalen Leckagerate der optimierten Dichtung. Diese Vorgehensweise liefert im Vergleich zu den gemessenen Druckprofilen innerhalb unter-schiedlich verpresster Dichtungen und für die globale Leckagerate einer vorverpressten PTFE-Dichtung konsistente Werte. Dem entsprechend konnte die Reduktion der Leckagerate einer durch Vorverpressen optimierten PTFE-Flachdichtung um den Faktor 3000 korrekt vorhergesagt werden. Die Methodik ermöglicht ebenfalls eine realistische Bewertung der Dichtheit von Flansch-verbindungen mit der Finite-Elemente-Methode (FEM), mit dem Ergebnis, dass in der Regel die zur Einhaltung der Dichtheit benötigten Mindestwerte der Schraubenkräfte im Vergleich zur herkömmlichen Bewertung der Dichtheit mit der mittleren Flächenpressung der Dichtung geringer werden. • Optimierung der Flansche Zunächst wurde der fertigungsbedingte Lagenaufbau und die damit verbundenen Werkstoffeigen-schaften der SMC-Losflansche bestimmt. Es handelt sich um eine unregelmäßige Verteilung eines transversal isotropen Lagenaufbaus. Dies wurde durch die Untersuchung der Mikrostruktur verdeutlicht, wobei festgestellt wurde, dass innerhalb der Flansche neben den eingeschlossenen Luftblasen auch die Matrix zwischen den Fasern von mikroskopischen Lufteinschlüssen durchsetzt ist. Aus diesem Grund weichen die Elastizitätskonstanten aus der theoretischen Herleitung deutlich von den gemessenen Werten an Bauteilausschnitten ab. Die Untersuchung des mechanischen Verhaltens der SMC-Losflansche wurde in einem Stauchversuch durchgeführt. Der Unterschied zur genormten Vorgehensweise nach DIN EN 16966 Teil 7 besteht darin, dass die Last kontinuierlich bis zum Bauteilversagen aufgebracht und dabei die axiale Verformung des Losflansches aufgezeichnet wird. Die Auswertung des Stauchverhaltens liefert als Ergebnis die maximale Traglast und die Steifigkeit der Losflansche. Beide Werte sind zur Bestimmung der Qualität einer Flanschverbindung von entscheidender Bedeutung. Zusätzlich werden mögliche Schwächen im Bauteil, welche zu vorzeitigem Versagen führen, erkannt. Dies ermöglicht dem Hersteller, beispielsweise durch die Variation des Lagenaufbaus oder des Matrixwerkstoffes, die Eigenschaften der Losflansche zu optimieren. Mit der messtechnischen Erfassung des Kriechrelaxationsverhaltens unter Temperatur in einem speziell dafür entwickelten Prüfstand wurde bestätigt, dass der Vorspannkraftverlust der Flanschverbindung im Betrieb maßgeblich durch die viskose Verformung der Flansche bedingt ist. Mit dem Ziel, den Lagenaufbau der SMC-Losflansche zu verbessern und die analytische Beschreibung der Losflansche zu verifizieren, wurde ein Finite-Elemente-Modell der Flanschverbindung erstellt. Darin wurden die an Bauteilausschnitten senkrecht und längs der SMC-Matten ermittelten anisotropen Elastizitätskonstanten, Festigkeits- und Kriecheigenschaften mittels geeigneter Werkstoffmodelle eingebunden. Der unregelmäßige Lagenaufbau wurde durch die Anpassung der Elementkoordinatensysteme an die an Schnitten visuell ermittelte Orientierung der SMC-Matten abgebildet. Die Bewertung der Ergebnisse der FE-Simulation mit der Festigkeits-hypothese nach Tsai-Wu bestätigt das verbesserte Tragverhalten eines Losflansches mit dem durch eine Fertigungsumstellung erzielten ebenen Lagenaufbau. Damit konnte die maximale Traglast des SMC-Losflansches um 50 % erhöht werden. Die Kriechrelaxation des SMC-Losflansches wird durch die Abbildung der an den Bauteilausschnitten ermittelten, richtungsabhängigen Kriechkurven mit dem von Hill modifizierten Kriechgesetz nach Graham-Walles beschrieben. Damit werden die gemessenen zeitlichen Verläufe der Schraubenkraft im Betrieb realistisch abgebildet. Die Vorhersage der im Vergleich zum bestehenden Losflansch geringfügig erhöhten Kriechrelaxation des Prototyps mit ebenem Lagenaufbau wird durch die Messung bestätigt. Insgesamt bedeutet die Erhöhung der zulässigen Schraubenkräfte bei Montage von 40 kN auf 60 kN eine deutliche Zunahme der Schraubenkraft im Betrieb, was die Betriebssicherheit erhöht und die Verwendung von PTFE-Dichtungen begünstigt. • Optimierung der Berechnungsmethode Mit den Erkenntnissen zur Beanspruchung von Losflanschen aus der messtechnischen Untersuchung der Flanschverbindung und aus der numerischen Simulation wurde ein analytisches Berechnungskonzept für den Losflansch entwickelt. Dieses berechnet die Beanspruchung in Umfangsrichtung aus dem Stülpmoment. Die Umfangsspannungen und die Verformung des Losflansches werden damit realistischer beschrieben als durch die bestehenden Regelwerke. Da das Berechnungskonzept ausschließlich die Spannung an der Losflanschoberseite zwischen den Schrauben abbildet, kann ein Bauteilversagen an anderer Stelle nicht erfasst werden. So muss bei der Auslegung differenziert nach der Lokalisierung des Versagens im Stauchversuch vorgegangen werden: - Losflansch versagt im Stauchversuch an der Flanschoberseite zwischen den Schrauben Das Berechnungskonzept ist anwendbar. Zur Berechnung der Flanschverbindung kann die analytische Beschreibung des Verhaltens von Losflanschen die bestehenden Regelwerken ersetzen. Mit dem zur Diskussion stehenden Wegfall der Werkstoffabminderungsfaktoren gemäß den Definitionen im AD 2000-Merkblatt führt die beschriebene Vorgehensweise zu höheren Schraubenkräften bei Montage und im Betrieb der Flanschverbindung. Dies bewirkt eine höhere Dichtheit und Betriebssicherheit von Anlagen mit GFK-Rohrleitungen. - Losflansch versagt an anderer Stelle Das Berechnungskonzept kann nicht angewendet werden. Alternativ können die maximale zulässige Schraubenkraft für Montage und im Betrieb sowie die Steifigkeiten im Stauchversuch ermittelt werden. Der Hersteller kann die sich im Stauchversuch offenbarenden Schwachstellen im Bauteil identifizieren und den Fertigungsprozess hinsichtlich des Tragverhaltens der Losflansche optimieren. ; The present discussion on environmental impact leads to the need to reduce fugitive emissions in the processing industry. In the European Union, the strategy to avoid and reduce fugitive emissions is draft in the EG-guideline 96/61/EG with its corresponding german version, the IVU-Richtlinie. It describes the required measures that plant operators have to apply, in order to meet the requirements on national level. In Germany, the TA Luft in conjunction with the VDI guidelines 2440 and 2200 refer to the standards DIN EN 1591-1 and KTA 3211.2 to carry out the requested strength and tightness proof with the gasket parameters according to DIN EN 13555. For flange connections with grp-flanges, the design method according to AD 2000-Merkblatt B8 is used with the specifications in AD 2000-Merkblatt N1, which account for the specific material behaviour of grp in terms of reduction ratios for the strength analysis. According to the operational experience of the plant operators, this method leads to unrealistic results for the allowable bolt loads. The aim of the present work is to enable plant operators to design and to operate grp-piping with grp-flanges at temperatures up to 80 °C, using polytetraflourethylene (PTFE) gaskets that shall replace the mandatory rubber gaskets. PTFE-gaskets, unlike rubber gaskets, provide an extraordinary chemical resistance to almost all corrosive media and no deterioration. Unfortunately, applying PTFE-gaskets leads to increased creep-relaxation behaviour and higher leakage rates at the characteristically low bolt forces in grp-flange connections. Nine PTFE gaskets have been evaluated according to the gasket test procedure DIN EN 13555 with respect to their qualification for grp-flange connections in terms of tightness, elastic recovery and creep relaxation behaviour. In comparison to the rubber gaskets, the leakage rates of the PTFE-gaskets were higher, but four gaskets met the leakage rate criterion of the TA Luft under the condition in grp-flange connections. These four PTFE-gaskets showed an elastic resilience comparable to rubber gaskets and acceptable creep-relaxation behaviour. Altogether, it was shown, that PTFE-gaskets can be suitable for grp-flange connections. In order to improve the sealing performance and reduce fugitive emissions, an approach was developed to estimate the effects of inhomogeneous gasket stresses, geometry changes and combinations of different gasket materials. Compression and leakage tests according to DIN EN 13555 formed the basis to characterize the gasket pressure-closure behaviour and the permeability of a homogeneously stressed sheet gasket material. Provided that linear pressure dependency is applicable, a transport-theory according to heat conduction could be applied to calculate the effects of an inhomogeneous gasket stress distribution or a variation of gasket geometry, particularly the gasket width. The developed method implies a two-stage procedure. In the first step, the local gasket stress distribution and subsequently the corresponding permeability in a flange connection was calculated. The local permeability was allocated for each element in terms of a unique material definition. Solving the steady state in the second step under inner and ambient pressure constraint leads to the internal pressure distribution, the local leakage flow and the overall leak rate. The approach is applied and verified at an inhomogeneously stressed sheet gasket and enables us to predict a reduction in the leak rate of a prestressed PTFE-sheet gasket by a factor of 3000 due to the decreased gasket width. This method can form the basis for conducting appropriate tightness proofs in designing flange connections using the finite element method. For the development of a design method that accounts for the specific material properties of grp, a detailed knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of grp-flanges was essential. In this work, the mechanical behaviour of grp slip-on flanges, fabricated using sheet molding compound (smc) was investigated in compression tests and creep-relaxation tests in order to develop a procedure to characterize their mechanical behaviour and describe it in a design method. The fabrication process of the smc slip-on flanges yields a wavy transverse isotropic layer structure. The elastic constants, the strength properties and the creep behaviour with respect to the layer orientations were determined from cylindrical cut outs with known layer orientation, and implemented in a finite element model. Comparative calculations show good agreement with the compression tests and creep-relaxation tests. Calculating the effects of different layer structures, the advantage of a slip-on flange with uniformly stacked layer structure became evident. The bearing load of a slip-on flange with uniformly stacked layer structure exceeds the load bearing capacity of the slip-on flange with wavy layer structure by a factor of 1,5. The calculation of the bolted flange connection in accordance with AD-Merkblatt does not agree with the real loading situation in a slip-on flange. The AD-Merkblatt design is based on a radially clamped bending beam. Thus, the design calculates a radial stress which represents the usage level of the flange. In real terms, the loose flange is rotated due to the lever arm caused by the difference between the diameter of the bolt-force circle and the outer diameter of the collar. Additionally, a linearly distributed load in circumferential direction is caused by the finite bolt hole pitch with the consequence of an additional bending stress. The circumferential stresses and the flange rotation were described analytically, showing good agreement with the results of the FE simulation and the experimental investigations. If the compression test of the slip-on flange shows failure under the washer, the analytical concept cannot be applied. Alternatively, it was possible to determine the maximum load bearing capacity and the stiffness in the compression test. If the slip-on flange fails at the position between the bolts, and the material strength value is known, the flange connection can be designed according to the presented new analytical concept. If the maximum strength of the grp material in the circumferential direction was reached at the position between the bolts it can be assumed that weak points existed in the structure of the grp-compound. If the reduction ratios according to AD 2000-Merkblatt-N1 were omitted and the specific material properties of grp were characterized in the design method with the analytic concept for slip-on flanges, the allowable bolt forces for grp-flange connections with slip-on flanges increased significantly. This leads to increased gasket stresses during mounting and service conditions with the benefit of improved tightness behaviour and a reduction of fugitive emissions.
