Suchergebnisse

El trasfondo de la crisisLa abrupta abdicación del rey Juan Carlos I fue un importante aviso de que otros serios acontecimientos se preparaban en el escenario español. Curiosamente, pocos observadores intuían que hechos de similar importancia se desarrollarían a unos 600 kilómetros de distancia al este de la capital de España. Por otro lado, las incertidumbres acerca de las elecciones del Parlamento Europeo del 25 de mayo se resolvieron con la confirmación del descenso de los favores hacia los dos partidos mayoritarios españoles que se habían convertido en los sólidos cimientos de la democracia.Mientras los conservadores europeos conseguían una modesta mayoría relativa que les permitiría reforzar su reclamo de la posición de presidente de la Comisión Europea para el luxemburgués Jean Claude Juncker, en España el conservador Partido Popular y el socialista PSOE vieron carcomidos sus votos por la aparición de la novedosa formación titulada Podemos (un guiño al eslogan de Obama). Sin estructura de partido ortodoxo, se resiste a ser calificada de populista, y se ubica más allá de los socialistas y de la propia Izquierda Unida, los antiguos comunistas. En el Parlamento Europeo capturó cinco escaños en su debut. España dejaba de ser bipartidista.Pero en Madrid la preocupación obsesiva en los círculos de poder seguía siendo Catalunya. La exigencia del gobierno catalán y sus aliados (principalmente la independentista Esquerra Republicana) de celebrar un referéndum ("consulta", según el eufemismo) de independencia, programado para el 9 de noviembre, provocaba el insomnio de los conservadores españoles. Se intuía que ese problema también estaba en la mente del rey, quien resolvió optar por la abdicación y entregarle la patata caliente a su hijo, ahora ya Felipe VI. Era la manera elegante de despojarse del lastre de sus errores personales (cacería de elefantes en África, amoríos y descendencia secreta), el bajo prestigio global de la institución monárquica, y la cuestionable conducta de algunos de los vástagos. Mientras, el gobierno español tozudamente se negaba a autorizar el ejercicio por considerarlo anticonstitucional, ley en mano.Entonces estalló la "crisis Pujol", que sorprendió a todos con la guardia baja. Jordi Pujol Soley, de 83 años, el ex presidente de la autonomía catalana, que había estado en el poder durante 23 años (un tiempo récord en toda la Europa democrática) y su máximo artífice, hacía una confesión insólita. Primero informaba a su sucesor en la dirigencia del partido Convergencia de Catalunya y luego presidente de la autonomía, Artur Mas, y luego escuetamente se comunicó con los medios noticiosos. De momento, la noticia quedaba reducida a una ocultación de una herencia de su padre, convenientemente guardada durante tres décadas en Andorra. Era en realidad el preludio de un escándalo mayor. Lo que se podía haber resuelto mediante un simple informe y una modesta multa se convertía en un escándalo que a medida que pasaban las horas y los días se descubría que era en realidad la punta del iceberg de un sistema de corrupción de dimensiones de vértigo.Uniendo las denuncias de una despechada amante del primogénito de Pujol (Jordi Pujol Ferrusola) y los filtros que emanaban de algunos diarios, se comenzaba a vislumbrar una trama de corrupción en la que aparecería implicada toda la familia, incluidos los siete hijos de Pujol, su esposa, y otros allegados. El reguero de fondos y transferencias se podía rastrear a una antología de paraísos fiscales sitos en una docena de países de tres continentes. Cálculos de la judicatura y policía, convenientemente divulgados por informes periodísticos, colocan la fortuna de los Pujol al nivel de la sexta en volumen de España. Sería el producto de una red de corrupción basada en la recepción del llamado "problema del 3%" (según la famosa etiqueta plasmada por el antiguo alcalde de Barcelona, Pasqual Maragall) de comisiones ilegales. Era la "tarifa" asidua por la concesión de contratos públicos en el prioritario sector de la construcción, epicentro de la "burbuja inmobiliaria", principal causante del desastre financiero español.Las cifras que se barajan son verdaderamente espectaculares en volumen y curiosas en ciertos apartados. Por ejemplo, la documentación que están examinando las autoridades fiscales revela que el primogénito de Pujol "compró" ejemplares de Ferrari, Porche y Maserati… por apenas unos pocos $2.000. Facturas ficticias extendidas por miembros del clan reclaman servicios de intermediación de ventas de inmuebles reducidos a una llamada telefónica al coste de medio millón de euros. La reclamación del tradicional 3% fue contestada por la víctima de una "mordida" y la operación se rebajó al 1%. Cuando se produjo la explosión de la confesión inicial de Pujol, se refugió en una tríada de fincas en el Pirineo, a ambos lados de la frontera con Francia, para por fin recalar en la más modesta propiedad de verano en la población de Queralbs, desde donde trató de enviar señales de normalidad.La dimensión de corrupción proporcionaba mayor sentido a malos augurios en el contexto político. Algunas señales sutiles ya habían aparecido en el estricto nuboso horizonte catalán. Primero fue la dimisión del quinto hijo de Jordi Pujol, Oriol Pujol Ferrusola, que ocupaba el cargo de Secretario General del partido fundado por su padre. Fue una decisión forzada al agotársele al vástago todos los argumentos en su defensa por estar investigado de corrupción en concesiones públicas del servicio de inspección de automóviles. Luego se producía la retirada de Josep Antonio Durán Lleida, dirigente máximo de Unió Democrática, la formación democristiana que ha sido socia en la coalición forjada con Convergencia, con las resultantes siglas de CiU. A Durán se le reconoce una destreza diplomática notable con conexiones internacionales útiles, tanto en Cataluña como en Madrid.Catalunya es también EspañaIrónicamente, el "Molt Honorable" (título honorífico, que ahora ya no puede usar) Jordi Pujol había estado predicando durante años que su misión era la conversión de Catalunya en un "país normal", no sujeto a circunstancias excepcionales, con libertades limitadas o peculiaridades incómodas, producto de largos periodos de dictaduras. Catalunya, después de todo, según dijo una vez Pujol en Aquisgrán, bajo la sombra de Carlomagno, había sido Europa primero, no como el resto de la península, recuperada del dominio musulmán desde Asturias por los restos del reino visigodo. Ahora parecía que había conseguido la "normalidad", con un nivel de corrupción similar al existente en toda España. Ya estaría en compañía de la infanta Cristina, hija del propio rey Juan Carlos, amenazada de juicio y cárcel con su marido, el laureado jugador de "handball¨ Iñaki Urdangarín. Se podría codear con el tesorero del Partido Popular, Luis Bárcenas, cumpliendo condena en la cárcel, administrador de una contabilidad extra procedente de "mordidas", que terminaban en los bolsillos de los máximos dirigentes del partido. El escándalo Pujol coincidía con el ingreso en prisión de Jaume Matas, el ex presidente de las Baleares, y la amenaza del mismo fin para el expresidente valenciano. Catalunya, modelo de eficiencia e integridad, era ya un país normal, aunque no exactamente de la forma anhelada.Pujol en sus años de retiro disfrutaba de sueldo vitalicio superior a $100.000, tres secretarias, chófer, y un centro de estudios (con un alquiler mensual de más de $200.000, asistido por media docena de funcionarios), dedicado a temas diversos, entre ellos la ética (valor del que se enorgullecía). Ahora debía esquivar las miradas de literalmente miles de ciudadanos catalanes. Significativamente, de ellos podía recordar nombre, apellidos y fisonomía, con una memoria y capacidad política de captación y relaciones públicas sin parangón en Europa. Legiones de catalanes pueden repetir anécdotas similares en las que Pujol les preguntaba por sus hijos y nietos años más tarde de anteriores entrevistas.Pujol había construido no solamente un partido y una coalición ganadora, sino un nuevo concepto de Catalunya como nación. Era sinónima de su persona. Estaba cobijada de una ideología sincrética. Según las conveniencias, era practicante de la Democracia Cristiana, el liberalismo de genuino origen europeo, el conservadurismo tradicional tanto español como británico, e incluso la Social Democracia nórdica. Ahora todo parece que se ha evaporado. Recuérdese que esa ductilidad ideológica le había permitido disfrutar del favor personal del rey Juan Carlos (Pujol fue el primer político español al que el monarca llamó para tranquilizarle tras el fallido golpe de estado de Tejero). Rindió servicios especiales tanto al Partido Popular como al PSOE, a los que había prestado sus votos parlamentarios alternativos para permitirles gobernar.Daños colateralesA pesar de la inicial reacción de Mas ante el escándalo (la crisis era un "asunto estrictamente familiar"), la confesión de Pujol (y sus repercusiones al descubrirse el resto de la trama financiera) amenaza con terminar la propia presidencia de su "hijo político" (según su misma confesión). Peligran los planes de independencia, comenzando con la misma celebración del referéndum (ya rechazado por el gobierno español), y la desaparición de la coalición ganadora (CiU, desprovista de los democristianos de Durán) durante más de tres décadas. Mientras, por la izquierda se testifica el agrietamiento del Partido de los Socialistas de Catalunya (PSC), atenazado por el conflicto entre catalanistas y españolistas afines al PSOE, bajo la zapa de votos de Podemos. De confirmarse la negativa del gobierno español a permitir tanto un referéndum circunscrito a Catalunya como uno más amplio que cubriera todo el territorio español (alternativa no aceptable a los sectores independentistas catalanes, pues considerar que es un derecho que solamente a los catalanes pertenece), el presidente catalán ha amenazado por la celebración de una elecciones anticipadas que sería etiquetadas como plebiscitarias. Si de ese ejercicio surgiera un voto mayoritario independentista, la declaración unilateral de la secesión sería el siguiente paso, de consecuencias imprevisibles, pero que no descartan la suspensión de la autonomía catalana. Si ese ejercicio electoral se tradujera en simplemente formación de un nuevo gobierno, los sondeos muestran que Esquerra Republicana desplazaría a Convergencia.Esquerra presume merecidamente de ser la formación histórica genuinamente independentista, no como Convergencia, considerada como arribista a ese anhelo cuando Pujol asintió en dar su apoyo a esa opción. Esquerra ya había dado a Catalunya tres presidentes (Francesc Maciá, Lluís Companys –fusilado por Franco-- y Josep Tarradellas, rescatado del exilio). Pero con el predecible derrumbe de los planes independentistas, puede ser un premio de consolación en una Catalunya reducida de nuevo a una autonomía, esta vez más debilitada. Por eso se considera que Esquerra seguiría teniendo más poder e influencia en un sistema ambiguo como el actual, sin independencia y sin visos de refuerzo del autonomismo, y menos del federalismo que es la opción propuesta por los socialistas, sin que se especifique el perfil de ese sistema de tantas variantes.Todo este confuso escenario especulativo debiera aclararse durante setiembre y octubre próximos, con la apertura del Parlamento Catalán (que puede exigir a Pujol un explosivo interrogatorio), la celebración de la Diada Nacional de Catalunya, el 11 de setiembre (en conmemoración del tricentenario de la caída de Barcelona en 1714 como final de la Guerra de Sucesión, que solidificó el dominio borbónico en el trono español) y el emblemático plan del referéndum agendado para el 9 de noviembre.Pertenece al terreno de la futurología la repercusión del caso no solamente en la propia estructura política de Catalunya, sino del resto de España. Se teme que este grave incidente también contribuya a dañar más la ya deteriorada imagen de la transición española, hasta hace muy poco, modelo internacional de pacífica reconstrucción de la democracia en otras regiones del planeta. Con el tejido constitucional español bajo cuestionamiento, ahora solamente falta este daño al entramado social. De rebote, convendrá meditar sobre el impacto de una España diferente, con o sin Catalunya, en el mismo entramado de la Unión Europea, ya de por sí atenazada por otros conatos secesionistas (como en Escocia). Si los dirigentes europeos en su mayoría temían la disgregación del territorio español, tampoco ahora darían la bienvenida a una debilitada España por una mayor trama de corrupción de la ya existente. Joaquín Roy es Catedrático 'Jean Monnet' Director del Centro de la Unión Europea Universidad de Miami

En 1999, en una adaptación de la novela homónima de Patricia Highsmith, Matt Damon interpretaba, en "The Talented Mr. Ripley", a un sociópata en busca de fama, reconocimiento y fortuna (los verdaderos cinéfilos reconocerán que la primera adaptación de la novela fue la francesa "Plein Soleil" en 1960). Tras una serie de incidentes, Ripley logra asumir la identidad del joven y frívolo dandy Dickie (muerte de éste mediante), embarcándose en un periplo de duplicidad, embustes y crimen.Análogamente, en 2014 muchos franceses sin duda se preguntan quién es el personaje misterioso que se hace pasar por el Presidente de la República. ¿Quién es ese hombre que, tras la victoria de 2012, intenta personificar la imagen del "primer ciudadano" de Francia? No puedo más que notar ciertos paralelismos entre la ficción novelesca y los acontecimientos previos a la campaña electoral de 2012. Si me tomo el atrevimiento de comparar a Mr. Hollande con Mr. Ripley, entonces el rol del envidiado y seductor (por no decir libertino) Dickie no puede más que corresponder a Mr. Strauss-Khan. Como ya dije en otro artículo, si Mr. Hollande es hoy presidente, se debe más a la libido incontrolable e imperdonable de un alto jerarca internacional que a sus talentos propios. Ciertamente me responderán Uds. que no será la primera vez que un "accidente" político catapulta el inicio de una gran carrera hasta ahí destinada al olvido en los limbos del Palais Bourbon (puedo imaginar peores castigos…). Pero ahí donde la novela de Highsmith o la adaptación Hollywoodense se resumían a algunas horas de angustia psicológica, la presidencia de Mr. Hollande se asemeja, para la mayoría de los franceses, a cinco años en las inhóspitas regiones del Tártaro, con la excepción que el único pecado cometido ha sido el de otorgarle la confianza a un hombre que resultó indigno de ella.Es difícil realizar un decálogo de los dos primeros años de la presidencia de Mr. Hollande, tantos son los fracasos y escasos los éxitos. Es indudable que uno de los puntos altos de su presidencia ha sido la intervención militar francesa en Mali y en República Centroafricana, ambas amparadas en Resoluciones de las N.U. y que contribuyeron a evitar mayores violencias sectarias y trataron de garantizar la estabilidad política de esos países. Su discurso en Ouistreham, en Baja-Normandía, en ocasión de las conmemoraciones de los 70 años del Desembarco fue igualmente un momento alto de su presidencia, resaltando emotivamente cómo el nacionalismo exacerbado, la codicia, el sectarismo y el fanatismo condenan irremediablemente a los pueblos a la barbarie, a la guerra y al exterminio. En épocas de "enfriamiento global", de proteccionismo económico o de fanatismo sectario, hay que ser o muy cínico o muy Realista para desoír las advertencias del pasado. Me dirán Uds. sin embargo que una buena pluma no hace forzosamente un buen presidente; ¡no podría estar más de acuerdo!La presidencia de Mr. Hollande se desmorona aún más rápido que su cota de popularidad en los sondeos de opinión, el último en fecha otorgándole tan sólo 13% de opinión favorable, record histórico para cualquier presidente desde la existencia de estas encuestas (hoy en día, para Mr. Hollande cualquier nuevo sondeo representa un nuevo record histórico de impopularidad…). Soy el primero en reconocer que es necesario poner límites a la tiranía de los sondeos, que la política no puede ser gobernada, dictada ni dependiente de las encuestadoras, que los hombres políticos no son candidatos de programas de telerealidad (aunque algunos se comporten como tal…), que las encuestas no son la expresión del pueblo soberano ni pueden sustituir al marco institucional de elección y refrendación de los candidatos y sus programas políticos. ¡Si caemos en la histeria de los sondeos y reclamamos la dimisión de tal o la disolución de tal tras cada nueva encuesta, tratamos la política con la misma nimiedad, irrespeto y desconocimiento que aquellos que resumen todo debate de ideas o toda interacción social a un "I like" en Facebook! Aún así…13%!!Desde su elección, Mr. Hollande ha perdido al ala izquierda de su partido, a toda la izquierda de la izquierda, a los verdes, a los empresarios, a los sindicatos, a los obreros, a las clases menos favorecidas, a su primer Primer Ministro J. M. Ayrault (pronto perderá seguramente a su segundo Primer Ministro M. Valls). Ha perdido la confianza de la UE, no ha perdido la confianza de Alemania y Merkel sencillamente porque nunca la tuvo. Ha perdido a su compañera Valérie Trierweiler (y libro de confesiones explosivas mediante, ésta se ha encargado de ridiculizarlo y humillarlo frente al mundo entero). Ha recuperado los kilos que había perdido y ha perdido el pelo que había recuperado. Ha perdido la autoridad sobre varios de sus ex ministros (Cécile Duflot, Benoît Hamon, Arnaud Montebourg) que consideraron que ser Ministro de Estado les otorgaba el derecho de criticar y vilipendiar abierta y públicamente la línea política marcada por el Jefe de Estado. Ha perdido la oportunidad de ser digno y presidencial cuando debió serlo ("Moi Président", promesa de campaña que prometía la ejemplaridad en sus acciones y en su vida privada, en clara alusión a Nicolas Sarkozy). Ha perdido el debate dialéctico al declararse Socialdemócrata, irritando a la mayor parte de la izquierda francesa (bastante reaccionaria es cierto), sin siquiera ganar el respaldo de los empresarios ni el apoyo del centro político. En definitiva ha perdido, luego de la victoria del 2012 y de los resultados más que cuestionables de más de una década de la derecha en el poder, la posibilidad de cimentar los valores de la izquierda y permitir la continuidad de su fuerza política durante por lo menos 5 años más.Francia está en crisis. Una crisis política, sin duda, pero sobre todo una crisis económica, una crisis productiva y una crisis de ideas que no hacen más que alimentar la desconfianza hacia el sistema político en su conjunto, favoreciendo, como siempre, a los partidos anti-sistémicos. El desempleo aumenta ininterrumpidamente desde hace dos años, alcanzando el record histórico de 3 millones y medio de desempleados (cuando el presidente se había comprometido públicamente, y en repetidas ocasiones, a "invertir la curva del desempleo"). El déficit fiscal, contrariamente a la promesa de austeridad hecha a Bruselas, se agranda año tras año, las previsiones para 2014 son de 4,4% del PIB, y 4.3% en 2015, bien lejos del 3% demandado por Bruselas (y por Francia cuando se trataba de marcarle el camino a los malos alumnos de la Integración Europea…). Al mismo tiempo, los franceses descubren como ciertos ministros de Estado (Cahuzac, Thévenoud), encargados de las finanzas o de la represión fiscal, se olvidaban de pagar sus impuestos, el alquiler de su vivienda o, peor aún, poseían cuentas secretas en Suiza. Ciertamente estamos muy lejos de los escándalos de corrupción de nuestras latitudes que, increíblemente, generan escasa reacción en nuestros responsables políticos y en las ciudadanías átonas y amorfas de nuestros países, pero tampoco podemos decir que estos "pequeños" escándalos dentro del partido socialista francés contribuyan a vehicular la imagen de la "République exemplaire".En poco más de dos años, Hollande va ya por su tercer Gobierno. Luego de retirarle la confianza a Jean Marc Ayrault tras 21 meses de gobierno, apeló a la única figura fuerte y popular con que contaba el socialismo, el entonces ministro del interior Manuel Valls (resistido sin embargo por toda el ala izquierda de su partido y vilipendiado por la "izquierda de la izquierda"). El primer "Gouvernement Valls" duró tan sólo 5 meses y explotó en vuelo tras las declaraciones del entonces ministro de economía Arnaud Montebourg, criticando la línea económica del Gobierno. El segundo Gobierno Valls, que apenas lleva un mes, ya se encuentra tambaleante.Cabe recordar que el primer Gobierno Valls recibió la confianza del parlamento, pero en aquel momento 11 diputados de la mayoría socialista se abstuvieron de votar la confianza (el francés es un sistema político híbrido, con un presidente electo por sufragio universal y un primer ministro electo dentro de la mayoría parlamentaria y ratificado por ésta. Si el presidente no puede ser depuesto por las cámaras, él si puede remover al Gobierno o, en un caso extremo, demandar la disolución de la Asamblea).En el segundo voto de confianza que se llevó a cabo el 16 de setiembre de 2014, 32 diputados socialistas se abstuvieron (denominados "les frondeurs") y en total 53 fueron las abstenciones. Esto produjo que, por primera vez desde abril del 62, un Gobierno no tenga mayoría absoluta en el parlamento, contando sólo con una mayoría relativa. En aquel entonces, el desenlace fue que poco tiempo después de no conseguir la mayoría absoluta y tras una moción de censura al Gobierno, el Presidente Pompidou decretó la disolución de la Asamblea Nacional. Peligroso recordatorio para los socialistas, en particular si consideramos que la situación económica se augura aún más sombría. Muchos diputados socialistas que esta semana votaron la confianza a regañadientes han advertido que el tiempo del respaldo incuestionado se ha acabado. Si algunas de las abstenciones se transforman en votos contra el Gobierno, entonces existirá riesgo de disolución.Manuel Valls debe preguntarse por estas horas si Mr. Hollande es un genio político, un calculador despiadado o sencillamente un hombre a la deriva. Mr. Hollande ha conseguido, en tan sólo seis meses, desacreditar a la única figura dentro de su partido que representaba una posibilidad de éxito frente a la derecha. De una popularidad cercana al 60% cuando era Ministro del Interior, la aprobación favorable de los franceses de M. Valls ha caído hasta el 30% esta semana. Fuese o no la estrategia de Mr. Hollande desacreditar a la única figura (en aquel entonces) capaz de pelearle la interna presidencial dentro del partido socialista, M. Valls debe estar considerando que hay regalos envenenados que conviene nunca aceptar. La hipótesis de un presidente cínico y calculador al punto de zabordar las chances de su propio partido (y -me gustaría ser cándido y pensar- del triunfo de sus convicciones ideológicas…), torpedeando a su rival interno con la difusa ilusión de representarse en 2017 para sufrir una derrota asegurada, puede parecer de ficción novelesca, pero yo no descartaría aún los derechos del libro.Mr. Hollande sabe que, salvo milagro, no puede ganar las elecciones del 2017. Y si no lo sabe cabe preguntarse para qué sirven los asesores presidenciales. Todas las encuestas dan, con Hollande como candidato, al partido socialista en tercera posición y por lo tanto fuera del ballotage. Incluso si lograra pasar a segunda vuelta, perdería con total certeza frente al candidato de la derecha. Lo que sería realmente un cataclismo es que, si se encontrara enfrentado en esa segunda vuelta al F.N. de Marine Le Pen, habría chances de que el partido de extrema derecha gane las elecciones presidenciales.Mr. Hollande tiene sólo una decisión posible por delante para salvaguardar las chances de su partido -si eso acaso le interesa-, pero sobre todo si desea mandar un mensaje fuerte a la ciudadanía demostrando que el Homo Politicus no es únicamente un carrerista pragmático y egoísta preocupado exclusivamente por su supervivencia política. Mr. Hollande debe anunciar lo antes posible, e inequívocamente, que no se presentará, bajo ninguna circunstancia, a su reelección en 2017. Esto le permitiría dedicarse exclusivamente a su quinquenio y disociar sus opciones de política pública de sus cálculos politiqueros. Los franceses le reconocerían al menos eso.Por su actuación en The Talented Mr Ripley, Matt Damon fue nominado a un Golden Globe (paso por alto sus nominaciones a los MTV y a los People Choice Awards…). De seguir por este camino y al finalizar su quinquenio, dudo que The Untalented Mr. Hollande reciba siquiera una invitación para dos al Festival del Cassoulet de Castelnaudary… Germán Clulow es Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales por la Universidad ORT - Uruguay, Master en Ciencia Política por la Université de Genève - Suiza, y Master en Estudios de Desarrollo por el Instituto de Altos Estudios Internacionales y de Desarrollo (IHEID-The Graduate Institute) Ginebra, Suiza

Contemporary Ukrainian state and society pass through complicated and contradictory period of transformation of socio-economic, political, spiritual and moral relations. The youth, as subject and object of policy, social and cultural relations, mirrors the features of Ukrainian political system's evolution and cultural evolution in its vital activity. The youth is an important part of Ukrainian society, the medium of its intellectual potential, a main factor of socio-economic progress. Process of state building largely depends on capability of youth to be an active creative power.Nevertheless, it should be noted, that significant part of youth has no reliable political and socio-cultural reference points, civic consciousness isn't formed, spiritual and moral ideals are lost, increasingly the youth regards with negative to socially useful activities and becomes most separated from society and state than previous generations.Meantime effective socialization of youth is a necessary condition for a constant development of Ukrainian political system, largely depictures the future of the country. Perspective of society's further development primarily depend on the features of formation of the political culture of youth, its political values, socio-political orientation, political choice, attitude to power.In this regard, necessity of studying processes, what spread across youth subculture, political analysis of youth subcultural differentiation, production technologies and mechanisms for prevention deviant behaviour and crises among young people, appears.The socio-economic and spiritual development of Ukraine is impossible without concentration on resolving the problems of the youth as future of our country, a guarantor of social and economic progress, because an immutable truth is that further development mostly depend on providing young generations with decent conditions for life. In despite of declared realization of this truth, a majority of countries in the world starts new millennium with a significant burden of unsolved problems of youth, most of them, for a example, imparity of youth, unemployment, marginalization of young people, propagation of illegal social practices and asocial manifestations among young people, youth health problems and some marital and family problems etc., now shows tendency to intensification.Under conditions of deep economic and demographic crisis, crisis of culture and ideology, of post-Soviet countries, including Ukraine, youth problems in different areas of life become more specific, they entail hard and prolonged consequences, therefore, they need be analyzed deeply and regulated, realistic and balanced youth policy must be developed.The term "youth" is treated diversely in many branches of science - philosophy, sociology, political science, pedagogy, psychology etc. Its generalized version is suggested in encyclopedias and determines the youth as a separate socio-demographic group that differs in a complex of age characteristics, features of social status, that are determined by social system, culture, regularity of socialization, education in terms of a particular society.The youth, within the meaning of current age ranges of youth in Ukraine (according to national legislation an age range of youth is 15 - 34 years), makes up the significant part of the population of Ukraine. Now the youth contingent in Ukraine is demographically heterogeneous, because the youth unites in itself groups of rather a broad age range – from teenagers (15-17 years), post teenagers (18-19 years old) to much more experienced in age and socially persons and adults, that are over 30 years old (30-34 years).It should be considered that the youth is socially heterogeneous. Yong workers, villagers, students, political leaders, representatives of the business community, migrants, young specialists, marginal people with different degree of success adapt to market economy, frequently orient themselves on contradictory political and spiritual values.The position of youth political culture, as well as society generally, is largely fragmented. The separate groups of the youth differ from each other in the interest to policy, level of inclusion in the political life, orientations on different ideological and political currents of modern Ukraine. All this differences haven't characterized as acute antagonism and haven't led to excessive politicization yet.The young people significantly differ from older generations, because they almost got rid of illusions that somebody can solve their own problems. They are individualistic and pragmatic, relate to the modern authority rather neutrally and don't connect any positive changes with it.The young generation perceives the policy and the authority as entity that cause neither admiration, nor especially acute negative emotions. First of all, it proves in removal of a large number of the youth from political life. In some measure apathy of youth, first of all, appears because the reforms that take place in Ukraine impact on the youth most painfully, and because of absence of understanding policy towards youth as an independent socio-demographic group, also because the youth, on the one hand, doesn't see necessity to change something cardinally in environment, but, on the other hand, doesn't consider political activity as something important, it finds most perspective methods and forms of self-fulfillment. As a result – total alienation of the youth from the authority, that can be transformed into active rejection at any time.Today state only declares principles of political culture of participation and public culture. During period of formation of the youth generation it is necessary to examine the situation, to explore the depth and sharpness of social problems, to establish monitoring of youth life.Modern problems such as crisis of relationship of generations, impairment of vital parameters, formation of specific youth subculture and counterculture etc., demonstrate that all structures of socialization together – family, environment and even education, become not enough to solve the problems of society when new generations come on and it is not enough to solve the problems of youth, that takes on its historical subjectivity.Liberal views of youth are often formed under the influence of education, cultural environment, family socialization, but are not the result of a «rational» choice. State youth policy, as an innovative Institute, has it own particularities and the main one of them is that it is specialized and was built on innovative forms of activity. These forms are associated with deep process of knowledge and management. They need political will and great resources to be realized. The payment for that are guaranteed results of activity, without what society can't exist and develop no longer.As a result of new situation, what appeared because political activity in labor and educational groups had been prohibited, the policy moved on from industrial and academic areas to the sphere of free time of youth and led new youth organizations on the competition with traditional structures of free time. The youth structures could gain neither recognition, nor authority on broad stratums of the rising generation.The perspective of further development of society connects, first of all, with features of the formation of political culture of youth, its political values, a socio-political orientation, political choice and attitude towards the authority.The formation of consciousness of the category of population is strategically important for the state, because working politically active forces will be replaced exactly by today's youth. Now it is hard to manipulate the young people, they are very sensitive and note everything that takes place in society. May be, some part of them go to policy in order to make money, but for the most of them is important to realize their own opinions.The current political situation in Ukraine makes the youth think about a lot of questions: how can I, young man, decide something and affect the situation in the country (the region); how much does my vote weigh in elections etc. One of the most important factors that can push these people into active public deeds is confidence of an opportunity that something can be changed by their choice and decision.The modern politicians come to understanding that the slogans are ineffective and the youth can't be conquered with appeals on TV. The new generation is more independent than previous one and, the most important of this, that it has a choice. The votes of youth will not be cast without any reason – someone must work with it. The experience of last decades proves that only when countries pay much attention on work with youth they will success in policy and economy. A sustainable progress is demonstrated by societies that have looked over the system of traditional opinions about new generation and it importance for political and socio-economical development (for example, Germany, Sweden).In Ukraine a program of state and public actions in this sphere and mechanisms of solving these problems is determined by modern national policy. The especial attention should be paid to solving problems of youth self-realization and formation of young citizens.There is 367 003 persons (30,67 percent of all population of the region) of young people from 14 to 35 years old in Mykolaiv, including citizens - 251 712 persons and villagers - 115 291 persons. The youth needs permanent protection and help of state. However to give support to the youth doesn't mean to solve all its problems. First of all, it means to give the youth an opportunity to solve problems by itself.The Regional Program "The Youth of Mykolaiv Region" on 2011-2015 years becomes a strategic document. The conception determines directions of relationship's development between the state and the youth at the regional level. The most optimal way and method of solution are:to develop the scientifically argumentative strategy of implementation of public policy towards the youth of region;to popularize efficiency, availability and creation of extensive network of youth social infrastructure, a directing on activity that will satisfy needs and create the necessary conditions for effective socialization of young people;to promote youth occupation by introduction the system of career-guidance, creation the conditions for secondary employment, provision with fist job, stimulation to make business, outspread of youth information field concerning existing professions and demand for them; to promote youth employment and youth entrepreneurship by expansion of employment, professional training of youth, giving an opportunity to realize youth projects;to involve the youth in realization of social programs and projects of state youth policy that are directed on solving problems according to Program;to create a complex system of social protection for representatives in special categories of youth community, to render social assistance and support for the youth that is in crisis;to create conditions for providing social assistance and modeling healthy lifestyle among all groups of youth in Mykolaiv;to encourage the creative self-realization and total evolution of youth, to support the youth initiatives and activities at different spheres of life, to implement incentives in order to improve the cultural level of youth;to implement the mechanism how to inform youth community by mass media and Internet-resource;to implement measures to create conditions for youth loans;to promote the youth integration towards world and European community, the exchange of experience and joint activities of the youth at the regional and the national levels;to promote spiritual and physical development of young people in Mykolaiv region, a high patriotic consciousness, a national pride, a formation and development of motivation that is directed to preparation for doing public and constitutional duty in order to protect the national interests of Ukraine.Now it is possible to use young people in realization of youth police by enlisting them in youth and children public organizations. These organizations are one of the most important social institutes that promote a formation of civil society. The public organizations have exclusive opportunities for political socialization of youth, because they are not only a key-note subject of youth policy that affects its formation and realization, but also are good staff reserve for the public authorities and local government. The social movement is the force that can't be ignored and should not be ignored.So, it is important to create legal and other conditions for cooperation of the authority, youth public organizations and active representatives of this part of population. The principal revolution in youth attitude to policy will take place only when it feels itself a real member of process of transformation and development in Ukrainian society. ; Статья посвящена исследованию особенностей формирования политической куль-туры молодежи, ее политических ценностей, социально-политических ориентиров в период трансформации украинского общества, анализируется роль государства в формировании и реализации современной молодежной политики. ; Статтю присвячено дослідженню особливостей формування політичної культури молоді, її політичних цінностей, соціально-політичних орієнтирів у період трансформації українського суспільства, проаналізовано роль держави у формуванні та реалізації сучасної молодіжної політики.