Keywords: the concept of «technology transfer», technology fields, local and basictechnologies, the object of transfer, contractual relations, intellectual property. The article considers the methodology of technologytransfer from the point of economic and legal content in the field of intellectualproperty. It is noted that there is no single definition of technology transfer, as scientistsin various fields interpret it due to the peculiarities of their field of activity. Atthe general level, the field of technology is considered as the birth of technologies,their types and maturity, which are the objects of transfer, taking into account the peculiaritiesof state regulation in the field of transfer. It is in the field of technologythat an invention (utility model) is born, as a result of intellectual, creative human activity;that is, they associate this process with the material carriers of technologies, orthe intangible phenomenon becomes a material state. The transfer of technology is associatedwith the transition to technical means, technological processes, and computernetworks. It is considered from the point of law as a type of communication betweenbusiness entities on the basis of contractual relations. It is determined thatfrom the point of methodology of technologies and their components transfer, theissue of technologies origin and the nature of their creation require in-depth study,and that is important to indicate the author(s) (owner(s)) of the result of intellectual,creative activity in the field of intellectual property. The main goal of the technology can be achieved only if there is a quantitative assessment of the perfection of theprocess and product quality. Technology uses two types of models: ideal objects ofbasic sciences, on the basis of which the most general laws and regularities of naturalsciences are formulated, and ideal objects of technology itself, on the basis of whichmorphological descriptions of separate stages and functional descriptions of the structureof technological lines are made. New local technologies are the result of inventions,utility models in the field of technologies, which have a specific author(s) (inventor(s)) and which are the object of transfer. Amendments to the terms of Article 1of the Law of Ukraine «On State Regulation of Technology Transfer Activities». ; Ключові слова: поняття «трансфер технології», сфери технологій, локальні та базовітехнології, об'єкт трансферу, договірні відносини, інтелектуальна власність У статті розглянуто методологію трансферу технологій з позиції економіко-правовогозмісту у сфері інтелектуальної власності. Зазначено, що досі немає єдиного визначеннятрансферу технологій, оскільки науковці різних галузей трактують його через особливо-сті своєї сфери діяльності. На загальному рівні розглянуто сферу технології як народ-ження технологій, їх видів та зрілості, що є об'єктами трансферу, з урахуванням особли-востей державного регулювання у сфері трансферу. Саме у сфері технології народжу-ється винахід (корисна модель) як результат інтелектуальної, творчої діяльності людини.Цей процес пов'язують з матеріальними носіями технологій, або нематеріальне явищепереходить у матеріальний стан. З трансфером технології пов'язують перехід до техніч-них засобів, технологічних процесів, комп'ютерних мереж. Він розглядається з позиціїправа як вид комунікацій між суб'єктами господарювання на основі договірних відносин.Визначено, що з позиції методології трансферу технологій та їх складових поглибленогодослідження потребує проблема походження технологій та природи її створення, що маєзначення для встановлення автора/ів (власника/ів) результату інтелектуальної, творчоїдіяльності у сфері інтелектуальної власності. Головна мета технології може бути досяг-нута тільки за наявності кількісної оцінки довершеності процесу та якості продукту.Технологія користується двома типами моделей: ідеальні об'єкти фундаментальнихнаук, на базі яких сформульовано найбільш загальні закони та закономірності природо-знавчих наук, та ідеальні об'єкти власне самої технології, на базі яких складено морфо-логічні описи окремих стадій (технологічних операцій) та функціональні описи струк-ту¬ри технологічних ліній. Нові локальні технології (інноваційні технології) є результа-том винаходів, корисних моделей у сфері технологій, які мають конкретного/их автора/ів(винахідника/ків) і стають об'єктом трансферу. Запропоновано зміни та доповнення дотермінів статті 1 Закону України «Про державне регулювання діяльності у сфері транс-феру технологій»: «нематеріальні активи» «об'єкт технології», «складова технології» та«технологія», які знайшли більш нове та системне відображення.Список використаних джерел: 1. Шиващкевич Д. С. Формирование сетевых инновационных структур как условие перехода к новым технологическим укладам. Вестник СГСЭУ, 2013. № 2 (46). 2. Трансфер технологій / Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. 3. Большой экономический словарь: 25000 терминов / под ред. А. Н. Азрилияна. 7-е изд., доп. 4. Цибульова П. М., Чеботарьова В. П., Зінова В. Г., Суіні Ю. Управління інтелектуальною власністю : монографія / за ред. П. М. Цибульова. Київ : «К.І.С.», 2005. 448 с. 5. Ляшенко О. М. 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URL: https://web.znu.edu.ua/ herald//issues/2012/eco-3-2012/059-64.pdf. 20. Білоус О. Ю. Державне регулювання у сфері трансферу знань та технологій як чинник інноваційного розвитку економіки України. Вісник соціально-економічних досліджень. Випуск 2 (57), 2015. С. 100–107. URL: http://vsed.oneu.edu.ua/collections/2015/57/pdf/100-107.pdf. 21. Громов Г. Сфера» технологии. URL: http://www.wdigest.ru /nir_ sphere.htm. 22. Основні технологічні поняття та визначення. URL: https://lektsii.org/ 5-62188.html. ========================= 1. Shyvashchkevych D. S. Formyrovanye setevыkh ynnovatsyonnыkh struktur kak uslovye perekhoda k novыm tekhnolohycheskym ukladam. Vestnyk SHSЭU, 2013. № 2 (46). 2. Transfer tekhnolohii / Material z Vikipedii — vilnoi entsyklopedii. 3. Bolshoi эkonomycheskyi slovar: 25000 termynov / pod red. A. N. Azrylyiana. 7-e yzd., dop. 4. Tsybulova P. M., Chebotarova V. P., Zinova V. H., Suini Yu. Upravlinnia intelektualnoiu vlasnistiu : monohrafiia / za red. P. M. Tsybulova. Kyiv : «K.I.S.», 2005. 448 s. 5. Liashenko O. M. Modeli komertsializatsii ta transferu tekhnolohii v umovakh hlobalnoho seredovyshcha : monohrafiia. Ternopil : Ekonomichna dumka, 2007. 366 s. 6. Pererva P. H., Kotsysky D., Sakai D., Vereshne Shomoshy M. Transfer tekhnolohyi: monohrafyia. Kharkov — Myshkolts : NTU «KhPY», 2012. 599 s. URL: http://repository.kpi.kharkov.ua/bitstream/KhPI-Press/26368/1/Pererva_ Transfer_tekhnologiy_2012.pdf/. 7. Transfer tekhnolohii ta okhorona intelektualnoi vlasnosti v naukovykh ustanovakh : monohrafiia / Yu. M. Kapitsa, K. S. Shakhbazian, D. S. Makhnovskyi, I. I. Khomenko / za red. Yu. M. Kapitsy. Kyiv : Tsentr intelektualnoi vlasnosti ta peredachi tekhnolohii NAN Ukrainy, 2015. 431 s. 8. Novikov Ye. A. Pravove rehuliuvannia diialnosti merezhi transfertekhnolohii : monohrafiia. Kharkiv : NDI PZIR NAPrNU, 2019. 173 s. 9.Tytov V. V. Transfer tekhnolohyi : uchebnoe posobye. Moskva : VNYYPY, 2000. 10. Transfer tekhnolohii : pidruchnyk / A. A. Mazaraki, H. 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Keywords: the concept of «technology transfer», technology fields, local and basictechnologies, the object of transfer, contractual relations, intellectual property. The article considers the methodology of technologytransfer from the point of economic and legal content in the field of intellectualproperty. It is noted that there is no single definition of technology transfer, as scientistsin various fields interpret it due to the peculiarities of their field of activity. Atthe general level, the field of technology is considered as the birth of technologies,their types and maturity, which are the objects of transfer, taking into account the peculiaritiesof state regulation in the field of transfer. It is in the field of technologythat an invention (utility model) is born, as a result of intellectual, creative human activity;that is, they associate this process with the material carriers of technologies, orthe intangible phenomenon becomes a material state. The transfer of technology is associatedwith the transition to technical means, technological processes, and computernetworks. It is considered from the point of law as a type of communication betweenbusiness entities on the basis of contractual relations. It is determined thatfrom the point of methodology of technologies and their components transfer, theissue of technologies origin and the nature of their creation require in-depth study,and that is important to indicate the author(s) (owner(s)) of the result of intellectual,creative activity in the field of intellectual property. The main goal of the technology can be achieved only if there is a quantitative assessment of the perfection of theprocess and product quality. Technology uses two types of models: ideal objects ofbasic sciences, on the basis of which the most general laws and regularities of naturalsciences are formulated, and ideal objects of technology itself, on the basis of whichmorphological descriptions of separate stages and functional descriptions of the structureof technological lines are made. New local technologies are the result of inventions,utility models in the field of technologies, which have a specific author(s) (inventor(s)) and which are the object of transfer. Amendments to the terms of Article 1of the Law of Ukraine «On State Regulation of Technology Transfer Activities». ; Ключові слова: поняття «трансфер технології», сфери технологій, локальні та базовітехнології, об'єкт трансферу, договірні відносини, інтелектуальна власність У статті розглянуто методологію трансферу технологій з позиції економіко-правовогозмісту у сфері інтелектуальної власності. Зазначено, що досі немає єдиного визначеннятрансферу технологій, оскільки науковці різних галузей трактують його через особливо-сті своєї сфери діяльності. На загальному рівні розглянуто сферу технології як народ-ження технологій, їх видів та зрілості, що є об'єктами трансферу, з урахуванням особли-востей державного регулювання у сфері трансферу. Саме у сфері технології народжу-ється винахід (корисна модель) як результат інтелектуальної, творчої діяльності людини.Цей процес пов'язують з матеріальними носіями технологій, або нематеріальне явищепереходить у матеріальний стан. З трансфером технології пов'язують перехід до техніч-них засобів, технологічних процесів, комп'ютерних мереж. Він розглядається з позиціїправа як вид комунікацій між суб'єктами господарювання на основі договірних відносин.Визначено, що з позиції методології трансферу технологій та їх складових поглибленогодослідження потребує проблема походження технологій та природи її створення, що маєзначення для встановлення автора/ів (власника/ів) результату інтелектуальної, творчоїдіяльності у сфері інтелектуальної власності. Головна мета технології може бути досяг-нута тільки за наявності кількісної оцінки довершеності процесу та якості продукту.Технологія користується двома типами моделей: ідеальні об'єкти фундаментальнихнаук, на базі яких сформульовано найбільш загальні закони та закономірності природо-знавчих наук, та ідеальні об'єкти власне самої технології, на базі яких складено морфо-логічні описи окремих стадій (технологічних операцій) та функціональні описи струк-ту¬ри технологічних ліній. Нові локальні технології (інноваційні технології) є результа-том винаходів, корисних моделей у сфері технологій, які мають конкретного/их автора/ів(винахідника/ків) і стають об'єктом трансферу. Запропоновано зміни та доповнення дотермінів статті 1 Закону України «Про державне регулювання діяльності у сфері транс-феру технологій»: «нематеріальні активи» «об'єкт технології», «складова технології» та«технологія», які знайшли більш нове та системне відображення.Список використаних джерел: 1. Шиващкевич Д. С. Формирование сетевых инновационных структур как условие перехода к новым технологическим укладам. Вестник СГСЭУ, 2013. № 2 (46). 2. Трансфер технологій / Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. 3. Большой экономический словарь: 25000 терминов / под ред. А. Н. Азрилияна. 7-е изд., доп. 4. Цибульова П. М., Чеботарьова В. П., Зінова В. Г., Суіні Ю. Управління інтелектуальною власністю : монографія / за ред. П. М. Цибульова. Київ : «К.І.С.», 2005. 448 с. 5. Ляшенко О. М. 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Purpose Religion has always been an important part of human civilization and has largely determined its paths. When speaking of tourism, religion has been one of the oldest motives for traveling. That kind of traveling found its place in the complex mechanism of touristic migrations as a selective tourism type called religious or faith tourism. Although Croatia as a country full of historical and art valuables has great potential for further religious tourism development, there is a lack of scientific and objective analysis of this specific area. Like any other form of selective tourist offer, it is also required to manage religious tourism in order to ensure efficient and sustainable economic development. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the religious tourism destinations, to look at the parameters that influence the effective synergy of the religious tourism destination factors, and to consider the needs of guests - religious tourists, in order to ensure positive economic effects with sustainable development in the destinations. Accordingly, the focus of the planned research is to find an optimal model for strategic management of religious tourism destinations. Methodology Various different methods of scientific research and suitable combinations thereof are employed when conducting scientific research, formulating and presenting results relevant for the defence of a doctoral thesis. For the empirical part of the research, a scientific model for the development of religious tourism was formulated and tested. Scientific research, formulation and presentation of research results in this doctoral dissertation has been accomplished by application of general methodological principles, commonly used in economic research. Acquired data has been analysed using methods of descriptive and inferential statistics. For the purpose of examining the sample of respondents that participated in conducted surveys, distributions according to gender, age groups, marital status, household income, employment status and degree of education have been determined. Distribution according to place of residence has also been determined for respondents who have gone on a religious journey at least once and responded to the survey. Distribution of respondents according to aforementioned characteristics is presented by simple bar charts. In addition to their application in describing the sample, descriptive statistical methods have been used to provide insight into research variables. For this purpose, three measures of central tendency (arithmetic mean, median and mode), as well as two measures of dispersion (standard deviation and interquartile range) have been calculated. Distribution of responses has also been presented by way of multiple bars. Considering that the responses were measured by ordinal scale, differences in evaluations and attitudes among individual groups have been analysed by means of nonparametric statistical tests. The Mann–Whitney test was used to test the significance of difference between two groups. The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to analyse differences between three or more groups. In cases where latter determined that there were at least two analysed groups with a significant difference, the Dunnin test was used for the purpose of their identification. It should be noted that empirical significance levels adjusted by Bonferroni correction are given alongside all Dunnin test results. Differences confirmed at a significance level below 5% were considered statistically significant for the purpose of this research. Statistical analysis of data was performed using statistical packages SPSS and Statistica, while graphical representations were generated using Microsoft Excel. Findings Two questionnaire surveys have been conducted for research purposes. A survey of attitudes of people who have gone on at least one religious journey or pilgrimage was conducted on a sample of 502 respondents, and a survey of attitudes and the level of involvement of local population in the management and application of sustainable tourism criteria in religious tourism destinations, as well as their level of satisfaction with the quality of living in the same observed religious destinations, was conducted by means of an online questionnaire, created using Google Forms, on a sample of 315 respondents. The survey was conducted in eleven selected religious destinations in the Republic of Croatia, namely: Ilača, Aljmaš, Slavonski Brod, Pleternica, Voćin, Ludbreg, Marija Bistrica, Krašić, Trsat, Sinj and Blato on the island of Korčula. The survey focused on the local population of a religious destination and on pilgrims, religious travellers and visitors of Croatian sanctuaries, keeping in mind the creation of a representative sample within the statistical dataset. The survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire in Croatian language. Statistical data analysis has been performed on questionnaires collected from pilgrims and religious travellers in religious tourism destinations and the results are presented in this paper. The results of conducted analyses of collected questionnaires show that the majority of residents of religious destinations have indicated a presence of unplanned tourism development within their destination and they predominantly agree with the assertion that unplanned tourism development has a negative impact on balanced economic and sustainable social development, which may lead to significant negative economic and social trends within their destination. It has been determined that local residents of religious destinations mostly agree that a synergetic effect of a religious destination's strategic management with the local community and higher-ranked church officials has an impact on the efficiency of strategic management, whereas pilgrims and religious travellers somewhat agree with this statement. The majority of residents who live in religious tourism destinations, including those involved in the hospitality and tourism industries, believe that religious tourism generates positive effects on their communality and agree that religious tourism benefits the development of their community in different ways. Almost 90% of respondents agree that tourism creates new job opportunities for the local population and contributes to youth employment, while over 90% of respondents agree that tourism has a significant impact on the town's aesthetics. Almost 88% of respondents agree that tourism increases sales of local products, thereby improving the quality of life of local residents through the development of events and infrastructure, while more than three quarters of respondents agree that tourism raises the level of environmental awareness and fosters conservation and renovation of cultural and sacral heritage. While local residents somewhat agreed with most assertions concerning the negative effects of tourism, such as that tourism effects an increase in the price of goods and services, causes an increase in number of seasonal workers, reduction in the number of permanently employed persons and precipitates an abundant production of waste, the majority of residents disagreed with the assertion that tourism development bears a negative impact on the development of other economic sectors. Survey respondents agreed with most of the statements evaluating the importance of factors which impact the defining of a tourism product of a religious tourism destination, such as statements concerning the spiritual significance of a religious destination (67%), the spiritual need of an individual worshipper (77%), and religious destination safety (64%), while only one factor was deemed irrelevant for the definition of a religious tourism destination's tourism product by the majority of respondents (63%), namely the importance of the opportunity of travelling with pets. Pilgrims and religious travellers somewhat agreed with most of the claims regarding the impact of the parish community on the volume of tourists at a religious tourism destination, whereas they mostly agreed with the assertion that the proactivity of the parish priest and his ability to motivate parishioners significantly affects the number of pilgrimages and the number of pilgrims. Residents of a religious destination have indicated a lack of synergy among religious tourism stakeholders in the process of making decisions on the development of religious tourism and for the most part agree (84%) that successful tourism management of their destination requires strategic planning with the broader local community and involvement of all religious tourism stakeholders in tourism development decision-making, which is functionally tied to success in properly drawing up and implementing a sustainable strategic plan of development of the destination. In-depth interviews have also been conducted for the purpose of the doctoral dissertation. The interviews were formulated as semi-structured and were conducted with priests who manage church shrines at six religious destinations, namely: Aljmaš, Ilača, Voćin, Ludbreg, Marija Bistrica and Trsat. The second part of the research