En las próximas elecciones europeas que se desarrollarán del 22 al 25 de mayo, se espera un resultado histórico y resonante de los partidos de extrema derecha y euro-escépticos, confirmando una tendencia al alza de estos partidos a nivel nacional desde hace más de treinta años y a nivel europeo desde hace más de una década.Las primeras preguntas que debemos hacernos son: ¿quién vota por la extrema derecha (E.D)? y ¿por qué estos partidos han logrado consolidarse electoralmente en importantes democracias europeas en los últimos veinte años, cuando prácticamente no habían existido como fuerzas políticas en los cuarenta años que sucedieron a la derrota de las potencias del eje y sus doctrinas fascistas y totalitarias?. Tanto la E.D, como la derecha conservadora, pagaron caro (a nivel electoral) su respaldo, real o imaginario, al nazismo y al fascismo durante el período de entre guerras. Desacreditados y justamente vilipendiados, los partidos de E.D prácticamente desaparecieron de la arena electoral hasta mediados de los 70. Para algunos autores, el resurgimiento de estos partidos a fines de los 70 y principios de los 80 coincidiría con el fin de "los años dorados", la crisis económica de los 80 y el deterioro y desmantelamiento progresivo del Estado Benefactor. A esto habrá que agregarle –a partir de la década del 90- el proceso de globalización que habría contribuido a resquebrajar no sólo las fronteras, sino también la unidad y cohesión cultural al interior de unidades políticas auto-percibidas como culturalmente homogéneas y nacionalmente solidarias.El electorado histórico de la E.D ha sido siempre ese sector socio-económico conocido como la "pequeña burguesía", compuesto mayoritariamente por pequeños comerciantes y empresarios y pequeños terratenientes. Estas profesiones encontrarían en el discurso político, social y económico de la E.D, respuestas a sus valores, actitudes e inquietudes. Pero de "pequeños burgueses" no vive un partido, por lo menos uno que intente competir exitosamente por el poder. A partir de los años 90, el electorado de la E.D se ha ampliado, incorporando una porción nada despreciable (esto variará dependiendo de los países) de la denominada "working class", esa clase trabajadora compuesta de obreros (calificados y no calificados), prestadores de servicios poco calificados (vendedores, cajeros, personal de limpieza, etc.) y oficinistas. El éxito de la E.D en los últimos años se explica por su capacidad para captar parte de ese electorado, que históricamente ha votado por los partidos socialistas y de la derecha tradicional. ¿Cómo explicar entonces que importantes sectores de la ciudadanía hayan volcado su apoyo, de manera importante, y perenne en algunos casos, hacia estos partidos?Existen tres tesis relevantes para explicar la evolución del electorado. La primera haría eco de lo que podemos denominar como el conflicto o el proteccionismo económico. En este sentido, parte de los votantes de la clase trabajadora responderían al llamado de la E.D en respuesta a la amenaza percibida, tras el proceso de globalización, a sus fuentes de trabajo y subsistencia. Estaríamos entonces en presencia de una competencia por los recursos económicos (empleo, salarios) y sociales (acceso a la salud, a la educación) entre un sector amenazado (los trabajadores locales no calificados) y una mano de obra extranjera que provocaría un efecto de "dumping" económico y social al presionar a la baja al mercado del empleo y sobrecargar aún más el tambaleante Estado de Bienestar. La E.D, al presentar una visión económica proteccionista o de lo que podríamos catalogar como chauvinismo económico (acceso prioritario de los nacionales al trabajo, la salud y la educación), tocaría la fibra sensible de los sectores económicos más amenazados por la apertura de las fronteras. Esta sería la tesis prioritaria para explicar la migración de parte del asalariado obrero de la izquierda hacia la derecha, ya que la primera tiene dificultades para incorporar su lógica internacionalista y de solidaridad transfronteriza en un esquema político y social que convenza parte de su electorado tradicional que reclamaría, por el contrario, un mayor proteccionismo (económico y cultural).La segunda tesis que intenta explicar la evolución del electorado es la del conflicto o del proteccionismo cultural. Esta idea, anclada en valores propios al racismo y la xenofobia, se opondría a la visión multicultural y de igualdad entre nacionales y extranjeros. Defendiendo valores contrarios a la igualdad y a los principios centrales del liberalismo político, la E.D capitalizaría los sentimientos fuertemente identitarios y excluyentes de una parte de la ciudadanía. Un estudio de Zick et al. Del 2011 (Intolerance, Prejudice and Discrimination: An European Report) muestra que el 60% de los ingleses, 54% de los franceses, 52% de los alemanes y 79% de los húngaros, consideran que su cultura debe ser protegida de la influencia de culturas extranjeras (los resultados son similares para el resto de los países europeos). Aún más grave: 30% de los alemanes, 35 % de los ingleses, 38% de los franceses y hasta 45% de los portugueses, consideran que existe una jerarquía natural entre la raza blanca y la raza negra. Estas nociones, de racismo cultural (basado en la diferencia natural entre culturas o civilizaciones) o clásico, ligadas a otros valores xenófobos, explicarían el apoyo de una parte importante del electorado hacia los partidos de E.D.Por último, la tercer tesis que explicaría el apoyo a la E.D podría titularse como el voto protesta o de desencanto y rechazo hacia las instituciones de la democracia representativa y del sistema de partidos. Esta idea toma particular fuerza entre muchos comentaristas políticos, en particular porque resultaría menos vergonzoso para nuestras sociedades "libelares y tolerantes" reconocer las falencias de la ingeniería política, que reconocer nuestras propias falencias como individuos. Así, los defensores de esta tesis plantean que el déficit democrático, la corrupción política, el fracaso de los partidos políticos para articular correctamente los intereses ciudadanos y no ser percibidos únicamente como un "club de amigos" destinados a perennizar el nepotismo y el clientelismo, así como la inoperancia de la democracia representativa (a través de un parlamento repleto de burgueses empachados y distanciados de las verdaderas preocupaciones del "hombre de la calle") y su cooptación por los círculos más alejados del poder ciudadano (la burocracia estatal y la justicia), conducirían al apoyo a la E.D. En efecto, el lenguaje populista de ciertos partidos de E.D, articulado sobre la crítica permanente hacia las élites corruptas (políticas y económicas) y espoliadoras, tocaría el corazón de una ciudadanía atomizada que ha perdido sus puntos de referencia tradicionales (partidos políticos, sindicatos, familia, etc.) en su entender de la polis y en su accionar político.Para entender el éxito de la E.D, es necesario al mismo tiempo considerar la oferta electoral, es decir la estrategia, las características propias de cada partido así como su relacionamiento dentro del sistema de partidos. Es innegable que la profesionalización de la estructura partidaria, el desarrollo de una base de militantes movilizados y adoctrinados, así como la construcción de un discurso populista en algunos casos, y sobre todo la capacidad de estos partidos de colocar en la agenda pública sus temas predilectos, a saber la inmigración, la seguridad, la corrupción y el abuso de las élites (temas sobre los cuales serían considerados como más competentes que los partidos tradicionales), les ha permitido crecer electoralmente. A esto se suman dos aspectos que explicarían igualmente el progreso de estos partidos. El primero tiene que ver con el posicionamiento de los grandes partidos tradicionales de la izquierda y la derecha (socialdemócratas, socialistas, liberales y conservadores). Al abandonar progresivamente los extremos para "acercarse" al centro, en una lógica de competencia electoral, estos partidos han abandonado o se han alejado progresivamente de esa parte nada despreciable del electorado extremo (tanto a la izquierda como a la derecha), que no tiene "más remedio" que reportar su voto hacia los partidos de los extremos. El segundo factor está ligado a la actitud, a menudo percibida como timorata o esquiva de los grandes partidos centristas de tratar de lleno las cuestiones relacionadas con la inmigración. Una parte de la ciudadanía, decepcionada por las respuestas y políticas aplicadas por los partidos gubernamentales, reportaría su voto hacia los partidos que proponen soluciones claramente comprensibles y asimilables (no a la inmigración, no a Europa, no al euro, etc.)Todos estos factores, que hasta hace un par de años sólo se aplicaban a nivel nacional, empiezan a dar frutos a nivel europeo. Es evidente que luego de décadas de adoptar una política de rechazo y no participación en las instituciones europeas (principalmente en el Parlamento), los partidos de E.D y euro-escépticos han cambiado su estrategia para "destruir el sistema por dentro". Pasando por alto la inconsistencia lógica de participar democráticamente en un proceso electoral del cual desconfían y de formar parte de un proceso de integración supranacional al cual no le reconocen ni legitimidad ni autoridad, los partidos de E.D ven en Europa una nueva oportunidad de crecimiento y de afianzamiento de su fuerza política.Ciertos factores facilitan o explican este progreso. El primero es sin duda la desconfianza generalizada de la ciudadanía en la construcción y en el futuro de Europa. Según datos de Eurobarómetro para agosto 2013, tan sólo el 31% de los ciudadanos de la Unión tenían confianza en la UE. Este dato se enmarca en el fenómeno más amplio de "crisis de confianza en las instituciones" del cual, como hemos dicho, se beneficia la E.D con su discurso populista, antieuropeo y anti-establishment. En efecto, para el período mayo 2012/agosto 2013, la confianza de la ciudadanía europea en los partidos políticos ha pasado del 18 al 14 %. Lo que algunos ven como un voto protesta (contra la crisis de representación o la crisis económica – cristalizado en el apoyo a la E.D), otros lo perciben como un fenómeno de fondo más preocupante para la estabilidad de las democracias europeas.Otras causas pueden contribuir a explicar el próximo buen resultado de estos partidos en las elecciones europeas. Las europeas son consideradas generalmente como "elecciones de segundo orden", menos importantes a los ojos de la ciudadanía. En este caso, el voto estaría menos "atado" a las lógicas tradicionales, favoreciendo el apoyo a partidos minoritarios (como la E.D o los partidos verdes). Otro argumento que ha sido avanzado es el de la baja participación, que favorecería a los partidos con fuerte capacidad de movilización, como serían los de E.D (este argumento deja a este autor particularmente dubitativo, ya que pocos o ningún estudio han demostrado que el electorado de E.D se movilice más que, por ejemplo, el tradicional electorado de izquierda). Un último argumento que puede ser esgrimido es que, al realizarse las elecciones europeas bajo un modo de escrutinio proporcional y generalmente con una única o algunas pocas circunscripciones por país (por ejemplo en el caso de Francia hay tan sólo ocho circunscripciones para las europeas, contra 577 para las elecciones legislativas!), las chances de los partidos minoritarios de obtener un importante número de votos se acrecientan. Estas razones explicarían, por ejemplo, que el British National Party (partido a tendencia fascista) haya obtenido 6.2% de los sufragios, o que el UK Independence Party (partido euro-escéptico) haya sido el segundo partido más votado en Reino Unido en las elecciones europeas de 2009 con el 16,5% de los votos, cuando este partido nunca ha obtenido ni una bancada en la Cámara de los Comunes.Es inviable a corto y mediano plazo que las fuerzas de E.D y antieuropeas presenten un real peligro para la integración Europea. Estos partidos tan sólo pueden aspirar, por el momento, a convertirse en el tercer o cuarto grupo político relevante a nivel europeo detrás del Partido Socialista Europeo, el Partido Popular Europeo y la Alianza de Liberales y Demócratas por Europa. Cualquier tentativa de "mise en question" no podrá pasar de la expresión, ciertamente legítima, de las dudas en cuanto al presente y futuro de la integración europea. Son y serán, durante mucho tiempo aún, minoritarios tanto a nivel del parlamento europeo, como en los legislativos nacionales (salvo contadas excepciones). En 2009 el apoyo a los partidos de E.D y euro-escépticos alcanzó casi el 12% de los sufragios europeos. Para las elecciones del 22-25 de mayo se vaticina un resulta muy superior, que analizaremos en el marco global de los resultados de las próximas elecciones en un siguiente artículo. Théophile de Verne - Université Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne

Podemos recurrir a un simple modelo para hacer más visible el proceso. Por ejemplo, el modelo de De la Fuente descansa en 3 variables para pensar la convergencia y divergencia. Hay una variable X que refleja las condiciones iniciales de una economía, como por ejemplo el clima, la extensión territorial y la existencia de una riqueza minera o petrolera. El petróleo en Arabia Saudita sería un ejemplo representativo. En segundo lugar, De la Fuente menciona la existencia de una variable Beta. Esta variable representa condiciones de una economía en relación a otra. Por ejemplo, el deterioro o mejora en los términos de intercambio a partir de la aparición de una economía emergente (como China en la última década) genera modificaciones relativas. Por su parte, hay una variable aleatoria.Así, El modelo básico de De la Fuente es el siguiente:/\Yi,t = Xi –β Yi,t +€itDonde β refleja la correlación entre la tasa de crecimiento y el nivel de renta. La relación puede ser positiva o negativa y proporciona una medida de la velocidad (según la pendiente). €it es una perturbación aleatoria y X resume las características fundamentales del país I, que podrían influir sobre su ritmo de crecimiento. Es constante en el tiempo y la medida es 0. Es decir, hay quienes de acuerdo a X tienen más potencial y otros menos que la media.En esta segunda parte apelaremos a tres teorías para explicar las dos cortas convergencias y la larga divergencia de Argentina y Chile desde 1880 hasta la actualidad. En primer lugar, recurriremos al modelo neoclásico de Solow. En segundo lugar, apelaremos a la teoría de la dependencia y en tercer lugar a una explicación institucional.1) Enfoque neoclásicoLa primera convergencia argentina descansa en las ventajas relativas para insertarse en el comercio mundial. Esta Beta puede describirse a partir del modelo de Solow ya que la relación complementaria que desarrolló Argentina con Inglaterra supuso no sólo un creciente intercambio de bienes sino un creciente flujo de capitales. Tanto en la experiencia argentina como chilena de finales del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX, es posible ver como el ahorro de los países ricos (particularmente inglés) buscaba mercados alternativos dado que tenía un rendimiento marginal decreciente en sus respectivas economías. Principalmente Argentina y, en menor medida Chile, se posicionaron como dos economías atractivas para recibir el excedente de ahorro que tenía el país más rico del mundo.Argentina y Chile: Primera Convergencia (1880-1929)En la siguiente tabla podemos ver el sorprendente peso relativo de Argentina y, en menor medida, Chile en la inversión Británica en la región.Fuente: RipleyEn segundo lugar, ¿Cómo explicar la larga divergencia que sufrieron Argentina y Chile entre 1930 y el final del siglo XX a partir de la teoría neoclásica? Podemos pensar que en cierta forma es la contracara del período anterior: si durante la primera convergencia se consolidó una economía globalizada donde los aranceles formales y reales (como el mencionado costo de transporte) caían y eso hacía que el capital buscara sin restricciones los ámbitos donde podía maximizar el retorno, luego, a partir de la "Gran Depresión", se sucedieron políticas proteccionistas que desincentivaron la llegada de inversión extranjera. Para la teoría neoclásica solowiana, la primera convergencia fue causada por la β que significaba la existencia de incentivos para la llegada de capitales y la posterior divergencia se explica por la β que expresaba la desaparición de esos incentivos, es decir, por la llegada de políticas proteccionistas que dificultaron o imposibilitaron la inversión extranjera.Argentina: Larga Divergencia (1930-2003)Chile: Larga Divergencia (1930-1990)Si bien Argentina y Chile vivieron un proceso de convergencia similar y un proceso de divergencia largo y traumático, podemos ahora marcar una "divergencia" en las características que la segunda y actual convergencia ha tomado en uno y otro país. Mientras en Chile la última convergencia comienza en 1990 y descansa en la creciente inversión extranjera y apertura al mundo, en Argentina el modelo neoclásico explicaría el crecimiento argentino desde 2003 en adelante como consecuencia de las ventajas comparativas que una economía colapsada encontró en un mercado mundial que demandaba sus productos. Es decir, desde la visión neoclásica, la nueva convergencia descansaría en una economía altamente competitiva como consecuencia de una moneda colapsada que generó bienes exportables muy baratos en dólares.2) Teoría de la dependenciaDesde la construcción teórica que nos ofrece la escuela de la CEPAL y la teoría de la dependencia, podemos recurrir al deterioro y mejora de los términos de intercambio para explicar la primera convergencia desde 1880 hasta la "Gran Depresión", la larga divergencia que siguió a 1929 y se consolidó en la posguerra y a la convergencia actual. Tanto en Argentina como en Chile sucedió un proceso de mejora en los términos de intercambio al menos hasta la primera guerra mundial. Esta variable es una β ya que no depende de las condiciones iniciales de la economía sino de la relación entre el precio de los bienes que una economía exporta con el precio de los bienes que esa economía importa.Argentina y Chile: Convergencia (1830-1929)Argentina y Chile: Divergencia (1930-finales del siglo XX)Argentina y Chile: Convergencia (Finales del siglo XX en adelante)Sostienen Brambilla, Galiani y Porto que "Argentine trade policies swang from episodes of open trade, especially at the end of the 1800s and during the early 1900s, to episodes of a strong anti-export bias and import substitution, especially after 1930 and until the 1990s. Our analysis tells a story of bad trade policies, rooted in distributional conflict and shaped by changes in constraints, that favored industry over agriculture in a country with a fundamental comparative advantage in agriculture. While the anti-export bias impeded productivity growth in agriculture, the import substitution strategy was not successful in promoting industrialization. In the end, Argentine growth never took-off" (LAMES/2009/1141/AE_Brambilla_Galiani_Porto.pdf).Tomamos un gráfico de la CEPALFuente: http://prebisch.cepal.org/es/sigloXXI/terminos-intercambioEn segundo lugar, es posible recurrir en la escuela cepaliana para explicar la larga divergencia. Gráfico 3: Términos de intercambio de Argentina (1945-1973)Fuente: econserialcronica.orgEn tercer lugar, la nueva convergencia ha descansado en parte en una mejoría en los términos de intercambio. El siguiente gráfico refleja la experiencia argentina entre 1986 y 2012. Es posible ver que sucede una notable mejora a partir de 2003, justamente cuando el país comienza a salir de su crisis política.Gráfico 4Fuente: http://www.infocadena.com/columnistas/columnistas.html3) Enfoque Neo-institucionalistaDe las tres teorías elegidas, el neo-institucionalismo representa más cabalmente a una explicación que descansa en una X, es decir, variables no relacionales que reflejan escenarios donde es difícil o incluso imposible modificar determinadas situaciones. Argentina y Chile: Primera Convergencia (1880-1929)Sin embargo, definir las instituciones como X es problemático: si bien es muy difícil modificar las instituciones estructuralmente de un período a otro, sí es posible modificar sucesivas instituciones en el mediano y largo plazo. En Argentina hay una amplia literatura que explica la larga decadencia (o divergencia) a partir del creciente incumplimiento de los preceptos de la Constitución liberal de 1853-60. ¿Qué significa un "creciente incumplimiento" de una determinada norma o un conjunto de normas? Si bien es difícil medirlo, es posible mencionar una creciente debilidad de los derechos de propiedad. Para una economía insertada en el mundo a partir de las ventajas comparativas del modelo agro-exportador, la delimitación de los derechos de propiedad es una condición más relevante de lo que lo es para, ceteris paribus, una economía cerrada.Paso seguido, la experiencia argentina tiene distintos hitos institucionales relevantes que contribuyen a pensar que, en un determinado momento, "las instituciones" contribuyeron para la convergencia y en otro momento contribuyeron para la divergencia. Pero si eso es así, ello podría significar que o una misma institución explica A y no-A o que las instituciones fueron paulatinamente modificadas y suena anti-tuitivo.Si bien sería necesaria una argumentación más elaborada, el papel de las instituciones en el modelo de De La Fuente podría representar tanto una X como un β. Sin embargo, en ese escenario nos enfrentaríamos a un problema adicional ya que sería necesario definir instituciones en forma más precisa y rigurosa. Es decir, sería sencillo refutar esta definición (las instituciones como X y β) sosteniendo que en realidad no es que "las instituciones sean X y β" sino que no es posible hablar como si las reglas de juego fueran uniformes. Así, sería necesario desagregar aquello que, por falta de rigurosidad, habríamos agregado en nuestra definición inicial. Siguiendo este simple y válido razonamiento: no es que "las instituciones" puedan ser X y B dependiendo las circunstancias sino que hay reglas de juego que son X y hay otras reglas de juego que son B y eventualmente sucede que algunas reglas de juego devienen en instituciones formales.Paso seguido, en Argentina el neo-institucionalismo sería un X que explicaría el primer período de convergencia entre 1880 y 1929 a partir de la existencia de un aparato estatal y una dinámica sociedad civil que acogieron e interpretaron el espíritu liberal de la Constitución de 1853. Esta Constitución estaba inspirada en parte en la Constitución de los Estados Unidos y en los escritos de Juan Bautista Alberdi (principalmente, "Bases y puntos de partida para la organización nacional" y "Sistema económico y rentístico"). Es importante remarcar que dentro de estas "condiciones iniciales" mencionamos tanto el espíritu de la letra constitucional (que, según esta tradición de pensamiento, fue respetada por el aparato estatal) como también mencionamos el espíritu de la sociedad civil. ¿Puede ser tomada una sociedad civil como parte de determinadas "condiciones iniciales"? Ello podría haber sucedido dada la particular experiencia inmigratoria argentina de finales del siglo XIX. Es decir, Argentina era una nueva nación en el momento que recibió una gran oleada inmigratoria europea y ello habría contribuido a un papel fundacional o, en términos de De La fuente, a constituirse (la inmigración) en un X en lugar de un β. En cambio, podemos pensar que una similar oleada inmigratoria en la actualidad no podría constituirse como actor fundacional y devendría un β. Así, podemos ver que un mismo actor o variable es un X en un contexto y un β en otro contexto.La declinación argentina ha fascinado a investigadores de distinto tipo. Por ejemplo, el austaliano Alan Taylor comienza un artículo en "The Journal of Economic History" de la siguiente manera: "Once one of the richest countries in the world, Argentina has been in relative economic decline for most of the twentieth century. The quantitative records of income growth and accumulation date the onset of the retardation to around the time of the Great War, and patterns of aggregate saving and foreign borrowing show that scarcity of investable resources significantly frustrated interwar development. A demographic model of national saving demonstrates that the burdens of rapid population growth and substantial immigration depressed Argentine saving, contributing significantly to the demise of the Belle Epoque following the wartime collapse of international financial markets" ("External Dependence, Demographic Burdens, and Argentine Economic Decline After the Belle Epoque" que, Vol 52, Nro 4, 1992).Por su parte, otro reconocido historiador como el cubano Carlos Díaz-Alejandro es citado por Taylor en el mismo artículo con la siguiente frase: "It is common nowadays to lump the Argentine economy in the same category with the economies of other Latin American nations. Some opinion even puts it among such less developed nations as India and Nigeria. Yet, most economists writing during the first three decades of this century would have placed Argentina among the most advanced countries-with Western Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia. To have called Argentina "underdeveloped" in the sense that word has today would have been considered laughable. Not only was per capita income high, but its growth was one of the highest in the world.'"Siguiendo el pensamiento de Taylor y Díaz-Alejandro, es posible pensar que la historia va camino a repetirse y que esta última convergencia podría estar llegando a su fin. Consiguientemente, será necesario en otro momento estudiar la divergencia Argentina con respecto a Chile. Pedro Isern es profesor del Depto. Estudios Internacionales, FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay.Master en Filosofía Política, London School of Economics and Political Science@Pedropisern.

Uno de los fenómenos más abordados dentro del estudio de las religiones en América Latina tiene relación con la fragmentación actual del campo religioso. Si bien ha existido en la región diversidad religiosa desde tiempos coloniales, aun cuando esta se realizaba al margen de la moral e institucionalidad oficial (Frigerio y Wynarczyk, 2008), en la actualidad hay un relativo consenso respecto de la existencia de mayores posibilidades de elección dentro de las ofertas religiosas, así como también, mayor flexibilidad en la manera en que se vive dicha religiosidad (Bastián, 2004; Vega-Centeno, 1995; Esteban, 2007; Cantón, 2007; Lenoir, 2005). Sin lugar a dudas, dichas tendencias tienen relación con transformaciones sociales catalizadas desde los procesos de globalización cultural y modernidad tardía que afectan a buena parte del planeta. El auge del individualismo e individuación, la mercantilización de las relaciones sociales, la importancia del acelerado flujo de la información, entre otros fenómenos, han implicado en la práctica la posibilidad de profesar creencias de diversas naturalezas, nuevas o novedosas, que han puesto a prueba los límites establecidos por las tradicionales instituciones de fe.
Probablemente, una de las consecuencias más visibles de este proceso de fragmentación y diversificación religiosa ha sido la proliferación de los diversos pentecostalismos. Esta expansión protestante detectable desde mediados de siglo XX se ha hecho extensiva a toda América Latina y ha logrado colonizar buena parte del mundo desarrollado. No obstante, este pentecostalismo tradicional, caracterizado por su corte popular y festivo, manifestaciones espontáneas de los dones del Espíritu Santo, interpretación bíblica centrada en la dinámica de la 'Guerra Espiritual', expansión de tipo celular y apoliticismo (Cantón, 2002; Lalive, 2009: Ossa, 1991; Tennekes, 1985), ha sufrido sus propias modificaciones en las últimas décadas. Nuevas denominaciones y prácticas de raíz protestante entran a competir no sólo con el diverso evangelismo, sino además con el pentecostalismo clásico. Su relación con estos últimos es compleja en términos de marcar continuidades o rupturas con dicha tradición. Si a esto sumamos que las particularidades socioculturales de cada país imprimen un germen de variabilidad importante en las características de cada movimiento o agrupación, tenemos que el generar categorías que puedan englobar cada caso se hace sumamente dificultoso. Desentrañar la naturaleza de un caso de Iglesias pentecostales 'renovadas' en Argentina es lo que pretende el estudio de Juan Mauricio Renold titulado Antropología del pentecostalismo televisivo.
Fiel a la tradición antropológica, Renold realiza un análisis del tipo estructural a partir del procesamiento de observaciones y discursos en una comunidad religiosa específica: la Iglesia Evangélica Misionera Argentina del Ministerio Vi La Luz (IEMA), cuya particularidad teológica y organizacional se ve reflejada en la programación de su señal televisiva llamada Canal Luz Satelital. Siguiendo la tipología diseñada por Hilario Wynarczyk (1993, 2009), establece que esta denominación religiosa puede ser encasillada dentro de lo que se ha denominado como neopentecostalismos, vale decir, megaiglesias o megaministerios que han surgido desde la década de 1980 en Argentina y que parecen seguir un derrotero independiente de las modalidades históricas pentecostales. Se caracterizan por ser predominantemente urbanas, aun cuando pueden tener anexos en barrios o localidades. Funcionan en base a grandes concentraciones de personas que son captadas por cualquier medio táctico que facilite la llegada del mensaje religioso (impresiones, televisión, radios, etc.). Finalmente, las comunidades se centran en el liderazgo de un pastor o matrimonio pastoral, y en el carácter carismático del ejercicio de su ministerio. En el caso de la IEMA, dicha labor la cumplen el pastor José María Silvestri y su esposa Mabel, quienes además de dirigir las instituciones que son propiedad de la iglesia, ocupan importantes posiciones en entidades ecuménicas como FACIERA (Federación Alianza Cristiana de Iglesias Evangélicas de la República Argentina) y Coicom (Confraternidad Iberoamericana de Comunicadores Cristianos).
Uno de los rasgos más distintivos del estudio yace en el análisis que realiza Renold acerca de la manera en que se ha expandido el Canal Luz y las características de su parrilla programática. Iniciada en transmisiones el año 1994, Canal Luz se planteó desde un comienzo el empleo de "todos los medios tácticos que les permitan multiplicar la propagación del mensaje, sin limitaciones de espacio o fronteras" (Renold, 2011, p. 41). Para ello se diseñó una paleta multicolor de diversas expresiones pentecostales provenientes de toda América Latina, Europa y Estados Unidos. A los programas de conversación y alabanza protagonizados por la familia Silvestri se suman las prédicas del estadounidense Adrián Rogers, los megaconciertos cristianos de Marcos Witt y los testimonios de misioneros en todas partes del mundo. Esta variabilidad es perceptible también en los contenidos dogmáticos que van desde los clásicos planteamientos de la Guerra Espiritual hasta los actuales postulados de la Teología de la Prosperidad. Se busca promover un comportamiento cristiano y realizar la labor evangelizadora por medio de la exposición sistemática de testimonios de sanidad y cambio. De esta manera, si bien el contenido de Canal Luz es sumamente ecléctico, esa diversidad se sostiene en una propuesta gestual, oral y corporal sumamente moderada que pone el énfasis en el carácter misionero de los objetivos de la Iglesia. Sin embargo, este objetivo no se agota con lo expresado por medio de la señal televisiva, sino también se expresa en la interacción cotidiana y personal, cuya manifestación esencial se da en los grupos de crecimiento (unidades familiares y barriales de estudio y oración), así como también en misiones en el extranjero.
No obstante, la señal de televisión no es el único medio que la IEMA posee. A los medios propiamente religiosos como lo son la Iglesia, sus grupos de crecimiento, sus misiones y el Canal Luz, se deben sumar centros de atención médica y complejos educacionales operados por una red de hermanos profesionales de confianza. Lo interesante del análisis de Renold al respecto es que en vez de poner el acento en la cantidad de recursos que dichas instituciones manejan, situación para nada diferente de lo que sucede en otras denominaciones religiosas más tradicionales, o en el carácter personalista que adquiere el liderazgo ejercido por el pastor Silvestri y su mujer, el autor recalca el valor funcional que dichas instituciones juegan. Para ello toma las recomendaciones de Malinowski (1970) y realiza un diagrama mnemotécnico con el fin de desentrañar las estructuras que subyacen en el nivel organizacional e institucional. Esta perspectiva aplicada a la organización de la congregación especificaría funciones que serían resultado integral de actividades organizadas pero distinguibles de un cuerpo de normas que establecen patrones ideales. Funciones tales como producir un efecto socializador entre los miembros; alimentar el sentimiento de pertenencia de subconjuntos de miembros dentro del ministerio; establecer un sistema de redes celulares o pequeños grupos que maximiza la presencia de ministros jerarquizados en un espacio y cantidad de miembros inabordables desde la propia Iglesia; brindar seguridad social, salud y educación que reafirmen los vínculos institucionales; y facilitar elementos alternativos de sanidad (Renold, 2011).
Resulta importante el valor funcional que le otorga Renold a la realización de sanaciones. En el capítulo 6, titulado "Procesos de cambios y sanaciones", se analiza el giro hacia una pentecostalización más acentuada desde el año 2009 en adelante y el papel que habría jugado en ello la pastora Mabel de Silvestri. Al igual como sucede en otras denominaciones que practican el pentecostalismo televisivo, la IEMA posee un despliegue ritual que permite intensificar y verificar el efecto de la ejecución de los dones del Espíritu que funcionan como recurso de aprendizaje en la apertura a los efectos de la unción, vale decir, a la disposición a la sanación. La eficacia del mecanismo es posible de ser vista en la favorable recepción que tienen en el público televisivo, que no duda en llamar, participar y colaborar en cada uno de los programas de sanación. Sin embargo, más que realizar una crítica acerca de las posibles intenciones dolosas de la congregación o cuestionar las habilidades como sanadora de la pastora Silvestri, Renold apunta a comprender la lógica interna de esta práctica y a desentrañar su aspecto sistemático representacional. De ahí que analice la sanación en dos sentidos posibles: en tanto discurso y en tanto posición ocupada dentro de la congregación.
Finalmente, podemos afirmar que Antropología del pentecostalismo televisivo resulta un importante acercamiento al estudio de los movimientos neopentecostales por variadas razones. El análisis estructural de Renold, sostenido sobre multiplicidad de fuentes y notas de campo, no sólo contribuye a establecer un análisis denso sobre determinado tipo de Iglesias, sino también logra sistematizar y redefinir la emotividad como característica central de los cultos pentecostales. Son bastante comunes los trabajos que le otorgan a la variable emocional un aspecto simplista y totalizante, que explicaría el funcionamiento y expectativas únicamente a partir de una 'naturaleza emocional'. Por el contrario, el autor apunta a la comprensión de la significación de los usos de técnicas corporales que expresan emociones y cómo estas implican relaciones significativas con efectos diferenciados que trascienden dichas emociones. De esta manera se intenta superar cierto psicologismo que pretende vincular la emotividad sólo con la satisfacción de necesidades de contención y afectividad, revalorando sus aspectos sociológicos, morfológicos y estructurales. Este profundo valor explicativo genera que, dentro del texto, Canal Luz posea un rol importante pero no absoluto. Devela el carácter más visible de una estrategia renovada de un pentecostalismo que busca expandirse social e internacionalmente por medio de la síntesis ecuménica de sus postulados evangélicos y el abrazo de las posibilidades que brinda la acelerada modernización.
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Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/presidente-electo-de-parag uay-rechaza-reintegrar-su-pais-al-mercosur-126496http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/paraguay-rechaza-reintegro-al-mercosur_12926631-4 Río preocupada por la seguridad del papa Francisco. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601400-avanzan-los-preparativos-en-riohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/15/actualidad/1373840255_ 540593.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/seguridad-del-papa-francisco-en-brasil_12928289-4 Paro en Brasil: sin trasporte público y con rutas bloqueadas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600057-sin-trasporte-publico-y-con-rutas-bloque adas-comenzo-un-nuevo-paro-en-brasil Sismo 4,2 grados Ritcher estremece región noroeste de Nicaragua. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/sismo-42-grados-ritcher -estremece-region-noroeste-de-nicaragua-126745 "The Economist" analiza labor de la ONU en la lucha contra el cólera en Haití. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2013/07/cholera-haiti A tres meses de su triunfo Nicolás Maduro realiza su primera expropiación. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601181-la-primera-expropiacion-de-nicolas-maduro -a-tres-meses-de-su-triunfo Henrique Capriles visita Chile y pide reuniones con Piñera y Bachelet. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/gira-de-capriles-a-chile_12928702-4 ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Conmoción en Estados Unidos por fallo sobre asesinato de joven negro. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/absolucin-de-george-zimmerman_ 12928825-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601506-revelan-detalles-de-la-polemica-absolucion -al-vigilante-zimmerman-en-eeuuhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/15/actualidad/1373878163_ 173204.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/anuncian-protestas-por-c aso-trayvon-martin-en-100-ciudades-de-estados-unidos Diversas reformas políticas centran la atención del panorama político estadounidense. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21581726-two-lawmakers-are-d etermined-overhaul-americas-woeful-tax-code-will-their-parties-lethttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-immigration-house-20130711,0,7717223.storyhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373653458 _500610.html Acusado de atentado de Boston no aceptó cargos. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/atentados-de-boston-djokh ar-tsarnaev-busca-reforzar-su-equipo-de-abogados-12http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-acusado-de- atentado-de-boston-se-declara-inocente_12923759-4 Descontento y huelgas en cárceles de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373655888 _089545.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/us/more-guantanamo-detainees-quit-hunger-strike.html?ref=world&gwh=6753844C1661A88280A4E2ECEAA732BFhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/protestos-terminam-em-confronto-com-23-presos-na-califorina-9055618 Kerry retorna a Medio Oriente con esperanza de reanudar conversaciones de paz. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/kerry-retorna-medio- oriente-con-esperanza-de-reanudar-conversaciones-de-paz- Accidente ferroviario causa conmoción en Canadá. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/08/world/americas/canada-runaway-train/ind ex.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/10/19396092-death-toll-at-5 0-as-30-missing-now-presumed-dead-in-quebec-train-crash-engineer-suspen ded?litehttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-canada-rail-disast er-engineer-20130716,0,3929664.story EUROPA Edward Snowden solicitó asilo temporal en Rusia. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/16/content_16784860.htmhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-russia-snowden-20130717,0,1251090.storyhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/16/19502733-stranded-fugiti ve-snowden-formally-requests-temporary-asylum-in-russia?litehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/espinonaje-eu-alemania-936 401.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601514-aseguran-que-edward-snowden-pidio-fo rmalmente-el-asilo-en-rusiahttp://www.cnn.com/2013/07/09/world/americas/nsa-snowden-venezuela/i ndex.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/snowden-es-un-regalo -incomodo-dice-putin-126771 Escándalo de corrupción del PP español salpica a Rajoy. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-spain-corruption-20130715,0,1047593.storyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/escndalo-de-corrupcin-del-pp-espao l-salpica-a-rajoy_12923419-4http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/oposicao-ameaca-apresentar-mocao-de-censur a-contra-chefe-do-governo-espanhol-9051469http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600891-en-la-cuerda-floja-un-escandalo-amena za-el-futuro-de-rajoyhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/13/world/europe/spains-real-crisis-is-a-le adership-void-analysts-say.html?ref=world&gwh=8143E451F2A535F1917BA0 BCC6C7F152 Falla en rieles, posible causa de catástrofe ferroviaria en Francia. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/europe/france-train-derailment/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1600896-en-la-tragedia-francia-encuentra-con suelo-en-sus-servicios-de-emergenciahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/137371 5431_558757.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-france-train-accident-20130714,0,2471969.story Disturbios y protestas en Belfast. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/europe/northern-ireland-unrest/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2 Srebrenica: la herida que no cicatriza: más de 2.000 víctimas de la masacre aún no han sido identificadas 18 años después. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/12/actualidad/1373644685_3 97319.html Merkel apuesta a pacto de protección de datos en Europa. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/business/merkel-eu-data-protection/index .html?hpt=ieu_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/16/19503302-spy-spotting -stroll-sparks-security-alert-in-germany?lite Parlamento británico aprueba casamiento gay. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/parlamento-britanico-aprova-casamento-gay-em-inglaterra-gales-9059274http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/17/content_16785873.htmhttp://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-britain-gay-marriage, 0,7549767.story Algunos alcaldes franceses avivan el fuego del racismo contra gitanos y nómadas. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/137373620 2_298273.html Grecia: el gobierno ordena realizar pruebas obligatorias del VIH a prostitutas, toxicómanos, indigentes y sin papeles. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/caca-as-bruxas-comeca-na-grecia-9047327http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/13/actualidad/137372867 9_168553.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Mueren 27 personas en una cadena de atentados con autos bomba en Irak. Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/12/world/meast/iraq-suicide-bomber/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/atentados-en-irak_12928817-4http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.html?hpt =imi_c2http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/09/world/meast/lebanon-blast/index.html?h pt=wo_bn11 Homenaje a Malala, la 'niña más valiente del mundo Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/malala-en-la-onu_12927002-4http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/12/world/united-nations-malala/index.html?h pt=wo_t2http://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/joven-paquistani-ma lala-prefiere-el-papel-de-luchadora-al-de-victima-126599 En Pakistán tres bombas matan a más de 36 individuos. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-pakistan-bombings-20130701,0,3205657.story Al menos 12 muertos en Japón por ola de calor. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/12-muertos-en-japn-por-ola-de-calor_12 925883-4 Unos 100 reclusos escaparon tras incendiar su prisión en Indonesia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/reclusos-escapan-tras-incendiar-su-pris in-en-indonesia_12925483-4http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/12/world/indonesia-mass-prison-break/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7 17 personas quedaron enterradas por deslizamiento de terreno en China. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/17-personas-quedaron-enterradas-por-d eslizamiento-de-terreno-en-china_12923891-4http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/asia/china-typhoon/index.html?hp t=ias_c2 Más de 5.700 desaparecidos por las inundaciones en el norte de India. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/15/actualidad/13738821 52_653770.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/india-da-por-muert as-6000-personas-desaparecidas-en-las-inundaciones-126741 Señales de desaceleramiento y reformas en la economía china. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-china-gdp-20130715 ,0,6178822.storyhttp://behindthewall.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19488221-as-chinas-e conomy-slows-economists-look-for-signs-of-reform?lite Continúa la violencia extrema en Siria. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/world/middleeast/no-quick-impact-in-u s-arms-plan-for-syria-rebels.html?ref=world&_r=0&gwh=F9FC376F91BEB974133FCC2AE95E178Fhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19484796-syrian-oppositio n-assads-forces-advance-into-rebel-held-district-of-damascus?litehttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/14/actualidad/137381863 9_979411.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/15/19486654-pakistani-taliban -we-sent-hundreds-of-fighters-to-syria?lite China se pliega ante las protestas medioambientales. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/14/actualidad/13738045 00_601287.html Asesinatos extrajudiciales debilitan democracia en India. Para más información:http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/extrajudicial-killings-corrode-dem ocracy-in-india/?ref=world Falta de apoyo público hecha atrás un proyecto de reforma constitucional. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/16/content_16782120.htm "The Economist" analiza: "¿El fracaso de la primavera árabe?" Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21581734-despite-chaos-blood-a nd-democratic-setbacks-long-process-do-not-give-up ÁFRICA Gobierno egipcio toma posesión de sus cargos y continúa la violencia. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/07/09/3491289/mass-shootings-of-islamist-protesters.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-egypt-envoy-20130716,0,7851709.storyhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1601381-respaldo-al-nuevo-gobierno-egipciohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/07/14/actualidad/13738 05601_071298.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/15/world/middleeast/egypts-leaders-ra ising-pressure-freeze-assets-of-morsi-backers.html?ref=world&gwh=9F8BEA9B66CF18F36726A1092E5B0424http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/world/meast/egypt-morsy-investigation/index.html?hpt=imi_c2http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21581763-week-a fter-military-coup-overthrew-egypts-elected-islamist-presidenthttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/17/content_16785753.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/07/02/world/middleeast/03egy pt-timeline-morsi.html?ref=world&gwh=F37E4DDA05B6B3AF5EDC75EE2FD 7A073 Presidente de Argelia reaparece tras derrame cerebral. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/936434.html Siete cascos azules son asesinados en Darfur. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-darfur-un-peacekeep ers-killed-20130713,0,733351.storyhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-07/14/content_16772433.htmhttp://www.eluniversal.com.co/cartagena/internacional/ban-ki-moon-indigna do-por-la-muerte-de-siete-cascos-azules-en-sudan-126577http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/13/world/africa/sudan-violence/index.html?h pt=iaf_c2http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/07/13/19456391-seven-un-peace keepers-killed-in-darfur?lite OTRAS NOTICIAS Fin de pobreza extrema debe ser nuevo objetivo mundial para 2030: ONU. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/la-onu-dice-que-el-fin-de-l a-pobreza-extrema-debe-ser-nuevo-objetivo-mundial-para-2030_12845943-4 "Los Angeles Times" presenta portal sobre el crecimiento de la población mundial. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/population/ "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21580206-business-week

En las últimas dos décadas especialmente, la atención de los científicos hacia trabajos de campo, geofísica y geoquímica, ha servido para el estudio de la estructura profunda de la corteza y del manto y su relación con la génesis y evolución de las cuencas sedimentarias. Es claro que estos resultados no son sólo de valor académico, sino que tienen importancia práctica ya que el mejor conocimiento de la geología y la geofísica profunda llevan a un entendimiento acabado de los fenómenos geológicos y las condiciones de formación y distribución de los espacios de acomodación para alojar depósitos minerales de interés económico. Consecuentemente, parece lógica la decisión de intentar reunir la mayor parte de los datos geofísicos disponibles tanto a escala de detalle como regional, y proveer una síntesis de la evolución de la cuenca Neuquina en su contexto geodinámico. La investigación presentada es un esfuerzo dirigido a hacia esos objetivos. Como un método geofísico en particular ilumina sólo una parte del problema, el empleo de técnicas combinadas ha permitido encontrar soluciones más cercanas a la realidad, teniendo en cuenta sus relaciones, semejanzas y diferencias. Debido a que los relevamientos geofísicos para estudios regionales y de detalle han sido ejecutados mayormente por organismos gubernamentales o privados y muchas veces no son accesibles para docentes e investigadores universitarios, una de las contribuciones de esta tesis es la cooperación entre la universidad y la industria, tomando las fortalezas de ambas vertientes. La premisa fundamental en esta tesis ha sido examinar la relación existente entre elementos que condicionan el régimen tectónico por medio de observaciones geofísicas. El ambiente tectónico de tipo andino de la cuenca Neuquina está controlado por tres factores fundamentales: estado térmico, volcanismo y apilamiento tectónico. El régimen térmico está regido por el flujo de calor, el cual muestra como cuadro de primer orden un sector norte alineado entre la localidad de Chos Malal y el volcán Auca Mahuida que exhibe un gradiente promedio mayor al resto de la cuenca Neuquina, especialmente respecto al sur de la dorsal de Huincul donde el flujo es el menor. Simultáneamente, el régimen térmico es el principal responsable de la existencia de tres escenarios nítidos de rigidez flexural, que han condicionado la deformación a escala cortical pero transmitiendo su impronta en la deformación del basamento: la dorsal de Huincul se comporta como un elemento de elevada resistencia mecánica relativa, que limita la propagación de la deformación hacia el sur de la comarca; la faja plegada del Agrio – Chos Malal y el volcán Auca Mahuida son las zonas más propensas a la deformación pues es la de menor rigidez relativa; y por último, el sector oriental o de plataforma, el cual presenta una rigidez flexural intermedia. Una observación muy importante es la anisotropía de la rigidez que se comporta en dirección oeste – este al norte de la dorsal de Huincul, para transformarse casi norte – sur desde la dorsal de Huincul hacia abajo. Como resultado de los cambios en la distribución de rigidez, la partición de la deformación asociada a un régimen de convergencia oblicuo que cambia su trayectoria en el tiempo, no ha permanecido invariable, sino que se ha resuelto de dos formas: al norte de la dorsal de Huincul la deformación se propaga casi sin partición, dando origen a la existencia de la faja plegada y corrida del Agrio y Chos Malal, a la deformación de arco y antearco, y a una zona sismogénica más amplia y trabada que ha ocasionado dos megasismos recientes en la región. Mientras, al sur de la dorsal de Huincul, el vector de convergencia andino se descompone en segmentos aproximadamente perpendiculares entre sí y sometidos a transpresión y transtensión, que dan origen a dos megaestructuras con mecanismo dominante de transcurrencia: la zona de falla de Liquiñe – Ofqui con dirección preferencial norte – sur y la dorsal de Huincul oeste – este. Acerca del volcanismo al cual hicimos referencia como un factor de control tectónico, en esta investigación se ha prestado especial atención al aparato volcánico del Auca Mahuida. Se postula aquí que por su edad pliocena – pleistocena, el control isostático que ejerce actualmente es casi exclusivamente local, pero aún así, sus consecuencias son fundamentales: debilita la corteza, eleva las transiciones frágil– dúctiles y permite la propagación de la deformación a sectores de borde de cuenca, relativamente retirados del frente orogénico. En cuanto al volcanismo de arco propiamente dicho, este coincide regionalmente con una zona de baja rigidez flexural para su emplazamiento, lo cual ha facilitado los mecanismos de acortamiento orogénico, el debilitamiento de la litosfera, y la migración del magmatismo por empinamiento y horizontalización de la placa subducida, procesos que se retroalimentan en sí. Con respecto al apilamiento tectónico, la faja plegada y corrida del Agrio – Chos Malal se halla emplazada sobre una zona de muy baja rigidez flexural y al menos su influencia como carga topográfica de superficie, habría facilitado la propagación de la deformación hacia el antepaís de la cuenca Neuquina por mecanismos básicamente flexurales, si bien se reconoce a partir del análisis de subsidencia en pozos, que la componente térmica es más importante que la tectónica, prevaleciente en la mayoría de las cuencas del Subandino. La cuenca Neuquina posee descompensación isostática residual positiva asociada a anomalías magnéticas corticales negativas localizadas en su depocentro sedimentario, que avalan la hipótesis de adelgazamiento cortical. El mecanismo de apertura de la cuenca Neuquina en su etapa de rifting localizado, se puede explicar satisfactoriamente y de forma coherente a las observaciones si se recurre a la hipótesis de cizalla simple, con una falla maestra de enraizamiento cortical que trae como consecuencia la distribución asimétrica de flujo de calor. Este modelo, que además predice atenuamiento cortical confirmando las anomalías observadas, no necesariamente coincide con la zona de levantamiento térmico, y por tanto, el área por debajo no acomoda toda la subsidencia térmica. La distribución de la deformación y la fábrica del basamento, que condiciona la existencia de espacios de acomodación sedimentarios, está íntimamente sujeta a los cambios del flujo de calor, la rigidez flexural y el estado isostático, como elementos de primer orden. La cuenca Neuquina conserva un gradiente geotérmico ligeramente mayor al promedio mundial de regiones continentales, cuyo origen se atribuye esencialmente a fenómenos de refracción térmica del basamento y volcanismo reciente, los cuales afectan las condiciones reológicas de la corteza, favoreciendo la deformación de intraplaca en el antepaís. Entre tanto, los cambios en la rigidez flexural, se interpretan fundamentalmente como cambios en la resistencia mecánica a la deformación. A pesar de la abundante información recopilada en esta tesis, la correlación de las anomalías geofísicas y de los datos provenientes de perforaciones y afloramientos está en una etapa inicial, por lo cual sigue existiendo ambigüedad en las interpretaciones, especialmente cuando se trabaja con métodos potenciales no ajustados con datos independientes. La fortaleza de esta tesis está basada en la interpretación geofísica interdisciplinaria sobre un marco de referencia generalizado, que se espera contribuya en la comprensión de la evolución geodinámica de la región, y más importante aún, estimule el desarrollo de nuevas investigaciones para mitigar las incertezas encontradas. ; The attention of scientists working in the fields of geology, geophysics and geochemistry was very much attracted during the last two decades, to the study of the deep structure of the earth's crust and mantle and their relationships to the genesis and evolution of sedimentary basins. Obviously, these results are not only of pure scientific value, but also have practical significance since the best knowledge of geology and geophysics lead to a better understanding of geological phenomena and the conditions of formation and distribution of mineral resources. Consequently, it seems logical the decision to try collecting most of the geophysical data available, for understanding the Neuquén Basin evolution in a geodynamics framework. This thesis is an effort towards these goals. Due to that if we use exclusively one geophysical method it illuminates only one part of the problem; the use of combined techniques has allowed us to find solutions closer to reality, taking into account their relationships, similarities and differences. Because geophysical surveys have been carried out mostly by government and private agencies, seldom these data are straightforward available to academic researchers. One character of this thesis is the link between universities and industry, trying to mitigate the weaknesses of both sides. A primary principle was to study the relationship between the factors that determine the tectonic regime throughout geophysical observations. Geophysical data indicate that the crust is not a homogeneous rigid layer over the Neuquén Basin. The crucial reason for crustal in homogeneity is that Neuquén Basin is in an Andean-type tectonic regime that is controlled by three factors: thermal state, volcanism, and tectonic load. It has been suggested that thermal state is governed by current heat-flow. In the study-case a first-order feature, a lineament between Chos Malal and Auca Mahuida volcano, has a higher average thermal-gradient at the northern zone, mainly when compare with the south Huincul system where the heat-flow is lower. Likewise, it has been argued from this thesis that thermal regime has conditioned the crustal and basement deformation, due to rigidity is strongly dependent on temperature and deformation rate. Consequently, lithosphere rigidity is expected to vary laterally as a function of geothermal gradient; a cold lithosphere is probable to be stronger and/or thicker and a hot lithosphere is expected to be weaker and/or thinner. This is the main reason for the existence of three scenarios of flexural rigidity: 1) the Huincul-system as a regional edge limiting the develop of basement ductile deformation to the south of the Neuquén Basin; 2) the Agrio - Chos Malal fold thrust belt and Auca Mahuida volcano with lower rigidity values, predisposed to thin–skinned deformation and structural control of volcanism respectively, and 3) the Eastern Platform with an intermediate flexural rigidity value. I propose two non-exclusive processes that take into account the play between crustal and basement deformation in Neuquén Basin: response to changes in distribution of flexural-rigidity, and divergence in plate convergence vector related to an oblique subduction against the plate boundary. As a result, there are two background-structural scenarios connected with the partition of the deformation: − A low partition-system north of the Huincul-axis, associated with the deformation in the arc, forearc, fold and thrust belt, and a wider locked seismogenic zone. − A high partition-system from the Huincul-trench to the south, a place where the vector of convergence splits in two perpendicular movements: the north - south Liquiñe - Ofqui fault zone, and the west - east Huincul high structural feature, both with dominant mechanisms of strike-slip displacement. Therefore, rigidity layering has the largest effect on horizontal deformation under the Andean type subduction system. A key observation in this context was the congruity with a next aspect; it is referred to the nature of the relationship between volcanism as a control factor in the tectonic regime and deformation. In this particular case, a key role plays the interaction between crustal structures of the basement and ongoing regional stress field on the Pliocene – Pleistocene Auca Mahuida volcanic complex. This effect is followed by crustal weakening, raise of the limits of brittleductile zones, and expansion of the deformation far away from the Andean orogenic front. On the other hand, a third aspect is connected with tectonic load. As we have affirmed, the influence of surface topography in the Agrio - Chos Malal fold and thrust belt have facilitated the foreland region deformation by flexural mechanisms, although it is recognized from borehole subsidence analysis time-depths cross plots that thermal component is besides tectonics, prevailing in most Sub-Andean basins. In this context, the development of geophysical methods to determine the lithospheric structure gave direct evidence from the pair associated positive residual isostatic anomaly - negative crustal magnetic anomaly, that Neuquén Basin has a thinned crustal structure in the deepest sedimentary alignment. During the rifting stage, the opening mechanism of Neuquén Basin can be adequately explained by the simple shear model, with a crustal master fault like Entre Lomas – Estancia Vieja and an asymmetric heat-flow array. The distribution of deformation patterns and basement fabrics play a key role in relation to changes in heat-flow and flexural rigidity. These changes in rigidity, can be attributed to variations in the geochemical properties of rocks, or differences in temperature and pressure conditions between the upper and lower crust, but here are interpreted as changes in the mechanical strength. The correlation of geophysical anomalies and outcrops or boreholes examples are at early stage, therefore there is still ambiguity in some of the interpretations, especially when working with potential methods. ; Fil:Sigismondi, Mario Emilio. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.