also involved in-depth interviews, but with directors of the tourist associations of the city of Rijeka, Vukovar-Srijem County, Marija Bistrica, Ludbreg, Osijek-Baranja County, and Sinj. In-depth interview contributors were selected for being the most competent representatives of their institutions, able to provide answers to questions posed within the scope of the subject being analysed, and for having the most practical experience in dealing with the aforementioned issues, thus they were the most relevant persons to provide answers. Upon analysing the responses obtained through in-depth interviews conducted with priests, church sanctuary managers and tourist association directors, one can conclude that all research questions have been answered, stating that religious tourism in Croatian destinations is not sufficiently valued, that insufficient attention is paid to ensure sustainable development of religious tourism in religious destinations and noting a lack of mutual cooperation between tourist associations and managers of sanctuaries, who are the key stakeholders of religious tourism in religious destinations. A proposal of a model for strategic management of a religious tourism destination is presented at the end of the paper. A vital part of the model involves the establishment of a strategic management structure for a religious destination which should certainly be unbiased and have executive power. Strategic management structure for a religious destination established in this manner should certainly be local enough to involve all key religious tourism stakeholders, such as representatives of local government, the church institution, the private sector, the local population, associations, pilgrims, religious travellers and tourists as key stakeholders of sustainable tourism development, encouraging them to cooperate in matters of sustainable tourist development of a religious destination. Such a structure should be strong enough and large enough so that its successfully established communication and coordination can determine a common development strategy and other instruments of religious tourist destination management which are founded on balanced principles of sustainable tourism development. Originality The scientific contribution of the doctoral dissertation is polysemantic. It can be viewed in the determination of certain economic rules, but also in the theoretical and applicative sense, which is evident in the presented results and conclusions of conducted research on selected religious destinations in the Republic of Croatia. In the theoretical sense, the contribution to the economic science is evident in the comprehensive and detailed overview of extensive, primarily foreign, scientific literature based on which key concepts pertaining to the topic of this paper have been systematized and defined. The analysis of reviewed scientific literature enabled the interpretation of important economic patterns, which emphasises the theoretical contribution of this paper. Unfortunately, domestic authors do not pursue the observed subject matter to a sufficient degree, and thus domestic literature dealing with the subject matter of this doctoral dissertation ‒ religious tourism ‒ is lacking, so this doctoral dissertation has at least partly filled the existing void in domestic scientific and technical literature. The paper's scientific contribution in the theoretical sense can be expressed through better understanding of the role and importance of sacral heritage and religious events on the successfulness of a religious tourism destination, as well as through cognitive facts resulting from research which can serve as a basis for defining models for religious tourism events founded on sacral heritage that can significantly impact the improvement of level of satisfaction of pilgrims, religious travellers, tourists and the local population with the ultimate goal of improvement of the economic impact on the religious destination, but also the economy as a whole. The theoretical impact is emphasised through the use of a valid and reliable measurement instrument (survey questionnaire and in-depth interview) used in the collection of primary data, so the scientific contribution is also emphasised through the applicability of statistical methods in the analysis of research data. Based on analyses of conducted research, by implementing the research results in its development strategies, planning and establishment of a religious and tourism events offering focusing on religion, culture, tradition and sacral heritage while ensuring sustainability, the management of a tourist destination can devise and implement models of religious and tourism events in accordance with the requirements of pilgrims, religious travellers, tourists and the religious destination itself. In the applicative sense of the scientific contribution, research results can aid the management and all stakeholders in religious destinations, serving as guidelines for strategic management, planning and implementation of tourism events based on religion, culture, tradition and sacral heritage, which will have a significant impact on the preservation of originality of culture, tradition and sacral heritage and its promotion on the tourism market, thus creating a unique religious tourism product and ensuring the recognisability of a religious destination. So with the approach of strategic management of a religious tourism destination, development of religious tourism going forward must be founded on criteria of sustainable development, i.e. on development of religious tourism which caters to the needs of attending pilgrims, religious travellers, tourists and the domestic population, satisfying economic, social, environmental and aesthetic requirements of the society, at the same time preserving religious and cultural identity and environmental processes, as well as resources of future development. Significant economic and non-economic effects will be achieved through sustainable development of the religious tourism offering and strategic management of a tourism destination.
Ada is a general-purpose programming language with considerable expressive power. It is a language that embodies and enforces the modern software engineering principles of abstraction, information hiding, modularity, and locality. Following an object-oriented design technique, this paper illustrates the use of Ada for the design and implementation of a message switching simulation system. Message switching simulation poses a number of interesting problems: a high degree of concurrent activity, a variety of I/O devices to be considered, and messages with multiple destinations. In this paper, we will discuss how Ada is used in an object-oriented fashion in solving these problems. ; Technical Report 2018-07-ECE-020 Technical Report 88-CSE-14 Simulation of a Message Switching System with Ada Objects W. P. Yin Murat M. Tanik This technical report is a reissue of a teclmical report issued March 1988 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham July 2018 Technical Report 88-CSE-14 SIMULATION OF A MESSAGE SWITCHING SYSTEM WITH ADA OBJECTS W. P. Yin M. M. Tanik Department of Computer Science and Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, Texas 75275-0122 March 1988 Simulation of a Message Switching System with Ada Objects 1-'V. P. Yin J.1. M. Tanik Department of Computer Science and Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, TX 75275 Abstract - Ada is a general-purpose programmmg language with considerable expressive power. It is a language that em bodies and enforces the modern software engineering principles of abstraction, information biding, modularity, and locality. Following an object-oriented design technique, this paper illustrates the use of Ada for the design and implementation of a message switching simulation system . Message switching simulation poses a number of interesting problems: a high degree of concurrent activity, a variety of I / 0 devices to be controlled, and messages with multiple destinations. In this paper, we will discuss how Ada is used in an object-oriented fashion in solving these problems. 1. Introduction Ada is a general-purpose programming language developed with the initiative of the U.S. Department of Defense in response to the crisis in software development [1]. As Wegner points out, there are several features in Ada that directly support modern software engineering principles [2 ]: • A rich variety of program units, including subprograms, packages, and tasks. • Systematic separation between visible syntactic interface specifications and hidden bodies that allow the programmer to separate concerns of module interconnections from concerns about how modules perform their task. • Strong typing, which imposes constraints on module interconnections and allows consistency between formal parameters of module definitions and actual parameters of module invocations to be enforced at compile time . • Genetic program units, which are parameterized templates for generating software components. • Program libraries with separately compiled reusable program units. There is a trend that software engineers treat Ada as an expressive language rather than just a programming language . Ada, thus serves not just to program some computer but as a program design language (PDL) that captures the concrete implementation of software compo n en ts [ 1] . In this paper, the design of one specific example, a message switching simulation system [3] is developed using Ada. Our objectives are : 1) to present an object-oriented system design technique; 2) to illustrate the use of Ada as an assistant for design documentation; 3) to describe the use of Ada as implementation language . A message switching simulation - 2 - system was chosen as the application because it shows the range of Ada's applicability and presents a number of interesting implementation problems. Ada was chosen as the target language because it is specifically intended for dedicated real-time, multitasking systems, and provides much needed facilities for parallel execution. The specific design technique used here is described m section 2. The communication system itself is developed in section 3 through 5. Section 3 specifies the functions and external interfaces of the system . Section 4 presents the system organization, information and control flow, and module interfaces in terms of Ada components. Section 5 describes some related simulation issues by giving outlines of Ada programs for the most interesting parts of the system. Finally, section 6 summaries the utility of Ada for the design of software systems by reflecting on aspects of the communication systems and reusable software components. 2. Design Technique The design described here is developed in two major steps: system decompositions and component abstractions. We use the object-oriented decomposition because it gives system designers a good opportunity to concentrate on both structures and functions of entities in the application . Therefore, designers can work at the level of general construction and function descriptions, but not to the degree of precision necessary for executability. The decomposition step involves specifying the major components of the system, their structures and their behaviors. It includes outlining the data blocks and operations for each component. This step will characterize what information is processed and express the user's view of system. The abstraction step will specify the way of system integration. It involves changing the level of decomposition, ignoring certain details in an effort to couple the system components. In our simulation system design with Ada, various organizations were considered to support the system components. The specification of integration includes specifying the information [ flow, control sketch and other connections. 