Inhaltsangabe: Einleitung: 1.1 Einleitung und Problemstellung: Nationalparks sind Großschutzgebiete (GSG). Auf der einen Seite sind sie die 'grünen Lungen' Europas, aber auf der anderen Seite durch ihre räumliche Lage (in Grenz- beziehungsweise Küstenregionen) und Größe 'Knotenpunkte' verschiedenen konfluierender Nutzungsansprüche und raumstruktureller Entwicklungsmodelle. Das dicht besiedelte Mitteleuropa hat eine lange Kulturgeschichte und ist dadurch anthropogen stark überformt. Naturschutz wird deshalb häufig als Verhinderer einer wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung dargestellt. Der Naturschutzgedanke ist traditionell eher ein 'anthropozentrisches Gedankengut' und beschreibt die Einmaligkeit von Naturphänomenen wie den Yellowstone Nationalpark in den USA. Heute, insbesondere in Europa, werden Schutzgebiete eher aus ökologischen Beweggründen, wie die Erhaltung der Biodiversität oder die Sicherstellung ungestörter ökosystemarer Abläufe, ausgewiesen. Sie gelten als klassisches Flächenschutzinstrument, dass die Rückführung von Kulturlandschaften zur Naturnähe erlaubt. Oft werden sie jedoch als 'Schwarze Löcher' innerhalb der Region und der hiesigen Wirtschaft angesehen. Dies führt häufig zu mangelnder Akzeptanz bei Anwohnern, politischen- und wirtschaftlichen Entscheidungsträgern. Zurzeit gibt es 14 Nationalparks in Deutschland, mit einer Fläche von 962.048 Hektar wovon ein Großteil die marinen Gebiete der Nord- und Ostsee sind. Das Wattenmeer der Nordsee ist ein weltweit einzigartiges Ökosystem. Es bietet Lebensraum für 250 Tierarten, darunter 30 verschiedene einheimische Vogelarten. Über 12 Millionen Zugvögel nutzen das Wattenmeer jährlich auf ihrem Weg. Die Wattenmeerregion ist aber nicht nur einzigartiger Naturraum, sondern auch ein Kulturraum, in dem Menschen seit Jahrhunderten gelebt, gearbeitet und kulturelle Werte geschaffen haben (Vgl. Homepage EUROPARC Deutschland). Von den drei Wattenmeer Nationalparks (Niedersächsisches, Hamburgisches und Schleswig-Holsteinisches) ist der Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer der flächengrößte Nationalpark Deutschlands. Als der erste Küsten-Nationalpark Deutschlands 1985 gegründet wurde, machte er sich damit zwei Ziele zur Aufgabe. Erstens, den Schutz, Erhalt und Weiterentwicklung des Naturpotentials und zweitens den Erhalt und Förderung der Lebenschancen der Menschen in der Region. Die geschützte Fläche besteht vor allem aus Wasser und dem Wattenmeer. Die Inseln und Halligen sind zwar als Enklaven aus dem Nationalpark ausgegrenzt, benennen aber eigene Schutzgebiete (Nationalparkgesetz NPG 1997). Zudem grenzen die Kreise Dithmarschen und Nordfriesland mit mehreren Gemeinden an den Nationalpark. Problemstellung: Das Wattenmeer (die Nordsee) ist ein traditionelles Fremdenverkehrsgebiet. Daraus lässt sich folgende Problemstellung in Bezug auf den Nationalpark kurz skizzieren: Der Tourismus in der Untersuchungsregion ist durch eine starke räumliche Konzentration gekennzeichnet, vor allem auf den drei Geestinseln Sylt, Amrum und Föhr sowie die touristischen Zentren St. Peter-Ording und Büsum. Eine Folge dieser Verteilung ist nach Aussage des Nordsee-Tourismus-Service ein extrem wirtschaftliches Abhängigkeitsgefälle vom Tourismus (St. Peter-Ording ca. 70 Prozent, Sylt 40 Prozent, Amrum 100 Prozent). Eine grundlegende konkurrierende Situation (Freizeitsport Kontra Naturschutz, Wirtschaftsförderung Kontra Naturschutz, Gemeinden Kontra Schutzgebietsverwaltung) ist durch die Errichtung des Nationalparks entstanden. Nach einer Studie von ZIENER sind solche Konflikte dauerhaft nicht lösbar, können aber durch Kooperationen und Kompromisse entschärft werden. Genau hier kann das Leitbild der nachhaltigen Regionalentwicklung der 'Rettungsanker' sein, indem es als Konfliktentschärfung dient. Das Nationalparks wirtschaftliche Effekte auf ihr Umfeld haben ist bereits in Studien bewiesen wurden, zum Beispiel zum Nationalpark Müritz, Nationalpark Berchtesgaden oder Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald (Vgl. Karte im Anhang A6). Wie sehen aber nun diese 'Wirkungen' vom Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer auf dessen Region genau aus? 1.2 Fragestellung und Arbeitshypothese: Diese Arbeit wird beweisen, dass Naturschutz ein wichtiger Motor für eine gesunde und nachhaltige Entwicklung einer Region ist. Die Autorin behauptet, dass seit dem Bestehen des Nationalparks Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer Entwicklungsimpulse die Anrainerkreise Nordfriesland und Dithmarschen erreicht haben. Folgende Fragen werden exemplarisch fokussiert: Welche Wirkungen und Impulse gehen vom Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer auf die Region aus? Was bekommen insbesondere die hiesigen Unternehmen davon mit? Wie und in welchem Umfang hat der Nationalpark die im Nationalparkgesetz (§2 Abs.3) verankerte Zielsetzung umgesetzt die regionale Entwicklung zu fördern? Darauf aufbauend möchte die Autorin zwei Hypothesen aufstellen und diese auf ihren Bestand hin überprüfen. Hypothese 1: Der Nationalpark findet im Gastgewerbe geschlossen Zuspruch. Hypothese 2: Auch anderen Branchen neben dem Tourismus zeigen Interesse für die Nationalparkangelegenheiten. Die Ergebnisse der Fragen werden zum Schluss zusammenfassend diskutiert und die Hypothesen falsifiziert. 1.3 Zielsetzung: Ziel der Arbeit ist es, den induzierten Nutzen des Nationalparks für die Region herauszuarbeiten. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit können jedoch nicht alle Entwicklungen, die vom Untersuchungsgebiet ausgehen eingehend betrachtet werden. Diese Arbeit legt daher nicht den Anspruch auf Vollständigkeit, sondern möchte eher exemplarisch den Forschungsfragen nachgehen. Weiterhin ist dies keine touristische Wertschöpfungsstudie, die bereits vielen Nationalparkuntersuchungen zu Grunde liegt. Zum Ende sollen entwicklungstheoretisch Empfehlungen daraus abgeleitet werden, die sowohl für das Untersuchungsgebiet speziell und für die allgemeine Forschung vom wissenschaftlich und praktischen Interesse sein können. 1.4 Methodik und Datenerhebung: Die Untersuchung der Fragestellung umfasst einen qualitativen und quantitativen Teil. Im Allgemeinen gilt, dass Meinungen und Einstellungen von Personen durch qualitative Methoden in der Regel besser aufgedeckt werden können (Vgl. LUCKE 1995:27ff.). Um eine einheitliche Vergleichsbasis zu erstellen, empfiehlt LUCKE eine quantitative Herangehensweise. Die Analyse gliedert sich in vier Forschungsphasen, welche praktische und theoretische Schritte beinhalten. Methodischer Zugriff I: Eine Beobachtung der allgemeinen Stimmung im Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer war durch einen Feldaufenthalt vom April bis Juni 2009 möglich (nähere Umstände sind im Vorwort beschrieben). Dabei wurde eine strukturierte Variante der Beobachtung angewendet, bei der die Wahrnehmung des Verhaltens der lokalen Bevölkerung (einschließlich der Entscheidungsträger) und der Naturschützer in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung im Vordergrund stand. Im Wesentlichen ging es darum, erste Eindrücke zu sammeln und eventuell spezielle Bedürfnisse der Beteiligten zu erfassen. Mithilfe dieser Beobachtung kann nach ATTESLANDER der Forschungsgegenstand ohne einen direkten Kontakt zu den Menschen beschrieben werden. Erkenntnisse aus dieser Zeit fließen an verschiedenen Stellen im Text ein. Methodischer Zugriff II: Der thematischen und theoretischen Einführung (Kapitel 2 und 3) folgt eine Sekundärdatenanalyse auf Grundlage von Unterlagen des Nationalpark-Amtes über Höhe, Art und Verteilung von Geldern, Beschäftigungseffekten durch die Parkbetreuung, Drittmittelerwirtschaftung, sowie der Tätigkeit der NationalparkService gGmbH. Dabei geht es im wesentlichem um Mittelverwendung und Aufgabenerfüllung des Nationalparks. Die Daten von der Nationalparkverwaltung konnten der Autorin erst ab 1998 aufgeschlüsselt und vollständig zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Das Datenmaterial vor 1998 ist aus diversen Gründen nicht vollständig erfasst worden. Presseberichte und Forschungsergebnisse aus anderen Nationalparks stützen die Angaben der Nationalparkverwaltung. Diese Ergebnisse werden im Kapitel 4 und 5 dargestellt. Methodischer Zugriff III: Im Zentrum der empirischen Untersuchung steht die Online-Umfrage unter Unternehmen der Anrainerlandkreise und die anschließende Verknüpfung der Ergebnisse mit raumgeografischen Erklärungsansätzen. Die Unternehmensbefragung wurde mittels eines standardisierten Fragebogens durchgeführt (Vgl. Anhang A14). Dieser orientiert sich stark an der Arbeit von JOB et al. 2008 zur 'Destination Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald als regionaler Wirtschaftsfaktor'. Zuvor wurde von den Autoren die Erlaubnis dazu eingeholt. Diese Untersuchung stellt zusammen mit Studien zum Nationalpark Berchtesgaden und Müritz eine grundlegende Vergleichsbasis dar. Für eine Online-Befragung spricht vor allem die Möglichkeit einer höheren Beteiligung, da die Rücklaufquote von zugesendeten Papier-Fragebögen durchschnittlich nur bei zehn Prozent liegt. Vorteile dieser Methode sind die große Reichweite, die räumliche und zeitliche Unabhängigkeit, die schnellen Rücklaufzeiten, die geringen Kosten und die Anonymität (Vgl. FRIES 2006:13ff.). Befragte Unternehmen orientiert nach JOB et al. waren: Beherbergung- und Gastronomiebetriebe; Unternehmen aus dem Bereich Kultur, Sport und Freizeit mit stark touristischer Orientierung; Unternehmen aus dem verarbeitenden Gewerbe, dem Handwerk und Dienstleistungssektor ohne expliziten Tourismusbezug. Die Unternehmen wurden um allgemeine Angaben (Anzahl der Mitarbeiter, Tätigkeitsfeld) und um Informationen zum Aufbau und zur Verteilung ihrer Investitionen und Umsätze gebeten. Weiterhin wurden die Unternehmen in der Befragung nach ihren Einstellungen, Erfahrungen zum- und mit dem Nationalpark gefragt. Auch Einschätzungen über Nachhaltigkeit sollten getroffen werden. Methodischer Zugriff IV: Zur Validierung der Ergebnisse der Unternehmensbefragung konnten Experteninterviews zur Forschungsproblematik Aufschluss über die Bedeutung des Nationalparks für dessen Region geben. Gespräche mit Mitarbeitern der zuständigen Behörden und Fachinstitutionen lieferten wertvolle Zusatzinformationen. Den Interviewpartnern wurde vor dem Forschungshintergrund der Expertenstatus 'verliehen', weil sie in Hinblick auf die spezifischen Fragestellungen der Untersuchung über einen 'privilegierten Zugang' zu Meinungen, Einsichten und Entwicklungen beteiligter Personengruppen sowie zu Informationen zu Problembereichen verfügen. Die Experten stammten aus den Bereichen Nationalparkverwaltung, Nationalparkbetreuung, regionale Wirtschaftsförderung, Tourismus, ehrenamtlicher Naturschutz. Die Auswahl der Interviewpartner wurde nach der Methode des 'theoretischen Samplings' ermittelt. In der Beobachtungsphase wurden hierbei einige Personen interviewt und vor dem Hintergrund der daraus gewonnenen Ergebnisse entschieden, mit wem weitere Gespräche geführt werden. Die für das Interview gewählte Struktur war ein offener Leitfaden (Vgl. Anhang A8), welcher nur eine Orientierung für den sich entwickelten Dialog bieten sollte. Mit dieser Form der Erhebung konnten die Sichtweisen der Befragten besser erfasst und eventuell neue Aspekte ermittelt werden als in standardisierten Interviews. Der Leitfaden umfasste Fragen zu allgemeinen Entwicklungen im Nationalpark und in den Anrainerlandkreisen (Entwicklung der wichtigsten Wirtschaftsbranchen Tourismus, Fischerei, Häfen, Schifffahrt und Energiegewinnung) und fragte nach der Akzeptanz des Nationalparks bei Unternehmen und der Bevölkerung. Die Ergebnisse der Experteninterviews werden an verschiedenen Stellen im Text als Ergänzungen angeführt. Repräsentativität: Bei der Operationalisierung der Untersuchung gab es nicht unerhebliche Probleme. Das betrifft vor allem die Repräsentativität der Ergebnisse der Online-Befragung. Repräsentativität bedeutet, dass die 'Grundgesamtheit zum Zeitpunkt der Befragung bekannt ist und jedes Individuum die gleiche Chance hat, in die Stichprobe einbezogen zu werden'. Da zum Zeitpunkt der Untersuchung keine Daten zu Internetanschlüssen und E-Mail-Anwendungen im Untersuchungsgebiet vorlagen, hat die Autorin selbst eine Stichprobe zusammengestellt. Ebenso können technische Ausfälle, Nichterreichbarkeit und Verweigerung der Teilnahme nicht quantifiziert werden und fließen somit nicht in die Auswertung ein. 1.5 Rahmenbedingungen für die Feldforschung: Bereits beim Erstkontakt mit der Nationalparkverwaltung im Oktober 2008 wurde der Autorin starken Zuspruch entgegen gebracht das Thema zu bearbeiten. Ein darauf folgender zweimonatiger Feldaufenthalt im Form eines Praktikums in Hörnum auf Sylt bei einem dortigen Naturschutzverein (Schutzstation Wattenmeer e.V.) im Frühjahr 2009 konnte die Autorin viele Einblicke gewinnen und Beobachtungen machen, die für die weitere Untersuchung Voraussetzung war. Während des Praktikums konnten erste Kontakte zu potenziellen Interviewpartner geknüpft und dessen Bereitschaft für ein Gespräch ausgelotet werden. Weiterhin zeigten erste Anfragen insbesondere an touristische Unternehmen eine große Bereitwilligkeit, an einer Online-Befragung teilzunehmen. Erste E-Mail-Adressen konnten in dieser Phase gesammelt werden. Von Anfang an zeigten Zufallsinterviews, dass es festgesetzte und festgefahrene (veraltete?) Meinungsbilder und Einstellungen über den Nationalpark (vielleicht ist auch der Naturschutz gemeint) im Untersuchungsgebiet gibt. Auch konnte eine gewisses Desinteresse, beziehungsweise des 'Themas Nationalpark müde zu sein' bei einigen Befragten festgestellt werden. Beides zusammen machte es der Autorin schwer, verifizierte Aussagen zu erfassen. Die Umfrage an die Unternehmen wurde in der offiziellen Bearbeitungszeit an der Freien Universität Berlin durchgeführt. Die Gespräche mit den Experten wurden ebenfalls von Berlin aus per Telefon unternommen, da es der Autorin nicht möglich war einen zweiten Feldaufenthalt zu organisieren in dem gleichzeitig alle Interviews geführt werden konnten. Die Fülle an Literatur, die das Thema bereits hergibt, und die Menge an gesammelten empirischen Daten stellten zusammen eine gute Voraussetzung für die Auswertung und die Bewertung der Forschungsfragen dar. 1.6 Forschungsstand: Auffällig ist die ökonomische Sichtweise auf GSG (ökonomische Rechtfertigung) mit klassischen marktwirtschaftlichen Analysen. Die Kosten-Nutzen Analyse ist dabei ein beliebtes Verfahrungen zur Evaluierung von Wohlfahrtseffekten. Touristische Wertschöpfungsstudien zeigen nicht nur die Bedeutung eines Nationalparks als Reiseziel (Destination), sondern auch dessen regionalwirtschaftlichen Effekte. In vielfältiger Weise sind Nationalparks mit ihrem regionalen Umfeld verzahnt. Per Definition sind ja GSG als erstes ein raumplanerische Mittel und werden in der Regionalpolitik eingesetzt. In vielen Fällen prägen sie sogar das Erscheinungsbild der Region. Als Imageträger für einen natur- und kulturverträglichen Tourismus und mit speziellen Angeboten zum Naturerleben sollen und können Nationalparks eine nachhaltige regionale Wirtschaftsweise fördern und Arbeitsplätze schaffen und sichern. Gerade dieser Zusammenhang erhöht die Akzeptanz der Anwohner. Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung eines Nationalparks für den Tourismus ist heute unbestritten. Einige Autoren vertreten die Meinung, dass der 'finanzieller Nutzen von Naturschutzprojekten unabdingbar für dessen Erfolg sei'. Andere Autoren sind der Ansicht, dass GSG 'in Ziel und Funktion als Vorrangräume für den Naturschutz' festgelegt sind und eine reine touristische Vermarktung daher inakzeptabel sei. Ökologischen Studien zu GSG werden als Gradmesser für den Naturschutz angesehen. Jedoch gibt es auch hier Verknüpfungen zur Ökonomie: die Umweltökonomie beziehungsweise Ökologische Ökonomie befasst sich mit der wirtschaftlichen Sichtweise auf Umweltprobleme. Weiterhin gibt es in Bezug auf GSG Studien zu Verdrängungseffekten und Opportunitätskosten, die durch einen Nationalpark entstehen können. Opportunitätskosten bezeichnen Kosten, die durch den Verzicht einer alternativen Nutzung entstehen. Studien dazu sind nach Angaben von JOB wenig aussagekräftig, da die Entwicklung von der ökonomischen Ausgangssituation abhängig sei. In diesem Zusammenhang benennen einige Autoren auch indirekte Kosten, zum Beispiel bei außerhalb des Parks verursachten Schäden durch im Park lebende Tiere. Da die vorliegende Arbeit ist aber nicht den Kosten gewidmet ist, sondern dem induziertem Nutzen des Nationalparks werden diese Kosten nur am Rande betrachtet.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.Einführung04 1.1Einleitung und Problemstellung04 1.2Fragestellung und Arbeitshypothese06 1.3Zielsetzung06 1.4Methodik und Datenerhebung07 1.5Rahmenbedingungen für die Feldforschung10 1.6Forschungsstand10 2.Theoretische Aspekte der Regionalentwicklung12 2.1Das Konzept der Nachhaltigen Entwicklung12 2.2Begriffsbestimmung: Wirkungen, Effekte und Einflussfaktoren14 3.Großschutzgebiete und ihr Stellenwert für die Regionalentwicklung16 3.1Rechtliche Bestimmungen von Nationalparks17 3.2Andere Großschutzgebiete.18 3.3Großschutzgebiete als Instrument der Regionalentwicklung20 3.4Wirkungen von Großschutzgebieten: Ökonomisch, sozial und ökologisch21 3.5Naturtourismus als regionaler Wirtschaftsfaktor und dessen Effekte23 4.Charakteristik des Beispiel-Nationalparks26 5.Strukturelle Rahmenbedingungen des Untersuchungsgebietes29 5.1Historisch-anthropogeographische Verhältnisse in der Untersuchungsregion31 5.2Erste Bilanz aus über 20 Jahren Nationalparkarbeit32 5.2.1Die Nationalparkamt32 5.2.2Die NationalparkService gGmbH33 5.2.3Landesmittel und Drittmittelerwirtschaftung34 5.2.4Ökosystemforschung und Trilaterale Zusammenarbeit36 5.2.5Das Sozioökonomische Monitoring Wattenmeer (SÖM Watt)37 5.2.6Das Nationalpark-Partner Programm und weitere Kooperationen38 5.2.7Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung39 5.2.8Bewertung der ökologischen Situation im Nationalpark40 5.3Ernennung zum Weltnaturerbe und dessen wahrscheinliche Auswirkungen41 5.4Tourismusentwicklung42 5.5Akzeptanz der Nationalparks45 6.Unternehmen in der Nationalparkregion48 6.1Grundgesamtheit und Stichprobenziehung48 6.2Verlauf der Unternehmensbefragung49 6.3Ergebnisse49 6.3.1Allgemeine Angaben zu den Unternehmen50 6.3.2Art und geographische Verortungder Investitionen52 6.3.3Vorleistungsverflechtungen53 6.3.4Bedeutung des Tourismus am Gesamtumsatz54 6.3.5Einschätzungen zur Nachhaltigkeit54 6.3.6Nationalparkbezug56 6.3.7Relevanz des Nationalparks61 6.3.8 Kenntnis desProgramms Nationalpark-Partner62 6.3.9 Kooperation mit den Nationalpark – Meinungsbild der Partnerbetriebe63 6.3.10Erwartungen an den Nationalpark64 6.3.11Anmerkungen und Kommentare der befragten Unternehmen65 6.4Zusammenfassende Bewertungen der Unternehmensbefragung66 7.Entwicklungsorientierte Empfehlungen69 7.1Empfehlungen für das Untersuchungsgebiet69 7.2Weiterer Forschungsbedarf71 8.Zusammenfassende Schlussbetrachtung72 Literatur- und Quellenverzeichnis76 Verzeichnis der Interviewpartner82 Abbildungsverzeichnis83 Abkürzungsverzeichnis84 Anhang85Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 5, Strukturelle Rahmenbedingungen des Untersuchungsgebiets: Das Untersuchungsgebiet ist die Nationalparkregion und umfasst die Anrainerkreise Nordfriesland und Dithmarschen. Die Nationalparkregion setzt sich zusammen aus der Fläche des Nationalparks und dessen Umgebung. Die Größe der Nationalparkregion hat nicht nur Einfluss auf die Höhe der regionalwirtschaftlichen Effekte, sondern sie 'bestimmt vor allem nationalparkbezogene touristische Aktivitäten' im Umfeld. Die Abgrenzung der Nationalparkregion erfolgt im Fallbeispiel nach angrenzenden Gemeinden mit touristischem Anziehungspunkt. Andere Nationalparks zum Beispiel in Österreich beziehen nur Gemeinden ein, die direkt im Nationalpark liegen. Im Nationalpark Harz wird der gesamte niedersächsische Harz als Nationalparkregion angesehen. Im Untersuchungsgebiet grenzen zwei Kreise mit jeweils mehreren Gemeinden östlich an den Park, wobei wahrscheinlich nicht alle 70 Gemeinden zu der Nationalparkregion zu zählen sind. Kreis Dithmarschen: Im Kreis leben 137.434 Menschen auf einer Fläche von 142.812 Hektar, das entspricht einer Bevölkerungsdichte von 96 Einwohnern je Quadratkilometer. Er zählt damit zu den ländlichen Regionen Deutschlands. Bei einer landwirtschaftliche Nutzfläche von 77,5 Prozent der gesamten Fläche des Kreises macht die Landwirtschaft zusammen mit der Forstwirtschaft (Waldfläche 3,4 Prozent) jedoch etwa nur vier Prozent der Bruttowertschöpfung aus. Der Siedlungs- und Verkehrsflächen Anteil liegt bei 10,2 Prozent; die Erholungsfläche belaufen sich auf 0,4 Prozent. Der südliche Teil von Dithmarschen, der Wirtschaftsraum Brunsbüttel, ist der Metropolregion Hamburg zugehörig. Neben der traditionellen Landwirtschaft sind noch weitere Wirtschaftszweige stark vertreten, wie zum Beispiel die chemische Industrie und der Fremdenverkehr. Zusammen bilden sie 80 Prozent der Bruttowertschöpfung. Die Nutzung von Windenergie hat vor allem in den letzten Jahren an Bedeutung gewonnen. Weitere wichtige Arbeitgeber sind die Bundeswehr (Luftwaffengrundausbildung) mit dem Standort in Heide sowie die Shell-Erdölraffinerie in Hemmingstedt, die sich zwischen Heide und Meldorf befindet. Kreis Nordfriesland: Der 204.698 Hektar große Kreis Nordfriesland ist der nördlichste Landkreis Deutschlands und in seiner Fläche geringfügig größer als der Vergleichskreis Dithmarschen. Zum Kreisgebiet gehört auch das Wattenmeer mit den zehn Halligen, die Inseln Amrum, Föhr, Pellworm und Sylt. Mit 165.795 Bewohnern hat der Kreis eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 81 Einwohnern je Quadratkilometer (ländlicher Raum). Zu den wirtschaftlichen Leitbranchen zählt neben dem Tourismus (20 Prozent der Wertschöpfung) insbesondere auch die Gewinnung von Windenergie. Der Dienstleistungsbereich, zu dem auch der Tourismus zählt, ist mit 79,1 Prozent der Wertschöpfung der dominierende Sektor. Land-, Forstwirtschaft und Fischerei nehmen zwar große Flächen ein (77,6 Prozent Landwirtschaftliche Nutzfläche), machen aber nur 3,1 Prozent der Wertschöpfung aus. Auch das Produzierende Gewerbe erreicht mit 17,8 Prozent der Wertschöpfung noch eine relative große Bedeutung. Die weitere Aufteilung der Nutzflächen sind ähnlich wie im Kreis Dithmarschen. Die wirtschaftliche Stärke Nordfrieslands zeigt sich auch in seiner hohen Erwerbstätigenquote von über 70 Prozent und einer geringen Arbeitslosenquote von 8,9 Prozent. Damit hat der Kreis im Mittel etwas weniger Arbeitslose als der Kreis Dithmarschen mit 11 Prozent. Im Vergleich zu Dithmarschen nimmt auf der einen Seite der Fremdenverkehr in Nordfriesland eine deutlich größere Rolle ein: 12 Millionen Übernachtungen und 1,5 Millionen Gästeankünfte in Nordfriesland stehen etwa 2 Millionen Übernachtungen und 300.000 Gästeankünfte in Dithmarschen gegenüber. Auf der anderen Seite ist das produzierende Gewerbe stärker in Dithmarschen vertreten und bringt eine fast doppelt so hohe Wertschöpfung ein. Insgesamt zählen beide Kreise zu den einkommensstabilen Regionen Deutschlands (vgl. Regionalatlas der Statistischen Bundesämter 2009). Im Jahr 2006 lag das Bruttoinlandsprodukt je Einwohner in Schleswig-Holstein bei 24.701 Euro; in Dithmarschen bei 21.995 Euro und Nordfriesland bei 23.657 Euro. Beide liegen damit unter den Durchschnitt des Landes; sowie unter bundesweitem Durchschnitt (28.194 Euro). Ländliche Räume befinden schon länger in einem Prozess der strukturellen Veränderung. Diese Räume sehen sich unter anderem mit dem Bedeutungsverlust der Landwirtschaft (auch traditionelles Gewerbe) und mit daraus resultierenden Arbeitsplatzverlusten. Deshalb haben die ländlichen Räume in Schleswig-Holstein Anspruch auf Fördermittel im Rahmen der europäischen Strukturpolitik. Besondere Bedeutung in der Nationalparkregion haben die Förderprogramme LEADER ('Entwicklung des Ländlichen Raumes'), ELER ('Europäischen Landwirtschaftsfonds für die Entwicklung des ländlichen Raums') und Finanzierungsinstrumente wie LIFE+. Aktuell unterstützt das 'Zukunftsprogramm Ländlicher Raum 2007 bis 2013' (ZPLR), welches aus dem ELER Fond finanziert wird, die Region. Es zielt, nach Angabe der Landesregierung, auf eine Verbesserung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der Land- und Forstwirtschaft sowie der Umwelt, der Natur und der Lebensqualität im Ländlichen Raum und strebt eine Diversifizierung der ländlichen Wirtschaft an. 5.1, Historisch- anthropogeographische Verhältnisse in der Untersuchungsregion: Das 'Land zwischen den Meeren' ist Flachland und die vorgelagerten Inseln und Halligen sind den Einwirkungen von Ebbe und Flut ausgesetzt. Nur mächtige Deichbauten und große Sielanlagen hindern das Nordseewasser daran ins niedrige Hinterland einzudringen. Seit dem 11. Jahrhundert haben Friesen und später Bauern große Eindeichungen errichtet und dadurch große Salzwiesenbestände auf dem Marschland zerstört. Das vermoorte Hinterland konnte dadurch entwässert und kultiviert werden. Große Sturmfluten (1362, 1634), die so genannten Manndränken, zerstörten allerdings große Bereiche dieser zum Teil besiedelten Flächen. Spuren dieser Siedlungen tauchen immer wieder aus dem Watt auf. Das flache Küstenmeer ist ideal für Fischerei und wurde intensiv von Krabbenfischern und Miesmuschelfischern genutzt. Traditionell wurden vor allem Garnelen, einige Fischarten und die Europäische Austern als Nahrungsmittel genutzt. Jahrzehntelange Überfischung hat jedoch zu einem massiven Rückgang einiger Arten, wie der Europäischen Auster, Nagelrochen und des Störs geführt. Auch Viehzucht und Milchwirtschaft waren eine traditionelle Wirtschaftsweise bis der Fremdenverkehr zum wichtigsten Erwerbszweig mit heute jährlich 15 Millionen Touristen wurde (Vgl. Nordsee Tourismus Service GmbH 2009). Die Fischereiwirtschaft bringt heutzutage zwar nur eine geringe Wertschöpfung ein, aber im regionalen Bild haben die Krabbenkutter in den kleinen Küstenhäfen einen großen Anreiz für Touristen. 5.2, Erste Bilanz aus über 20 Jahren Nationalparkarbeit: Die Nordsee wurde über Jahrzehnte hinweg als 'Abwasserbecken' missbraucht. 'Von allen Seiten gelangen große Mengen von Schad- und Nährstoffen in das offene Ökosystem des Wattenmeeres – Quecksilber, Blei, Cadmium, Chlorkohlenwasserstoff sowie gewaltige Mengen an Stickstoff und Phosphor'. Bereits in den 1970er Jahren wiesen Umweltschutzorganisationen in massiven Protesten öffentlich auf dieses Problem hin und bewirkten ein Umdenken. Seit der Gründung des Nationalparks stoßen jedoch viele Interessengegensätze (Ökosystemforschung, Küstenschutz, Umweltbeobachtung, Salzwiesenschutz, Fischerei, Tourismus, Schifffahrt, Verschmutzung, Erdölförderung, Jagd, Militär, Flugverkehr, Windräder, Kies- und Sandentnahme) aufeinander. Zur dessen Koordination ist seit 1985 das Landesamt für Nationalpark (das Nationalparkamt) beauftragt.

El presente estudio de investigación tiene por objeto hacer un análisis de las condiciones de competitividad del sector colombiano de Cafés Especiales. El principal soporte conceptual de este proyecto de investigación proviene de los avances del profesor Michael E. Porter, de la Universidad de Harvard, que se centran en la interpretación de los fenómenos de la competitividad y la productividad y de su influencia en el desarrollo económico. Basados en los resultados del análisis de las condiciones de Competitividad Internacional del sector colombiano de Cafés Especiales se proponen unas opciones estratégicas para mejorar la posición competitiva internacional del sector. En la introducción del trabajo se hace un análisis general de los cambios en el mercado mundial del café y en los hábitos de consumo. Se muestra la tendencia que hay hacia la diferenciación, la calidad y hacia productores más responsables social y ambientalmente. Igualmente, se muestra como el país ha sido tímido en su incursión en el mercado de los Cafés Especiales a pesar de ser el primer exportador mundial en términos de volumen comercializado. Finalmente, y a partir de la problemática planteada, se presentan los objetivos de la investigación y la forma como se recolectó la información necesaria para el análisis de competitividad. En el primer capítulo se desarrolla el estudio teórico de los conceptos básicos sobre competitividad internacional, ventajas competitivas, concepto de cadenas productivas, productividad y competitividad, y desarrollo competitivo. Se profundiza más en el concepto de competitividad internacional, especialmente en lo referente al "Diamante de la Competitividad" de Michael E. Porter, donde se hace una descripción detallada de los cuatro atributos genéricos de una nación que conforman el entorno en el que han de competir los sectores. Finalmente, se hace referencia teórica al comercio electrónico por ser una de las opciones estratégicas en el mercado de los Cafés Especiales. El capítulo que corresponde a los resultados, está dividido en tres partes que concuerdan con el desarrollo de los objetivos específicos. Previo al análisis de competitividad se muestran los resultados de las encuestas y el resumen de las conclusiones del taller. Dicha información, sumada a la información recolectada durante las entrevistas, es la base del análisis de competitividad. La primera parte de los resultados tiene que ver con una caracterización y una descripción básica de todo lo relacionado con café y Cafés Especiales. Esta parte se inicia con una descripción general de Colombia en lo referente a su economía y uso de la tierra y otros recursos naturales. Posteriormente se presenta una información básica sobre producción, consumo y mercadeo, e historia tanto de cafés genéricos como especiales, y se analiza la importancia social y económica del café. Finalmente, se termina con un amplio marco de referencia de la competitividad de la caficultura colombiana y de los factores y características que han hecho competitivos a los principales Cafés Especiales del mundo. La segunda parte de los resultados corresponde al análisis en sí de la competitividad internacional de la industria de Cafés Especiales en Colombia. Para el desarrollo de esta parte de los resultados se tomaron como base los diversos conceptos enunciados en el marco teórico y conceptual sobre el "Diamante de la competitividad" de Michael E. Porter. Se hace un detallado análisis de los factores positivos y negativos de los cuatro atributos genéricos del país y su efecto sobre la competitividad del sector de los Cafés Especiales. Luego se analiza el papel del Gobierno colombiano y de la casualidad sobre los cuatro determinantes de la Ventaja Competitiva. Al final se hace una caracterización de la cadena productiva del café, haciendo una descripción sencilla y práctica de cada uno de los eslabones de la cadena, con el propósito de determinar el efecto del grado de integración de la cadena sobre la Ventaja Competitiva Internacional. En la tercera parte del capítulo de resultados se presenta la propuesta de opciones estratégicas para mejorar la posición competitiva internacional de los Cafés Especiales de Colombia. Inicialmente se determina la fase del desarrollo competitivo en que se encuentra el país en materia de Cafés Especiales. Posteriormente, basados en las debilidades y fortalezas descritas en el diamante de la competitividad, en los resultados de las encuestas y talleres, y en las entrevistas con expertos y personas vinculadas a la actividad cafetera, se formulan unos objetivos estratégicos para mejorar la posición competitiva de los Cafés Especiales Colombianos. Cada objetivo estratégico tiene una o varias estrategias definidas y unos instrumentos para el logro de los objetivos. Finalmente, todos los componentes anteriores del presente estudio, aportan información para la construcción de las conclusiones finales y de las recomendaciones emitidas por los investigadores. ; Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) ; RESUMEN 1 INTRODUCCIÓN 4 1. MARCO TEÓRICO Y CONCEPTUAL 7 1.1 COMPETITIVIDAD 7 1.1.1 Fundamentos de Competitividad. 7 1.1.2 Tipos de Competitividad 10 1.1.3 Productividad y Competitividad 11 1.1.4 Globalización y Competitividad 13 1.2 CADENAS PRODUCTIVAS 15 1.3 COMPETITIVIDAD INTERNACIONAL 16 1.3.1. El "Diamante" de la Competitividad 18 1.4 DESARROLLO COMPETITIVO 32 1.5 OPCIONES ESTRATÉGICAS PARA MERCADOS INTERNACIONALES 33 1.5.1 Estrategia Competitiva. 34 1.5.2 T I – Tecnología de la Información 39 1.5.3 E-Business Community 40 1.5.4 Comercio Electrónico 41 2. MÉTODO 43 2.1 PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA 43 2.2. METODOLOGÍA DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN 46 2.2 POBLACIÓN Y MUESTRA 46 2.2.1 Tamaño de Muestra 47 2.3 PROCEDIMIENTO PARA RECOLECCIÓN DE INFORMACIÓN 49 2.3.1 Procedimiento para Encuesta a Productores 49 2.3.2 Fuentes de Información: 50 3. RESULTADOS 53 3.1 RESULTADOS DE LAS ENCUESTAS A LOS PRODUCTORES, A LAS COOPERATIVAS, TALLERES Y ENTREVISTAS 53 3.1.1 Resultados de las encuestas a los Productores. 53 3.1.2 Resultados de las encuestas a las Cooperativas. 59 3.1.3 Taller y Entrevista con los Expertos. 61 3.2. ANÁLISIS DE LAS MEJORES PRACTICAS COMPETITIVAS DEL SECTOR DE LOS CAFÉS ESPECIALES EN EL ÁMBITO NACIONAL E INTERNACIONAL. 65 3.2.1 Información general sobre Colombia 65 3.2.1.1 Datos Generales sobre Colombia 65 3.2.2 Información básica sobre la producción, consumo y mercadeo de cafés genéricos y especiales 68 3.2.2.1 Historia del Café 68 3.2.2.2 Historia de los Cafés Especiales 70 3.2.2.3 El Cultivo del Café 72 3.2.2.4 Cafés Especiales 76 3.2.2.4.1 ¿Qué es un Café Especial? 76 3.2.2.4.2 ¿Qué Clases de Cafés Especiales se pueden Identificar? 77 3.2.2.4.3 Tipos de Cafés Especiales en Colombia 81 3.2.2.5 El Mercado Mundial del Café 81 3.2.2.5.1 Oferta 82 3.2.2.5.2 Consumo 84 3.2.2.6 El Mercado de los Cafés Especiales 89 3.2.2 Importancia económica y social del café para Colombia 95 3.2.4 Competitividad de la caficultura colombiana y de otros orígenes 99 3.3. ANÁLISIS DE LA COMPETITIVIDAD INTERNACIONAL DE LA INDUSTRIA DE CAFÉS ESPECIALES EN COLOMBIA. 110 3.3.1 Análisis de condiciones de competitividad 110 3.3.1.1 Diamante de la Competitividad 110 3.3.1.1.1 Condiciones de los factores de producción 111 3.3.1.1.2 Estrategia, estructura y rivalidad 130 3.3.1.1.3 Condiciones de la demanda 133 3.3.1.1.4 Sectores conexos y auxiliares 136 3.3.1.1.5 El papel del Gobierno 143 3.3.1.1.6 El papel de la casualidad 147 3.3.2 Caracterización de la cadena productiva del café: producción, procesamiento y comercio 148 3.3.2.1 Los actores de la cadena 148 3.3.2.2 Los productores agrícolas o caficultores 149 3.3.2.3 La comercialización interna y proceso de trilla 150 3.3.2.4 La comercialización externa y proceso de tostión 152 3.4. PROPUESTA DE OPCIONES ESTRATÉGICAS PARA MEJORAR LA POSICIÓN COMPETITIVA INTERNACIONAL DE LOS CAFÉS ESPECIALES DE COLOMBIA. 153 3.4.1 Objetivo Estratégico N° 1: 155 3.4.2 Objetivo Estratégico N° 2: 158 3.4.3 Objetivo Estratégico N°3 162 3.4.4 Objetivo Estratégico N°4: 164 3.4.5 Objetivo Estratégico N° 5: 165 3.4.6 Objetivo Estratégico N°6: 166 3.4.7 Objetivo Estratégico N°7 167 3.4.8 Objetivo Estratégico N° 8: 167 3.4.9 Objetivo Estratégico N° 9: 169 4. CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES 171 BIBLIOGRAFÍA 177 GLOSARIO 183 ; Maestría ; The purpose of this research study is to analyze the competitiveness conditions of the Colombian Specialty Coffee sector. The main conceptual support for this research project comes from the advances of Professor Michael E. Porter, from Harvard University, who focus on the interpretation of the phenomena of competitiveness and productivity and their influence on economic development. Based on the results of the analysis of the conditions of International Competitiveness of the Colombian Specialty Coffee sector, some strategic options are proposed to improve the international competitive position of the sector. In the introduction to the work, a general analysis is made of the changes in the world coffee market and in consumption habits. It shows the trend towards differentiation, quality and towards more socially and environmentally responsible producers. Likewise, it shows how the country has been timid in its foray into the Specialty Coffee market despite being the world's leading exporter in terms of volume sold. Finally, and based on the problem raised, the objectives of the research and the way in which the necessary information for the competitiveness analysis was collected are presented. The first chapter develops the theoretical study of the basic concepts of international competitiveness, competitive advantages, concept of productive chains, productivity and competitiveness, and competitive development. The concept of international competitiveness is further explored, especially in relation to Michael E. Porter's "Competitiveness Diamond", where a detailed description of the four generic attributes of a nation that make up the environment in which they have to be compete sectors. Finally, a theoretical reference is made to electronic commerce as it is one of the strategic options in the Specialty Coffee market. The chapter that corresponds to the results is divided into three parts that agree with the development of the specific objectives. Prior to the competitiveness analysis, the results of the surveys and the summary of the workshop conclusions are shown. This information, added to the information collected during the interviews, is the basis of the competitiveness analysis. The first part of the results has to do with a characterization and a basic description of everything related to coffee and Specialty Coffees. This part begins with a general description of Colombia in relation to its economy and use of land and other natural resources. Subsequently, basic information on production, consumption and marketing, and the history of both generic and specialty coffees is presented, and the social and economic importance of coffee is analyzed. Finally, it ends with a broad frame of reference on the competitiveness of Colombian coffee growing and the factors and characteristics that have made the main Specialty Coffee in the world competitive. The second part of the results corresponds to the analysis itself of the international competitiveness of the Specialty Coffee industry in Colombia. For the development of this part of the results, the various concepts enunciated in the theoretical and conceptual framework on the "Diamond of competitiveness" by Michael E. Porter were taken as a basis. A detailed analysis is made of the positive and negative factors of the four generic attributes of the country and their effect on the competitiveness of the Specialty Coffee sector. Then, the role of the Colombian Government and chance on the four determinants of Competitive Advantage is analyzed. At the end, a characterization of the coffee production chain is made, making a simple and practical description of each of the links in the chain, in order to determine the effect of the degree of integration of the chain on the International Competitive Advantage. The third part of the results chapter presents the proposal of strategic options to improve the international competitive position of Colombian Specialty Coffees. Initially, the phase of competitive development in which the country is in terms of Specialty Coffee is determined. Subsequently, based on the weaknesses and strengths described in the competitiveness diamond, in the results of surveys and workshops, and in interviews with experts and people linked to the coffee business, strategic objectives are formulated to improve the competitive position of Colombian Specialty Coffees. Each strategic objective has one or more defined strategies and instruments to achieve the objectives. Finally, all the previous components of this study provide information for the construction of the final conclusions and recommendations.

Although authoritative governance is ubiquitous in modern society, the nature of authority is one of the most neglected and understudied topics in economic, political and organizational theory today. This study aims to correct for this lacuna. Its main conclusion is that there is no such thing as an unambiguous concept of authority. Its is argued that both authority and responsibility in governance should be conceived in institutional rather than conceptual terms, and that the quest for legitimacy that is indissolubly tied up with any understanding of authority, ultimately involves a problem of institutional design. ; Hoewel autoriteit in strijd is met de moderne idealen van rationaliteit, autonomie en individuele verantwoordelijkheid, is (bestuurlijke) autoriteit alomtegenwoordig in de moderne samenleving (bijvoorbeeld: de staat, geografische en functionele autoriteiten, internationale organisaties, de onderneming, NGO's, enzovoort). Deze paradox is aanleiding om in deze studie het begrip autoriteit nader te onderzoeken. In hoofdstuk I worden achtereenvolgens de (a) achtergrond, (b) inzet en (c) concrete vraagstellingen van deze studie uiteengezet. De historisch-theoretische achtergrond waartegen het begrip autoriteit in eerste instantie dient te worden begrepen is die van de premoderne samenleving. Autoriteit was daarin de dominante bestuursvorm in zowel de publieke als de private sfeer. Een verklaring van de dominantie en persistentie van autoriteit in de premoderne samenleving is dat (bestuurlijke) autoriteit was ingebed in een unieke constellatie van historisch-theoretische condities die deze samenleving kenmerkten. De conjunctie van (a) een overwegend metafysisch wereldbeeld, (b) een centrale rol van traditie en (c) grote machtsverschillen maakten autoriteit tot een min of meer natuurlijke en zeer veerkrachtige bestuursvorm in de premoderne samenleving. Deze conjunctie van condities werd echter ontbonden door processen van modernisering. De (a) verwetenschappelijking van het wereldbeeld, (b) ont-tovering van de premoderne normatieve hierarchische orde en (c) de feitelijke opkomst van spontane coordinatie mechanismen in zijn algemeenheid, en de markt in het bijzonder, ondermijnden de natuurlijke gehoorzaamheid die kenmerkend is voor autoriteit, en leidden tot de geboorte van het vraagstuk van de legitimiteit, dat wil zeggen: de vooronderstelling dat men autoriteit te bevragen alvorens te gehoorzamen. Het bevragen van autoriteit noopt vooraleerst tot een adequate verklaring ervan. Drie verklaringen van autoriteit staan centraal in de wetenschappelijke literatuur. Ten eerste is autoriteit een beproefd en effectief middel om te kunnen omgaan met de grote mate van arbeidsdeling en specialisatie in de moderne samenleving. Deze verklaring schiet echter tekort omdat hiermee slechts theoretische autoriteit verklaard kan worden, en niet de praktische autoriteit die kenmerkend is voor moderne bestuursvormen. De focus van deze studie is derhalve op praktische autoriteit. Een tweede verklaring is dat autoriteit een efficiente oplossing van coordinatieproblemen kan bieden. Ook deze verklaring schiet echter tekort omdat autoriteit ook, en wellicht juist daar aanwezig en functioneel is waar problemen van motivatie het hoofd geboden dienen te worden. Een derde verklaring begrijpt autoriteit derhalve als een antwoord op dergelijke problemen. Ook deze laatste verklaring is echter problematisch omdat hij te sterk steunt op de mogelijkheden van rationele controle, en daarnaast geen verklaring geeft voor het normatieve karakter van autoriteit en de overwegend vrijwillige gehoorzaamheid aan autoriteit waardoor autoriteit gekenmerkt wordt in zowel de premoderne als de moderne samenleving. Beargumenteerd wordt dat autoriteit derhalve niet uitsluitend vanuit een zogenoemd derde-persoon's perspectief begrepen kan worden. Een fenomenologisch eerste-persoon's perspectief is onontbeerlijk om autoriteit adequaat te kunnen duiden. Het openen van de "black box" van autoriteit behelst allereerst dat autoriteit begrepen wordt in termen van redenen in plaats van uitsluitend oorzaken. Het gaat hier, ten tweede, om een bijzonder soort redenen, dat wil zeggen, om zogenoemde tweede orde "uitsluitende redenen", die de pretentie hebben wat voor eerste orde redenen een actor ook mag hebben, te overtroeven. Dus het bevel "zwijg!" dient in deze visie begrepen te worden als een hogere orde reden om te zwijgen, die de eerste orde redenen die ik heb om te spreken overtroeft. Uit dit voorbeeld blijkt tevens dat de actor zo'n tweede orde "uitsluitende reden" alleen zal accepteren als hij erkent dat degene die het bevel geeft het recht heeft om dat te doen. Dit laatste maakt duidelijk dat de vraag naar de legitimatie van autoriteit onlosmakelijk verbonden is met de vraag hoe autoriteit werkt, en dus uiteindelijk met de vraag wat autoriteit is. De inzet van deze studie is de legitimatievraag, die besloten ligt in de betekenis van autoriteit, van een antwoord te voorzien. Joseph Raz heeft een interessant antwoord gegeven op deze legitimatievraag. Kort gezegd houdt dit antwoord in dat de autoriteit van een persoon X gerechtvaardigd is als de bevelen van X zijn ondergeschikten helpen om beter te doen waar ze, los van wat X wil, zelf al reden toe hebben. Omdat hier autoriteit uiteindelijk in dienst staat van degenen die er aan ondergeschikt zijn, wordt deze conceptie van autoriteit ook wel de "serviceconceptie" van autoriteit genoemd. Het is belangrijk om op te merken dat deze serviceconceptie van autoriteit een normatief begrip van autoriteit behelst. Autoriteit wordt hier begrepen in termen van zijn normatieve consequenties: als X het recht heeft om mij bevelen te geven dan impliceert dat voor mij de plicht om te gehoorzamen. Op deze manier kan ook een scherp onderscheid worden gemaakt tussen autoriteit en macht. Ik heb immers op geen enkele manier de plicht te gehoorzamen als X macht over mij uitoefent. Deze studie behelst in belangrijke mate een kritiek op deze (normatieve) serviceconceptie van autoriteit. Deze kritiek betreft in essentie drie problemen die in vier afzonderlijke hoofdstukken aan de orde worden gesteld. Het eerste probleem staat centraal in hoofdstuk II, en betreft het door Raz als essentieel aangemerkte onderscheid tussen zijn normatieve serviceconceptie van autoriteit, enerzijds, en de klassieke Weberiaanse opvatting van autoriteit als legitieme macht, anderzijds. Zoals gezegd ligt het verschil tussen deze twee in de vermeende afwezigheid van normatieve consequenties in het geval van de laatste. Een bevel kan men immers als norm begrijpen, terwijl dat niet het geval is voor de uitoefening van macht, los van de vraag of deze machtsuitoefening gelegitimeerd is of niet. De conclusie van dit hoofdstuk is echter dat dit door Raz essentieel geachte onderscheid onhoudbaar is. In grote lijnen is de argumentatie achter deze conclusie dat normen pas normatief, dat wil zeggen: (a) richtinggevend voor het handelen, en (b) bindend zijn, als ze effectief zijn, dat wil zeggen: als ze in het algemeen worden gevolgd en nageleefd. Omdat sommige normen niet uit zichzelf effectief zijn, en er derhalve interventie (machtsuitoefening) nodig is om deze effectiviteit af te dwingen, berust de normativiteit van sommige normen in laatste instantie op de macht die ze "verwerkelijkt". Het gevolg is dat macht in bepaalde gevallen constitutief is voor (normatieve) autoriteit, en ondergeschikten dus redenen voor het handelen kan geven die ze zonder deze machtsuitoefening niet zouden hebben. Het onderscheid tussen autoriteit en (legitieme) macht is derhalve onhoudbaar, evenals Raz' antwoord op de legitimatievraag die ten grondslag ligt aan zijn begrip van autoriteit. De legitimatievraag dient dus geherformuleerd te worden in termen van het verschil tussen legitieme macht en macht op zich. Dit tweede onderscheid is aan de orde in hoofdstuk III. Zoals gezegd behelst de geherformuleerde legitimatievraag het onderscheid tussen macht op zich en legitieme macht. Autoriteit, nu in de klassiek Weberiaanse betekenis van legitieme macht, kan in de moderne samenleving begrepen worden als macht begrensd door geldige en effectieve normen. De conclusie van hoofdstuk III is echter dat ook deze interpretatie van autoriteit onhoudbaar is. Het probleem zit in de notie dat legitieme macht begrensd wordt door geldige en effectieve normen. Dit uitgangspunt is in strijd met het eeuwen oude politiek-theoretische inzicht dat personen in een positie van autoriteit soms slecht moeten zijn om goed te kunnen doen, dat wil zeggen, dat er soms gehandeld moet worden in strijd met geldige en effectieve normen omwille van een groter collectief of maatschappelijk goed. Dit probleem, dat in de literatuur bekend staat als het "vuile handen probleem", is een evidente anomalie met betrekking tot een klassiek Weberiaanse autoriteitsopvatting. Na het vuile handen probleem nader conceptueel te hebben geduid in termen van (a) normatief conflict (noodzakelijke voorwaarde), en (b) representatief handelen (voldoende voorwaarde tegen de achtergrond van normatief conflict), wordt beargumenteerd dat autoriteit vaak juist daar aanwezig en functioneel is waar vuile handen gemaakt moeten worden, dat wil zeggen, waar (mogelijke) normatieve conflicten moeten worden beheerst, en zonodig doorbroken, middels sociale representatie constructies (bijvoorbeeld: adjudicatieve, legislatieve en executieve autoriteit). Naast het oplossen van coordinatieproblemen en het bestrijden van motivatieproblemen is het beheersen en doorbreken van normatieve conflicten onmiskenbaar een centrale functie van autoriteit in de moderne samenleving. De overkoepelende conclusie van dit hoofdstuk is dat er geen theoretisch antwoord is op de legitimatievraag die voorafgaat aan elk antwoord op de vraag wat autoriteit nu precies is. Geclaimd wordt dat de legitimatievraag derhalve dient te worden begrepen als een praktisch probleem. Dat laatste impliceert niet alleen dat de vraag naar legitimiteit geen enkelvoudig en eenduidig antwoord heeft, maar ook dat de legitimiteit van autoriteit eigenlijk bij voortduring moet worden veilig gesteld. In de hoofdstukken IV en V wordt vanuit dit pragmatische perspectief een meer praktische oplossing voor de legitimiteitsvraag verkend. Onderzocht wordt of een notie van verantwoordelijkheid voor autoriteit wellicht aanknopingspunten biedt om genoemde problematiek tegemoet te treden. Deze zoektocht wordt ingezet met de suggestie in het achterhoofd dat autoriteit en verantwoordelijkheid binnen een hierarchie zich wellicht kunnen verhouden zoals vraag een aanbod dat doen binnen een markt. Omdat een concept van autoriteit voor verantwoordelijkheid niet in de literatuur voorhanden is, worden in hoofdstuk IV vooraleerst de mogelijkheidsvoorwaarden voor een dergelijk begrip onderzocht. Na een inventarisatie van de belangrijkste feitelijke betekenissen van verantwoordelijkheid zoals deze besloten liggen in de belangrijkste instituties van de moderne Westerse samenleving, worden drie fundamentele concepties van verantwoordelijkheid geidentificeerd. Op basis van deze drie concepties worden vervolgens vier noodzakelijke voorwaarden geformuleerd die moeten zijn vervuld om het concept verantwoordelijkheid van toepassing te laten zijn. In het resterende deel van hoofdstuk IV wordt beargumenteerd dat het niet waarschijnlijk is dat aan deze vier noodzakelijke voorwaarden in de moderne samenleving wordt voldaan. Dit geldt niet alleen voor een concept van verantwoordelijkheid voor autoriteit, maar veeleer voor het concept verantwoordelijkheid op zich. Betoogd wordt dat een aantal fundamentele problemen de eenduidige toepassing van een concept van verantwoordelijkheid in de weg staan. De problemen die aan de orde komen zijn onder andere: (a) het probleem van toeschrijving, (b) het probleem van de praktische noodzakelijkheid en (c) het probleem van "constituency". Dit hoofdstuk eindigt met de paradoxale conclusie dat hoewel het niet waarschijnlijk is dat het concept verantwoordelijkheid van toepassing is in de moderne samenleving, praktijken verantwoordelijkheid daarin feitelijk alomtegenwoordig zijn. In hoofdstuk V wordt deze paradox onschadelijk gemaakt door de presumptie te verlaten dat verantwoordelijkheid begripsmatig of conceptueel begrepen dient te worden. Een alternatief wordt verkend in de vorm van een institutioneel begrip van verantwoordelijkheid. Na de notie van institutie nader te hebben gepreciseerd, worden drie afzonderlijke stromingen geidentificeerd in de (positieve) institutionele theorie: een (a) regulatieve, een (b) normatieve en een (c) cognitieve stroming. Deze drie stromingen worden vervolgens samengebracht in een algemene institutionele theorie, volgens welke deze drie stromingen drie afzonderlijke mechanismen beschrijven die in principe afzonderlijk, maar in de realiteit vaker gezamenlijk, functioneren in de constitutie van instituties. De drie concepties van verantwoordelijkheid die in het voorgaande hoofdstuk zijn geidentificeerd corresponderen grofweg met deze drie mechanismen. Beargumenteerd wordt waarom een institutioneel begrip van verantwoordelijkheid zowel theoretisch als praktisch superieur is aan conceptueel begrip van verantwoordelijkheid. Door het te contrasteren met het in de literatuur dominante, maar tegelijkertijd fel bekritiseerde "agency model" van autoriteitsrelaties, geef ik een grove schets van hoe een institutioneel begrip van verantwoordelijkheid voor autoriteit er uit zou kunnen zien. Dit hoofdstuk eindigt met de conclusie dat een algemene institutionele theorie van verantwoordelijkheid voor autoriteit een omvattender analyse van autoriteitsrelaties biedt dan het "agency model", omdat deze laatste uitsluitend gebaseerd is op het functioneren van een enkel constitutief mechanisme (het regulatieve). In hoofdstuk VI worden dertien centrale thesen geformuleerd, die niet alleen samenvatten en concluderen wat in voorgaande hoofdstukken is behandeld en beargumenteerd, maar gezamenlijk ook een argumentatie constitueren tegen een enkelvoudige en eenduidige theorie van autoriteit. De hoofdconclusie van deze studie is dat er geen eenduidig begrip van autoriteit bestaat, omdat de legitimatievraag niet op theoretisch niveau kan worden beantwoord. In lijn met de voorgaande analyse van verantwoordelijkheid wordt betoogd dat autoriteit veeleer als institutie moet worden begrepen. Een institutioneel perspectief laat niet alleen zien dat de legitimatievraag in de praktijk op verschillende manieren beantwoord kan worden en dat legitimiteit steeds opnieuw moet worden veilig gesteld, maar ook dat gehoorzaamheid aan autoriteit verschillende oorzaken kan hebben (waaronder macht). Geclaimd wordt dat verantwoordelijkheid voor autoriteit in laatste instantie de legitimiteit ervan garandeert. Omdat autoriteit en verantwoordelijkheid aan elkaar gekoppelde instituties zijn, en verantwoordelijkheid in de context van bestuurlijke autoriteit feitelijk niet altijd afdoende geinstitutionaliseerd is, zijn institutioneel ontwerp en interventie in laatste instantie de peilers waarop de claim van legitimiteit, welke besloten ligt in elk begrip van autoriteit, gewaarborgd kan worden.

�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] Leprosy is rather endemic in Korea, where the disease has been feared and disliked by most of the people. In 1948, author, for control of the disease in shorter periods of time, proposed to utilize patients own labor capacity based on the medical aspects, their labor ability and sociological factors. So-called "Campaign for Hope Village Movement" which was launched that year under the leadership of the Korean Leprosy Association was based on author's proposal for "A Classification of Leprosy Patients by Labor Capacity". Thereafter in 1953, clinical use of sulfone derivative, D.D.S. (Diamino-diphenyl sulfone) was begun for the patients in all leprosaria in Korea. In 1958, curability of the disease with D.D.S. was internationally accepted with the recognition at the 7th International Congress of Leprology. In those days, under the Compulsory Segregation Law, leprosy patients in Korea were still forced to reside in leprosaria in spite of the fact that a considerable number of patients were in the state of cure with labor capacity for self-support. These circumstances, scientific and sociological progress in the field, made author devise "A Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation" to let leprosy problem emerge out of the dark shadows of the past. This new classification was derived from "Classification by Labor Capacity" which was proposed in 1948. This new classification was based on clinical, bacteriological, epidemiological and sociological data which were derived from the results of survey by author under the direction of Dr. Joon Lew, Professor of Microbiology Department. Its value and usefulness in the field were discussed in detail in the following chapters. Chapter 1 Epidemiological Studies of Leprosy in 1948 Around 1945, after liberation of Korea from the Japanese administration, many wandering patients became a nationwide problem which demanded an immediate solution. At that time, considerable number of leprosy patients were isolated in several leprosaria; 6,000 patients in So-Rok-Do Leprosarium, 700 in Ae-Yang-Won (Yowsoo), 750 in Ae-Rak-Won(Taegu), and patients more than 600 were in Sang-Ae-Won(Pusan) which was once closed under the Japanese administration. These patients out-numbered the total patients during the Japanese administration. Yet considerable nuber of leprosy patients were wandering all around the country. In epidemiological point of view, certain measures had to be done for these patients. In these days, the Korean Government had not yet been established, budgets were totally inadequate to cope with the problem, and leprosy was considered an incurable disease. As a preliminary step toward the control of the disease, with the assistance of fellow-workers of the Department of Microbiology, author carried out the first extensive survey of leprosy patients to accomplish epidemiological studies of the disease. Materials and Methods Wandering patients were surveyed to outline their exact number and to obtain epidemiological data. In 1948, wandering patients were scattered in 19 places throughout the country. They had their own organizations, in which leaders governed them. Visiting these centers of gathering and having close co-ordination of the leaders, extensive survey was carried out. In the survey of instigutionized patients, those in So-Rok-Do Leprosarium, Ae-Yang-Won (Yowsoo), Ae-Rak-Won (Taegu) and Sang-Ae-Won (Pusan) were chosen for the purpose. Results This survey includes only that information which was verified. For that reason, the totals shown in the survey do not always match other totals, the differences being attributed to the subjects of the survey. (�뀪) Estimation of the total number of the patients in 1948: As the result of the survey wandering patients were 4,387 non-institutionized known patient 5,575 in number, meanwhile isolated cases in leprosaria were 8,350. Author estimated a total number of patients to be approximately 40,000. (�뀫) Other epidemiological studies: (1) Types, age and sex distribution study; Comparative studies were also carried out. (2) Occupation; Comparison was made between leprosaria patients and wandering patients. Occupational change before, at the time of, and after the onset was also discussed. (3) Distribution by provinces; By this study, high and low endemic areas in Korea were disclosed. Changes in addresses before, at the time of, and after the onset were also surveyed. (4) Age of onset; It was found that, among 3,296 cases in this survey, 926 cases (29.7%) in 16 to 20, 809 cases (25.5%) in 11 to 15,516 cases (15.3%) in 21 to 25,331 cases (9.7%) in 26 to 30 and 294 cases (9.3%) were in 6 to 7 years of age in order of frequency. (5) Incubation period; Out of 2,808 patients only 156 cases (81 males and 75 females), those who could definitely remember the contact with other leprosy patients prior to onset were selected. Detatiled analysis of the results was attempted. (6) Seasonal difference in onset; Spring (Feb.�댘Apr.) was the highest with incidence of 456 (32.2%), 387 (27.3%) in autumn (Aug.�댘Oct.) 304 (21.4%) in summer (May�댘July) and 269 (19.0%) in winter (Nov.�댘Jan.). (7) Initial symptoms and sites of onset; Comparative studies were carried out. (8) Religion; Changes in religion before, after and at the time of onset were surveyed. (9) Schooling; Comparative study was made between schooled and non-schooled group in various aspects. (10) Medical care in community at the time and after onset. (11) Various beliefs about the disease; Survey was made regarding their superstition and belidfs on the cause of the disease. (�뀬) Classification of leprosy patients for their labor capacity; Based on the above-mentioned epidemiological data and the sociological circumstances in 1948, the following classification was devised to utilize self-supporting labor capacities of those wandering patients. A total of 2,009 wandering patients were surveyed, analysed and classified into five groups according to thier physical capacity for labor. Group �뀪 : Very light cases; physically capable for heavy labor as normal person were 761 cases (37.8%). Group �뀫 : Those, capable for enduring ordinary labor were 375 cases (18.7%). Group �뀬 : Those, only capable for light labor were 530 cases (26.4%). Group �뀭 : Those, able to do self-care but physically unable for labor at all were 35 cases (1.7%). Group �뀮 : Far-advanced, disfigured or old patients who need someone else for care in daily life were 77 cases (3.9%). Group "N" : Indicates those who pretended to be or thought to be leprosy patients but normal 231 cases (11.5%) belonged to this group. Total of 1,897(94.4%) out of 2,009 cases surveyed had the physical capacities for some kinds of productive labor. This indicated the possibility of utilizing their labor capacities for their economical welfare and self-support of those wandering patients when unused acres of the countryside were allocated for them. Meanwhile they could have properly regulated medical treatment with less budgets. Under the socio-economical circumstances in 1948, author proposed this self-supporting isolation colony system could be a key to proper solution in taking care of those wandering patients. So-called "Campaign for Hope Villages", which was organized and developed all over Korea under the active leadership of the Korean Leprosy Association was entirely baed on the data of this survey. Until June 1950 when the Korean Civil Conflict broke off, "Hope Villages Movement" was able to accomodate approximately 5,000 wandering patients in 16 Hope Villages. Table 1. Classification of 2,009 Wandering Patients by Their Labor Capacity. �봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺 Group �봻 Labor capacity �봻 Number of case �봻 % �����������뵾���������������������������뵮���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻 �봻 N �봻 231 �봻 11.5 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Labor �봻Heavy labor �봻 I �봻 761 �봻 37.8 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Group �봻 �봻Subtotal�봻 992 �봻 49.3 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Mod labor �봻 �뀫 �봻 375 �봻 18.7 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Light labor �봻 �뀬 �봻 530 �봻 26.4 �����������뵾���������������������������뵶���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻total �봻 1,897 �봻 94.4 �����������뵾���������������������������뵮���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Non-labor�봻Able for self-care �봻 �뀭 �봻 35 �봻 1.7 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Group �봻Unable for self-care �봻 �뀮 �봻 77 �봻 3.9 �����������뵾���������������������������뵶���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Total �봻 112 �봻 5.6 �����������뵶�������������������������������������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Grand total �봻 2,009 �봻 100 �������������������������������������������������뵶�������������������뵶�������� Chapter 2 Epidemiological Studies and a New Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation in 1962. In 1953, administration of D.D.S. (Diamino-diphenyl sulfone) was started to those in all leprosaria and in Hope Villages as a drug of choice, and it actually produced many cured cases as it was recognized at the 7th International Congress of Leprology in 1958. In spite of these facts, considerable number of those cured cases were still in the state of isolation as leprosy patients, though they should had been freed and emerged into normal community as normal person. Their rights as healthy individuals were denied and they were forced to remain in leprosaria consuming considerable amounts of national budgets. This paradoxical condition led author develope a new classification of patients, so-called "New Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation" which was based on the clinical, bacteriological, epidemiological and sociological data acquired. Materials and Methods Total of 19,980 cases in all national and private leprosaria and Hope Villages were surveyed with co-operation of fellow-workers of Department of Microbiology, fellow members of the Korean Leprosy Association and Korean Army military physicians. Filling up the formulated charts through detailed individual physical examination, results were analysed. Standards of Classification Cases were divided into two main groups, one those with positive bacteriological tests, and the other with negative. These two main groups were then subdivided into five classes (�뀪-�뀮) based on labor capacity, general appearance as leprosy patients and other sociological factors. Class �뀪 : Appearance of normal person with normal labor capacity. Class �뀫 : Suspicious appearance of leprosy patient with normal labor capacity. Class �뀬 : Definite appearance of patient but with moderately impaired labor capacity. Class �뀭 : Advanced cases with capacity only for light labor. Class �뀮 : Cases, far-advanced and needing care. Results Survey of 19,980 cases in the year of 1962 by new classification was shown in Table 2. Table 2. Classification of 19,980 Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation �봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺 Bact. �봻 Positive / Negative �뵜�������������������������������������������������������� Institution \ Grade �봻 �뀪 �뀫 �뀬 �뀭 �뀮 �뀪 �뀫 �뀬 �뀭 �뀮 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� National Leprosaria �봻 590 1,006 968 835 361 956 880 778 1,228 646 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Private Institutions�봻 625 29 464 412 114 2,690 2,000 1,391 863 263 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Total(%) �봻1,215 1,735 1,432 1,247 475 3,646 2,800 2,169 2,091 909 �봻(6.8) (8.7) (7.2) (6.2) (2.4)(18.2)(14.0)(10.9)(10.5)(4.5 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Grand Total(%) �봻 4,382(22.7) / 1,722(8.6)/ 8,615(43.1) /3,000(15.0) ���������������������뵶�������������������������������������������������������� Through this survey, cured cases, non-infectious to tohers with negative bacteriological tests, were found to be 8,615 cases; 43.11% (Class �뀪, �뀫 and �뀬 with negative smear). Children from leprosy parents were 1,833 cases (9.17%) and non-leprosy cases, 428 (2.14%) respectively. As a conclusion, at least 10,876 cases (54.4%) could either go home to join their families as healthy person or could settle in somewhere else without any possible spread of the disease to normal communities. So-called "Campaign for Resettlement Villages" of Korean Government and of the Korean Leprosy Association was originated from the data of this survey. Chapter 3 Re-classification of leprosy Institutions Based on these data, re-classification of leprosy institutions was proposed. 1. Hospitals for bacteriologically positive cases (Class �뀪, �뀫 and �뀬 of positive patients). 2. Hospitals for disabled cases (bacteriologically positive and negative Class �뀭 and �뀮). 3. Hospitals for corrective surgery cases (bacteriologically negative Class �뀫, �뀬 or Class �뀪). After surgical correction, they are to be sent to Resettlement Villages. 4. Resettlement Villages for bacteriologically negative Class �뀫 and �뀬. 5. Society for bacteriologically negative Class �뀪. The above-mentioned "Campaign for Resettlement Villages" made total of 10,007 cases gather and engage in self-supporting living in 65 Resettlement Villages in Korea. This campaign not only gave leprosy patients self-maintaining and self-supporting life but also reduced the national budgets considerably for the control of the disease. This resettlement projects are to be expanded more in near future and are to have attention of International Congress of Leprology. ; restriction

Issue 26.3 of the Review for Religious, 1967. ; Decree on Religious Life by Vatican Council H 391 Vatican II and Religious Life by Edward O'Connor, C.S.C. 404 A Point of Departure by J. M. R. Tillard, O.P. 424 Interindwelling by Thomas Dubay, S.M. 441 Preparing for a General Chapter by Mother M. Romua!d, O.S.F. 461 Selectin~ Seminary Applicants by Mark E. Niemann, S.J. 470 Seminary Adjustment Patterns by Allen F. Greenwald 483 Marriage 'Program for Religious by Dr. and Mrs. J. C. Willke 489 New Morality, New Asceticism by Quentin Hakenewerth, S.M. 496 Chastity and Consecration ¯ by Robert L. Faricy, S.J. 503 Differences in Constitutions by Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. 507 Poems 517 Survey of Roman Documents 520 Views, News, Previews 523 Questions and Answers 531 Book Reviews 554 VOLUME 26 NUMBER 3 May 1967 VATICAN COUNCIL II Decree on. Religious PAUL, BISHOP THE SERVANT OF THE SERVANTS OF GOD TOGETHER WITH THE FATHERS OF THE COUNCIL FOR A PERPETUAL .RECORD OF THE MATTER 1. The pursuit of perf~c~ charity* by means of the evangelical dounsels has been 'previbusly shown by the Council in the constitution which begins with ther words Lumen gentium to derive its origin from the teaching an'd examples of the divine Teacher and to serve as a striking sign of the kingdom of heaven. Now, however, the Council intends to consider the life and discipline of the institutes whosd members profess chastity, poverty, and obedience and to provide for their needs as the con-ditions of our age suggest. From the very beginnings of the Church there existed men and women who strove through the practice of the evangelical counsels to follow Christ with a greater free-dom and to imitate Him in a closer fashion, each in his own way leading a life dedicated to God. Under the in-spiration of the Holy Spirit .ifi'any of these persons lived a solitary life or founded religious families which the Church gladly accepted and approved with her author-ity. Accordingly, through the divine plan there has grown up a remarkable '~variety of religious groups, a ¢ariety which is of great help to the Church not only in making her equipped for every kind of good work (see 2 Tim 3:17) and ready for, the work of the ministry for the building up of the Body of Christ (see Eph 4:12) but also in making her appear adorned with the various gifts of her children, like a bride adorned for her hus- ¯ This is a translation of the official Latin text, entitled Per]ectae caritatis, as given in ~qcta ,qpos'tolicae Sedis, v. '58 (1966), pp. 702-12. Translation Copyright (g) 1967 Review for Religions Religious Li]e ' ~ VOLUME 26, 1967 4" 4. Vatican Council I1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS band (see Ap 21:2), so that through her there may be revealed the multiform wisdom of God (see Eph 3:10). In all this great variety of gifts, however, all who are called by God to the practice of the evangelical counsels and who conscientiously profess them dedicate them-selves to the Lord in a special way since they follow Christ who, a virgin and a poor man (see Mt 8:20; Lk 9:58), redeemed and sanctified men by His obedience even to the death of the cross (Phil 2:8). Being thus im-pelled by the charity which the Holy Spirit pours into their hearts, they live more and more for Christ and for His Body which is the Church (see Col 1:24). Accord-ingly, the more fervently they are espoused to Christ by this self-gift that includes all of life, the richer the life of the Church becomes while her apostolate grows in greater productiveness. In order, however, that the great worth of life con-secrated by the profession of the counsels and its neces-sary role may yield greater good for the Church in the circumstances of the present time, this Council enacts the following matters; these are concerned only with general principles for the adaptation and renewal of the life and discipline of religious institutes and also, their own characteristics being respected, of societies of common life without vows and of secular institutes. However, particular norms for the proper interpreta-tion and application of these principles are to be enacted after the Council by the competent authority. 2. The adaptation and renewal of religious include both a constant return to the som:ces of all Christian life and to the original inspiration of the institutes as well as an adaptation of the institutes to the changed conditions of our times. This renewal must be achieved under the impulse of the Holy Spirit and the leader-ship of the Church in accord with the following prin-ciples: ¯ a)Since the ultimate norm of religious life is the fol-lowing of Christ set forth in the gospel, this is to be considered by all institutes as the supreme rule. b) It is for the good of the Church that institutes have their own special characteristics and work. Therefore, there should be a loyal acknowledgment and preserva-tion of their founders' spirit and special aims as well as of their sound traditions--all of which constitute the patrimony of each institute. c) All institutes should share in the life of the Church; and, in accord with their own characteristic structure, they should identify themselves with its undertakings and goals in biblical, liturgical, dogmatic, pastoral, ecu-menical, missionary, and social matters and foster these as much as they can. d) Institutes should foster in their members an ade-quate knowledge of the modern condition of men and of the needs of the Church so that they may correctly eviduate in the light of faith the drcumstances of to-day's world and, burning with apostolic zeal, may be able to give men a more effective assistance. e) Since the primary goal of religious life is that its members should follow Christ and be united to God through the profession of the evangelical counsels, seri-ous consideration must be given to the fact that the best of adaptations made in accord with today's needs will be ineffectual unless they are animated by a spiritual renewal which must always be given precedence .even in the matter of external works. 3. Everywhere and especially in mission territories, th6 way of living', praying, and working should be suit-ably adapted to the modern physical and psychic con-ditions of the members and, as required by the nature of each institute," to the needs of the apostolate, to the re-quirements of culture, and to social and economic con-ditions. The manner of governing in institutes should also be examined according to the same criteria. Therefore, constitutions, directories, prayer and cere-mony books, and other similar collections should be suitably revised and, obsolete prescriptions being elimi-nated, be adapted to the documents of this Council. 4. An effective renewal arid a due adaptation cannot be achieved except through the cooperation of all the members of the institute. However, to establish the norm of adaptation and re-newal, to enact legislation in the matter, and to provide for adequate and prudent experimentation belongs 0nly to the competent authority, especially to general chapters, without prejudice, where required, to the ap- 15robation of the Holy See or of local ordinaries accord-ing to th~ norm of law. But in matters involving the future condition of the entire institute superiors should in an "appropriate way consult and listen to the mem-bers. Fdr the adaptation and renewal of monasteries of nuns, suggestions and advice may also be obtained from federation sessions or from other lawfully convoked meetings. :All, however, should remember that hope for renewal is to be basdd, more on a careful observance of the rule and the constitutions than on a multiplication of laws. .5. The members of each institute should first of all recall to~ mind the fact that by the profession of the evangelical counsels they have responded to a divine call in guch a way that they live for God alone nbt onl~ ÷ + ÷ Religious Li]e ¯ VOLUME 26, 1967 39~, ÷ ÷ ÷ Vatican Council I1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 394 by being dead to sin (see Rom 6:11) but also by re-nouncing the world. They have committed their en-tire life to His service, a fact that constitutes a kind of special consecration which has its inmost roots in the consecration of baptism and which expresses the latter consecration in a fuller way. Moreover, since this self-gift of theirs has been ac-cepted by the Church, they should realize that they are also dedicated to th~ service of the Church. This service of God should inspire and foster in them the exercise of the virtues, especially humility and obedience, courage and chastity, by which Christ's self-emptying (see Phil 2:7-8) as well as His life in the spirit (see Rom 8:1-13) is shared by them. Being faithful to their profession, then, and leaving all things for the sake of Christ (see Mk 10:28), religious should follow Him as the one thing necessary (see Lk 10:42); and they should listen to His words (see Lk 10:39) and be solicitous for the things that are His (see 1 Cor 7:32). Since, therefore, they are seeking first and foremost God alone, the members of each institute must join the contemplation by which they are united to Him in mind and heart with the apostolic love by which they strive to spread the kingdom of God by associating themselves with the work of redemption. 