3. Specification of a Message Switching Communication System A typical message switching system [3] has been chosen as an example to show the details of Ada's capabilities because it is a problem that is realistic in nature and implements many of the concepts of em bedded systems. This generalized system is typical of several communication systems used by the U.S. government and NATO. The complete system consists of a network of switching nodes connected via high-speed trunk lines. Each switching node has an auxiliary memory, an archive facility and an operator, and can support up to fifty subscriber terminals. Figure 1 shows the configuration for a given node in the system . The general function of each node is to accept input messages from the trunk or local subscriber lines, and route them to one or more output destinations. Input can be received from local subscribers or from another switching node (via the trunk line). The input message is stored in the auxiliary memory and then forwarded to the output destinations, which - 3 - Subscriber- Switching Node Trunk Huniliar-y Me10or-y Hrchiue Tape Table Figure 1. The typical configuration for a local node. Can be either the local subscribers or another node in the network. Since messages must be completely received before forwarded , this type of communication is often called store and forward message switching. Three successive phases are required to process each message: input, switching, and output. The following summary describes the processing that must be done during each of these phases. Input Read the input message from a subscriber or trunk link and store the message on both auxiliary memory and archive tapes. Each input message consists of a header, a body and an end mark (end-of-message indicator) . Switch Examine the header to determine the output destinations. For each destination, consult a directory to determine the appropriate output line. to use (local subscriber or trunk to remote destination) . Add a copy of the message header to the output queue on each line. Output Retrieve the message from the auxiliary memory and display it. Each message contains a priority-at all times the message with the highest priority is transmitted first. Each node has an operator who can send and retrieve messages like a subscriber. In addition , he can monitor and control the message activity at the node . For example, he can cancel a message or check the messages in each output queue. Also the operator is notified of exceptions-for example, end of archive_ tape . In our simulation system design , we will - 4 - ignore the operator because the mam function of our design is to simulate how the switching node process messages. The simulation system addresses the following requirements. • Maximum 1/ 0 parallelism must be provided. • There are two different types of 1/0 devices (trunks and terminals), both process messages. • Switch must coordinate output to multiple destinations. • All the messages have a priority. • The auxiliary memory and terminal devices must be controlled and synchronized because we are simulating more than one 1/0 device. Now, we turn our attention to the design of a message switching simulation system m Ada that solves those problems. 4. System Architecture in Ada The Ada programming language supports modern programming practices and integrates features. Ada packages offer the opportunity for defining data structure and operations on those structures. This capability provides abstraction previously not available in widely used languages. A package consists of a specification which is all the user of the abstraction need to know and a body (implementation) which provides application specific facilities which other programmers may use. The specific implementation details may be hidden by the use of the PRIVATE facility. A design using these facilities will provide a good level of modularity and information hiding. Ada tasks provide facilities to define and control concurrent processes. Independent tasks may be defined and synchronized by rendezvous. Those tasks will proceed in parallel, at least logically, execute on separate processors. A task may call another task by specifying an ENTRY point. A called task is synchronized by executing an ACCEPT statement. The type of synchronization offered by this rendezvous model allows a natural implementation of a number of communication and synchronization protocols such as message passmg. For our purposes, the Ada package and task concepts are adequate to model the set of activities of the message switching system. A . System Components According to Grady Booch [2]: "simply stated, object-oriented development is an approach to software design and implementation in which the decomposition of a system is based upon the concept of an object. An object is an entity whose behavior is characterized by the operations that it suffers and it requires of other objects." Using object-oriented design methodology, an object existing in the model of reality will have a corresponding structureentity in the solution . As specified in the previous section, each message processed by a switching node goes through three phases: Input, ·switch, and output. Analyzing the problem space , it is observed that there are several different objects participate these three phases (1 / 0 - 5 - de vices for sending and reading messages, a temporary memory for storing messages, a long term memory for backup messages, a refere nce table for destination list, and a switching node schedules message transmission) . The decomposition is show in the figure 2. Using Ada, we can design the system decompositio n in the following way. Msg. boay 1 Ruailiary ~ : Memory 'I / 1 ,_' Msg. header-- ·,, 1\ I I L Oest. line5 Input lines i 1 / I \ . utput --- .t-•\lnput 1-•'-.-tt-~, Switching . _ '._, --~--~ !IIIII --~ Msg. body & header Hn:hiue Tape ·=· =j I I ·· .'i . c-·,.) I Table · l_.~ Figure 2. Message switch system components The auxiliary memory provides a temporary storage for messages. In particular, it provides READ and WRITE processes with sequential structures. For the efficiency reasons, we need to handle each message by blocks rather than characters. It, therefore , has two levels, en tire message level and a block level. The block level is nested inside the message level, since a message is composed of several blocks. This leads to the following Ada specification. package AUX_MEMYKG is type MSG_ACCESS is private; type DIRECTORY_ACCESS is private; procedure WRITE_BLOCK (NEW_BLOCK : in BLOCK; NEW_CELL :in out MSG_ACCESS; AUX_MEM_BLOCK: outMSG_ACCESS); procedure WRITE_DIRECTORY (FIRST_BLOCK :in out MSG_ACCESS; AUX_MEM_HEADER: out DIRECTORY _ACCESS) ; - 6 - procedure READ_BLOCK (NEW _BLOCK :out BLOCK; AUX_MEM_BLOCK :in outMSG_ACCESS); procedure READ _DIRECTORY (FIRST_BLOCK : out MSG_ACCESS; AUX_MEM_HEADER: in out DIRECTORY ACCESS); AUX_MEM_ERROR : exception ; AUX_MEM_OVERFLOW : exception; private end AUX_MEM_FKG Subscribers and trunks are full-duplex, they have both input and output capabilities. Input capability provides the facility for subscribers and trunks reading messages sent to them ; and output capability provides the facility of sending messages to others. Subscribers and trunks handle different devices, but the functionalities are similar. It results the following Ada package design . package NOD E_FKG is function GET_HEADER(PORT : in DEVICE) return HEADER; procedure GET_BLOCK(MSG_TEXT: out BLOCK; EOF :out BOOLEAN); procedure PUT_HEADER(MSG_HEADER: in HEADER; PORT : in DEVICE) ; procedure PUT_BLOCK(MSG_TEXT: in BLOCK); end NODE_FKG; The switch is the central control process of our simulation system. It serves as a coordinator for multiple message destinations . It needs to talk to every subscriber and trunk , knowing the message source and distinguishing the multiple destinations. Therefore switch itself needs "READ " and "WRITE" functions , too. The Ada specification is as the following. package SWITCH_FKG is procedure PUT_HEADER(MSG_HEADER: in HEADER; PORT: in DEVICE) ; procedure PUT_BLOCK (MSG_TEXT : in BLOCK); end SWITCH_FKG; - 7 - B. System Integration Components in a software system are not isolated, but connected together to do a specific task. One important information in the software design is the component integration specification which includes the data flow and control flow specification . Figure 2 shows the data flow. Based upon the system requirement: maximum I/0 parallelism, we choose Ada tasks as interfaces for these components. Ada provides a direct communication mechanism without memory between tasks [4]. It supplies static interfaces between tasks, (i.e., fixed number and type of the entries, and synchronization with rendezvous before communication). This feature also provides necessary visibility requirements in network system . On the other hand, fixed number and type of entries for Ada tasks provide the facility a discrete event system needed. In the message switching system, the messages are transmitted one by one. At all times, a component in the system processes the information not in stream style but a single message. Subscribers and trunks need to communicate with archive tape and auxiliary memory. They also need to communicate with the switch in order to coordinate the message transmission. Those two components repeat the receiving (reading from the auxiliary memory and output to the terminal) and sending (reading from the terminal and writing into both auxiliary and archive tape) actions. During the processing, they only care whether there is any coming message. When they send messages out, they do not concern whether others will read or not. In the same way, the switch needs to communicate with all subscribers and trunks, noticing them there is a message coming. Thus, we add the following specification into the subscriber and trunk package. task COMMUNICATION is entry STARTINGYROCESSING; end COMMUNICATION; For the switch, we add the following task specification into the switch package . task SWITCH is entry STARTING; end SWITCH; The auxiliary memory and archive tape act passively. Until other entities require their actions, the auxiliary memory and archive tape will not communicate with any others. They just wait for request. We specify the interfaces for them as the following. task ARCHIVE_TAPE_HAND LER is entry STARTING; entry ARCHIVE_REQUEST (NEW_MSG : in WHOLE_MSG) ; - 8- en try RETRIEVE_REQUEST (MSG_ID : in ID _RECORD; NEWJvfSG :out WHOLEJvfSG); end ARCHIVE_TAPE_HANDLER; task AUXJvfEM_HANDLER is en try starting; entry WRITEJvfSG (NEWJvfSG.SIZE :in POSITIVE; MSG_BOD Y : in MSG; MSG_ADDRESS :out DIRECTORY _ACCESS) ; entry READJvfSG (NEWJvfSG.SIZE : in POSITIVE; MSG_BODY : out MSG; MSG_ADDRESS : in out DIRECTORY _ACCESS); end A UXJvfEM_HANDLER; 5. Implementation and Simulation Issues We choose Ada as the implementation language, since Ada offers anum ber of features that facilitates the expression of reusable software components, which helps to