6. Those who 'profess the evangelical counsels should before all else seek and love God who has first loved us (see 1 Jn 4:10), and in all circumstances they should strive to foster a life hidden with Christ in God (see Col 3:3); these attitudes will begin and incite the love of neighbor which is directed to the salvation of the world and to the building up of the Church and which in addition animates and orientates the actual living of the evangelical counsels. Therefore, drawing upon the authentic sources of Christian spirituality, the members of institutes should steadfastly develop the spirit and practice of prayer. Moreover, it is of foremost importance that they have recourse every day to Sacred Scripture so that by read-ing and meditating the divine writings they may learn the "surpassing knowledge of Jesus Christ" (Phil 3:8). In accord with the mind of the Church they should take part in the sacred liturgy, especially the sacred mystery of the Eucharist, with both heart ~nd lips, thereby nourishing their spiritual life from this richest of sources. Strengthened in this way at the table of the divine law and of the sacred altar, they should love the mem-bers of Christ as brothers and should love and respect their pastors in a filial spirit; ever increasingly they should live and think in union with the Church, com-pletely dedicating themselves to its mission. 7. No matter how urgent the needs of the active apostolate, institutes which are entirely devoted to con-templation in such a way that their members, in solitude and silence, in continual prayer and joyful penance, are occupied with God alone always retain a preeminent place in the Mystical Body of Christ in which "the mem-bers do not all have the same role" (Rom 12:4). The rea-son for this is that they offer an exceptional sacrifice of praise, while with regard to the People of God they make it radiant with a rich endowment of holiness, in-spire it by their example, "and increase it by their hid-den apostolic fecundity. Accordingly, they are a glory of the Church and a fountainhead of heavenly graces. Nev-ertheless, their way of life should be revised according to the foregoing principles and criteria of adaptation and renewal, though their withdrawal from the world and the exercises proper to the contemplative life should be conscientiously safeguarded. ,8. In the Church there are a great number of insti-tutes, both clerical and lay, which are dedicated to vari-ous works of the apostolate and which, in accord with the grace given them, possess different gifts: service in those who minister, doctrine in those who teach, com-pellingness in those who exhort, sincerity in those who offer help, cheerfulness in those who do acts of mercy (see Rom 12:5-8). "There are indeed varieties of graces, but the Spirit is the same" (1 Cor 12:4). In these institutes apostolic and charitable activity belongs .to the very essence of religious life since it has been entrusted to them by the Church as a sacred service and a special work of charity to be exercised in its name. Hence, the entire religious life of the mem-bers should be imbued with an apostolic spirit while all their apostolic activity should be penetrated with a religious spirit. In order, therefore, that the members may first of all respond to their vocation to follow Christ and that they may serve Christ Himself- in His members, their apostolic acti~,ity should flow from close union with Him. In this way there is fostered the full-ness of love for God and for neighbor. These institutes, therefore, should suitably adjust their observances and customs to the needs of the apos-tolate to which they are dedicated. Since, however, there are many forms of religous life dedicated to apostolic works, it is necessary that adaptation and renewal take account of this diversity and that in the various insti-tutes the life of the members be strengthened for the service of Christ by means that are suitable and appro-priate to each institute. ÷ ÷ Religious LiJe VOLUME 26, 1967 395 Vatican oud~il II REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 396 9. In both the East and We~t the venerable iristi'(~fidn of monastic life which through the long cotirse of cen-turies has earned for itself great respect in the Church and in h.uman ~ociety should be preserved with Care and should shin~ forth in all the brilliance of its genuine spirit. The principal duty of monks is to offer to the divine majesty within the confines of the monastery a service, humble but at the same time noble, whether they com-pletely devote themselves to divine worship in ~the con-templative life or whether they have legitimately under-taken some work of the apostolate or of Christian charity: Therefore, ~having safeguarded the characteristic nature of their institution, they should renew their ancient tradi-tions of doing good and adapt them to the contemporary needs of souls in such a'way that monasteries' may be vital-izing sources of edification for the Christian people." ~Similarly, those religious bodies who by rule or by their institute closely join an apostolic life to the choral Office and to monastic observances should adjusf their way of life to the needs of the apostolate appr6priate to them in suck/ a way that they faithfully preserve their form of life as one which contributes in an outstanding way to the good of the Church. '~ 10. Lay religious life, .both for men and women, con': stitutes ifi itself a complete state of' the professiqn of/,he evangelical counsels. Therefore, in a spirit of great es-teem for that life and its contribution to the pastora! work of the Church in the education of youth, in the care of the sick, and in the fulfillrhent of other serv-ices, this Council confirms these religibus in their voca-tion and urges them to adapt their life to modern needs. " This° Council declares that in religious institutes brothers, providing that their: lay character remains un-changed, there is" nothing to prevent some 'members according to the" derision of the general chapter, ~om being admitted to' sacred orders in order to meet the need for priestly ministration within the h~uses of their own institute. 11. Although they are not religious institutes, secular institutes nevertheless involve a tri~e and full profe.ssion of (he e~angelical counsels in the world, a profes.sion that has been recognized by the Church,. This pr6~.es-sion confers a consecration on ,men and wom~n, lay as 'well as clerical, living in the world. Accor .dingly, th~ members should have as their principal goal a total ded= ication of themselves to God in perfedt charit.y; and the institutes themselves shbuld preserve the.it ,special' and characteristic secular nattire so' tliat, in the world and~ as it were, from the world, they may everywhere be able to carry out in an effective way the apostolate for which they were founded. These institutes, however, should fully realize that they will not be able to execute so great a work unless their members are so thoroughly trained in divine and human matters that they are truly a leaven in the midst of the world for the strengthening and growth of the Body of Christ. Their superiors, therefore, should give serious attention to the training, especially the spiritual one, to be given to the members; and they should make provision for its later development. 19. Chastity "for the sake of the kingdom of heaven" (Mr 19:12) which religious profess should be regarded as an outstanding gift of grace. The reason for this is that it liberates :the heart of man in a unique way (see 1 Cot 7:32-5) so that it can bemore greatly inflamed with love for God and for all men; consequently, it is a special sign of heavenly realities and the most suitable means by which religious fullheartedly dedicate them-selves to the' divine service and to works of the apos-tolate. In this way they recall to the minds of all Christ's faithful that wondrous espousal by which the Church has Christ as its only spouse--an espousal that has been instituted by God and that is to be fully revealed in the age to come. Religious, therefore, in their eagerness to carry out their profession faithfully, should believe the words of the Lord; and, having put their trust in God's help, they should practice mortification and restraint of their senses lest they overestimate their own strength. More-over, they should not neglect the natural means that promote health of mind and body. In this way they will not be influenced by the false doctrines which char-acterize perfect continence as impossible or as harmful to human development, and by a kind of spiritual in-stinct they will reject everything which endangers their chastity. All, especially superiors, should furthermore remember that chastity is safeguarded with greater se-curity when true fraternal love among religious flour-ishes in the life they lead in common. Since the observance of perfect continence touches in an intimate way the deepest inclinations of human nature, candidates should not make nor be allowed to make profession of chastity except after they have been tested in a truly sufficient way and except when they pos-sess the required psychological and affective maturity. They should not only be warned of the dangers to which chastity is exposed but they should also he instructed in such a manner that they may assume celibacy dedicated to God in a way that contributes to the benefit of their entire personality. ÷ + + Religious LiJe VOLUME ~'~, 1967 397 Vatican Coundl I! REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 398 ~" 13. Voluntary poverty for the sake of the following of Christ, since it is highly regarded, especially today, as sign of that following, should be carefully practiced by religious and, if necessary, should even be expressed in new forms. Through it is acquired a sharing in the poverty of Christ who, though He was ,rich, became poor for our sake in order that by His poverty we might be-come rich (see 2 Cor 8:9; Mt 8:20). With regard to religious poverty, it is not sufficient to ¯ be subject to superiors in the use of. things, but it is nec-essary that the members be poor in fact and in spirit, having their treasures in heaven (see Mt fi:20). In the matter of their ,employment all religious should realize that they are subject to the common law of work; and while they procure in this way the things necessary for their sustenance and works, they should in addition cast off all undue solicitude and entrust themselves to the providence of the heavenly Father (see Mt fi:25). By their constitutions religious congregations can per-mit their members to renounce their patrimonial goods, both those already acquired and those to be acquired. Taldng. into account the circumstances of individual places, institutes should themselves strive ~to give a kind of collective witness of poverty; and they should gladly contribute from their own goods to the other needs of the Church and to the support of the poor whom all re-ligious should love in closest union with Christ .(see Mt 19:21; 25:34-46; Jas 2:15-6; 1 Jn 3:17). Provinces and houses of institutes should share their temporal goods with one another so that those who have more .help the others who are experiencing need. Although institutes, without prejudice to rules and constitutions, have the right of possessing everything necessary for their temporal life and for their works, yet they should avoid all appearance of luxury, of excessive wealth, and of accumulation of goods. 14. Through profession of obedience religious offer the fuII dedication of their own will as a sacrifice of themselves to God, and through this sacrifice they are united to God's saving will in a more constant and secure way, Hence, after the example of °Jesus Christ who came to,do the will of the Father (see Jn 4:34; 5:30; Heb 10:7; Ps ~39:9) and who, "taking the form of a servant" (Phil 2:7) learned obedience from what He suffered (see Heb 5:8), religious under the impulse of the Holy Spirit sub-mit themselves in a spirit of faith to superiors who act as representatives of God; and through superiors they are led to serve all their brothers in Christ as Christ Himself on account of His submission to the Father served the brethren and laid down His life as a ransom for many (see Mt 20:28; Jn 10:14-8). In this way they are more closely bound to the service of the Church and strive to attain to the measure of the mature manhood and full-ness of Christ (see Eph 4:13). In a spirit of faith, therefore, and of love for the will of God religious should give a humble obedience to su-periors according to the norms of the-rule and of the constitutions. In executing what is commanded and in fulfilling the work assigned them, they should apply the forces of their intellect and will as well as their gifts of nature and grace in the knowledge that they are contrib-uting according to God's plan to the building up of the Body of Christ. In this way religious obedience, far from diminishing the dignity of the human person, leads, it to maturity by extending the freedom of the sons of God,. For their part, superiors, as oneswho will give an ac-count of the souls entrusted to them (see Heb 13:17), should be responsive to the will of God in the fulfill-ment of their office and should exercise their authority in a spirit of service to their brothers in such a way that they express the charity with ,:which God loves them. They should ~govern their subjects as children of God and with respect for the human persons, thereby facili-tating their voluntary submission. Accordingly, they should take special care to leave them adequate freedom with regard to the sacrament of penance and direction of conscience. They should lead their subjects to the point that they cooperate by an active and responsible obedience in fulfilling their duties and in undertaking new tasks. Hence, superiors should gladly listen to their religious and should foster union among them for the good of the institute and of' the Church, without preju-dice, however, to their own authority to decide and order what is to be done. Chapters'~ and councils should conscientiously dis-charge the role assigned them in government; and both of these groups, each in its own way, should be an expres-sion of the common concern of all the religious for the good of the entire community. 15. After the example of the primitive Church in which the body of believers was one heart and one soul (see Acts 4:32), common life, being strengthened by the teaching of the gospel, by the sacred liturgy, and es-pecially by the Eucharist, should be continued in a spirit of prayer and of communion in the same spirit (see Acts 2:42). As befits members of Christ, religious in their living together as brothers should outdo each other in given honor (see Rom 19:10); and they should bear each other's burdens (see Gal 6:2). For" the love, of God has been poured into their hearts by .the Holy: Spirit (see Rom 5:5); consequently,,thegcommunity is like.a true family gathered' together in the nam~ of ,the Lord and Religious" Li]e. ~ . VOLUME 26, 1967' 399 Vatican Council I1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 400 enriched by His presence (see Mt .18:20); Moreover, love is the fulfilling of the law (see Rom 13:10) and the per-fect bond of union (see Col 3:14), and through it we know that we have made our exodus from death to life (see 1 Jn 3:14). In addition, the unity of the brethren is a manifestation of the coming of Christ (see Jn 13:35; 17:21) and a source of great apostolic vigor. In order that the bond of brotherhood be greater among the members, those who are called lay brothers, assistants, or some other name should be closely joined to the life and activity of the community. Unless circum-stances genuinely indicate a different course of action, steps should be taken that there be only one class of sisters in institutes of women. The onlydistinction of persons to be retained is that which is required by the different works for which the members are destined either by special vocation from God or by reason of spe-cial aptitude. In accord with their nature and with the norms of their constitutions monasteries and institutes of men can admit both clerics and laymen .on an equal status with the same rights and obligations except for those which result from holy orders. 16. Papal cloister should be retained for nuns of the purely contemplative life;, but, after the monasteries themselves have expressed' their desires, it should be adapted to the circumstances of time and place, obsolete practices being abolished. 17. The habit of ,religious, as an outward mark of their consecration, should be simple and modest, poor yet fitting; moreover, it should meet the requirements of health and should be adapted to circumstances of time and place and to the needs of the ministry. The habits of both men and women which do nbt meet these norms must be changed. 18. Adaptation and renewal of institutes depend to the highest degree on the training of the members. Con-sequently, non-clerical men religious and religious women should not be assigned immediately after the no-vitiate to works of the apostolate; but their .religious, apostolic, academic, and professional training, involving also the securing of appropriate degrees, should be con-tinued in an adequate way in houses adapted to this purpose. In order that the adaptation of religious life to the needs of today may not be merely external and in order that those engaged according to their institute in the ex-ternal apostolate may not be unequal to their task, suit-able instruction on current practices and ways of think-ing and feeling in society today should be given to religious according to each one's intellectual capacity and personal ability. The training of religious should be accomplished by a balanced blending of its components so that it contributes to their personal unity, Moreover, throughout their entire life religious should consciously strive to perfect their spiritual, academic, and professional culture; opportunity, .means, and time for this should be provided by superiors as far as possible. It is also the duty of superiors.to see that the directors, spiritual fathers, and professors are.carefully chosen and thoroughly trained . ~ 19. In the matter of the founding of new institutes, need or at least great usefulness as well as the possibility of their growth, must be seriously weighed lest there come into~.existence institutes that are useless or not suffi-ciently vigorous. Where the .Church ~has been but re, cently established special consideration should be given to developing and fostering forms of religious life which take account of the'inhabitants' characteristic way of life and and. of the customs and ~onditions of the region. 20. Institutes should faithfully retain and carry on the works proper to them; and, having considered the welfare of the entire Church and of the dioceses; they should adapt them to the needs of time ~and place, using suitable and even new means and abandoning ,those works which today, fit in less well with the spirit and genuine characteristic of the institute. The missionary spirit must by all means be preserved in institutes, and it must be adapted to modern con-ditions in accord with the nature of each institute so that the preaching of the gospel to all the nations may be more effective. 21. Institutes and monasteries which in the judgment of the Holy See after consultation with the interested local ordinaries do not'provide reasonable hope of even-tually flourishing should be forbidden to receive novices in the future; and, if it can be done, they should be united to another, more vigorous institute or monastery which is not very different in purpose and spirit. 22. As opportunity permits and with the approval of the Holy See, indep~endent institutes and monasteries should promote among themselves federations (if they in some way belong to the same religious family) or unions (if~ especially when they are too small, they have almost equivalent constitutions and usages and are im-bued with the same spirit) or associations (if they are engaged in the same .or similar external works). 23. A davorable attitude should be shown to con-ferences or councils of major superiors that are estab-lished by the Holy See; these can make a significant ÷ ÷ ÷ Rel~gious VOLUME 26, 1967 40! ÷ ÷ ÷ contribution to the fuller achievement of the purpose of the individual institutes, to a more effective cooper-ative work for the good of the Church, to a more equi-table distribution of. the laborers of the gospel in a given territory, as well as to the transaction of matters of common interest to religious. Coordination and coop-eration with episcopal conferences should be established with regard to the exercise of the apostolate. Such conferences can also be established for secular institutes. 24. Priests and Christian educators should make serious efforts to see that by religious vocations that have been suitably and carefully selected there be given to the Church a new growth that clearly corresponds to its needs. The evangelical counsels and the choosing of religious life should often be treated even in ordinary preaching. By educating their children along Christian ways of life, parents should nurture and foster religious vocations in their hearts. Institutes have the right to make themselves known in order to foster vocations as well as the right to seek candidates provided this is done with due prudence and with observance of the norms set down by the Holy See and the local ordinary. For their part, members should remember that the example of their own life is the best recommendation of their institute and the most effective invitation to choose religious 'life. 25. Institutes for whom these' norms of adaptation and renewal are established should respond with eager-ness to their divine vocation and to their role in the Church of these times. This Council has a great esteem for their way of life, a virginal, poor, and obedient one of which the model is Christ the Lord Himself; and the Council puts great hope in the productiveness of their works whether these be little publicized or well known. All religious, therefore, by integrity of faith, by charity for God and neighbor, by love of the cross, and by hope in the glory to come, should spread the good news of Christ throughout the entire world so that their wit-nessing may be seen by all and that our Father who is in heaven may be glorified (see Mt 5:16). Accordingly, through the prayer and interest of the Virgin Mary, Mother of God, "whose life is a source of instruction for all,''1 may they daily experience a greater growth as well as a greater salvific effectiveness. Vatican Coundl I! REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ,t02 Each and every one of the matters contained in this Decree was decided by the fathers of this Council. And St. Ambrose, De virginitate, bk. 2, c. 2, n. 15. We, by the apostolic power given to Us by Christ, to-gether with the venerable fathers, approve in the Holy Spirit, decree, enact, and order to be promulgated what has been decided in this Synod for the glory of God. Given in Rome at St. Peter's on October 28, 1965. I, PAUL, Bishop of the Catholic Church Religious Li]e, VOLUME 26, 1967 EDWARD O'CONNO.R, C.S:C. Vatican II and the Renewal of Religious, Edward O'Con-nor, C.S.C., on the faculty of Notre Dame University, may be reached at Box 514; Notre Dame, Ifidiana. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS The Vatican Council was designed to bring about an aggiornamento in the Church; not surprisingly, it also took up the renewal of religious life. But perhaps the most important things which the Council had to say about religious life are not to be found in the chapters devoted specifically to this subject but in those con-cerned with the Church as a whole. For a man is a Christian before he is a religious; and, even in his religious life, that which is most fundamental is not the set of observances that distinguish religious from others, but the same mystery of grace and sacra-mental economy that defines every Christian life. The reason is that the religious life is not peripheral to Christianity (as Leslie Dewart imagines) but an effort to live the Christian life in its fullest and most authentic expression, as Pope John declared. Neither is it created by the ambition to be better than the Church but by a humble and sincere aspiration to "live the life of the Church as deeply and unqualifiedly as possible and thereby to participate as plentifully as possible in the Church's spiritual resources. Such an attitude towards the religious life pervades the Council's teaching. It appears in the way the chapter on the religious life is inserted into the Constitution on the Church and still more in the persistent care taken to expound the religious life in ecclesiological terms. Thus, after declaring that the vows commit a person to the service of God by a special title, the Council adds at once that by baptism we are already consecrated to God. Hence it becomes necessary to explain how the religious vows relate to those of baptism: In order to derive more abundant fruit from this baptismal grace, [the religious] intends, by the profession of the evangeli- cal counsels in the Church, to free himself from those obstacles which might draw him away from the fervor of charity and the perfection of divine worship. Thus he is more intimately consecrated to divine service (LG 44; see PC 5)? The religious state is sometimes menaced by a kind of sectarianism which tends to cut it off in part from the mainstream of the Church's life and action. Religious are tempted to take for granted the common sources of spirituality in the Church, such as prayer and the sacra-ments, and to regard their community rule with its special practices of piety and asceticism as the chief form and source of their distinctive spiritual life. Likewise, the fact that religious are accustomed to the fi:equent use o{ the sacraments and daily attendance at Mass can induce a kind of familiarity and routine that cause them to take these things for granted and so to profit little by them. The Vatican Council has drawn up a magnificent statement of the meaning and value of the great sources of Christian spirituality: the liturgy culminating in the sacraments and above all the Eucharist; Scripture seen not just as a relic to be venerated but as the living God's living word to His people; and finally the Church it-self, that all-embracing mystery in which the Word and the sacraments are contained. Besides its theoretical statements about these sacred mysteries, the Council has set in motion a number o{ reforms, especially in regard to the Eucharistic liturgy, designed to make their mean-ing and grace more accessible. The acts of the Council regarding the liturgy have also been supplemented by the encyclical letter of Pope Paul, Mysterium fidei (Aug-ust, 1965), giving important practical directives for Eu-charistic piety during these times of theoretical con-fusion. Religious above all ought to profit by the new passageways opened into these spiritual riches. Probably the first point which those concerned with renewal of the religious life ought to examine is whether the Scrip-ture, the Eucharist, and the liturgy as a whole have be-come for them the source of living contact with God en-visaged by the Council. The lethargy regarding these spiritual riches with which the whole Church has been afflicted has not left religious unaffected, and they would be rejecting the peculiar grace of the Council if they were now to abide complacently in a pharisaic security that the instructions addressed to "the rest of men" had no rele-x In this paper I will use two abbreviations for the two Council documents that will be most often cited: LG = Lumen gentium, the Constitution on the Church; PC = PerIectae caritatis, on the adapta-tion and renewal of the religious life. Translations will be taken from W. Abbott, The Documents of Fatican H (New York: 1966), but with occasional modifications. ÷ ÷ ÷ Religious Li/e VOLUME 26; 1967 405 4. 4. Edward O'Connor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS vance for them. If the. religious life is to experience a i:enewal, it is chiefly in the great mysteries of the Word, the sacraments, and the Church that it must tap its sources (see PC 6). A second way in which religious are in danger of cutting themselves off from the Church as a whole con-sistso in their becoming so engro_ssed in the enterprises of their own community as to lose concern for the greater interests of the Church. For. example, they can .promote recruitment to their community in a way that dis-courages vocations to others. They can pursue funds in a manner that hurts the religious sensibilities of the people, making. Catholicism obnoxious. They can strive for excellence in their schools and journals but fail in theeffort required to give them a truly Christian spirit~ Such seeking of their own true or imagined interests can lead particular communities to neglect or even injure the body of the Church In truth, however, a community within the Church can have genuine vitality only in the measure that it espouses the aims of the Church and subordinates it, self to them. History shows that most religious com-munities have come into being in response to some need of the ChurCh and that they have retained their vital-ity precisely in the measure that they continued to re-spond generously to the need that called them into existence. When they begin to protect their particular interests, their dynamism fails and they decline. In mod-ern times, most of the older communities have been losing ground in Europe and, more recently, in America. But the Little Brothers and Sisters of Jesus in France and the Maryknoll Missionaries in America have ex-perienced a spectacular growth; and both have been communities inspired by the will to give of themselves to the need of the Church, the one by way of presence and contemplation, the other by ~missionary endeavor zeal. The Council therefore summons each religious com-munity, according to its own peculiar character, "to make its own and foster in every possible way the enter-prises and objectives, of the Church in such fields as the following: Scriptural, liturgical, doctrinal pastoral, ecu-menical, missionary, social" (PC 2). The areas.named are evidently those in which the needs of the Church are particularly acute today. All religious can take to heart all of these needs and respond to them by prayer; no service to ,the Church is more proper to the religious life than this. But the prayer must be an earnest plea that pierces heaven to get help,, not a perfunctory routine that serves.as a pretext for doing nothing real. And if a community has really taken the. Church's needs to heart, it will also be generous in responding to them with its manpower and human energies when-ever such service accords with its nature and falls within its capabilities. This qualification is important; the Church does not want any community to lose sight of its proper finality or to neglect the prudent limits and moderation necessary to conserve the strength of an organization (PC 2b and 20). Several communities have already become concerned over the harm suffered by their own works because so many of their members want to abandon them for something new. Some sisters' schools report that the quality of their instruction is threatened because too many of the sisters now~ want to spend their time making home visits instead of correcting papers. But there is also a false prudence that will ven-ture nothing unless hedged bya security that leaves little. place for the trust inculcated~by the Gospels. Right de-cisions in such matters are possible only where humble fidelity to the purpose of one's own community is joined with lively zeal for the Church. Incidentally, it should be ,noted that espousing the interests of the Church can itself be a source of renewal of the religious life. The Church evolves as it undergoes new experiences and undertakes new works in each age; a community deeply attached to the Church will be thereby tarried forward with it. II The Council treats the religious life in two main texts. The Constitution on the Church, Lumen !gentium, de-votes Chapter 6 to this subject, after preparing for it, by an important statement ~on the evangelical counsels in Chapter 5, paragraph 42, On the basis there established, the decree, Perfectae ca¥itatis? gives directives for the renewal of the religious life in our time. (The essence of 'this decree is to be found in paragraphs 2 and 3.) As the two documents overlap and supplement one another, it will be advantageous to synthesize them rather than to treat them separately? Renewal of the religious life, says the decree, calls for two somewhat opposite movements: one consists in bringing traditional religious practices up to date, the ~ The title, The Appropriate Renewal o] the Religious Li[e, which is given to this document in Abbott's edition, is a poor translation of the phrase, De accommodata renovatione . The true sense of the Council's expression is surely that which the editor himself suggests in a footnote on page 466: "The adaptation and renewal." (literally, "The renewal brought about through, or involving, adapta-tion. ")., a Note should' also be taken of the paragraphs de~oted to religious in the Decree on Bishops, nn. 33-35, and in the Decree on the Mis-sions, nn. 18 and 40. ÷ ÷ ÷ 407 + 4. Edward O'Connor, C$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS other in a return to the perennial sources of religious vitality. The renewal and adaptation of religious life involves two simultaneous processes: (1) a continuous return to the source of all Christian life and to the original inspiration behind a given institute and (2) an adjustment of the institute to the changed conditions of the times (PC 2). It is the latter process which has monopolized the atten-tion given to this decree, but it is clear that in the mind of the Council Fathers adjusting to the times is not so nrgent a matter as renewing contact with the sources. Since the religious life is intended above all else to lead those who embrace it to an imitation of Christ and to union with God through the profession of the evangelical counsels, the fact must be honestly faced that even the most desirable changes .made on behalf of contemp.o.ra~ needs will fail of their pur-pose unless a renewal of spent g~ves life to them. Indeed such an interior renewal must always be accorded the leading role even in the promotion of exterior works (PC 2e). Ever since the religious life began, periodic renewals have been necessary in order to recall flagging spirits back to the high ideal that originally inspired them; and the renewal to which the Council summons us is basi-cally of this same sort. However, the adjustments made necessary by the conditions peculiar to our age, although of lesser importance, are really necessary. It will be con-venient to consider them first. The ways of life in religious communities have re-mained pretty much the same down through the ages, little affected by the fashions and manners of the chang-ing world. This is only natural in a life that involves leaving the secular world behind and focusing attention on the eternal. A community that kept up to date in every way would be suspect of having forgotten its essen-tial purpose. Furthermore, each religious community is a school of spirituality created through the inspiration of a founder who is almost invariably a saint. The wis-dom of its rule has been confirmed and enriched by the experience of many members and guaranteed by the approval of the Church. One goes to it in order to be formed by it to a life and mentality that do not come naturally. Hence, it is entirely reasonable for religious to hold as sacred those rules, customs, and practices that have become a tradition in their community and, still more, those which also belong to the common tra-ditions of all religious communities. However, each community is in some measure the child of the age which engendered it. Among its ob-servances there are liable to be elements which are not integral to its proper spirituality but merely the deposits of a contingent culture. Some old monasteries of Europe and the Near East still regard bathing as a sensual in-dulgence. The discalced orders reflect an age in which shoes were considered a superfluity. The Capuchins long regarded shaving as a mark of vanity. Maintenance of such idiosyncrasies is in no way bound up with the pursuit of holiness and sometimes becomes a hindrance to the apostolate. It engenders an atmos-phere of weirdness that may make the religious.life seem irrelevant and unreal to modern man. Even truly mean-ingful elements of religious asceticism may, because of changed circumstances, become a burden so grievous as to'absorb energies that are needed elsewhere. Hence the needs, of adaptations affecting "the m~nner of living, pra~iing and working" (PC 3). Perfectae caritatis names three categories of reasons which may make adaptation; necessary: (I) the physical and psychological conditions.of today's religious; (2) the needs of the apostolate; and (3) the requirements of a given culture, including the social and economic con-. ditions it.imposes. The decree does not give any examples, but it is easy to suggest a few. Qne of the physical conditions affecting many. religious today is the fact that their houses are in the midst of cities or otherwise affected by the bustle of modern civilization, making recollection more difficult than it used to be in secluded monasteries. Psychological conditions include the nervousness and tension, also the much-discussed ,alienation, 6f mddern man, and the in-dependence and skepticism of the youth from among whom new recruits for the religious life must be drawn. The needs of the apostolate often make it difficult to practice the externals of the religious life in the form anticipated by the older rules. Thus, the need to be in contact with students in a college, or with classes of society that have been alienated from the Church, or with colleagues in professional societies, interferes with the observance of common exercises of piety and also with the more obvious .forms of separation from the world which have traditionally characterized the reli-gious life. There is also the need to possess books or scientific equipment, or to employ the most modern means and techniques of communication, or to travel for the sake of education or contacts. The reference to the "requirements of a given culture" reminds us that the religious life in the Church has received its forms predominantly from European Ca-tholicism. When it is transplanted to America or Africa or the Far East, it rightly divests itself of peculiarly European (or Americanl) forms in order to penetrate more purely and effectively into die new culture. Other cultural factors to be considered are the: high level of ÷ + + VOLUME 26, .).967 409 ÷ ÷ ÷ l~dward O'Connor, C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS education of most people today (at least in Europe and America) compared to those of past centuries and. the resultant fact that few young people, in America at. least, are willing to embrace a life of manual or domestic labor. In trying to make the categories of Perfectae caritatis more specific, one should not overlook the priceless illumination which the constitution Gaudiurn et spes (The Church in the Modern World) sheds, on the char-acteristic traits of our times. Some of the features noted there which are particularly relevant to the religious life are: (1) the progressive socialization of human activities due to the growing interdependence of men, (2) the in-fluence of scientific studies and technological achieve-ments (especially in the field of communications) on the popular mentality, and (3) the increase of respon-sible participation, both in theory and in fact, by the members of a community in its common activities. The same constitution also points out some of the leading ideas of modern thought which the Church has to assess according to its own light. The dominant tone of the Council's assessments is one of generous approval (to such a degree that some Protestant commentators objected that it was neglecting its role of critic--an ob-jection that has not often been lodged against the mod-ern Churchl). Among the ideas which the Council sin-gles out, that of the dignity of man is central (nn. 12 ft.). Associated with it are the value of liberty (n. 17) and of interpersonal relationships (n. 23) and the inviolability of conscience (nn. 16 ff.). The latter includes the right to religious freedom expounded in the declaration sig-nificantly entitled Dignitatis humanae. These conditions and inspirations of modern culture affect the mentality of those who become religious as well as that of the world to which many of them are sent as apostles or to which, in any case, they must relate themselves. Religious communities are urged to foster among their members a "suitable awareness" of these conditions (PC 2 and 18). The Council clearly rejects the attitude which has at times had some currency that it is wrong for religious to have any thought whatsoever about the world they have left behind. Those who are sent to evangelize the world must know it. On the other hand, however, the Council does not recommend the indiscriminate seek-ing of knowledge and experience but only that which is "suitable." For not all knowledge of the world is useful for the apostolate. It would even be detrimental if the knowledge of the world were secured at the expense of that knowledge of God which it is the apostle's mission to bring to the world. There is a true sense in which the religious ought not to be concerned with the world he has left behind, and the Council says nothing to dis-credit this principle but rather confirms it. Contem-platives, devoted to a life of prayer and penance in an atmosphere of solitude and silence, are expressly en-joined to maintain "sacredly" their withdrawal from the world (PC 7). The same principle would apply in vary-ing degrees to all other religious also, although no specifications are given. In adapting to the conditions of modern times, com-munities need to reexamine the way they are governed and the official documents that fix the structure of their life: constitutions, directories, books of customs and ceremonies, of prayers, and so forth (PC 3). As to the mode of government, the Council adopted a view---one might almost say, a "mood"--that has been widely expressed in recent literature. Principles that Lumen gentium had previously applied to the hierarchy are here applied to religious superiors. Authority should be used in a spirit of service and charity with respect for both human personality and the dignity of divine sonship in those who are subject to it. This means that the views of the latter be listened to willingly and that they beencouraged to make a personal contribution to the welfare of the community and the Church through an obedience that is active and responsible.' But these recommendations have to do with the mode in which the superior exercises his office and do not imply any diminution of his authority to decide what is to be done and to require that his decisions be followed (PC 14). A list of recommended adaptations for community practice is given in Per[ectae caritatis: elimination of needless class divisions (n. 15), modification of the papal cloister of nuns (n. 16), simplification of the religious habit (n. 17), fuller education to prepare religious for their work and their life, hence also "the careful selection of competent educators and directors for them (n. 18), the federation of monasteries and communities which have a similar spirit or engage in similar work (n. 22), conferences among major superiors of different com-munities (n. 23), and so forth. All of these recommendations are familiar, and most of them have already been adopted by many of the com-munities for which they are relevant. Otherwise, the Council makes no specific recommendations but calls upon each community to determine for itself what adap-tations it needs. This is not due to pusillanimity but ¯ "Successful renewal and proper adaptation cannot be achieved unless every member of a community cooperates . In decisions which involve the future ol~ an institute as a whole, superiors should in an appropriate manner consult the members and ~ve them a hearing" (PC 4). + 4- 4- 4- 4- Edward O'Connor, C,$.