increase the productivity. For example, generic program units are parameterized templates for generating software components; tasks operates in parallel with other program units; systematic separation between visible syntactic interface specifications and hidden bodies allow the programmer to separate concerns of module interconnections from concerns about how the module performs it task. Ada is used here as an implementation language for message switching system also because it is available in our VAX 11 / 780 under Unix operating system (Verdix Ada 4 .51) , the design written in Ada serves as an intermediate step between detailed system design and coding that helps one develop and reason about the design decisions. A. Global Data Types Subscribers, trunks and switch processes exchange several types of information . The two most important kinds are message header and message body. To facilitate the declaration of variables referring to these types of information and to make use of Ada's type checking facilities, the format of header and block are specified using an individual data package which does not have a body. In particular, a message header and body are specified as the 'followmg. package D A TA_FKG is type DEVICE is (PORT1, POR1'2, PORT3, PORT4, PORTS, PORT6, '@') ; type DESTINATION_LIST is array( l . MAX_OUTPUT_COUNT) of DEVICE; type ID_RECORD 15 --Unique message identifier record _ 9 _ ORIGIN :DEVICE; -- Device ID DATE : CALENDAR.TIME; --Date and time (seconds) end record; type PRIORITY_TYPE is (INFO, ROUTINE, FLASH); -- Possible priorities type HEADER is -- Header record for each message record IDENTIFIER : ID_RECORD; --Message identifier PRIORITY :PRIORITY _TYPE; -- Priority rating SIZE : NATURAL; -- #of blocks of text OUTPUT_COUNT: NATURAL; -- #of destinations DESTINATION : DESTINATION_LIST;-- Destinations of this msg. end record; subtype BLOCK is STRING( 1 . CHARYER_BLOCK); --Block of message text type MSG is array ( LMAX.JviSG_SIZE) of BLOCK; --Entire message text end DATAYKG; B. Message Queue Based upon the requirements for the system , each message has a priority. We decide to use a priority queue to implement priority message transmission. Each time, the switch will process a message that has the highest priority by inserting the message into the destination message queue based upon its priority. And each time, subscribers or trunks will read amessage which has the highest priority from its message queue. Since the message queue is dedicated to its owner, for each subscriber, trunk and switch , we need create one message queue . Ada's generic package· provides a powerful tool in this situation. Generic packages have the ability to create templates of program units with generic parameters that needs at translation time. The specification of generic priority queue is the following. genenc type QUEUE_ENTRY is private; type PRIORITY is limited private; with function PRIORITY_OF(THE_ENTRY : in QUEUE_ENTRY) return PRIORITY; with function " SIGNAL, PRIORITY => PRIORITY_TYPE, PRIORITY_OF => CHECKYRIORITY, " " PORT2, PORT_QUEUE => QUEUE_FKG.SUBSCRIBERLQUEUE, PORT_QUEUE_SEMAPHOR => TABLEYKG.SUBSCRIBERl_QUEUE_8EMAPHOR, GET_HEADER GET_BLOCK PUT_HEADER PUT_BLOCK - 12 - => D EVICE_D RIVERSYKG .GET _HEADER_ VT100, = > D EVI CE_j) RIVERS_?KG .G ET_BLOCK_ VT100, = > D EVI CE_D RIVERSYKG .PUT _HEADER_ VT100, = > D EVICE_D RIVERS_?KG .PUT _BLOCK_ VT100) ; package TRUNK is new NODEYKG (PORT => PORTS, PORT_QUEUE => QUEUEYKG.TRUNK_QUEUE, PORT_QUEUE_.SEMAPHOR => TABLEYKG.TRUNK_QUEUE_8EMAPHOR, GET_HEADER = > DEVICE_DRIVERSYKG.GET_HEADER_TRUNK, GET_BLOCK = > DEVICE_DRIVERSYKG.GET_BLOCK_TRUNK, PUT_HEADER PUT_BLOCK => DEVICE_DRIVERS_?KG.PUT_HEADER_TRUNK, = > D EVICE_j) RIVERSYKG .PUT_BLOCK_TR U NK) ; Here, we need to mention Ada's another good feature , rename. During the system modelling, we specified that it was possible to send messages to the switch . Therefore, the switch also needs function , writing messages to the terminal, just as subscribers and trunks do. For the simulation reasons, we do not need to program two different sets of code to do this. Ada's rename facility provides what we need. The rename facility is used in SWITCHYKG to benefit the reusable component and avoid the ambiguities. The clearer specification for SWITCHYKG is the following. package SWITCHYKG is procedure PUT_HEADER(MSG_HEADER : in HEADER; PORT : in DEVICE) renames D EVI CE_j) RIVERSYKG .PUT _HEADER_ VT100; procedure PUT_BLOCK (MSG_TEXT : in BLOCK) renames D EVI CE_D RIVERSYKG .PUT _BL OCIL VT100; task SWITCH is entry STARTING; end SWITCH; end SWITCHYKG; D. Simulation Control Message switching system is a multiple processing system, but we simulate this multiple 1/ 0 device activities on a single I /0 device -one terminal. It's necessary to synchronize the access to the terminal. This synchronization is implemented by an Ada task. The semantics of - 13 - Ada tasks guarantee the mutual exclusion. Only one task can access the terminal at a time , and if more than one task try to access at the same time, the rest have to wait in an implicit queue so as not to interfere with each other. If those tasks arrive at different times, the first task will be permitted accessing first, the rest wait in the queue based upon the time stamp. The task for synchronizing the terminal access is the following. task IO_$YNC is entry REQUEST.JO_DEVICE; entry RELEASE.JO_DEVICE; end IO_$YNC; task body IO_$YNC is BUSY : BOOLEAN := false ; begin loop select when not BUSY=> or accept REQUEST.JO_D EVICE do BUSY := true ; end REQUEST.JO_DEVICE; accept RELEASE.JO_DEVICE do BUSY :=false; end RELEASE.JO_DEVICE; end select; end loop; end IO_$YNC; Actually, all the message queues should be accessed in a mutual exclusive manner, since subscriber task, trunk task and switch task logically operate in parallel with each other. In our implementation, all message queues are shared by two tasks , the switch task and queue owner task. The switch will insert the coming message to the message queue, and the queue owner will remove the message from the message queue . We need to consider the mutual exclusion problem because the queue operations are not atomic operations based upon our software implementation. If we did not treat queue operations in a mutual exclusive manner then there would be errors. 6. Conclusion Through the design and implementation activities of message switching system, we feel that Ada is suitable for dedicated multiprogramming systems such as the message switch implementation. The major units of Ada-packages, tasks and subprograms-were both - 14 - appropriate and easy to use. One of the easiest ways to tell if a language is suited to the problem is to see whether it helps or hinders the design of system functions into a program implementation. A good target language should guide the organization and implementation by providing a structured framework and adequate facilities [3]. Ada worked well for this switch simulation program organization. For example, the tasks made it easy to implement process communication and synchronization, the package with private data type provided encapsulated implementation algorithm, data abstraction and information hiding. The second positive aspect of Ada is the facility of generic package . It provides much needed reusability and flexibility. The parameters of generic packages can not only be usual variables, but also data types, functions, and procedures. In addition, generic packages can be nested. Those features are just what we needed when we deal with the problems that are logically same. Thirdly, Ada's programming environment allows systematic separation between visible syntactic interface specifications and hidden bodies. Here the separation includes syntactic separation, and compilation separation . Many errors, not only syntax error, but also the static semantics errors, are discovered during the compilation. References [1] G. Booch, Software Components With. Ada, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., 1987. [2] P. Wegner, "Capital-Intensive Software Technology," IEEE Software, vol. 1(3), July 1984. [3] G. R. Andrews, "The Design of a Message Switching System: An Application and Evaluation of Modula," IEEE Tran. Software Eng., vol. SE-5(2), March 1979. [4] A. Fantechi, P. Inverardi and N. Lijtmaer, "Using High Level Languages for Local Computer Network Communication: A Case study in Ada," SOFTWARE-PRACTICE and EXPERIENCE, vol. 16(8), August 1980.
El presente trabajo investiga las relaciones exteriores del Estado tarasco en el occidente de México en el postclásico tardío. Por medio del estudio de los contactos exteriores, la naturaleza del Estado tarasco mismo puede ser determinada de manera más detallada, especialmente la cuestión si forma parte del área cultural de Mesoamérica y qué tan intensos fueron los intercambios con otras regiones mesoamericanas. Aparte del análisis de los contactos con grupos y regiones dentro de Mesoamérica – tal como otras regiones del occidente, los mexicas y regiones mesoamericanas más alejadas – es importante también incluir los contactos con Aridoamérica y Centro- y Sudamérica. En general, el conocimiento sobre el Estado tarasco, especialmente comparándolo con el mexica, es aún fragmentario. Ya que también en cuanto a los contactos exteriores, la disponibilidad de datos y fuentes es difícil, en el presente trabajo se elige un enfoque interdisciplinario. Se utilizan datos y métodos de la historia y arqueología, además de conocimientos y datos de la lingüística, y, en menor medida, de la geografía. El trabajo se basa principalmente en un análisis extenso de literatura, fuentes históricas y reportes de excavación. Se discute de manera amplia la a veces difícil compatibilidad de los discursos que generan las diferentes fuentes. A pesar de unas críticas fundamentales, sobre todo en cuanto a la operacionalización, la teoría del sistema mundo en su modificación por Smith y Berdan se califica como el mejor acercamiento. Después de una primera parte introductoria, en la parte central los contactos exteriores del Estado tarasco son analizados separados por región y se incluye también un capítulo acerca de las relaciones entre los diferentes grupos dentro del Estado. A seguir, las implicaciones de éstos análisis son expuestas y antes de las conclusiones se presentan algunas perspectivas para la época de la conquista española. El trabajo trae algunos resultados nuevos y confirma algunos hipótesis que ya habían sido formuladas de manera aislada desde antes. Así, la unidad política en Michoacán en el postclásico tardío puede ser definida como un Estado imperial y hegemonial con algunas tendencias territoriales, y podría también ser denominado como sistema arcáico de bienes de prestigio según Breuer. La fuerte fragmentación sociocultural y lingüística del Estado se percibe claramente en las fuentes; en cuanto a esto se discute de manera crítica si los diferentes grupos realmente pueden ser denominados como grupos étnicos y/o si otras percepciones de pertenencia fueron mucho más importantes. En cuanto a las relaciones exteriores, el Estado tarasco sigue una larga tradición del occidente de México de intercambios con Aridoamérica y el Centro de México además de las relaciones entre las diferentes regiones occidentales. Particularmente las relaciones con el Estado mexica (en términos político-militares) y con otras regiones del occidente de México (sobre todo en cuanto a la economía) tenían