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS to realism. "l-he adaptations needed cannot be deter: mined by the universal nature of religious comm_unities; they are a function of the peculiar aims, spirit, and cir-cumstances of each (PC 8). Furthermore, we have just seen that it is a cardinal principle of'the Council's whole philosophy-of renewal that all the members of a com-munity ought to have an active and responsible part in its deliberations; it is simply consistent .with that prin-ciple to leave to each community the responsibility for determining what changes it needs. Incidentally, it ought not to be overlooked that this very readiness to leave responsibility to the men in the ranks already represents a major adaptation to the democratic temper of modern culture (~ven while being at the same time a return to a more evangelical spirit). III Besides the sources of spiritual.ity common to the en~ tire Church, each community has a special inspiration of its own, which also is a source of vitality for 'it. The Council wants this, too, to be kept in full vigor: Loyal recognition and safekeeping should be accorded to the spirit of founders, as also to all the particular goals and wholesom, e traditions .which constitute the heritage of each commumty (PC 2). As a result, there is comiderable variation in the fo~ms of religious life, which the Church treasures as coming about from a divine plan and adding to her bea~uty as well as expediting her capacity for good works (PC 1). There was a time when the differences between the orders.were the cause of animosity~ and jealousy. That day is, thank God, largely past; it has been succeeded, however, by an age in which it is more and more difficult to discern the distinctive purpose °and spirit of any but a few of them. In America, especially, as the communities transplanted from Europe have been. severed~om their roots, they have tended to enter into the sa.me works-- schools, parishes, mission bands, journ.als~and to adopt the same spirit. Franciscans and Dominicans, J,esuit,s and Benedictines, if the.y dropped their habits and initials, would be scarcely distinguishable° f_rp~m one another. Without denying the good aspects bf,.this development, the Council nevertheless declares that "it serves the best interests of the Church for communities to have their own special character and purpose." As park of the religious renewal, it calls for "a continuot~s return to. the original inspiration behind a given institute." In practice, this,means that: Communities should faithfully malnt~in and fulfill their proper activities., and abandon whatever activities are, today less in keeping with the spirit of the community and its authentic character (PC 20). While espousing the interests of the whole Church, they must do so in a way that accords with their individual character (PC 2). This is no permit for an inertial perpetuation of the status quo. Continuous effort is required to keep in view the authentic inspiration of a community, and a selfless fidelity and generosity are necessary to make its activities conform to this standard. For example, a contemplative community may be obliged to renounce types of social service that distract too much.from its life of prayer, even though this service is needed by the Church and a source of support for the community. A missionary com-munity may have to give up parochial establishments which were once undertaken as missions but meanwhile l{ave become comfortable sources of revenue. A com-munity devoted to the poor may need to have second thoughts if in fact its schools and other works have be-come chiefly a service of the well-to-do. However, the right decision in such matters cannot always be settled simply by an appeal to the original constitution of the institute. The actual history and achievements of a community are factors that modify as well as manifest its character; divine providence is at work in the unexpected turns of its development as well as in the vision that inspired its founder. Who would advise the Jesuits to give up their schools and go back to the unique intention of working in the Holy Land? Furthermore, the human involvements, both of religious and of those to whom they minister, are so complex that to drop an unwanted work might sometimes do more harm than to continue with it. Thus fidelity to the spirit of the founder is neither an easy rule to apply nor a pretext for indifference. It is a difficult virtue, requiring vitality, discrimination, objectivity, and adaptability, not to mention patience and perseverance. Nevertheless, it is a condition sine qua non of au-thentic renewal. For a religious community is the work of God more than of man. Even though it has not the same sacred and unchangeable character that are attrib-uted to the Church, it is still the product of an inspira-tion of the Holy Spirit by whom the founder was im-bued with the vision not only to recognize a new need but also to await the moment and adopt the means prepared by God. He could not otherwise have fitted together a plan of life that would constitute an authen-tic school of Christian spirituality (see LG 43) in which souls could advance in identification with the one Christ while yet fulfilling the functions distinctive of this com-munity. ÷ ÷ ÷ ~llglous rite VOLUME 26, 1967 413 ÷ ÷ ÷ Edward. O'Connor, ,C.S;C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Not every~ religious receives the charism of a founde;'. Most are called to be formed by the Holy Spirit in the mold of a community alreadyestablished and to transmit the spirit of this community faithfully to others. But the fact that the Church has summoned us to make ad-justments in our traditional way of life can become for many a temptation to a kind of spiritual adven-turism. We need therefore to remember that the Church's summons does not give us the grace of a founder or qualify us to attempt a re-creation. The pur-pose of adaptations is to bring out more effectively the spirit of an existing community, not to lay the founda-tions of a new one. Finally, we must take note of the concept of the religious life which emerges from the documents of Vatican II. This is relevant both to the process of adapting to modern conditions and to that of returning to the sources. Wise adaptations have to be directed by an accurate awareness of the nature and purpose of a religious community: some of the reforms that are occa-sionally proposed today make one wonder what notion, of the religious life has inspired them. On the other hand, the spirit and practices of the religious life .are themselves important sources of spirituality. What the Council has to say about the nature of the religious life will be summarized here rather succinctly. Most of it will be familiar to religious acquainted with the traditional literature. However, it would be a mis-take to dismiss this doctrine as banal and common-place. The traditional teachings, distilled down to some of their finest elements, take on new authority .and holi-ness when they issue from the pondered judgment of the pastors of the Church assembled together as a college, This is no slight recommendation for a body' of princi-ples intended to govern a way of life. Even more, the statements of the Council testify to the substantial correctness of a doctrine which has been as-saulted by many challenges and questionings in recent years. The literature on the religious life, which used to be so conventional (and so dull), began to be quickened only a few years ago with a certain freshness and novelty as new interpretations and recommendations were pro-posed,: by authors drawing inspiration from modern psy-chology and philosophy as well as (or instead of)tra-ditional sources. The word aggiornamento ~uttered by Pope John and the open and inquiring attitude of the" Council did not engenddr this new trend but helped to ignite it into a conflagration that radically challenges almost every element of the traditional ideas of the religious life trom things as basic as poverty, chastity, and obedience to things as superficial as the daily ho-rarium; from externals such as the religious habit to the interior spirit of recollection and renunciation. Some of the new views undoubtedly represent a gen-uine contribution of modern culture to the religious life (though often only in the form of keys that enable the tradition to open doors into its own profound re-cesses and draw more deeply on. its authentic sources). In. other cases, however, the true meaning of the reli-gious life seems to have been lost sight of in some meas-ure by people whose main inspiration comes from mod-ern humanism or existentialism or personalism .rather than from that spirit which engendered the religious life in the first place and which must always be the mainspring of its vitality, however much it may be strengthened by other tributaries. And in some cases, the taste of experimentation and innovation seems to have excited an appetite to make drastic changes simply for the thrill of it. Against such a background, the teachings of Vatican II come as a discriminating and authoritative judgment upon th~ new theology of religious life. Tha~ the Council was aware of the new views and even assimilated some of them is manifest in the documents, as the points re-viewed above indicate. It could hardly have been other-wise 'when theologians such as l~ahner, Congar, Schille-beeckx, and others were involved in the Council as periti and consultants. When, therefore, the Council reiterates traditional teachings, even in the very document in which it calls for adaptation, its action is clearly not a perfunctory repetition of doctrines inherited {rom the past but a deliberate and meaningful affirmation of the enduring validity of things which may not be altered under the pretext of modernization. The fathers saw that for a deep and lasting renewal of the religious life as well as for an intelligent adaptation it is indispensable that the authentic meaning of this life be unambiguously grasped and its essential practices faithfully maintained. (1) What does Vatican II regard as the essence of the religious life? The documents generally avoid speaking in the form of definitions,5 preferring simply to point out those 'values which are of chief importance and furnish the religious life with its raison d'dtre. The dom-inant accent is Christocentric. The opening paragraph of Perfectae caritatis describes religious as men and women who strive "to follow Christ more freely and imitate Him more exactly," and thus "unite themselves 6LG 44 does, however,, declare that "the religious state is consti-tuted by the profession of the evangelical counsels." Religious Life VOLUME 26, 1967 415 Edward O'Ctmnor~ C~S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS to Christ 'through a self-surrender involving their entire lives," and who "devote themselves to the Lord in a special way." 6 Hence, in laying down principles for renewal, the decree begins with the following: Since the fundamental norm of the religious life is a follow-i, ng of Christ as proposed by the Gospel, such is to be regarded by all communities as their supreme law (PC 2a). The following of Christ consists in listening to His word and doing His work (PC 5). The imitation, on the other hand, is realized especially in the counsels: They imitate Christ the virgin and the poor man, who redeemed men by an obedience which carried Him even to death on the cross. (PC 1). Because of this likeness to Christ which ought to char-acterize their state, religious are Counted on by the Church to manifest Christ to the world: Through them Christ should be shown contemplating on the mountain, announcing God's kingdom to the multitude, heal-ing the sick and the maimed; turning sinners to wholesome fruit, blessing children, doing good to all, and always obeying the will of the Father who sent Him (LG 46).' (2) There is a widespread tendency in the new literao tur~ to explain the religious life chiefly in terms of service of neighbor as i{ God were attained only in-directly and implicitly. The Council squarely contradicts this view and repeatedly declares that the religious life is defined essentially by its relationship to .God. The ~elationship to men is important but secondary and consequent upon the theological reference. LG calls the religious life "a state consecrated to God" (n. 45) and describes those who embrace it as "totally dedicated to God . more intimately consecrated to di-vine worship," and as referred to His honor and service by a new and special title (.n. 44). PC declares expressly: The religious life is intended above all else to lead those who embrade it to an imitation of Christ and union with God (n. 2).8 It goes on to add (n. 6): Those who profess the evangelical counsels love and seek before all else that God who took the initiative in loving us; in every circumstance they aim to develop a life hidden with Christ in God. This prior dedication to the things of God is, to be sure, profitable to the Church even apart from any ac- ~ PC 2 and LG 44 speak ~n the same vein. ~ This idea is developed further in LG 42. s See also n. 1, which desdribes the religious life as one "dedicated to God." tive apostolate which the ~reiigious may undertake as the following statement declares; but it is not the motive of helping the Church but rather the intrinsic value of dedication to God which constitutes the primary motive for the religious life. The religious life, by giving its members greater freedom from earthly cares, manifests., the presence of heavenly goods al-ready here below, bears witness to the new and eternal life ac-quired by Christ's redemption, and foretells the coming resur-rection and the glory of the heavenly kingdom (LG. (3) On the other hand, however, dedication to God does not exempt religious from a practical concern for men, but rather "gives rise and urgency to the love of one's:~neighbor for the salvation of the world and the upbui!ding of the, Church" (PC 6). ThErefore, even while i's~eking.Go.d before all things and, only Him," religious should also seek to unite apostolic love with their con-templation (PC 5). Their interior life itself ought to be permeated with devotion to the welfare of the whole Church (LG 44). The conciliar documents are alive with a sense of apostolic urgency. "The missionary spirit is b~ all means to be,maintained in religious communities" declares PC 20. . Mgreover, in those communities dedicated specifically to the apostolic ministry or to works of mercy, these activities are not to he regarded as accidental to the religious life: . In such communities, the very nature of the religious life requires apostolic action and services, since a sacred ministry and a special work of charity have been consigned to them by the Church'~nd must be discharged in her name (PC 8). (4) Although the religious life ~as a meaning that is chiefly positive, it also has a negative side that is indis, pens~ible:, renunciation. The crucified character of this life h~is from the beginning given scandal and provoked 9 ;Fhe terms of this statement ought to be noted 9arefu~ly.It is often heard today that the religious is an eschatological witness, a sign for the faithful of the kingdom that is to come. The Council has not failed to take note of this'aspect of the life. But it puts ih first place ~he witnessing "to the presence of heavenly goods already here below.'; The divine life to which the religious witnesses is not merely a future one that has been promised, bu~ a present one that is given already by grace. Religious are not thos~ who live in a spiritual "desert, buoyed up solel~ by the expectation of the Prom-ised Land; ,they are supported already by a "hidden manna," and have already present within themselves the source and wellspring of life. It is true that all Christians living the life of grace possess this same uncreated Source; but it is the special Vocation and mis-sion of religious to manifest its presence and reality by the joy and peace of their lives amid renunciations wl~ich would otherwise be depressing. The apostolic value and obligations of the religious "life is still furthe'r develoi~ed in the Decree on the Missions, nn. 18 and 40. + + + Religious Lite VOLUME 26, 1967 417 ÷ ÷ Edward O'Conno~ C.S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ,t18 attack, and a certain modern humanism tries by every possible means to eliminate it, for example, by reinter-. preting renunciation to mean simply the rejection of sin, without any positive mortification. This view is firmly rejected by the Council as it declares: The members of each community should recall above every. thing else that by their profession of the evangelical counsels they have given answer to a divine call to live for God alone, not only by dying to sin (see Rom 6:11) but also by renouncing the world . Therefore in fidelity to their profession and ~n renunciation of all things for the sake of Christ (see Mk 10:28), let religious follow Him (see Mt 19:21) as their one necessity (see Lk 10:42) (PC 5). There is no contradiction between the stand taken here and the positive, appreciative and friendly attitude towards the world expressed in the constitution Gau. dium et spes. The Council is simply recognizing the validity of the traditional distinction between the re-. ligious and secular orders. The world is good in itself; that is why there can be good secular Christians, as LG shows in devoting a full chapter to "the universal call to holinesS." But the religious is called to renounce the world in witness to a good that transcends it. Likewise, the Council recognizes and even insists on the need of a Christian renewal of the secular or temporal order. But. this renewal is the proper responsibility of seculars, not of religious. "The laity must take on the renewal of the temporal order as their own special obligation," declares the Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity (n. 7).1° The specific attention given to the role of the laymen in the Church is one of the distinctive features of the Council. LG devoted a full chapter to the subject, while the Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity spelled out. its practical implications. One of the dominant notes of. the Council's teaching was an affirmation of the laity's genuine responsibility for the work of the Church with. the strong recommendation that in those things thai: belong to their competence this responsibility be re. spected. This doctrine is not without significance for the religious state. Since the Middle Ages, the religious and clergy have tended to preempt the role of judgment and decision in the Church. This came about by necessity for want of a sufficiently educated laity. It was also a defensive reaction against a series of unorthodox tendencies of lay origin. But however just and under. standable the cause, the result was the involvement of both clergy and religious in business that was naturally alien to their state. For the past fifty years or more, there has been a growing consciousness of the need to rectify 1o Note that laity, ~s the term is used in this document, denote.~ seculars. this condition. The documents of Vatican II represent a decisive step by the Church in eschewing the excessive clericalism and "religiosity" (if the term may so be used) of past centuries. The purpose of this step is to restore to the laity a more vigorous and healthy function in the Church, but it should also have the important side effect of making it easier for priests and religious to be more simply and authentically priests and religious. (5) The fundamental renunciations of the religious state consist in the evangelical counsels of poverty, chas-tity, and obedience. Not that the primary meaning of these counsels is the negative one of renunciation, but that a renunciation constitutes the material basis of each. In the name of modern psychology, all three counsels, but especially chastity and obedience, are under attack as impeding the maturation and fulfillment of the per-sonality. The Council replies that the very opposite is the case; the counsels make a positive and precious con-tribution to the humane development of the individual person: The profession of the evangelical counsels, though entail-ing the renunciation of certain values which undoubtedly merit high esteem, does not detract from a genuine development of the human person. Rather by its very nature it is most benefi-cial to that development. For the counsels, voluntarily under-taken according to each one's personal vocation, contribute greatly to purification of heart and spiritual liberty. They continually enkindle the fervor of charity (LG 46). (6) Vatican II was not content with a blanket en-dorsement of the counsels as "fostering the holiness of the Church in a special way" (LG 42) but touched deftly and luminously on the special contribution made by each. Both LG and PC give primary attention to virgin-ity and celibacy as more representative of the religious life than either poverty or obedience. This corresponds both to the common sense instinct of the Christian peo-ple at large and to the actual history of the religious life in the Church which began with consecrated vir-ginity and was supplemented subsequently by the other two counsels. Moreover, all Christians must imitate and witness to the self-emptying of the poor and obedient Christ, but celibacy is "a precious gift of divine grace to some" (LG 42). In declaring the value of religious celibacy, the Coun-cil scarcely alludes to the practical advantages often played up by modern writers who see the vow as freeing a man or woman from the cares of a particular family in order to devote himself or herself to the People of God at large. This value is not denied; but the Council stresses rather the properly religious value already pointed out by St. Paul that celibacy frees a person "to ÷ Religious Li]e VOLUME 26, 1967 419 + + 4, Edward O'Connor, C,S.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 420 devote his ,.entire self to God with ~undivided heart" (LG 42). It is both a sign and a stimulus of charity, "causing the human heart to burn with greater love for God and men" (PC 12)~ The notion that the Christian virgin is an eschatological witness, while not specifically mentioned by the Council, is cerk~inl~ implicit in °its general commendation of the religious state, which we have seen. Finally, the consecrated virgin is, in a unique' way, a witness to the marriage of Christ and the Church (PC 12), a living sign of the Church's vocation as Bride of Christ. '~ ~ ' (7) Poverty is (unlil(e chastity and obedience) a forrfi of witness especially esteemed by the modern world (PC 13). This gives it a kind of strategic importance in an age in which it is so difficult for the religious life to win appreciation. In a very practical vein, the Cotincil byP othinet sm oeuret tfhaactt tthhea tp ar ascutpiceeri oofr ,sp poevremrtiys siiso nno hta ssa bties.f~iend obtained for the use of material goods. The religiou~ must be poor in fact as well as in spirit, and communities must practice corporate as well as individual poverty. And while repeating the fundamental biblical admon.~- tion to trust in the heavenly Father and to put aside undue concern for material provisions, the Council also recognizes that some of the traditional expressions 'of religious poverty may need to be replaced by more sui~:~ able ones today (PC 13). (8) On the religious meaning of obedience, the Coun-cil is emphatic in its recourse to traditional lahguage to describe the directly theological values involved~ Religious obedience is a "renunciation of 6ne's will," (LG 42) and a total dedication to God whereby one's own self is offered in ~acrifice (PC 14). By sub-mitring to superiors as God's representatives and by being guided by,them in the service of others, one als6 unites himself more firmly to the savin~ will of God and puts his ~ictivity more securel); under the inspirati.on 'of the Holy Spirit (PC 14). In this way religious obedience makes a man a firmer and surer instrument of Cod'in all his undertakings; and only in the measure that hei.~ so can his apostolic activity be effective; Finally, religioui~ obedience commits a man more firmly to die ministry of the Church (PC 14). I~LG 42 gives the following ca~efuliy 'construct~ed deflnidon~of the obedience of religious: "In order to be more ~ully conformed to the obedient Christ, they submtt themselves to men .for the sake of: God in the matter of perfection~ be~orid what is required by pre-cept." Monsignor Gallagher's translatioh~ in The, Documents Vatican H is, in my judgm.ent, quite erroneous. The original., text reads: "illi sdlicet sese h0mini propter Deum in re perfectionis 'ultra mensu~am praecepti subiciunt, ut Christo 0boedienti sese., plenitF~ con formen t Y Thus, the Council sees religious obedience as having the twofold value (1) of sacrifice by which God is directly glorified and (2) of apostolic fruitfulness, by making the would-be apostle the instrument of the interior move-ment of the Holy Spirit and of the external and sacra-mental movement of the Church's ministry. This super-natural vision of the value of obedience has no room for the minimizing tendencies of a closed humanism which looks upon obedience merely as a source of guid-ance for the immature and a means of order in the organization. The Council is, however, ,attentive to .the anxieties of those who fear that a regime of obedience will hamper the development of personal maturity. To avert such a danger, it recommends, not that obedience be diminished in any way, but rather that it be made more personal and radical: Let [religiousi bring to the execution of commands and to the discharge of assignments entrusted to them the resources of their minds and wills, their gifts of nature and grace. Religious obedi-ence lived in this manner will not diminish the dignity of the human person but will rather lead it to maturity, in consequence of that enlarged freedom which belongs to the children of God (PC 14). Obedience does indeed degrade the person when it is merely a passive submission, and still more when it is an unwilling compliance submitted to only reluctantly and under compulsion. But free and spontaneous conformity to the decisions of a competent authority is a genuinely personal and ennobling act, even (and perhaps espe-cially) when disagreement with the judgment of au-thority turns conformity into a crucifying purification of self-will. (9) Finally, the Council makes it clear that religious life is not just a way chosen by men in which to serve God and neighbor on the same plane with any secular profession. It is in the proper sense a vocation; that is, a response to a personal call from God which is not given to everyone: The members of each community should recall above every-thing else that by their profession of the evangelical counsels they have given answer to a divine call (PC 5; see also n.1). Let each one who has been called to profess the counsels take care to remain in the vocation to which he has been called by God (LG 47). Consequently, the religious life is not primarily man's enterprise or man's achievement, but his response in love and fidelity to the personal and loving invitation of the Lord to follow Him in a privileged way. Hence, it is also a special gift of grace. "The evangelical counsels are a divine gift from the Lord to His Church," above all in the case of chastity, "a precious gift of divine grace, ÷ ÷ Religious Lile VOLUME 26, 1967 421 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS which the Father has given to certain ones (see Mt 19:11, 1 Cor 7:7)" (LG 42). Some modern writers, concerned with defending the freedom with which religious profession is made, have tended to:minimize or even deny, in effect, the reality of the special, call from God which this "vocation" origi-nates. The Council is quite sensitive to the exigencies of human, liberty, as we have. already seen; but it will not concede that the freedom of God in "calling whom He wills" 12 detracts from the freedom of man. Rather, the very idea of a call presupposes freedom in the one who is to respond,la (10) In attempting to represent the distinctive holiness of the religious state corresponding to the divine call on which it. is based, popular expositions sometimes give the impression that only religious are seeking perfection whereas seculars are content merely to save their souls. Vatican II energetically opposes such a view by insisting over and over that "all the faithful of Christ, of what-ever rank or status, are called to the fullness of the Christian life" '(LG.40).x4 This emphasis has led some readers to suppose that the Council intended to revoke the long-standing teaching of the Church that the reli-gious life is .in itself a holier state and more conducive to union with God than secular life.x5 Close reading of the documents, however, makes it clear that Vatican II's emphasis on the real holiness accessible in the secular life is not meant as a denial of the special holiness att~cl~ing to religious profession. The latter is presented as a real consecration of the person to the service of God which provides genuine and powerful helps to union with God and as a way of life that manifests with special clarity even that holines~ common to the entire People of God. In addition to the ~See Mk 3:13. This text is not cited by the Constitution but per-tains simply to my commentary. ~ Thus, even though it is God who first calls a man to make p~o- [ession of the counsels, poverty is said to have been embraced by the free choice of the children of God (LG 42). Moreover, as has already been noted, LG teaches that the effect of the counsels' is to enhance inan's interior liberty. l~This' doctrine is developed throughout chapters 5 ("The Laity') and° 6 ("The Universal Call to Holiness") of Lumen gentium as well as in the decree on the apostolate of the laity (Apostolicam actuositatem, where note especially n. 4). ~ Such a doctrine had been defended by the Council of Trent, for example, when it anathematized those who deny that "it is better and more blessed to observe virginity or celibacy than to contract marriage" (Session 24, can. 11; DS 1810). It should go with-out saying that this comparison of states is not a comparison of per-sons. One who is called to a holier state of life is not for that reason clmer to God than someone else in a lower state; and for each per-son the best and holiest flay of life is that to which God calls him, which may not be in itself the highest. texts already, cited above, the following may be noted." The religious life is one "of surpassing value" (PC 1), "fosters the perfection of charity in a unique way" (LG 45). It can be characterized appropriately as "the pursuit of perfect charity through the :exercise of the evangelical counsels" (PC 1) which enable a person to "follow Christ more freely and imitate Him more closely" (PC, 1 and also LG 44). Hence, the holiness of the Church is "fostered in a special way by the observ-ance of the counsels" (LG 42) and "appears in an espe-cially appropriate way" in them (LG 39). As a conse-quence, the religious state "more adequately manifests the presence of heavenly goods here below," foretells the resurrected state, and shows to all the world the power of Christ and His Spirit (LG 44). These teachings do not give religious, grounds for self-esteem and complacency; to take them in that sense would be to ignore the spirit of humility, charity, service and dedication which pervades the Council statements. But they come as a needed tonic in an era of vocation shortage and crises. For given the ditficult renunciations entailed by the religious life, how can anyone be ex-pected to embrace it if other easier and more human ways of life are equally ,good? And how can anyone tempted to discouragement over his vocation be ex-pected to persevere without a strong conviction of the excellence of that to which his life is dedicated? In summary, the renewal envisaged by Vatican II in-volves two simultaneous processes: adaptation to new circumstances and recovery of that which is perennial. It would hardly be just to say that adaptation has to do only with external and superficial aspects of the reli-gious life, since it is to be based on a generous apprecia-tion and assimilation of the qualities of the modern spirit and can even lead to modification in the manner of government of the community. Nevertheless, the Council" clearly .teaches that the es-sential purpose, spirit, and methods of the religious life must remain unaltered; and it insists that the chief proc-ess of renewal will be a return to those sources from which the religious life always has and always will'.draw its vitality. These ar~ of three types: those common to all Christians (~hich~ are the most important of all), those characteristic of the religious life, and finally the dis-tinctive spirit and end of each community. It is to these that religious.must look for the grace to become ir~ fullest fact what they .hlready profess to be. In the religious and Christianlife,. renewal cishsists less in inventing some-thii~ g new than in .becoming something very VOLUME 26, 1967 423 J. M. R. TILLARD, A Point O.P. of Departure J. M. R. Tillard, O,P., is a faculty member of the Do-minican College of Theology; 96 Em-press Avenue; Ot-tawa 4, Canada. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS The conciliar decree on the adaptation and renewal of religious life does not seem Iikely to go down in history as one of the great documents of the Council. It will be judged with a degree of severity; and it will be charac-terized as being somewhat routine and uninspired. If it is compared with the texts on ecumenism, on the apostol-ate of the laity, or on the missions, it is soon seen that th~ authors of the decree did not succeed in deeply penetrat-ing into the implications of the dogmatic constitution, Lumen gentium, which is the doctrinal charter of the Council, nor in drawing from it a strongly structt.~red synthesis of the exigencies ,demanded by the present status of the world's salvation from all forms of the re-' ligious life. There was too much readiness to graft the new perspectives onto the old stock---one that has been deeply enrooted for several centuries. This lack of profundity seems to us to be a serious matter. For religious life is not situated on the periphery of the mystery of the Church but at its heart's center. Hence, it is above all in religious life that there should appear the work of renewal that has been accomplished ¯ by the Spirit of God for the total fidelity of the Church to the salvific plan of the Father. At the heart of the People of God religious should become--and precisely by reason of their vocation--a sort of visible signboard on which the~'e can be clearly read the appeals and in-spirations of Him who d'irects all things to the achieve-ment of the paschal work of Jesus. History shows us how in the course of the centuries the great impulses that have stirred up the life of the Church have most often sprung forth from religious communities: missionary en-thusiasm contributed by the monks and then in modern times by communities of men and women founded speci-ally for this purpose; the movement of conversion to evangelical simplicity initiated in the Middle Ages by the mendicant orders and in our own day by fraternities of the type of the Little Brothers and the Little Sisters of Jesus; the apostolate of the milieux of the poor and the evangelization of the working class or of the rural areas stemming from undertakings such as those of Vin-cent de Paul, of P~re Anizan, and of Jeanne Jugan. This overview shows that the institution of religious life has as its vocation to be a privileged instrument of the Spirit for the perpetual renewal of the People of God. While the hierarchy possesses a charism of pastoral leadership chiefly directed to giving the faithful the essential gifts of life in the kingdom (the word and the Eucharist), the religious institution in its multiple forms seems on the other hand to be destined to welcome and to fructify to the highest degree possible all the different charisms be-stowed on the Church in view of. its constant conversion to the fullness of the gospel. This is the reason why all reform of any depth in the Church should base itself on a renewal both of the pastoral element and of the re-ligious ~ life. P(~$ITIVE ELEMENTS When one finishes reading the few pages that contain the twenty-five numbers of the Decree on Religious Life, it is difficult to keep back a certain feeling of disappoint-ment. Does it really go to the heart of the matter, placing religious life in confrontati~)n not with an abstract Church but with the exigencies of the present status, of the divine plan of salvation? Has religious life been genuinely rethought in a basic way in order to bring it into full harmony with the call of the Spirit in the 'world of today as it actually is? Of what value are the numerous practical counsels which are given in the document and which seem"to be overimpregnated with a kind of men-tality that is still juridical? Is there not at times a tend-ency to be contented with minutiae when from all sides is heard the cry of human beings who are thirsty for sal-vation? The mighty wind of Pentecost which blows through the other texts of the Council has not sufficiently penetrated the lines of this decree. Once this has been ackno,~,ledged and admitted~ how-ever, there must not be any lapse into a pessimism that would relegate this text to the limbo of those ecclesial de-crees destined to remain dead letters by reason of their inadaptation. As it stands with all its considerable limita-tions, the decree still contains essential elements that can enable the different religious families to gradually enter upon an authentic movement of renewal. It even seems to us that the decree, in spite of its limitations, can inspire all religious communities to a large-scale examination of conscience--and this is the necessary prelude to conver-sion. For the degree is presented as an official invitation --often categorical in its expression (see, for example, nn. 3, 18)--that the Council directs to religiohs to refuse to be smugly satisfied but to apply themselves as speedily, ÷ ÷ ÷ Point o] Departure VOLUME 26, 1967 425 + ÷ ÷ ~. M. R. Tillard, O.P. REVIEW F.OR RELIGIOUS 426 as possible to a reform of everything that concerns their life of community as such. To be sure--and this is a matter of regret--it gives only the initial call to this, the perspectives which it opens with regard to this difficult task being lacking in a certain degree of profundity. But it has made the call, and this is what is important. It is true that movements of renewal have appeared here and there in religious life. But they have been chiefly expressed by the appearance of new communities that wish to be fully adapted to the actual circumstances of our times. Outside of rare exceptions, the older congrega-tions have not renewed themselves in depth in order t6 respond better to the concrete needs of the.present time but have continued blissfnlly on their way with their constitutions (often dating from their founder or found-tess), their customs books, their manuals of prayer--all of which have been adorned by the weight of time with an aureole of holy veneration. Hence, there exists a pro-liferation of orders, congregations, and institutes whose numbers are perhaps better explained by a lack of sup-pleness in the older communities in face of the need for a real "conversion" rather than~ by a multiplicity of char-isms. Every reform is made almost exclusively by refer; ence to the primitive rule without sufficient account be-ing taken of the calls that God daily directs to His Church by the events and stirrings of human history. It is for-gotten that the People of God lives its mystery in time, that its members are shaped from within by their social context. Moreover, up until the last years, the advice and coun-sel of the hierarchy as well as the exhortations of preachers and spiritual writers have invariably been di-rected to the personal renewal of each religious. He was asked to seek his sanctification with ardor; one or other method of the interior life was proposed to him. First consideration was not given to the community as such in its entirety, in its profound mystery as a cell of the Church called by the Lord to giv.e the world a common witness of evangelical life. For it was not yet realistically grasped that if the Church is essentially communion of life of all the faithful with the Father and ~mong them, selves in Christ Jesus and that if religious life is inscribed in the heart of this mystery of communion, then religious life must first of all be considered in° its dimension as community, as brotherly communion. The quest for p~rsonal perfection (and this is essential for all religious life) can be situated only in a climate of quest for ec-clesial perfection. The great innovation of the decree on religiou~ life is its insistence on the renewal and adaptation of corn-' munities as such. Even though the section explicitly, con- cerned with common life (n. 15) does not sufficiently express the specific quality of religious-common-life (what is said applies indifferently to every cell of the Church), still the text is penetrated throughout by the intention of promoting first of all the renewal of communities as communities in the light of the renovation of the Church which the Council desired. This is why with its authority as a conciliar document it requires "a reconsideration of the way .of governing religious institutes. Therefore, constitutions, directories, books of customs, of prayers, and of ceremonies, and similar documents should be suitably revised and adapted to the decrees of this Coun-cil, obsolete prescriptions being removed" (n~ 3). This way of speaking seems to us to have important implica-tions. It does not demand merely a simple dusting off of institutions, nor is it satisfied with the removal of certain customs that are outmoded. Rather, it demands that everything be revised in the spirit of the Council itself: this is what has priority. Henceforth, general chapters must orientate themselves towards the Council before occupying themselves with the specific problems of their order or congregation. Conversion to the Gospel But the decree goes further. It makes appear---quietly and at times somewhat disappointingly--the great princi-ple which should serve as the basis for the renewal of religious life. First of all, there must be conversion to the gospel itself (n. 2) which is "the supreme rule for all institutes." This statement needs to be well understood. It does not mean simply that everything (the constitu. tions, customs, and so forth) must be judged in the light of the gospel and that nothing should be retained unless it is found to be conformed to the thought of the Lord. Its principal meaning is that everything ought to be established and structured beginning from the gospel. The nuance here is very important. The gospel is the first and fundamental rule. All the rest, even the constitu-tions, have as their purpose and raison d'etre the applica-tion of the content of the gospel to the special .mode of life demanded by the specific purpose of the community. The constitutions do not add ~to the gospel, they are not alongside the gospel; they are only its commentary for the concrete situation of the institute. Whether a person is a Jesuit, a Carmelite, a Dominican, a Sister of Charity, or a Christian Brother, there is fundamentally the same rule, the gospel. It is necessary that this should become more perceptible; especially in the formation of novices where the study of Scripture should take precedence-- qualitatively and quantitatively--over that of particular rules. The conciliar decree demands in the name of the 4. 4. 4. Point ot Departure VOLUME 26, 1967 + + ]. M. R. Tillard, O.P~ REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Church that henceforth beginning be made from the gospel in establishing the norms regulating the. life of all communities .Jof all types, including "their way of governing" (n. 3). It must not be thought that this applies solely to congregations that will be founded in the future. All institutes without exception must enter into the move-; ment of profound renewal thatthe Spirit Himself is initiating today in the Church. All, therefore, must turn to the gospel as their supreme rule. Conversion to the Eccl~sial Dimension of Religious Life The foregoing leads to a secohd principle of renewal that is equally present in the decree though it is affirmed in an even less clear way: Religious communities must be ~onverted to the ecclesial dimension of their mystery. This statement must not be interpreted only'in the sense that religious should strive to put themselves more gen-erously and completely at the service of the Church (see nn. 5, 6,. 14)or that they should ende~ivor to share the. Church's outlook (n. 2). That this should be done goes without saying, and for many religious families it will demand a radical change in their methods. When the text is read, the impression is left that the relationship of religious to the Church is situated solely on this .level of service: religious institutes represent a considerable grouping of apostolic energies which should not refuse to let themselves be "utilized"; and anxiety is felt lest there be a.certain deflection of these energies to the profit of overly particularized interests. This danger certainly exists; and at times communities yield to the temptation to close, in upon themselves--a situation that quickly turns into a c0unterwitness to the g6spel. Nevertheless, let us note on the other hand that the hierarchical au-thbrity does not always endeavor to integrate religious in a vital way into past6ral 'effort, too often considering them as being apart. From all this arises a tension which should be resolved at any¯ cost. But the problem of the conversion of religious to the ecclesial dimension of their life is situated on a completely different level, that of sign. The decree makes an allusion to this in its inspiring presentation of the three tradi-tional vows. The religious does not make his profession of obedience, poverty, and chastity for the sole purpose of thereby finding his personal perfection nor simply to make himself more available for the needs of the Church. By his vows and the life which they encompass he seeks to express, to signify, to mal~e more strikingly perceptible to the world, to reveal the inmost nature of the very mystery of the Church. Within the' entir"e People of God the religious community thus represents the p~ivileged place where the Church expresses to herself her deepest being. Religious life is like a living preannouncement of that to which the pilgrim Church is slowly marching. It is from this that there is derived the supreme value of contemplative orders of which the decree speaks one-sidedly when it seeks to justify them on the plane of "service" whereas they are completely orientated to the perfection of "sign." By chastity, for example, the com-munity announces and in a certain way mysteriously actualizes the union of Christ Jesus and His Church. By its poverty, the community proclaims the absoluteness of God, that the possession of the love of the Father is for the Church the one thing necessary. By its obedience, it evokes and actualizes the profound communion between the will of Christ and that of the Father, a communion that is prolonged in actuality in the Church, "the servant of God." Finally, by the law of fraternal charity which bonds together all the members and does so in a zealous quest for perfection, the community as such reveals what the Church seeks to become: the total communion of all those whom Christ has made to pass over in the act of fraternal love of His Pasch. Hence, to say that all re-ligious families should be converted to the dcclesial di-mension of their life is to affirm that they should seek to become in the presence of the world a living and true sign of the mystery of the Church and consequently a con-crete sign of what the gospel seeks to produce in the hearts of men. Therefore, 'the religious community is fundamentally and by its very being apostolic and .missionary. It is use-less, then, to get lost in a maze of many details. It is regrettable that when it sets forth the general principles of renewal, the decree neglects this perspective and limits itself to the level of "ecclesial service" and that even this it places after the return to the spirit of the founder; for what the founder desired could have no sense except as situated in the light of the Church. It is by reason of this inattention to the importance of "ecclesial sign" that the directives of the decree possess a somewhat moralizing perspective lacking in theologal inspiration. A single example will clarify this: in place of saying that participa-tion m the Eucharist immerses the religiot,s daily in the very Source that builds up the Church, the text (n. 6) limits itself to the statement that he thereby sustains his spiritual life. The constitution, Lumen gentiurn, and the constitution on the liturgy were less shortsighted in their presentation. Conversion to Attention to the World Another principle of renewal, often and constantly invoked by the decree, is that of a conversion to attention ÷ ÷ Point o] Departure VOLUME 26, 1967 429 ÷ ]. M. R. Tillard, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS to ,the world. The Church of God, in whose heart is found religious life, does not float about over and beyond the world; on the contrary it plunges i~s roots into the very flesh of humanity. For it is a Church of concrete human beings, and it has been sent by the Father to welcome and save all men and everything that is in man. Now man is not simply soul and body; he is also the intersection point of any number of lines of relationship that link him with his surroundings, his milieu, the past of his race: he is essentially social. In a mysterious way he carries in him-self the world in which he lives--the world which daily shapes him and which in turn he fashions by his labor and his thought. It is all this that th~ gospel redeems and divinizes. Hence, the Church cannot compel Christians to deny or ignore this belonging to the world; it is the con-trary that is true. Somewhat as the Son, of God has fully assumed the conditions of His humanity (even death), of His race, of His epoch, of His geographical context-- otherwise He would not be entirely human--so the Church of God little by little assumes everything human that it encounters on its journey from Pentecost to the Parousia. It is in .this way, moreover, that it truly realizes the mystery of its catholicity. For it is not catholic simply because it ought to extend to all nations and to all pe-riods of history. It is catholic above all because it ought to bring into Christ all human values, all the needs of men, all their efforts, all their sufferings and joys. Strictly speaking, the Church does not adapt herself to history: she assumes it. All the many variations and reforms that the course of the centuries imposes on it are positive acts by which it discards what is humanly finished with in order to welcome and "Christify" the new flowering of the human. Hence, they are essentially acts of its cath-olicity; they are not measures of opportunism--the yield-ing to this would spite the very nature of the Church. Religious life as the living heart of the Church can clearly not remain a stranger to this mystery of the pro-gressive entry of the Church of God into the weft and woof of humanity. As is said nowadays (the expression is .displeasing to us), it too must "adapt itself." A com-munity that refuses to adapt itself sins against catholicity and thereby disfigures the appearance of the Church. The decree is inclined to see this adaptation solely from the angle of apostolic productiveness: "in order that the institutes be able to bring men more effective help" (n. 2); "in order that those dedicated to the active apostolate be not unequal to their work" (n. 18). At times it. even gives the impression of simply seeking to make religious life more conformed "to the actual physical and psychical conditions of the religious., to social and economic circumstances" (n. 3). All of this is important and even radically necessary; it is necessary to open the windows wide and to air out our communities that are still so stiffly bound up in outmoded forms which n9 .longer. fit in with the actual state of health and the attrition of nerves that the agitated life of today tends to cause every-where. Religious life is not to be taken as an enterprise for the destruction of bodies and of intelligences: it is an institution of the mercy of God. But to see adaptation only in these perspectives of the practical order seems in-sufficient to us. Adaptation is above all-a duty of catholicity: If religious life has the function of signify-ing the true appearance of the Church and of showing forth the ideal to which all the baptized tend, then it should feel gravely bound to. this duty. To refuse this duty, or to carry it out without enthusiasm would be to sin against the Church. Conversion to Respect for Persons But perhaps the newest point made by the decree, one that is pregnant with hope for the future, is its emphasis on the necessity of communities experiencing a con-version to respect for the dignity of persons. When the decree asks who is responsible for the realization of re-newal, it answers (n. 4): "In matters that are of interest to the entire institute, superior should in a suitable way consult their subjects and listen tO their opinion." When treating of obedience, it says: "Docile to the will of God in carrying out their charge, superiors should exercise authority in a spirit of service to their brothers in order to express the charity which the Lord has for them. They should govern their subjects by regarding them :as sons of God by respecting them as human persons in order to lead them to a voluntary submission . They should in-spire their subjects to cooperate in the accomplishment of their tasks and the acceptance of projects by an active and responsible obedience. Hence, they should willingly lis-ten to them and encourage their common effort for the good of the institute and the Church, keeping intact, however, their right to decide and prescribe what is to be done . Chapters and councils should faithfully fulfill the mission confided to them; each in its own manner should express the participation and concern of all the subjects with regard to the welfare of the entire com-munity" (n. 14). Since the Church is a communion of wills and lives in the will and life of the Father and since the religious community is in the Church as a cell in ardent quest for perfection, it becomes evident that theexistence of the community should take place completely within a cli-mate of real communion. In a hierarchical society the word, "communion," suggests in fact a double movement, + + Point ot Departure VOLUME 26, 1967 43! 4. 4. 4. 1. M. R. Tillard~ O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS one going from the members to the head, the other from the head to the members. Communion is never unilateral. It must be admitted that until these recent years the tendency has been to recognize in religious life only one of these relations and to refuse to ordinary religious a real right to participate actively in the conduct of the life of the institute. From this came serious defects and a certain note of autocratism discernible above all in com-munities of brothers and of religious women. In fact, however, obedience, that pivot of the religious institu-tion, cannot be fully comprehended except in the light of the Christian mystery of communion. The superior is not placed at the head of the community for the primary purpose of giving orders and of imposing submission to his personal views. On the contrary he is chosen to serve as a "sacrament," as intermediary between the will of the Lord and the concrete community he is charged to direct. His vocation is suspended between two services: that of the Lord and that of his brothers. For each religious has a precise call from God which normally ought to be ac-tualized for the benefit of the gospel. He has joined him-self to other Christians under a given rule precisely in order to find the means of not leaving this vocation under a bushel. The superior is there to permit this call to blos-som forth in all fullness. His is an entirely evangelical charge. Through the decisions he makes and the orders he gives there should be transmitted not his own arbitrary personal decision but the will of the Lord impelling the religious to a generous response. He is to be the instru-ment of a more perfect communion between God and the baptized person whom He calls. Hence and in the x~ery name of obedience, the superior has the imperative duty of taking scrupulous account of each person in his community and of his talents and charisms. He cannot yield to the temptation (this is easy and, let us admit, frequent) of himself framing the ideal of the religious--a standard to which all must conform at whatever cost. Neither can he consider his community merely from a juridical and abstract angle, taking no account of the concrete human beings who compose it just as they are. His first concern must be the divine plan imprinted on each religious, the realization of which he should permit. This requires him to see even the n~itural talents of all his brothers as a primary gift of God. Here we are touching on a delicate problem for which it does not seem that accord will soon be realized but which nevertheless seems to us to be essential. A purely ascetical conception of religious life--a view that still prevails al-most everywhere--does not fear to talk about a renuncia-tion of natural talents considered as often being a source of self-love and an obstacle to a total gift of the will: "It is necessary to die to one's whole self." A more ecclesial view--the essential themes of which are assumed by the decree--reasons in an entirely different way. Instead of first looking at man, it first looks at God. In the divine plan nature is ordered to grace. In spite of sin nature still preserves its deep-seated quality of being a gift of love from the Father. Accordingly, its values must be welcomed with respect and immersed in the purificatory mystery of the cross in order to be drawn out again-not destroyed but divinized and exalted. A religious life built on this conviction realizes to the full its vocation as a total sign of the agapd of God--aia. agap~ already actu-alized in the creative work of the Lord Jesus and brought through the Pasch to its unexpected and disconcerting peak. Are not creation and Pasch united in the person of Him by whom and for whom all has been made, Jesus, Lord of the universe and Head of the Church (Col 1:13- 20)? As the decree vigorously points out, to respect per-sons does not simply mean to keep from hurting them, from tyrannizing them, from considering them as slaves; it means above all that in dialog with them it is necessary to discern their particular gifts, their personal charisms, and finally to render them a hundredfold. In this way the religious community truly becomes the image of the kingdom. The same thing holds on the level of the major deci-sions which regulate the life of the institute. Each reli-gious, even the least, carries within him the vocation of the institute. Daily he actualizes his ideal of it in the very concrete conditions in which his apostolic action is immersed. He pertains to the community just as much as the superior; and the life of the community depends on him just as much as it does on the superior, though in a different way. Accordingly,. in the name of the common good of the entirety and for the sake of a greater faith-fulness of all to the gospel, he has the right to be heard when there is a question of reform and adaptation. This is all the more so since ordinarily superiors by the very force of their situation are led to judge everything from the angle of authority with its specific problems--often de~ply engrossing in nature. To refuse a religious the right to express himself, to give his opinion, to explain his. point of view comes to sinning against the institute itself, against its correspondence to the divine plan. The superior is bound in conscience to reflect on the opinion of his subjects, to take account of it as a word that God addresses to him from his brothers. An autocratic con-ception of obedience sees in this an attack on the very virtue of submission, on the humility of the religious, and a danger that risks undermining authority. An ecclesial conception of obedience, attentive above all to faithful-÷ + ÷ Point o] Departure VOLUME 26, 1957 + ÷ ÷ 1. M. R. Tillard, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ness to the institute of its vocation, sees it on the con-trary as a powerful support. By the communion of the superior and the entire community the structure of the Church is seen more clearly in one of its cells, the plan of the Father is better served, the gospel radiates out its influence. Conversion to Encounter with God in Apostolic Action A final aspect of the decree should be emphasized even though it is touched upon only in a single number (n. 8). The Council asks members of so-called active institutes to convert themselves to a close union between their apostolic activity and their quest for perfection .so that "their entire religious life may be imbued with an apos-tolic spirit and. all their apostolic action impregnated with a religious spirit." On this point a kind of tension and uneasiness exists at the present time. The spirituality given to men and women religious of the active life does not seem adapted to the exigencies of the apostolic life. There has been preserved and transmitted a type of spirituality, of prayer, of common life--the heritage 6f the monastic tradition-- without making sufficient effort at an authentic transpo-sition. From this there results for many a break between the "religious exercises" destined to promote °a living union with God and concrete activity which often ap-pears as the simple radiation of this previously realized union. Hence there are two phases: a phase of contempla-tion characterized as a phase of unitive life with the Lord and a phase of action characterized as a phase of the gift of self to neighbor. The one is a phase in which a person returns to his source; the otfier is one in which he pours out on others the results of this contact with God. From this results the sharp crisis of conscience for innumerable religious whose apostolic task is so absorbing that they reach the point of no longer giving to the time of con-templation all the attention they desire, being exhausted when the hour of prayer or of common adoration comes. Certainly, contemplative prayer is a necessity of reli-gious life; at whatever cost it.is necessary to assure this for all. But we must not refuse to apostolic action its fundamental value as encounter with the Lord; and it is important to introduce religious to the modalities and forms of this encounter in order to teach them to make it an immediate source of praise and adoration. For if it is true that "apostolic activity flows from intimate union with Christ" (n. 8), it is necessary to add that this intimate union is brought to completion in and by apos-tolic action itself. This action is not primarily a danger of distraction from the presence of God ~but on the con- trary is a privileged source of contact with this presence-- on condition that it is a matter of genuine apostolic ac-tion and not one of empty activism. The Christian who is sensitively alert to his faith dis-covers Christ Jesus Himself in the human being whom he loves and serves in the name of the gospel. The short phrase of Matthew, Chapter 25: "What you did to one of the least of my brethren, you did to me," applies not only to love for the poor but to all gift of .self in the service of human beings. Moreover, since every human being is an image of God, to serve him is to serve God in His image. On another level, a religious should be aware that his action is not simply the occasion of gaining merit and of acquiring an ample reward. He is a minister of the gospel; he gives God his labor, his fatigue, and his time in order that the love of the Father may be spread and extended by means of this action. What he day by day accomplishes in the name of his religious profession becomes an instrument of the divine action. There is ample material here for intensifying his deep union with the Lord, andthere is equally present the occasion of genuine and spontaneous acts of thanksgiving. All of this is true, however, on the condition that he has been in-teriorly sensitized to this specific form of encounter with God differing as it doe~ from the encounter afforded by peaceful and silent prayer. Conversion to encounter with God in the heat of action: this is very hard; and it de-mands from theologians, from religious, and from spiri-tual writers an effort of common research in order to establish its principles with precision. And this effort seems to us to be absolutely required for the profound renewal of religious life which the Council wishes. Two SERIOUS LIMITATIONS Thus far we have set in relief the postive elements of the conciliar decree on religious life] In the course of our exposition we have pointed out the deficiencies in the text, its lack of theological amplitude, but ~ill the while indicating the ways that it opens and the possibilities that it offers. ~¥e now would like to conclude this article by noting two limitations (one doctrinal, the other practi-cal) which seem to us to be important. Absence of a Pneumatic Dimension The first limitation is the absence of a genuinely pneu- ¯matic perspective, an absence which explains the little attention given to the ecclesial foundations of religious life which we have already pointed out. To be sure, the Holy Spirit is mentioned: once in the introductory para-graph, seqeral quick references in the second number, in the section that treats obedience (n. 14), and in the one + + + Point o] Departure VOLUME 26, 1967 435 ~. M. R. Tilla~d~ O.P, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS that concerns common life (n. 15). But these allusions are not really integrated into the very substance of the text. They are but slight additions inserted to satisfy the demands of a number of the fathers who were surprised at the radical absence of any mention o~ the Holy Spirit in the schema of the decree. It was thought sufficient to insert here and there stereotyped expressions such as "moved by the Spirit," "impelled by the Spirit," and "under the inspiration of the Spirit." But to sew new pieces on old cloth achieves nothing:, the document re-mains deprived of a real pneumatic vision. From this is derived the impression of juridicism, that the text.still has despite the wonderful gospel overtures that have already been noted and studied, It is entirely centered on the effort of man and is not sufficiently based on the primordial fact that religious life comes from God who by the Holy Spirit daily gives it to the Church. The religious institution represents an original flowering of the Spirit, a permanent charism granted by God to His people. It is a gift of God before being an effort of man towards perfection. And the quest for perfection en-visions more than the individual: its purpose is to mani-fest the Spirit, to achieve a view o[ Him in the flesh of humanity. The profound law of ~His apostolic activity and of His insertion into the world of today (and this is sought for by the decree) can be expressed in. this way: the Holy Spirit Himself wishes to be there where the community lives and to become perceptible by means o1~ it. Our text refers to "the example of the primitive Church" (n. 15). It would have been good to note that this Church was seen by its contemporaries as a semeion, a sign of the power of the Spirit, of Pentecost. For the community exists in reference to the gospel and not to the personal value of its members.: these latter are "filled with the Spirit," and their grandeur comes precisely from the fact that~ they re~pond generously to the mysterious ca/is of His presence among them, Themselves poor-- and here is the foundation of our vows, especially that of obedience--the Christians of the Apostolic community as ideally presented in Acts endeavored before all else to dispose themselves to the impulses of the Spirit and to the difficult work of personal conversion which this demands. Seen in this light, personal perfection and apostolic witnessing become radically inseparable;, and their point of unification i~ found to be the Holy Spirit. At the mo-ment when the Church is welcoming with enthusiasm the apostolic function of the laity and is finding there an essential factor in its renewal, it is necessary to point out to religious the pneumatic dimension of their vocation and to motivate their quest for evangelical perfection by an awareness of th~ rooting of their call in the mission of the Holy Spirit. Their sanctification enters in an es-sential way into the heart of their apostolate because God gives them to the world as signs and witnesses of the Spirit. They are not just apostles in possibility who can be "utilized" because they burn with zeal or are spiritu-ally well trained. They, by their very quest for perfection, are in reality a proclamation in act of the presence of the Spirit in the People of God. A religious is not judged by his productivity but essentially by 'his transparence to the Spirit--a point that explains the apostolic value of the contemplative life. Every authentic movement of renewal should be centered on this transparency. Moreover, in this way there is clearly seen why (with rare exceptions such as those mentioned in the decree) a religious cannot fidly respond to his vocation except in community. It is necessary to stop presenting common life as a means, a support; it pertains to the religious wit-ness as such. For the religious is always in the state of appeal and of openness to his brothers, incapable of truly responding to the Lord if he is cut of[ from them; and here is one of the foundations of religious poverty that theology has not yet sufficiently explored in depth. The Spirit does not arouse atomized religious but reli-gious communities. The vocations which spring up in the hearts of' men He orientates towards communities. Why? Because He is the Spirit of the Church who accordingly creates the community in order that it might exist in the Church (essentially a communion) as a sign and a leaven of the ideal of communion to which He is leading the Church. In its very being the religious community--that is to say, the ecclesial cell bonded together by fraternal charity and seeking to already live in a perfect way the "for God" of its mystery--is an act of the Spirit, a gift of the Spirit tothe Ch

Issue 24.4 of the Review for Religious, 1965. ; JEAN GALOT,~ S.J, Why Religious .Life?. A Contemporary Question Why does the religious life exist in the Church today?* A number of religious, both men and women, are asking themselves this question. Promotion of the Christian laity has ilIuminated the saintly role .that the layman is to play within the Church and has called attention to the contribution he is to make in the consecration of the universe. But ~f sainthood is the normal goal of the layman, why bother to seek holiness, in the religious life? Christians are gradually .coming to understand dearly.that the layman' is to pursue perfection' in his own. way. Consequently, 'it is becoming less clear why perfection is to be sought in the convent or the cloister. More particularly, the development of conjugal spirtuality has revealed the value and nobi!it~i of Chris-tian marriage~the riches of the sacrament that elevates £amily life to a supernatural level. Hence souls who thirst for God can. seek the divine presence in married life. Is there any reason, then, to renounce marriage tO adhere to the Lord in the religious life? Furthermore, apostolic services which have been the traditional works of rdligious are being efficiently pro-vided by laymen. Teaching arid nursing, social service ahd home care, these are apostolates which laymen are performing with remarkable competence. The apparent equality in terms of service, whether rendered by laymen or religious, gives rise to the question: Why emer religious life with a view to an apostolate which can be accomplished as well in the laystate? Moreover, the lay apostolate may appear superior. He who is directly engaged in the world is more capable of penetrating today's human milieu to deliver Christ's message naturally and efficiently, i Many religious communities do not give the impression of being adequately adapted to our age. Young people ¯ This article, which first appeared as "Pourquoi la vie religieuse?" in Revue des communautds religieuses, v. 37. (1965), pp. 20-34, has been translated by Raymond L. Sullivant, S:J.; 4Mont~e de Four-vi~ re; Lyon V (Rh6ne), Franco 4- Jean Galot, s.J., is professor of dog-matic theology at Co]l/~ge Saint-At= bert; 95, chauss~e de Mont - Saint - Jean; Ee.genhoven - Lou-yam, Belgium.:. VOLUME 24~ 1965 505 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 506¯ who desire to reflect Christ in the world are reluctant to set out upon a path where constraining barriers separate them from the rest of humanity. They believe that by remaining laymen they Will be able to adhere to the Church and to God's own People in a more vital. -way, thereby giving apostolic expression to their exist-ence. . The recruiting crisis which .a number of congrega- .tions are experiencing makes the problem stand out in even greater relief. Are these communities in step with ¯ the contemporary Church? Is not religious life as a whole crippled by decrepitude? Does not the life's de-creasing ability to attract young people indicate that congregations are no longer in step with pre.~ent dhy mentality and that they have outlived their usefulness? One could answer that the signs of age affect. only the exterior forms of religious life. But are not these forms the manifestation of a spirit? Does not the rapid expansion of saintli,ne~s among the laity oblige religious to raise the question: Is a vision of the Church without ¯ the religious life conceivable? Could not the religious state be a form of holiness which, having played a cen-tral role in Christian life for centuries, could now dis-appear to be replaced by other.forms? The fact that the Council accorded special atten-tion to these problems, that its i resolution expressed the desire to see religious life develop with the life of the Church by adapting to the present day world, suffices to orient the answer to our questions. But a serious obligation exists to explore the problem in order to analyze the true meaning of religious life and its reason for being.1 Let us begin by considering the juridical structure which we customarily believe to form the framework of religious life. Canonically speaking, the state is constituted by the profession of the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. But let us attempt to trace the life blood to its source--to the gospel from which it springs and from whence life flows. In other words, let us briefly, determine the place which Christ wished to reserve for the religious life when He founded His. Church. x The diversity of recent publications on the subject attests to the need and widespread desire for a searching inquiry into the doctrine of religious life. We shall limit ourselves to two collective studies: La vie religieuse clans l'Eglise du Christ (Bruges: Descl~e de Brouwer); Les religieux au]ourd'hui et demain (Paris: Cerf, 1964); and to two .individual ones: Soeur Jeanne d'Arc, Les religieuses darts l'Eglise et ¯ darts le monde actuel (Paris: Cerf, 1964); Gustave Martelet, S.J., Saintetd de l'Eglise et vie religieuse (Toulouse: Editions Pri~re et Vie, 1964). The last work mentioned, while brief, is outstanding for its depth of thought. How Was the. foundation effected? The first two chapters of St~ John's Gos.pel are extremely revealing in this respect. , This evangelist who employed the most perspective in writing an account of the life and work ¯ of Jesus and who, while supplying historical memories, reflected on their meanirig more than any otiier, places us, immediately after the hymn praising the Incarnation and after the witness of John the Baptist, before a double'image: Jesus 'sets about calling His disciples, He then accompanies them to the wedding feast of Cana where He ,operates His first miracle. Everything happens as if Christ had determined, from the begin-ning of the public life, the .two states which He wished to combine in His Church: the consecrated life, inaugu-rated by inviting the disciples to follow Him, and the mar-riage state, recognized while symbolically revealing His intention of tramforming it, of renewing it by grace. Jesus first institutes the consecrated life. He begins by requesting simple men to attach themselves com-pletely to His person. It is by the adhesion of two dis-ciples who have decided to follow Him and to share His company that the life of the Church is inaugurated. When the evangelist tells us that the first two disciples dwelled'near Jesus from that day (Jn 1:39), he advises us of the~e£act hour, "the tenth 'hour," in order to call attention to the importance of the event for-he has described the first day in the life of the Church.~ For the first time, a community of disciples is formed around the Master. We can realize the immediate relevance the e~ent assumes for the establishmentof the Church, this state of life in which one is entirely consecrated ¯ to Christ, a state to which certain souls receive a special call. The Apostles lived in this state, instituted in the number of twelve by Jesus, not simply in view of a preaching mission, but first of all to facilitate an inti-mate adherence to the Master; they are designated by Christ "to be his companions and to go out preaching at his command" (Mk 3:14). A similar concern attracts a more numerous group of disciples--and a few women who accompany Christ offering Him their existence and theii" devotion. The characteristics of this state are sufficiently clear from the Gospel without there being a question of + juridical organization as such. The central factor in ÷ "following'' Chr!s~ implies .complete submission out of ÷ regard for Him, a break with one's family, a renounce-ment of the trade practiced until then and of material Religious Life goods. It involves a community life.p01arized on Christ, "VOLUME 24, 196"5 = At least, it is the first day of the Church in process of formation; the Church will not be completely constituted Until Pentecost. 507 closer association with His redemptive work and apos-tolic mission. Fr6m these diverse aspects one can dis-cern ¯ the elements which will later constitute religious life: union 'with Christ through obedience~ chastity,. poverty, common life, and dedication to the apostolate. It is not yet a question of the religious life properly speaking, for as it was instituted by Jesus, the conse-crated life is not specified a~cording to determined forms, nor is it organized according to ;i single struc-ture. But it is inaugurated in keeping with a general principle, a" principle which will serve as a basis, in cen-turies to come, foi- various kinds of life--that of bishops and diocesan priests, that of religious and members of secular institutes, and that of various types of consecra-tion in the world. .÷ + + ~ean Galot, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 508 The Place oI the Counsels in the Complete Religious Lile The Gospels open perspectives on consecrated life, this state which Christ desired for the foundation of His Church. Scriptm:e invites us to definereligious life in terms which go beyond the three evangelical counsels: poverty, chastity, and obedience. There has been a wide-spread tendency to adopt too n~irrow a concept of religious life, making .it consist in the mere practice of the three counsels and the profession of the three corresponding vows. It i~ true that on certain occasions Jesus makes a special plea for poverty, for separation from one's family; or He .underlines the value of renouncing marriage. But these diverse elements draw their meaning from attach-ment to His person, an attachment that is immediate and exclusive. It is this tie which constitutes the central reality of the consecrated life. To consider the three "counsels" separately constitutes poor methodology and incurs a risk of arriving at a negative definition of the religious life which amounts to a refusal of the world. It is important to keep the summons: "Come follow me" foremost in mind, as it combines in a' logical synthesis the various demands of poverty, chastity, and obedience. One could object that the attachment to Christ is obviously presupposed in the vows, that this requirbment underlies the three counsels. Nevertheless, what is fundamental is enhanced by being clearly 'expressed---by Being set forth not ¯ merely as a suggestion, but in explicit ~ind concrete terms as the complete and primordial object of the commitment. Hence the religious life is not to be too exclusively r~duced to the three counsels. In keeping with evangel-ical indications and the experience of religious life itself, other features of ~he state deserve, to be emphasized in the. same degree: the total gift of self .to Christ; com-munity life; the consecration of one's entire existence to the Church and to the apostolate. ~ As a result of our attachment to Christ, we must stress the value of community life where the Master's precept of mutual charity i:ari find integr~il fulfillment. Religious life tends to translate this ideal of love into strong ties of solidarity and teamwork~ . Wholehearted commitment.to the apostolate, whether by prayer and sacrifice or through activity, also warrants being considered essential to the religious life. At times during conciliar debate, one. received the impression that the religious life was recognized and esteemed because of the personal holiness which it fosters and that insu~cient attention was paid to .the consecrated person's vigorous participation in the Church's evangelizing mission. It is fortunate that certain fathers called attention to the apos-tolic aims of religious life--not failing to recall the effec-tive witness value of these aims and the contribution of religious to missionary expansion. It is especially impor-tant to understand that the apostolic effort is not simply one of the fruits of religious life, nor the simple manifesta-tion of the sanctity which the state encourages, For re-ligious profession by its very essence entails a genuine com-mitment to the apostolate and involvement in all the activities which such a commitment implies. Thus to characterize the ;religious life in terms of the development of the interior life alone would constitute an incomplete assessment. While assuring such a de-velopment by an intimate adherence to Christ and by a regime of prayer, the religious must not be less con-cerned with the apostolic ascendancy of Christ over humanity. It is desirable that the very terms of reli-gious profession express this apostolic commitment de-liberately as well as underline a total attachment to Christ and to fraternal charity within the community. The Essential Reality of the Church Thus it is as a state characterized by preferential love of Christ, by community, and apostolic love that the consecrated life would appear to be included in the very foundation of the Church. By considering the three counsels alone, the ecclesial role of religious life is less apparent; the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience would appear only under the aspect of individual as-ceticism, or they may be considered as a simple enrich-ment of the Church rather than principles of a form of life which constitutes a necessary element of the Church herself. The Savior wanted the consecrated lives of His disciples and women followers to form the cornerstone of His Church, the very first stone. ÷ ÷ ÷ l~ligiou~ Li~v VOLUME 24, 1965 509 ÷ ÷ ÷ lean Galot, $.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 510 To gain insight into Christ's will, let us recall what the Church permits us to see in the depth of her being--in revelation. The basic aim of salvation's plan is to establish a :covenant between God and humanity. A new covenant, an ideal one, was announced by the prophets, particularly by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. At the Last Supper the Savior manifested His intention to found this covenant by His sacrifice and to render it forever present by the Eucharistic service. Now the covenant is fulfilled not between God and each individual but be-tween God and the community of His disciples founded by Jesus, a community destined to regroup all of hu-manity in unity. The Church was instituted as the community of the covenant. The great value which the consecrated life has for the covenant community is immediately discernible. Cove-nant signifies the union of man with God. In the consecrated life, this union is a~sured in the most im-mediate, direct ~ay. It is not an attempt to unite with God through the mediation of terrestrial goods but through a way of life in which the basic value is Christ Himself, all other treasures being renounced. Nor is the adherence accomplished through the mediation of hu-man love as in marriage. Every affection is focused upon Christ in person. Consequently, the covenant is inti-mately bound up with this, and the Church fulfills her-self in depth as she should truly be. Mankind enters the covenant founded by Jesus through human persons who attach themselves to Him directly and completely. The foregoing truth is revealed in a particularly strik-ing way by the consecration of virgins. By this means the Churcli assumes concretely and fully her identity as Bride of the Savior through the virgins who profess to live 'for Christ alone by reserving their heart entirely for Him.3 The covenant was originally announced through prophetic oracles in the form of matrimonial union, and Jesus chose to fulfill these oracles by pre-senting Himself as the Groom. According to St. Paul, the Church is His Bride; redemption itself is envisaged as the act of love par excellence, the model of conjugal love: "Husbands, love your wives as Christ loved the Church and gave himself up for her" (Eph 5:25). The Church's act of attachment to her Spouse is manifested most integrally in the action of those souls who were regarded from the very earliest times as the brides of Christ, those who vow him a virginal love. The basic reality of the Church involved in this consecration is thus revealed in the bond uniting the Bride to the divine Spouse. s This truth is made remarkably clear by Father Martelet, Saintetd de l'Eglise, pp. 37-9; 51-3. Community charity is another element of the basic reality 0f the Church. The mutual love arising from the supernatural adherence to Christ which unites the mere- ¯ bers of the Church arose in the community of disciples who surrounded the Master, and it tends ~o develop most genuinely .and c0mplet~ly~ in religious c0~amunities-- ¯ where the Church's fulfillment is expressed in exterior actions, thereby permitting the greatest growth of inti- ¯ mate charity. And .finally it is tO be pointed out that apostolic d~namism is not superimposed on the Church from without but is a part. of her very reality, as the event of Pentecost shows. The Christian community, at the mo-ment when it was officially established as the Church by the power of the Holy Spirit, was constituted in a state of apostolic expansion. The grade received from .above transformed and sanctified the disciples causing them to radiate their testimony in the milieu where they were called to labor. Similarly, the consecrated life by chan-neling all the forces and resources of human' existence in the service of the apostolate, fulfills the Church's mis-sion in a most integral manner. If one recalls the most fundamental aspects of ihe consecrated life, one must- conclude in consequence that they are the. integral realization of the. Church in keep-ing with her fundamental marks: covenant community, imutual union, zeal of apostolic expansion in the world. In fact, one recogr~izes the marks of the Church accord-ing to the classical enumeration: holiness through union with God, unity, catholicity, and apostolicity. The com-parison indicates.the extent to which the consecrated life is a necessary constituent of the Church. The ~Religious Li[e andHierarchical Structure It is important to clarify the position of the conse-crated life in the Church. In its diverse forms (including the religious life, the most important of these), it does not enter into the hierarchical structure, the latter being concretely determined by the sacrament of order. It occupies no degree of order Within the hierarchy, nor can it be inserted between the clergy and ,the laity as an intermediary state. The question has recently been raised: Does the religious life belong to the structure of the Church?. One must respond in the negative inso-far as the.hierarchical structure is envisaged. But.there is also a spiritual structure of holiness and charity which is essential to the Church and of which the religious life is an indispensable element.4 The two structures are, ¯ It would appear'perhaps excessive ~o define with Father Martelet .($aintetd de l'Eglise, p. 102) the "hierarchical pole" as the'love of Christ for the Church and the "charismatic pole" by the Church's ÷ ÷ VOLUME 24, 1965 .4" Jean Galot, S.J. REVIEW FOR" RELIGIOUS 512 furthermore, closely related; and the religious l~fe,' as all of Christian life, submits to the direction of the hierarchy. It is' dependent on those whom Christ wished to be the shepherds of the community. Yet this dependence does not exclude a certain auton-omy in the sense that the hierarchy is destined .neith6r ¯ to create no~ to dominate.the religious life. The fact that religious institutes, have seldom been inspired or fot~nded by the hierarchy warrants reflection.5 Marked by charismatic origins, most. institutes have been founded by a layman or a priest who developed a .~ensitive aware-ness of. the Church's quest for holiness or of one of her particular and pressing needs. The founder wished to structure a kind of life that would meet this need and attract disciples in his steps in order to. perform a ~pecific work more perfectly. The religious life was ¯ thus formed "from below," from a stimulus produced by the Holy Spirit in the soul of the founders. The hierarchy's role has been to approve the society and its work and to utilize the spiritual and apostolic re-sources which religious put at its disposition for the pastoral task. The wisdom of the Church .and her leaders is to be admired for safeguarding this autonomy of religious life and for recognizing .therein an authentic action of the Holy Spirit which was to be "respected. Thus reli-gious life, within the whole of Christian life, testifies that in:keeping with God's plan divine lights andener-gie~ communicated to men are not exclusively reserved to the hierarchy, that the Spirit continues to breathe where it will--upon simple members of the Church as well as in the soul of her shepherds. The specific purpose of exemption is to permit a more "universal development of the inspiration which gives rise to religious institutes,~ As we have pointed out, exemption does not aim to withdraw religious life from the control of the hierarchy ' but rather to rehder its members more freely accessible for the service of the love for Christ, for the charismata imply Christ's love which is de-sirous of spreading throughout humanity and religious life entails a special love on the part of the Bridegroom. It is rather a question ¯ -of .two aspects of union or mutual love. One concerns the social organization of the Mystical Body and the other its spiritual life. ~ Father Martelet (Saintetd de l'Eglise, p. 96) judiciously observes that the bishops who have exerted an influence on the religio.us life have done it'less in virtue of their office than as a restilt of the spirit-. ual fashion in which they exercised it: St. Basil, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Fran(is de Sales. e It seems to us that exemption does not aim simpl~ at guaranteeing charismatic inspiration, as Father Martelet believes (Saintetd de l'Eglise, pp. 99-I00), but rather thai it assures the universality of a form of holiness and of apostolic endeavor. universal, government" of the Church, the Pope and. the college of bishops. In fact, exemption concerns only the lbcal hierarchy, the government of a particular, diocese. For religious life normally tends to assume dimensions whiqh surpass diocesan confines, it aims to promote a ffni~,ersal form of holiness which will respond to the aspirations of a .large number .of souls in the Church; it wishes to estab-lish communal charity, to. unite Christians' of several ~.r.e.gions or~countries. It seeks to develop apostolic woi:ks which cross frontiers and ~o expand, most especially into mission .areas. This .universality. which justifies exemptioh, far from robbing the Church. of religious life, renders, the latter more coextensive with the Church as a whole, making it a more integral part of the uni-versal Church. The important role played by religious in missionary expansiofi testifies that exemption has guar.anteed "a more universal evolution of the Church and rendered personnel readily accessible to the will of the sovereign pontiffs. " Religious Life and Sacramental Structure. Difficulty in determining and 'evaluating the role of re-ligious life within the Church may result from the fact that the state is not founded on asacrament. There has been a tendency to compafe the religious state ~ith the priestly or marriage states, giving preference to the latter because of their si~cramental origin. Is it possible, in fact, tO say that religious life derives from a sacrament? We must affirm that it falls within the development of baptismal effects and develops ac-. quisitions received" through baptismal, consecration. The baptized person belongs to God and shares in divine holiness. This sharing finds full expression in the reli-gious life. ' Nevertheless, religious life, which is a response to. a special call from the Lord and which has ex-tremely elevated objectives, cannot be fully explained by the effects of baptism alone. The life arises from ~charisms which surpass the life of the baptized; and it involves commitments which, while fulfilling the baptis-mal promises to the maximum, go far .beyond whai is required of other Christians. . We must, then,, recognize that the religious life as such does not result from a sacrament. It is true that the entire life of the Church is affected by the sadraments-- but there are also extrasacramental influences within the Church. Just as the hierarchical structure does not enjoy a monopoly of the Holy Spirit's inspirations, the. sacramental structure enjoys no monopoly of the sources of grace. The sacraments are not to be conceived as the only principle¯of sanctification. Experiences in the ÷ ÷ Religious Li]e VOLUME 24, 1965 gean Galot, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 514 life of the Church and in the individual lives of saints reveal the importance of extrasacramemal grates, and the .numerous divine interventions in humhn history not be limited to the. sensible signs which ,constitute .the seven sacraments. There is no inferiority implied for. the religious life in its inability to be traced to a. sacramental origin. There would be no p0intl in drawing.a comparison with the priestly state, a reality of a.different order. The priesthood regults from a sacrament because it is destined to assume liturgical and pastoral functions. within the Church. To fulfill such functions is not 'the purpose of the religious life. Let.it suffice to mention that the two states are united in the case of many religious. They cannot, consequently, be opposed. . On the other hand, the comparison of the religious and marriage states is legitimate. Why is the first a sacra-m~ nt while the latter is not? If one recalls that the Councilof Trent proclaimed the superiority of the state of virginity oyer that of marriage, it may appear sur-prising that virginal consecration is not the object of a sacramental ceremony. Yet the very reason for the superiority of virginity enables us to glimpse a response to our problem. Virginity tends to realize the nuptials of Christ and-the Church directly, while marriage is only. a sign of this union, realized through the media~ tion of the human person of the partner. Profession attaches the ~eligious to Christ Himself as .the Spouse. It is therefore through plenitude not default that pro-fession is not a sacrament~ As a sign or symbolof Christ and the Church, marriage is a sacrament; as a reality of nuptials in which Christ becomes the authentic Bridegroom, virginal consecration is not a sacrament. Profession is not of the order of a sign but that of the reality signified. It thereby anticipates the future life where there will be no sacraments because the sign.s will hax;e.given way to the spiritual reality they represen.ted. Thus while marriage symbolizes the union of Christ and the Church in view of the latter's realization through human intermediaries~ virginal life accomplishes this union directly through anticipation of the celestial life. From this viewpoint, virginal consecration can be con- .sidered paralle! to martyrdom. What is called the bap-tism of blood goes beyond the sacrament: it is no longer a sign of the death of Christ but the reality of this death as lived by the disciples of Jesus. Rather than being a symbol of the passage from death to resurrection, it accomplishes this passage to blessed immortality. Vir-ginal life, through a kind of death to the flesh, inaugu-rates the passage to the immediate possession of the Groom in spiritual intimacy. Hidden Holiness and Bearing Witness In characterizing ~he ieligious life's .essential role in the Church, there is frequently a tendency to evaluate it in terms of testimony given: as a result of their con, secration, religious are called ~ost especially ~o bear witness to Christ, to. His sanctity,.His charity, His ¯ chastity, His obedience, His' apostolic zeal. We gran.t that this witness value is of considerable importance, but it .is not primordial. Testimony a~ises from. the .visible aspect which the religious life must assume, and it manifests the .exterior influences re-sulting from this visibility. But the first contribution of religious life is invisible, fulfilling a role which can be called ontological and helping to nourish and to develop the very reality of the Church. It is the Church's hidden sanctity which is enriched by religious life,-the secret union of the Church with Christ consummated ¯ by virginal consecration. The Church's invisible apos-tolic, efficacy is increased by the prayers, sacrifices, and the other activities which the religious state entails. One must consequently avoid restricting the problems of religious life within the narrow perspective of testi-mony. It may happen that poverty in certain institutes is profound and genuine, and yet scarcely any witness value may be apparent as a result of circumstances or some particular feature of observance. The fidelity of a chaste heart is interior; numerous acts of charity and obedience in religious life are not visible to ChriStians outside the cloister, and these acts should not become public. A certain preoccupation with testimony is legiti-mate, but it should neither diminish nor obscure the more essential will to live in all sincerity the demands of the consecrated life under the eyes of the Savior alone in "order to belong more exclusively to Him. Ex-cessive concern for testimony could lead to the erection of a facade at the expense of the humble construction of the reality of the Church. Furthermore, the contribution of the consecrated life to the holiness of the Church enlightens the religious as to his ecclesial respomibility. It should quicken his conscience to the.repercussions of his mo~t secret life within the. Church; even those acts which are witnessed by no one are destined to-sanctify humanity, to enrich the Church as a whole. The existence of. a ~eligious makes, no sense except within the framework of con-structing the Mystical Body of Christ. This activity should be first of all hidden and silent. Witness value follows as the second feature of the religious' contribution, to the sanctity Of the Church. It is this visible aspect, .the aspect of the sign,, which has inclined theologians to refer to the religious life as a + + + ¯ Religious Li]e VOLUME 241 1965 515 4. 4. 4. Jean Galot, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS "saci'ament." r There is no doubt that in the Church. the religious life contributes a f~ndamental.kind of witness. It is of a nature which ~timulates Christians in their efforts toward~ holiness and influences non-Christians by rendering them sensitive to the force of the evangelic.al message. This testimony is above all concerned with the abso-luteness of God. The consecrated life gives .eviden.ce that God .deserves to be loved above all things--to the point that man should 'abandon all to adhere to Him and to promote the extension of His kingdoha. It. is also a witness to prayer, especially in the con-temPlativelife, bu~ in. the active religious life as well. At a time when the value of man tends to be measured in terms of the visible efficacy of action, it is important that special attention be given to prayer. The testimony of communities established on the basis of Christ's charity encourages other Christians to place no limit on. love for one another. And there is the test!mony Of poverty, chastity, and obedience, as witness which encourages lay people in their journey on the road of detachment and unselfishness, of conjugal, chas-tity, and of submission to Church authorities. Finally, there is the witness value of apostolic' activity Which. stimulat.es .zeal throughout the entire Christian com-munity. This reaction is apparent today in many mis-sionary fields where laymen in ever-increasing numbers are following the example given by religious. The Value of Religious Life and Adaptation While attempting to establish the place of the religious state in the life of the Church, We have answered in global fashion the questions, raised in the introduc-tion to this article. We shall now summarize the im-portant points to .bring the answers sharply into focus. It is true that laymen should pursu, sainthood. We are to rejoice that the Christian layman today is in, creasingly conscious of the nobility Of his state and the demands of' perfect.ion which this role entails. In addi-tion, according to Christ's plan, a more complete form of holiness, that of the consecrated life, is necessary the Church and must develop within her. The Gospel call: "Come follow me" is ceaselessl~ repeated in all ages to attract certain of the faithful to .make a fundamental contribution to the formation and expansion of the Church. Direct union with the. Savior is irreplaceable. ' It can be achieved by the complete abandonment of goods and family, the consecration Of all one's forces ~ See J. M. R. Tillard, O.P., "Religious Life, Sacrament of God's Presence" and "Religious Life, Sacrament of God's Power," REVIEW FOR RELigiOUS, V. 23 (1964),'pp. 6-14; 420-32. and activities to the apostolate. These actions are facil-itated by community life founded exclusively on the love of Christ. Since marriage is to be considered the sign of the nuptials of Christ and the Church, all the importance which is legitimately attributed to this sign also en-hances the value of the religious life where.the nuptials with the divine Spouse become a reality. Souls who ardently search for the presence of the Savior can find Him through a human intermediary, but Christ is en-countered more dynamically through the direct adher-ence of virginal consecration. The two approaches are on a different level: the religious life anticipates here on earth that possession of Christ without an inter-mediary as it will be accorded in the celestial state. As for apostolic services, laymen can assume them on a basis of equality with religious insofar as exterior action and efficiency are concerned. But nothing can re-place that holiness in the service of the apostolate re-sulting from the consecration of one'~ entire being to the Lord. Wherever apos.tolic activity is animated by a more complete love of Christ and a more devoted love of neighbor, it acquires a superior value and its invisible apostolic efficacy ig considerably increased. If we keep in mind that the apostolate is a means of com- 'municating holiness, the role that the consecrated person is to play in the Church's apostolic life becomes imme-diately evident. His contribution cannot be considered as the mere equivalent of that of other Christians. The apos-tolate is to be judged according to its soul rather than its external works. Religious institutes are making a great effort towards adaptation. It is hoped that these efforts will pro, duce a vital thrust towards encounter with contemporary hu-manity. That such an effort may require painful sacri-fices of those religious who are imbued with traditional practices is readily conceivable, but the generosity ¯ characteristic of the religious state is capable of making sacrifices. Thanks to such a spirit we can hope that the re-ligious life will occupy that vital role within the Church and the marketplace which our Lord accorded it. 4. 4- 4. VOLUME 24, 1965 JEAN DANIELOU, S.J. The Placeof Religious in the Structure of the Church Jean Dani~lou, S.J.; 15, Rue Mon-sieur; Paris 7, France, is professor of theology at the Institut Catholique of Paris. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 518 One* might wonder why the Council in The Constitu-tion on the Church treats religious life along with the hierarchy and the laity. The reasons for this are pastoral. Religious, men and women, contemplatives or mis-sionaries, are in fact an essential component part of the Church. The eminent place which women occupy in the Church is particularly under the form of religious life. Besides, inasmuch as religious life is a total consecra-tion to God, it appears as more than ever necessary in a world which tends to construct itself outside of God, because without worship the world of the future would be an inhuman world. Finally, from the ecumenical point of view, the neglect of religious life by the Council would be incomprehensible in view of the fact that it has always held a respected place in the OrthodoxI world and that Protestantism is now rediscovering it. But these reasons would not be absolutely decisive if religious life did not constitute an essential part of the structure of the Church. Furthermore, the primary ob-ject of the Council is, as Pope Paul reminded the Fathers in opening the second session, to give the Church the opportunity to define her structure. If religious life was only one form in the history of the universal vocation to holiness in the Church, it would be acceptable to treat it as such. But this precisely appears contrary to the whole tradition. Certainly all aspects of the Church are ¯ This article appeared originally in Etudes, February, 1964; it was translated by Sister M. Janet, c.s.J.; Archangel College; Engle-wood Cliffs, New Jersey. 