especial importancia para el Estado tarasco. Los contactos con otras regiones mesoamericanas fueron mucho menos intensos. Los contactos con Centro- y Sudamérica hasta ahora no pueden ser probadas de manera definitiva, a pesar de que existen numerosos indicios, sobre todo para el preclásico. Sin embargo, los datos apuntan a que en el postclásico tardío su importancia directa disminuyó notablemente. No obstante, tenían una importancia indirecta para el Estado tarasco, ya que probablemente aún antes de la emergencia del Estado tarasco, llegó por esta vía la metalurgia al occidente de México. Las relaciones con otros grupos y regiones fueron interdependientes entre sí. El análisis de los contactos exteriores muestra que tanto la élite tarasca como otros grupos en el Estado tarasco pueden ser denominadas claramente como mesoamericanos. El Estado tarasco fue parte del multicéntrico mundo mesoamericano del postclásico en los aspectos culturales, políticos y económicos. Para concluir se puede afirmar que el presente trabajo es el primer análisis completo y detallado de los contactos exteriores del Estado tarasco. Por medio de la colección, análisis y evaluación de un gran número de datos de diferentes tipos de fuentes que a menudo es de difícil acceso y que no ha sido publicado no sólo se ha aumentado y reevaluado el conocimiento de este aspecto particular del Estado tarasco sino también en cuanto a otros aspectos más generales. ; Außenkontakte des taraskischen Staates: Einflüsse von ausser- und innerhalb Mesoamerikas Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Außenbeziehungen des westmexikanischen taraskischen Staates in der späten Postklassik. Durch die Untersuchung der Außenkontakte kann die Beschaffenheit des taraskischen Staates selbst genauer bestimmt werden, insbesondere die Frage, ob es sich hierbei um einen Teil der Kulturregion Mesoamerikas handelte und wie stark der Austausch mit anderen mesoamerikanischen Regionen war. Neben der Analyse der Kontakte zu Gruppen und Regionen innerhalb Mesoamerikas, etwa weiteren Regionen in Westmexiko, den Azteken und entfernteren Regionen Mesoamerikas, ist hierbei auch die Einbeziehung der Kontakte nach Aridamerika sowie Zentral- und Südamerika von Bedeutung. Insgesamt ist der Kenntnisstand über den taraskischen Staat, insbesondere im Vergleich zu den Azteken, noch fragmentarisch. Da die Daten- und Quellenlage auch in Bezug auf die Außenkontakte schwierig ist, wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit eine interdisziplinäre Herangehensweise gewählt. Es werden Daten und Methoden der Geschichte und Archäologie genutzt, die durch Erkenntnisse und Daten der Linguistik und, in geringerem Maße, der Geografie ergänzt werden. Im Zentrum steht dabei eine umfassende Literaturrecherche, die Auswertung von historischen Quellen sowie von Grabungsberichten. Die teils schwierige Vereinbarkeit der von den unterschiedlichen Quellen generierten Diskurse wird ausführlich diskutiert. Trotz einiger grundsätzlicher Kritikpunkte, insbesondere im Bereich der Operationalisierung, wird die Weltsystemtheorie in der Modifikation nach Smith und Berdan als die beste Herangehensweise bewertet. Nach einem ersten einführenden Teil werden im Hauptteil die Außenkontakte des taraskischen Staates getrennt nach Region untersucht, wobei auch die Beziehungen zwischen verschiedenen Gruppen innerhalb des Staates ein Kapitel einnehmen. Anschließend werden die Implikationen der Analyse dargelegt und vor dem Fazit ein Ausblick auf die Zeit nach der spanischen Eroberung gegeben. Die Arbeit liefert einige neue Erkenntnisse und bestätigte bereits vereinzelt formulierte Hypothesen. So ließ sich die politische Einheit in Michoacán in der späten Postklassik als imperialer Hegemonialstaat mit einigen territorialen Tendenzen bestimmen, der auch als archaisches Prestigegütersystem im Sinne von Breuer bezeichnet werden könnte. Die starke soziokulturelle und sprachliche Fragmentierung des Staates tritt in der Quellenanalyse klar zutage, wobei kritisch hinterfragt wird, ob die unterschiedlichen Gruppen tatsächlich als ethnische Gruppen bezeichnet werden können und ob nicht anders definierte Zugehörigkeitsvorstellungen wesentlich wichtiger waren. In Bezug auf die Außenbeziehungen steht der taraskische Staat in Westmexiko in einer langen Austauschtradition mit Aridamerika und Zentralmexiko sowie innerhalb westmexikanischer Regionen. Besonders die Beziehungen zum aztekischen Staat (in politisch-militärischer Hinsicht) und in andere Teile Westmexikos (vor allem bezüglich der Ökonomie) waren für den taraskischen Staat von besonderer Bedeutung. Kontakte in andere Regionen Mesoamerikas waren wesentlich schwächer ausgeprägt. Die Kontakte nach Zentral- und Südamerika lassen sich trotz vieler Hinweise, insbesondere in der Präklassik, bislang nicht eindeutig belegen, die Datenlage lässt jedoch den Schluss zu, dass sie in der späten Postklassik an direkter Bedeutung verloren haben. Sie waren jedoch indirekt für den taraskischen Staat wichtig, als sie vermutlich bereits vor dessen Entstehung die Kenntnisse der Metallverarbeitung nach Westmexiko brachten. Die Beziehungen zu den verschiedenen Gruppen und Regionen waren interdependent. Die Analyse der Außenkontakte zeigt, dass sowohl die taraskische Elite als auch andere Gruppen im taraskischen Staat eindeutig als mesoamerikanisch zu bezeichnen sind. Der taraskische Staat war kulturell, politisch und ökonomisch Teil der multizentrischen postklassischen mesoamerikanischen Welt. Abschließend lässt sich sagen, dass die vorliegende Arbeit die erste umfassende und detaillierte Untersuchung der Außenkontakte des taraskischen Staates darstellt. Durch die Sammlung, Bewertung und Einordnung einer sehr großen Anzahl von Daten aus verschiedenen, oft unveröffentlichten und schwer zugänglichen Quellentypen wurde nicht nur das Wissen über diesen Aspekt des taraskischen Staates stark erweitert, sondern auch der Kenntnisstand zu anderen Teilaspekten erhöht und neu bewertet. ; External contacts of the Tarascan State: influences from Mesoamerica and beyond The present study examines the external relations of the West Mexican Tarascan State in the late postclassic. Through the analysis of the external contacts, the nature of the Tarascan State itself can be defined more precisely, in particular the question whether it formed part of the culture area Mesoamerica and how important the exchange with other Mesoamerican regions was. Besides the investigation of the contacts to other groups and regions inside Mesoamerica – as for example other regions in Westmexico, the Aztecs and more distant regions of Mesoamerica – the contacts to Arid America and Central and South America are also included due to their importance. Overall, the state of knowledge about the Tarascan State, especially in comparison to that of the Aztecs, is still fragmentary. Since the current state of source and data material is difficult also regarding the external contacts, the present study chooses an interdisciplinary approach. Data and methods of history and archaeology are used and are supplemented by data and knowledge from the field of linguistics, and, to a lesser degree, geography. The focus lays upon an extensive research in secondary literature, evaluation of historical sources and excavation reports. The sometimes difficult reconciling of the discourses generated by the different sources is discussed in detail. Despite some fundamental criticism, particularly regarding the aspect of operationalisation, the world system theory as modified by Smith and Berdan is seen as the best approach. After a first introductory section, the main part examines the external contacts of the Tarascan State separately by region, also dedicating one chapter to the relations between the different groups within the State. Subsequently, the implications of the analysis and an outlook to the period of the Spanish Conquest are presented and precede the conclusion. The thesis provides some new insights and confirms some hypotheses that already have been formulated sporadically. Thus the political unit in Michoacan in the late Postclassic can be defined as an imperial and hegemonial state with some territorial tendencies which could also be described as an archaic system of prestige goods as defined by Breuer. The strong socio-cultural and linguistic fragmentation of the state is clearly evident in the analysis of the sources; whereby it is discussed critically whether the different groups can actually be described as ethnic groups and whether or not otherwise defined notions of belonging were more important. With regard to the external relationships, the Tarascan State stood in a long West Mexican tradition of exchanges with Central Mexico and Arid America as well as within different West Mexican regions. Particularly relations with the Aztec State (in military-political terms) and with other parts of West Mexico (especially regarding the economy) were of special importance for the Tarascan State. Contacts to other regions of Mesoamerica were far less significant. The contacts to Central and South America can until now not be proven with certainty, despite a great number of indicators, especially for the preclassic. However, the data indicate that they lost direct relevance in the late postclassic. Though, they were indirectly important for the Tarascan State, as they probably brought metallurgy to West Mexico before the emergence of the Tarascan State. Relations with the different groups and regions were interdependent. The analysis of the external contacts shows that both the Tarascan elite and other groups in the Tarascan State can be clearly identified as Mesoamerican. The Tarascan State was culturally, politically and economically part of the multicentric postclassic Mesoamerican world. In conclusion, the present study represents the first comprehensive and detailed analysis of the external contacts of the Tarascan State. Through the collection, evaluation and classification of a very large number of data from different, often unpublished sources of difficult access, not only the knowledge about this special aspect is greatly expanded, but also the state of knowledge about other sub-issues is raised and re-evaluated.
Author's introductionIndigenous peoples are racialized, but this is not the only defining element of their identity. The sociological study of indigenous peoples informs political sociology, as indigenous peoples are a type of non‐state actor with a distinct perspective on the state and international governing organizations. The colonial power structure forced indigenous peoples to the margins of their homes and territories, which then changed rapidly around them without consideration of their voices. Today, indigenous peoples are recapturing the space to speak and they are challenging the societies that nearly overtook them and their lifeways.Author recommendsS. James Anaya 1996. Indigenous Peoples in International Law. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.This book examines the historical and contemporary issues regarding indigenous peoples and international law. Key topics include human rights, self‐determination, and negotiations with states and international institutions. The appendix includes the text of selected international doctrine related to indigenous rights. Anaya now serves as the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous peoples.Roxanne Dunbar‐Oritz 2006. 'The First Decade of Indigenous Peoples at the United Nations.'Peace and Change 31: 58–74. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0130.2006.00342.xThis explores the role of indigenous peoples at the United Nations from 1974 to 1984. During this decade, the United Nations commissioned a study of the status of the world's indigenous peoples, a Conference on Indigenous Peoples of the Americas was held in Geneva, and the drafting of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (approved by the General Assembly in 2007) began.Alexander Ewen 1994. Voice of Indigenous People. Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishers.A publication including speeches by indigenous leaders to open the International Year of the World's Indigenous People at the United Nations on Human Rights Day in 1993. These speeches were given to a nearly empty General Assembly chambers.Ronald Niezen 2003. The Origins of Indigenism: Human Rights and the Politics of Identity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Indigenous forms of resistance are distinguished from ethnic groups due to their political status. Niezen explores the emergence of the concept of indigenism, the international movement of indigenous peoples. The book examines the international response to indigenous peoples' assertions of sovereignty, diversity and commonalities across indigenous peoples, how assertions of self‐determination influence indigenous‐state and indigenous‐international governing organization relations, and the political implications of indigenous peoples' assertions of self‐determination. A brief concluding chapter names the key projects of indigenism: affirming local claims of difference, using the language and symbols of states in claims of self‐determination, and embracing the universal concept of human rights to protect and develop identity.Y. N. Kly and D. Kly 2001. In Pursuit of the Right to Self‐Determination: Collected Papers and Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Right to Self‐Determination and the United Nations. Atlanta, GA: Clarity Press.This book is a collection of conference papers from the First International Conference on the Right to Self‐Determination and the United Nations. It includes explorations of self‐determination in many political contexts: internal autonomy, secession, assimilation, restorative justice, nomadic, and international law. It also includes papers on interventions in a diverse array of cases. Conference resolutions and the titles and web addresses of pertinent documents are included.Franke Wilmer 1993. The Indigenous Voice in World Politics. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Writing from a world‐systems theory perspective, Wilmer explores indigenous perspectives on development, colonization, and civilization. She contrasts this with the priorities of indigenous peoples, particularly self‐determination, and concludes with a consideration of indigenous voices in world politics. The book also includes many resources in its appendices, including a chronology of events related to indigenous activism, a list of international documents pertaining to indigenous peoples, and the organizations participating in the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations meetings.Online materialsUN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/ This is the official website of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. It includes links to all of the forums held, along with the extensive documentation produced by each series of meetings. News headlines are posted regarding indigenous issues within the UN system, and the organization's newsletter The Message Stick, is available here. Films and webcasts can be viewed, which document indigenous participation in the UNPFII.International World Group for Indigenous Affairs http://www.iwgia.org This organization publishes extensive reports on the status of indigenous peoples globally. There are annual reports and topical reports, as well, exploring political, social, and economic issues. The page also features a news blog which offers updates on indigenous issues, particularly political issues.The Indian Law Resource Center http://www.indianlaw.org The Indian Law Resource Center is a news blog about the latest legal issues on indigenous lands around the world. It features many resources available regarding key legal decisions and publications by the Resource Center on their work to gain justice for indigenous peoples, along with the annual report of their current work.International Indian Treaty Council http://www.treatycouncil.org One of the first organizations to work with the United Nations, the International Indian Treaty Council's website offers a host of documentation regarding indigenous peoples and the United Nations, including multiple drafts of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. It also includes documentation on the many cases examined and fought by the International Indian Treaty Council. This website is an extensive reference for global indigenous claims. It also offers content in Spanish.Sample syllabusStudies of indigenous peoples and politics might contribute to units on justice or the state. This segment might also fit in a course on racial or ethnic diversity. I explore self‐determination in greater detail as it is a key issue to many indigenous peoples and it encompasses everything from the right to territory to linguistic rights to rights to traditional medicine, and more. This segment might also fit into more advanced courses analyzing rights or inequality. I do not recommend readings for the Examining Self‐Determination section as the readings will vary depending on your focus (topic or geography).Topics for lecture or DiscussionWeek I: Introduction and OverviewDefinitions, Problems, and Issues: who are indigenous peoples? What is their role in national and international politics?Reading:Keri Iyall Smith, 'A Review of the study of the Political Status of Indigenous Peoples in the Global Context', Sociology Compass 1/7 (2007), pp. 756–774.Week II–IV: Examining Self‐DeterminationExplore case studies of self‐determination at the local and global level. Exemplars might include: Native Hawaiians (Kanaka Maoli), Zapatistas, Inuit of Canada and the formation of the Nunavut Territories, and the role of indigenous peoples in the United Nations.Films and videosHomeland: four portraits of native actionThis film looks at the protection of American Indian homelands as a human rights issue and explores four different movements in Native America to protect the environment and indigenous lands: Penobscot, Gwich'in, Northern Cheyenne, and the Dine/Navajo people. The Penobscots are struggling with the state of Maine to sanction a polluting paper mill, the Gwich'in fight drilling in ANWR, the Northern Cheyenne are seeking to stop methane gas wells, and the Dine/Navajo are fighting to stop uranium mining.Peyote roadThis film explores the use of peyote by the Native American Church and the American perspective on the use of peyote. It follows the case of the landmark decision, Employment Devision v. Smith, along with the legislative change that followed this decision. The film also offers a look into the Native American Church with depictions of the role of peyote in ceremonial life.In the light of reverenceThis film explores sacred sites and the conflicts that American Indians face when trying to gain access to these sites to practice their religious beliefs. The film explores four different cases, including the Wintu seeking to gain access to Mt. Shasta and fighting the New Age believers who desecrate ceremonial lands, the Hopi dispute with private land‐owners over a peak in the Four Corners region, and Lakota Sioux seeking to gain access to Mato Tipila/Devil's Tower.Adoption of the U.N. declaration on the rights of indigenous peoplesThis is a brief film that documents the occasion of the adoption of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azVhsiLNDZkFocus Questions
What are political challenges to indigenous peoples – locally and globally? What might be political opportunities for indigenous peoples – locally and globally? What strategies will allow indigenous peoples to attain their claims? Who are the indigenous peoples in your area? What are their claims? How has your community responded?
Project idea1. Socratic Dialogs. I use this technique to discuss complex problems from many perspectives. During the Socratic Dialog, the students do all of the talking, with minimal intervention on the part of the professor to referee the conversation as needed.During the term, we will often debate topics in Socratic Dialogs. In Socratic Dialogs, the class will respond to a well‐formulated question that requires personal responses from participants. The responses to the question will lead to a broader discussion, allowing the class to arrive at a consensus. You will be graded on your participation in Socratic Dialogs, both as Respondents and Questioners. Active participation will be rewarded! Respondents: Respondents will work in pairs to respond to a general question posed by the professor. They must also study the text closely and research the issue at hand in order to be prepared for follow up questions from the professor and classmates. Respondents will be assigned a question one week in advance to allow them to prepare. Each student will act as a Respondent twice during the semester. Questioners: When you are not a respondent, your role is to contribute to the conversation actively by asking questions, offering additional responses to questions, etc ... Use your own experiences to guide you in offering responses or asking questions.Some sample Socratic Dialog Questions include:Are tribal courts − in their contemporary or historical forms – an exercise of tribal sovereignty?Are Native Americans sovereign, even as domestic dependent nations?Is tradition a relevant source of legal doctrine for tribal law in contemporary times?How can sacred sites be preserved and sacred practices remain legal, given that American Indians exist within a foreign culture and state?Land has been called an engine of sovereignty. How can land – scarred by colonial history – also be an engine of justice for American Indians?2. Take Home Exam QuestionsIn my classes on indigenous issues I have used take‐home exams in the past. I find this to be a good way to keep the students thinking about issues as they are working, which is always my goal when writing examinations. These exams are designed to help students think creatively and critically about course readings, using them in a way that is different than what we did in class. These two questions focus on American Indian tribes and the American legal system, and the conflicts between these two political bodies. A. Why do we have a course that examines the clash between American Indian and American criminal justice systems? Provide at least three reasons. Use citations to support your claims and examples to illustrate your points. Be sure that you always explain why or how – do not assume that I know what you mean.B. As we learned at the beginning of class, legal structures are very important tools for communities, allowing them to express and protect their values. How does the clash of cultures continue to threaten sovereignty and simultaneously empower the authority of the American federal government? What can tribes do to escape the 'clash' with their sovereignty intact?