1 See o. Rousseau, "Le r61e important du monachisme dans l'Eglise d'Orient," in II monachesimo orientale ["Orientalia christiana ana-lecta," n. 153] (Rome: Pontifical Institute of Oriental Studies, 1958). in a sense mutually shared: there is a universal priest-hood; there is a Universal interdependence of the Christian people; there~is a universal vocation to holi-ness. But each one of these aspects also presents its es-tablished form. This is true of the hierarchy and of the laity;, we wish to show that it is also true of the relig.ious state. The first question is that of the basis of the religious state in the New Testament itself. In reality there is no ¯ divine right to the structure .of the Church except inso-far as it rises from its institution by Christ and the Apostles at least in its beginnings. How does this affect our question here? This is the problemof the evangelical counsels. We must examine it rigorously. But first we must note that we are speaking here of the evangelical counsels in the strict sense, that is to say, not insofar as they mean a universal call to Christians to an evangeli-cal life of poverty, "chastity, and obedience, but insofar as they point out the proper means to realize this call, means which establish a particular state of life to which all are not called. What is there concerning this in the New Testament? ~ It does not seem that the three counsels, as held by traditional teaching, are on the same plane. Poverty ap-pears above all as the expression of the primacy of the kingdom of God which must be preferred to all else. And this disposition is eSsential to the Christian 'voca-tion. Nevertheless, the principle of poverty as expressed in" a particular state of life is clearly indicated. Hence, the words of ChriSt to the rich young man, even if they .express first of all the primacy of the Gospel over the Law, undoubtedly suggest also that the evangelical ideal can be expressed in the form of an effective renounce-ment of the possession of material goods which consti-tutes in itself a state of life which is more perfect. "If you will be pbrfect, go, sbH all that you have and follow me" (Mt 19:21). Like pove~'ty, obedience is first of all the expression of the primacy of the divine will. It finds incomparable expression in the obedience 6f the Son to the Father; and in this sense, it is the Christian vocation itself. But this obedience can also take the form of a renouncement of self, determination related to that particular resolu-tion of the divine will which is precisely the effective renouncement of property and of marri~ige and which is not demanded of all. It is in this sense that St. Paul speaks, concerning widows, that is, women consecrated to God, about fidelity. Indeed, he blames those women who have violated "the promise they have made" (1 Tim 5:12). Obedience appears then as the very form of a life consecrated to God inasmuch as-this life ex- 4. ÷ 4- Place o~ Religious VOLUME Z4, 196S 519 .÷ ¯ .lean Dani~lou, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS presses the definite promise to submit oneself to a cer-tain state of life rather than as a special observance which would be added to other states. This is then al-ready what will later become monastic obedience. And it is more obedience to a rule than to a person, the su-perior having only .the duty of being the guardian of the rule. Nevertheless, poverty and obedience as expressio.ns of a state in life are only. suggested by the New Testament. This is in contrast with virginity consecrated to God which is taught b'y Christ Himself as a mystery to which only certain souls are called. The disciples ask Jesus: "If such is the condition for marriage, it is better not to marry." And Jesus replies: "That conclusion cannot be taken in. by everybody, but only by those who have the gift" (Mt 19:10-1). Very clearly then, here is a special state which is not a component of the Christian vocation in itself. Elsewhere, it is about virginity that Paul uses the word counsel; and this is the only case where the word appears in this sense in the New Testament (1 Cor 7:25). The distinction between a commandment, which is addressed to everyone, and a counsel, which is a call from the Lord to some, is here clear. Furthei"more, the existence of virgins consecrated to God in the primitive Christian community is attested to by the New Testament. This is the case of the four daughters of the deacon Philip (Acts 21:9). The text says' precisely .that these virgins were prophesying. This description gives authority .to add another element to the matter of the New Testament origin of the religious state: virginity appears in connection with the charis-mata and so constitutes a link with the action of the Holy Spirit in the community. This fact is also attested by the Didache. Therefore, this charismatic aspect will remain a characteristic of the religious state. The fathers Of the desert and the stylites are charismatics. The great religious orders are of charismatic origin. They witness the liberty of the Spirit in the heart of the Christian community. Benedict, Fr.ancis, Dominic, Ignatius, and Teresa are. expressions of the charismatic action of the Spirit in the building of the' Church alongside her hierarchical action. The orders which they founded are the necessary institutionalization of these charismata to assure the permanence of their presence in the Church. Therefore, the New Testament attests to the existence of a state of life consecrated to God, related to the charismata, and expressing itself above all in virginity. But does this state constitute an order properly speak-ing, comparable to the laity or to the hierarchy? Theie is place for an objection here. It is evident that the New Testament includes a call to the practice of the evangel-ical counsels. But is. not this call something personal which can be addressed to clerics or to the laity and does not constitute a special order? In this case, it would be this call alone which would be primary and would have its source in the New Testament. The realization this call in the form of the religious state would only be an historical development. This question leads us to examine more closely the teaching of the New Testa-ment and of early tradition. This examination reveals to us the presence in local communities from the. beginning of: a special order, alongside the hierarchy and the laity, which is char-acterized by a total consecreation to God. In this sense, the New Testament speaks of a consecrated celiba6y, the order of widows (1 Tim 5:3-16). This order is Pa{allel to the order of presbyters (5:.17-20). Therefore it really was an order in the heart of the community. The function:of this order, from its origin, is that of the religious sta~e: "The woman who is. indeed a widow, bereft of all help, will .put her trust in God and spend ¯ her time, night and-day, Upon the prayers and petitions that belong to her state" (5:5). Later the place of the order of widows will be compared to that of an altar in the church.2 They represent that.continual prayer which is a pillar of the community parallel to the hierarchy and which still today makes up the irreplaceable char-acte~ of the contemplative life in the Church. BuL very early, the virgins 'who existed from the be-ginning 'in the community constituted also an order by virtue of their resemblance to that of the widows. Doubtless it is in this way that we must understand the word of Ignatius of Antioch, speaking of "virgins called 'widows.' " In any case, one 6f the most ancient rituals that we possess, the Apostolic Tradition of. Hippolytus of .Rome, which dates from the beginning of the third ¯ century and represents a much older state, enumerating the different orders of the Church, mentions virgins after priests and bishops, but before subdeacons and lectors,. A text of the same ritual distinguishes three categories in regard to the discipline of fasting: virgins and widows, laity, and bishops. No text is more clear on the distinction of the three orders.3 At the same period, at Alexandria, Clement and Origen give witness to the existence of an order, of virgins and of ascetics. Therefore it is certain that, in the words 6f Plus XII, "according to the apostolic fathers and the oldest ec- ~P~lyca~:p, Letters, 8, 2. 8 See J.-M. Hanssens, La liturgie d'Hippolyte ["Orientalia christi-ana analecta," n. 155] (Rome: Pontifical Institute of Oriental Studies, 1959), pp. 153 and 372. Place ot Religious VOLUME 24, 1965 52! ]ean Dani~lou, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS . --- clesiastical writers, it can be easily established that in different churches,' the followers of a life of perfection constituted an order and a class in the society." 4 At first, this state of virginity" or celibacy was lived in the local church community where it constituted a special group. Beginning in the fourth century with Anthony, the ascetics separated themselves from the community and retired into solitude; hence, the ,her-mit's. life was identified with the practice of the coun-sels. Soon, others, following Pachomius and Basil, organized communities of ascetics and began the cenobiti-cal life. These two constituted, arid continue to .consti-tute in the Orient, the monastic order formally distinguished from the hierarchy and from the laity. This appears in a manner particularly clear in the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy of pseudo-Dionysius the Areop-agite at the end of the sixth century; in this' work, monastic life is treated at length as an order in the Church along with th~ hierarchy. In the West, religious life developed in multiple ways according to constitu- ¯ tions approved by the Church, but everywhere and al-ways, "the .public profession of the evangelical counsels was counted among, the three principal ecclesiastical orderL" 5 What is fundamentM is that throughout all these de-velopments the effective, practice of the evangel!cal counsels has always been presented under the form of an "order," having its own law in the Church whether it is a question of "widows" of an apostolic community or .of religious congregations today. The forms of the "ordo" have been very diverse. They continue this di-versity today, from.the orders with solemn vows to the secular institutes. But if we look at them from the theological instead of the canonical point of view, we see that these forms spring from the same source in the Church. This definition of the practice of the evangelical counsels as a rule in itself is ~xpressed by the. fact that the Church does not consider it as legitimate except when she recognizes it; evidence for this can be seen even as .far back as .Ignatius of Antioch Where he says that anyone who wishes, to practice virginity must so advise the bishop. Hence, the practice of the evangelical counsels isestablished in.a state of life which has its own rights and duties. From this, we also understand the fact that the Church has always fought the tendency to generalize the effective practice of the counsels and to consider them as essential to Christianity.Such a tendency was very strong in the first centuries in partict~lar, and * Provida Mater, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, v. 39 (1947), p. 116. B Provida Mater, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, v: 39 (1947), p. 106. against it the Church has always defended marriage not only as legitimate, but also as constituting a real vocation to sanctity. In. fact, .she has always supported the ~ight to private property and to wealth. In this way, she set the foundation for an authentic.lay spirituality to be considered as develOping in line with the vocation of the laity in the Church .and not as a participation in the religious life as the only vocation to'sanctity. But at the same time, she als0 founds the religious state as a state of life in itself,-distinct from the laity and from. the priesthood not only by its function in the Church but also by its means to sanctity. Therefore, it is clear that the evangelical counsels can be partihlly lived outside the religious state since each aspect of the Church participates in some way with the others. But they are then a sort of equivalent to the religious state. In other words, the practice of the evangelical counsels is not bound to the essence of the lay state nor to that of the priesthood. On the contrary, it is bound 'to the essence of the religious state. So, it would be erroneous to speak of the vocation to the counsels as universal and to see in religious life only their principal form. This is. contrary to truth. It is the religious state which is the normal f.orm of.the practice of the counsels. Therefore, the religious state is the. proper object of a chapter on the counsels. The celibacy of priests in the Westei-n Church poses a special problem. I~ appears, in fact, to be distinct from a partial participation in the ideal of the counsels, and to be situated in a direct line with the vocation of the ¯ priesthood. Now, this vocation is defined above all as that of the pastor who gives his life for his flock. Celi-bacy appears here not considered in itself, as is the case for religious life, but as a consequence of priestly life in its fulfillment. That is why it is essentially in the study of the priesthood and its duties that celibacy is to be situated, not in the study of ~he effective practice of the evangelical counsels. The priestly celibacy would other-wise appear as an imperfect participation in something which religious practice more perfectly. To this point we have established that the origins of the religious state were instituted by Christ Himself and that the effective practice of the: evangelical coun-sels did indeed constitute a way.of life,, an "ordo," .dis-tinct from the laity and from the priesthood. It remains to show in what sense it is part of the structure of the Church. This is already apparent, in the facts. For Hippolytus of Rome, the order of virgins was part of the structure of the local Christian community. And this form of consecrated virginity may very well be re- + ÷ Place o] R~ligious " VOLUME 24~ 1965 523 4. .4. 4. lean Daniilou, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 524 .appearing in our day, as in'the case for the "Auxiliaires de l'apostolat." The religious state is recognized by canon law ag one of the three orderswhich make up the universal Church.° The experience of bishops attests that where monastic life does not yet exist, the Church has not established-firm roots. Then, too, it is char-acteristic of a living Church to bring forth vocation~ to a life of the counsels. On the other hand, it is clear that religiou~ life does not belong to the structure of the Church in the same way as the h!erarchy, although it is essential to that structure. First, it can be said that the religious state is not part of what is, strictly speaking, the condition re-quired for th~ existence of a Church. A Church cannot exist without priests who distribute the sacraments and the word of God nor without people to receive them. But the hierarchy and the Christian people are the minimal conditions. If we envisage the Church in her fullness, in her integrity, to quote Monsignor Weber, then it is necessarily composed of lives consecrated to God. These lattei; are the sign of the very flowering of the community. As long as they remain unborn, the community is not fully complete. And now we take up the characteristic of the aspect of the structure of the Church which corresponds to the religious state. It is concerned with the purpose of the Church which is holiness, as Plus XII wrote in the con-stitution Provida Mater.~ This purpose evidently con-cerns all Christians. But, it implies a communal expres- Sion which will manifest itself not only individually but also in the very structure of the Church. This purpose, which is perfect union with Christ and which will not be consummated until our life in heaven, is already visibly signified in religious life. That is why thb liturgical consecration of virgins symbolized, from the times of the first Christian community, the nuptials of Christ and the Church: ,lust as the hierarchy is the or-gan by which the life of the risen Christ is communi-cated through the sacraments--and withou't which this life would not be commhnicated--and just as the sacra-ments create a milieu of grace vhere holiness is possible, just so, the religious state is the expression of the perfec-tion ofthis holiness by creating conditions which favor the flowering of the gcaces given by the sacraments. But the purpose of the Church is not only the sancti-fication of Christians but the glory of God. Here again, the religious state, especiall~ under the monastic and contemplative form but also under the apostolic form,. ~ See also Provida Mater. Acta dpostolicae Sedis, v. 39 (1947), p. !16. r Provida Mater, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, v. 39 (1947), p. 115. is the expression, at once communal and personal, of this end of the Church. Through the Divine Office, it perpetually represents the praying Church before the Trinity. It thus app.ears as a necessary function of the whole Body. "The Church," said Berdyaev, "cannot exist' without bishops and priests,~.bfit.she lives'and breathes through the martyrs and the ascetics." The Council is founded on the prayer of the Carmelites as much as on the authority of the bishops. This function of adora-tion appears even more vital for the Church and for the entire humanity as the world today separates itself from God and tends to smother itself in introversion. The function of monasteries as places of recollection is even more necessary for lay people as they are more involved in the world. Finally, another function of religious life is its eschatalogical significance. It appears as a foretaste of the life of glory that lies beyond our terrestrial tasks. In this sense it constitutes a reminder to men, engaged in earthly cares, of their real end. By detachment from riches, from pleasures, and from ambitions, it shows that worldly goods are not reality; it turns our gaze to-ward heavenly goods. Here again, the intensity of the religious life will determine its effectiveness as a coun-terbalance to worldly attractions. In ce}tain epochs, its attractiveness was such that it magnetized even the most powerful energies. It represents an advance guard of the Church which the laity needs to maintain the difficult balance between a life absorbed by the tasks through which they sanctify themselves but which at the same time are a heavy burden on them. Having said this, we have defined the religious state in itself, but it remains irue that the religious state is no more separated from the tasks of the Church. than the priestly state or the lay state. In this sense r~ligious par-ticipate in numerous cases in the priesthood and in the episcopacy and hence are introduced into the hie~'- archical ministery; furthermore, women religious carry a large part of the responsibility for building up the universal Church in their work of the apos.tolate, espe-cially to women. It is impossible to define limits in an absolutely rigorous way. But this is why it is first of all necessary to distinguish definitively the "states." It is in the measure that the religious state is first of all recog-nized in its nature, its function, and its own mission, that its participation in the communal life of the Church will be manifested more easily. 4- Place ot Religious VOLUME 24, 1965 SISTER HELEN JAMES JOHN, S.N.D. Rahner on Roles in the Church + 4. Sister Hden James John, S.N.D., is stationed at Trin-ity College; Wash. ington, D.C. 20017. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Recent discussion on all sides points toward a general redistribution of responsibilities in the life of the Church. Laymen are taking on tasks previously re-served to the clergy, as theologians, missionaries, leaders in Catholic Action; they are increasingly consulted in matters of Church teaching and government. Women are less and less silent in the Church as the days go by; they have gained admiss, ion~ to the ~anks of the theolo-gians, petitioned for their own representatives at the Council, even attracted serious theological attention to the question of giving them holy orders. The Council itself has given greater dimensions to the office of bishop and may well authorize a married diaconate in some parts of the world, and in the Western Church we have seen a few real instances and heard a vast amount of discussion of married priests. In the United States the active orders of women have long been running their own aggiornamento through the Sister Formation Movement and the Association of Major Superiors, and of late they have been exhorted by Cardinal Suenens to realize more fully their position as "auxiliaries of the clergy" and called on by Michael Novak to enter the mainstream of secular life. When sweeping changes are to be made, it is pecu-liarly important that the people making them should understand the.meaning and purpose of the institutions to be changed. In the matter of roles in the Church it has long been customary to appeal too the definitions of canon law; this will no longer suffice, for the ongoing discussion looks precisely to effecting changes in that law. What we need now is a theological perspective; and this is precisely what Karl Rahner has to offer. From his numerous, often technical, essays and conferences, we can assemble the main lines of a coherent and illumi-nating theology of vocations. This doctrine will not pro- vide cut and dried solutions ' to our current problems; Rahner endears himself to our own generation by his willingness to raise questions to which the answers are not indexed in Denzinger. But he can help us mightily to see just what is at stake in the decisions which must be made. Rahner's key principle iia this area is universal and unequivocal: "Through sacramental consecration and empowerment every Christian, in the Church is consti-tuted, qualified, and in duty bound to a position and task of active co~esponsibility and work inside and out-side theChurch." l~His further explorations into the meaning of the layman's situation, the official hier-archical apostolate of the clergy, and the eschatological witness proper to the religious are all to be understood as explications of this central theme. Layman, cleric, and religious alike are active members of the Church, called ¯ to take their special parts in the Church's.own task-- to make manifest in .the world the victorious coming of God's grace from on high. All the functions of all Christians are encompassed in the unique function of the Church herself which is to .be "the body of Christ, the enduring, .historical presence of His truth and grace in the world, the continuing efficacy of the incarnate Word in the flesh." What distinguishes the layman from the cleric or the religig.us is that he keeps, as his permanent life-situation, the place in the world which is his independently of and prior to his membership in the Church. This place in the wo~rld is determined by the individual's historical situation, his nation and,family, his natural abilities and interests. What constitutes him as a layman is the fact that he retains this place in the world for his Christian existence. By baptism, the layman is commissioned to bear witness; precisely in this place, "to .the truth, of God, to God's fidelity, and to the hope of eternal life." This means that the life-task of the layman cannot be conceived in terms merely of organized religion--Holy Name Sunday, fund-raising, and the like. It must be seen as the revolutionary realization that he is called to manifest the truth and the love of Christ in all the dimensions of his life--in his family, his profession, his participation in the political and cultural life of his community. His pla~e in the world provides the material for his Christian existence and lays upon him a respon, ~ibility which no one can assume in his stead. The special mission of the layman, then, will be found not in Catholic Action but in the action of Catholics; his fundamental obligations come to him not "from 1 Nature and Grace, trans. Dinah Wharton (London: Sheed and Ward, 19~3), p. 87. Italics Rahner's. ÷ ÷ ÷ Roles in the ¯ Church VOLUME 24, 1965 527. 4. 4. Sister Helen .lames $ohn, $.N.D. REVIEW FOR REIAG~OUS above," from the hierarchy, but "from below," from the requirements of his being in the world. The widening horizons of human experience--the secular sciences/the arts, technology, political life--are today calling for a ¯ radically new kind of Christian response. For ih a completely new historical sense, the "world" has, really only now, begun to exist, i.e. the world which man him-self has brought forth out of n~iture; ultimately, this world can be christianized only by the one who has fashioned it, viz. the layman.' This Christianizing of the temporal constitutes the "lay apostolate" in Rahner's strict sense of the term--a mission in the life of the Church for which the layman. possesses real autonomy and the strict duty of leader-ship. And it follows from this definition that the lay apostolate cannot be organized from above by a kind of ecclesiastical "state socialism." There are, and there should be, associations of lay Catholics by which they seek to aid each Other in the accomplishment of their mission; but the nature of the task itself rules out the possibility of its being mapped out in detail on an a priori basis. Hence there, is need for whav Rahner terms "a supernatural existential ethics," which recognizes not only the validity of abstract moral principles but also the direct claim of God upon the unique personal re-sponse of the Christian in his concrete situation. Among the practical consequences which Rahner draws from this view of the layman's vocation, two perhaps 'are of special interest and relevance. The first is posi-tive: There .is need for full recognition of the autonomy of the layman in those areas where his proper mission lies. To use Rahner's own example: Conscientious laymen who are editors of magazines should not have to ~sk themselves, as apprehensively as is sometimes the ¯ case, whether the opinions expressed in their periodicals are are agreeable to those in high places or not? Negatively, the limit of the layman's proper mission is set by his being-in-the-world. The work of th~ lay aposto-late is not, essentially, the work of recruiting, convert-ing, warning, or exhorting (which work is characteristic of the official hierarchical mission), but the dynamic witness of his own Christian life. The formation for this apostolate thus consis~s not in the kind of drilling geared to train aggressive militants of a basically "Salva-tion Army" type, but education for the vital interior Christianity which alone can express itself in the witness of an authentically lived Christian life. ~ Theological Investigations, v. 2, trans. Karl H. Kruger (Balti-more: Helicon, 1964), p. 349. ~ Theological Investigations, v. 2, p. 351. ¯ In contrast to the layman, the "cleric" is one whose basic and permanent life-task lies in the hierarchical ministry of the Church, that ministry which represems, in and for the Church, "Christ's po.sition as Lord in relation to the people of the Church." The. cl~ri~ shares in the mission and the power to form Christians' and to maintain and strengthen the Christian community. For the sake of this mission,' the "official" apostle must be sent out. He is called to give up his original place in the world, to leave:his nets and house and lands; .for his apostolic mission claims his whole existence. He 'is sent to spaces and dimensions of human existence which are not naturally his own; and to these he brings his mes-sage not simply as bearer of his own Christianity, but as the messenger of .Christ who must deliver his message not only in ~eason but also and especially out of season. This concept of the official hierarchical ministry, it should be noted, is considerably wider than that which limits it to men in holy orders. Edward Schillebeeckx, O.P., for. example, regards deacons, priests, and bishops as the only partic!pants in the hierarchical ministry. In Rahner's analysis, ho.wever, this ministry involves the exercise of two distinct types of power: the sacramental, "priestly" powers communicated by ordination and the ¯ "prophetic" power~ of ruling and teaching in the Church. In the divinely instituted office of bishop, the two ai'e inseparable; the bishop is at once high :priest and successor to the "Apostles. Yet in other instances, Rahner maintains, these powers can be separated and subdivided. The test case which he uses '~o clarify this point is that in which a layman should be elected pope: possessing by his election the plenitude of the power of jurisdiction, he could hardly be said to remain a lay-man while awaiting ordinationt The practical consequence of this theoretical position is that all who actually share either in the power of orders or in the mandate of ruling and.teaching are to be considered as ~'clerics." The official ministry is not then limited to priests. Catechists, missiona.ries, and theologians, women as well as men, married people as well as celibates, receive with their apostolic mission a new status within the Church. Certain limitations On the pow0:s which a woman may exercise arise from the fact that in the higher offices (that is, the episcopate) the powers of orders and of jurisdiction are noimally joined. And Rahner sees the restriction of holy orders to men as a matter of divine institution.4 On the other hand, the celibacy of priests in the Western Church is to be understood as the taking over of an essential ~ See Theological Investigations, v. 2, p. 321. However, lately there have been rumors that Father Rahner has changed his mind. Roles in the Church VOLUME.24; 1965 529 4. 4. 4. Sister Helen ]ames John, S2V.D. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS aspect of the religious life rather than as a quality of the priesthood as such. This view of the hierarchical apostolate looks toward an increasingly clear and officially constituted .diversity of ministries among the. "clergy," for the accomplish-ment of tasks which lie beyond the ~cope. of the lay apostolate as defined above. The rule which Rahner introduces here is simple but often overlooked: "If someone is entrusted with a task, he should be allowed to fulfill it" (Rahner's italics). And he goes on to. ex-press the hope that as efforts are made to act upon this ¯ rule, we shall see the gradual disappearance of the in-stinctive tendency of priests to lord it over their non-ordained colleagues in apostolic work. As this occurs ¯ and as areas of responsibility become more clearly de-fined, it should become less difficult to recruit mature and qualified Christians for professional engagement in Catholic Action "and other ecclesiastical endeavors. Nor does Rahner limit this suggestion to the filling, of gaps in the lower echelons arising out of the shortage of priests. He would like to see people today who would play the same role in the Church as ,did, iri their time, Tertullian, Origen, Clement of Alexandria, and 'Cathe-rine of Sienal" As the layman's task is to bear witness to Christ pre-cisely in and through the ,activities of hissecular life by the loving and faithful ac.complishment of duties which have their .own natural significance, so the spe-cial calling of the religious is t6 make manifest .in his life the transcendent and eschatological dimensions of divine grace. The kingdom of God has already come in Christ; and the center of Christian life, even while we await. His coming in glory; has been set beyond this world. Thus, to be true 'to her own essence, the Church must present herself as having here no abiding city~ as awaiting the x;eturn of her Lord. This aspect of the Church comes to realization, as it were sacramentally, in communities of religious. Religious Orders are a social expression of the charismatic and'enthusiastic element in the Church. a representational part of the victorious grace of God that has come into the world, which draws man beyond the field of his own possibilities and incorporates him into the life of God himself? Since the eschatol6gical dimension, of Christianity consists precisely in the fact that the Christian's life is centered beyond the realm of natural values and mean. ings, the realm directly accessible to human experience, it cannot manifest itself in natural morM activity. For such activity expresses the natural perfection of man's own being; thou.gh this .may be .inwardly divinized by "The Motives of Poverty," Sponsa Regi,~, v. 33 (1962), p. 349. grace, itcannot of itself show forth, outwardly the transcendent love by which it is informed. The only possible human manifestation of this aspect of grace is found in the renunciation of positive and .lofty natural values ."for the sake of the Kingdom." It is' of the es-sence of the evangelical cduns~ls that th6y cannot be .justified within the framework of a natural morality;. tO sacrifice, the possession of m~terial goods, the noble . joy of marriage, and One's own personal autonomy Would be sheer madness if the meaning of man's life were to be realized within this world. The special .role of the re-ligious in the Church. is thus, in the famous words of Cardinal Suhard, "to be a living mystery, to live in such a way that one's life would not make sense if God did not exist." By religious profession, then, a Christian does not add a properly new vocation to the common, vocation which all receive in baptism. Rather, he binds himself by vow to live out, even externally, at all the levels of his life and in its total meaning, that entrance into the redeem-ing death of Christ which is begun for every Christian in baptism and which is at last achieved by God's grace in his death in Christ. The religious wills to express outwardly in the concrete circumstances of his life his inward assent to the constant prayer of the first Christians: "Let grace'come and let this world pass awayl" Accordingly,. he makes his desire to die with Christ, to become a fool for Christ's sake, the central factor in the existential shaping of his life. The vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience derive their total meaning from the invitation of Christ to come follow Him; they are rooted and grounded in His proclama-tion of the kingdom. In consequence, Rahner has little use for all those considerations, beloved of spiritual writers, which would recommend the counsels, to us as the avoidance of dangers to the practice of virtue or as the "heroic" moral achievement of something more perfect simply because more difficult. The only justification for the religious life lies in its concrete expression of the act of faith in the coming of God's grace from on high. Thus, religious poverty is meaningful only insofar as it fosters a radical readiness for the kingdom of God. By selling his goods and giving the proceeds to the poor, the Christian expresses his belief in the kingdom which unites all men in brotherhood and love; he gives visible testimony to his recognition that God's grac~ is the only ultimate fulfillment of human life. The same essential motive and meaning lies at the heart of consecrated virginity. Rahner rejects without hesitation any proposal to regard virginity in itself as a 4- + Roles in the Church VOLUME 24, 1965 53! 4" 4. 4. Sister Helen ]ames John, S.N.D. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS self-evident ideal. The vow of chastity has its source in sacred history, in the virginity of the Mother of God, of whom he.writes: Her virginity, and the origin of our Lord without an earthly father, signify one and the same thing, not in.words, but in easil~ unddrstood terms of human life: God is the God of freely bestowed grace, who cannot be drawn down from on high by all.our endeavors, whom we can only receive as the inexpressibly freely given gift of himself.6 The celibacy of the religious is m~ant to give existential expression to an inner altitude of expectation, of recep-tivity, of awaren(ss that Ultimately only God's free.ly given grace is important. Likewise, in this context, religious, obedience is by no means a canonization of the natural virtue in the ab-stract as the simple willingness to execute the will of.an-other. Nor does it in a0y way relieve the subject of responsibility for what he does; an act is no less the sub-ject's own for hav!ng been comrfianded. Rather, the vow of obedience relates to the totality of the life of the counsels; by it a man accepts a permanbnt life-form giving him a Godward orientation. What is at stake here. is not simply thb readiness to carry out particular com- .mands but the free decision to embrace a life that is not primarily concerned with the tangible realiza-tion of worldly objectives, but which through faith makes the expectation, of hidden grace the ground of existence, and trans, lates this faith into act. The man who accepts obedience as the authentic out-ward expression of his faith in Christ makes of his whole life a practical anticipation of the situation in which every Christian faces death-~the command of God to move on and to leave all, to allow ourselves in faith to be ab-. sorbed in the great silence of God, no longer to resist the all-embracing nameless destiny which rules over'us.7 Thus the whole life of the religious is meant to be a visible participation iia the death of Christ. Just as no one can replace the layman in his task of manifesting the presence of God's grace in the various spheres of secular life, so no one can replace the religious in his witness to the world-transcending character of that grace. Thus Rahner is clear in his opposition.to any practical proposal which would abandon the e~chato-logical witness of the vows for the sake of greatex~ effi-ciency even in apostolic tasks. The lived manifestation of transcendent grace is no less essential to the life of the Church than is the preaching of the Gospel; nor 6Mary, Mother of the Lord (New York: Herder and Herder, 1963), p. 69. 7 "Reflections on Obedient:e," Cross Currents, v. 10 (1960), p. 374. may we assume that all tasks which must be accom-plished by the Church ought ipso facto to be accom-plished by religious communities. On the other hand, the celibacy even of diocesan priests in the West and the apostolic work actually done by religious communities do manifest an inner'connection, though not a neces-sary connection, between the religious and the clerical vocations. In the Ignatian spirituality common to so many active congregations of men and women today, the ideals of "indifference" and of "seeking God in all things" are firmly rooted in the ground of the monastic tradition. Far from evading the folly of the cross, these ideals give radical recognition to God's transcendence by requiring from the religious a readiness to follow the call of God's will wherever it may lead, to have in grim practice no abiding city--not even in the. stability of the monastery. The specific details of the life of religious-- like the life of all Christians--will be shaped by the demands of individual or communal vocation; but they will fail in their dominant purpose if they do not make visible and convincing a rugged and radical Christian nonconformity to the standards of this world. It hardly need be pointed out that the line between these vocations are fluid and that each represents by its special witness factors which are essential in every Christian life. Thus every Christian must," in some measure, lead a life both of humanly meaningful ac-tivity and of supernaturally motivated renunciation; laymen may be entrusted, temporarily or on a part-time basis, with properly clerical tasks, such as those of the CCD instructor or of the subdeacon at a high Mass. The celibate priests of the West and the active congre-gations of men and women (most of whom, under Rahner's definitions, would seem to qualify as "clerks regular") unite in their lives in permanent fashion the apostolic mission of the cleric and the eschatological witness of the religious. In a host of situations, layman, cleric, and religious are called to collaborate in the achievement of the same end--that is, the total educa-tion of Catholic youth or the solution of social problems. And by the unity of laity, clergy, and religious, not only in the sacramental unity of worship but in their visible collaboration in the life of the Church, the Church achieves even at the levels of everyday moral and social existence a quasi-sacramental showing-forth ofthe inner meaning of all Christian life--divine love, ever filling the whole world and ever pointing beyond it to the world to come. Roles in the Church VOLUME 24, 1965 533 KEVIN D. O'ROURKE, O.P, Revising Canon Law for Religious Father Kevin D. O'Rourke, O.P., is Dean of Theology at the Aquinas In-stitute of Theology; St. Rose Priory; Du-buque, Iowa 52002. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 534 What* policies and principles should govern the forthcoming revision of the canon law for religious? What changes must be made in the law to enable religious to better accomplish their role in the work of renewal within the Church? Changes in law should be made only for the betterment of the common good, and they should flow from principles which are invoked to correct weaknesses or problems in organization or activity which are harming the efforts directed toward the com-mon good. An honest appraisal of the present day struc-ture of religious communities, of their apostolic efforts, and of the attitude many religious have toward law, re-veals problems and attitudes which seriously endanger the efforts religious are making to sanctify themselves, the Church, and its people. By openly recognizing and ac-knowledging these attitudes and problems, the principles which will correct and solve them may be found; and these are the principles which should govern the revi-sion of the canon law for religious. ~ Even the casual observer realizes that one grave prob-lem in religious communities is a lack of respect for the law. Canon law, and the canon law for religious in particular, has fallen into ill repute. In the period since World War lI, a spirit has :arisen which seeks to belittle Church law. By many, canon law is equated with "mere 1.egalism"; and a dichotomy between the law of the Spirit and the written law of the Church is often proclaimed or intimated. To a great extent, this attitude flows from, or at least coincides with, a general spirit of disrespect toward all authority. But on the other hand, there seems to be a definite shortcoming in the canon law itself which may occasion and promote this attitude. ¯ This is the text of a talk given to a group of midwest religious canonists at a two-day conference held at the Passionist Retreat House in Detroit,' Michigan during Christmas week, 1964. Adaptation of religious communities to present-day mentalities and needs of the apostolate is another serious problem calling for revision of the law for religious. One doubting that the organization and apostolate of religious communities are attuned to successful modern apostolic activity, need only consult the writings of the last four popes. Time and time again, they have called for adaptation of the-structure, mentality, and apostolic activities in line with the needs of contemporary so- Ciety and with the mind of the founder.Just as the Church, through Vatican .Council II, seeks to evaluate and update its o~ganization and activity, so religious communities should bring about themodifications which will enable them to do their work well in the contempo-rary world. With the Church, religious.communities are in need of apostolic renewal. The modifications in organization and apostolic ac-tivity which, religious communities .must make can be ~uccessfully accomplished only through a revision in the law. True, a 9hange in attitude has already occurred in many religious and many religious communities. Some individuals and some religious groups have al-ready made. the adaptations which renewal demands. But the common good, the good of all communities and all individuals, can be assured only through a change in the law. Therefore, religious communities will not be truly renewed, nor will they fulfill their potential in the Church, until their laws are renewed in accord with the needs of the apostolate. A consideration of.the cultural .pattern presently ex-isting in the United States reveals another distressing situation. Religious are not influencing the minds of men as strongly and dramatically as they should. In former times, religious were. among the intellectual leaders of. their society. Often they were the best edu-cated people in the community; even if their thought was rejected, it was at least well known. Those who did not agree with them were aware of them; and before acting contrary to the opinion of the ~eligious thinkers they had to attack and, .if possible, refute their opinion. Hence many and bitter arguments and disputes arose between secular and religious figures. Today, however, our teaching.draws no such attacks; it can be ignored as the doctrine of people who are not in touch with the times. SecuIar thinkers.n0 longer bother to refute the thought 0f religious thinkers; they merely declare it ir-relevant to the important matters of life.~ The point is not to deprecate or criticize in any way the energy, zeal, or apostolic spirit of" the many dedicated religious 1 Hence the theme of Dietrich von Bonhoeffer in Letters From Prison and of John A. T. Robinson. in Honest to God. 4. + Rcoising Canon VOLUME 24i 1965 ÷ ÷ Keoin D. O' Rourke, O~P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS men and women working in America today. But on the other hand, if we reflect that there are about two hun-dr~ d thousand religious men and women working for Christ in the United States, it'hardl~ seems that we are influencing the Catholic and non-Catholic community as'we should. We seem to be able to preserve the faith, but we are weak when it comes to enriching it or spread-ing it. In order to solve these briefly outlined problems which tend to destroy the vitality of religious communities and seriously hamper their apostolate, three principles must govern the revision of canon law for religious. Integration with Theology The first principle i~: Remove the de facto separation between canon law and theology. Competent theologians and canon lawyers, while allowing canon law its own rules of interpretation, always. recognized that canon law is an integral part of theology and, as such, subject to the more general principles of that science. In other words, competent Scholars have never forgotten the need for integration between these two sciences. Nonetheless, even these scholars have not insisted a!way~ upon this integration in practice, nor have they sufficiently im-pressed it upon others. Reintegrating canon law with theology does not mean ~hat we should change our present formof Church law or the rules of interpreation. Stating the finis legis in the law, or changing the brief manner in which it is now stated, would be a mistake. Our system of writing and interpreting laws has been worked out through trial and .error over th~ centuries; to tamper with it now would cause confusion and lead to further disrespect for the law. The reintegration of canon law and theology should be accomplished through a process of education. Pre-ceding the Code there should be a statement explaining canon law not as a burden but as an instruction given. us by the Mystical Body of Christ to lead us closer to our divine Savior. Our law should be explained as a fulfill-ment, rather than a limitation, of Christian liberty. In the Code itself, especially in the section De religiosis, there should be some kind of statement that canon law legislates only the minimum, the safeguards of Christian activity. A statement such as the following from Hiiring, for example, might serve to make clear in what sense observance of canon law fits the total Christian life. As lbve implies obedience, so it implies l~(w, and love and law are essentially and mutually interchangeable. Obedience of love is surely more comprehensive than mere legal obedience for" mere observance of law is the lowest degree of obedience. Mere legal obedience.is not yet in the shadow of love. External laws are no more than universal regulations and therefore basically only minimum requirements. Universal rules cannot in fact even prescribe what is highest and best, since the best is not universal and cannot be demanded of men universally. On the contrary love by its very nature strives for the highest and best and seeks the most perfect manifestation of its ideals in action. How can one who does not fulfill the minimum requirements of law progresstoward that which is higher and better? Since the minimum requirements ar~ basic for the fulfillment of the law of love, love may never violate or ignore the law. At the same time one who truly loves may not remain'at the lowest level of obedience and be satisfied with the bare legal minimum.' Moreover,' whenever fitting,' tracts of canon law should be introduced by theological texts, whether Biblical, systematic, or pastoral, . which clearly point out the inti-mate relationship between the observance of some par-ticular law and growth in the spiritual life. To maintain that the Code of Canon Law is directed to the salvation of souls when it seldom mentions spiritual motives or values is rather inconsistent. Just as the Fifth Book of the Code of Canon Law is more clearly understood within a spiritual framework by reason of the pastoral imroduction from the Council of Trent, so other tracts of the Code could be given greater definition and .pur-pose through Similar introductions. The encyclicals, the councils, the works of the Fathers and great' theologians, provide ample sources for these texts; and using them in the Code would demonstrate the historical .continuity of our present-day law. Placing these readings before the various tracts on law may not appeal to the legal mind, and there is little reason why it should. But we must realize that canon law cannot be judged only by legal standards alone; canon law is also pastoral theology, and therefore it must be presented in a way which makes it good theology as well as good law. . Through this approach, basically one .of education, many canonical instruments could be restored to proper perspective. The relationship of superior to subject, one that should be founded upon the relationship of Christ and Hi~ friends, would become clearer; the tensions between Secular and re.ligious clergy could be resolved in favor of a more effective apostolate; the observance of the vows would be more meaningful and make a much greater contribution to charity; the place of prayer ond the apostolate in the life of the individual religious could be more clearly understood and effec-tively realized; and many other p~oblems of policy and practice which trouble re.ligious communities today would at least be alleviated. ~ Bernard Hiiring, C.Ss.R., The Law of Christ (Westminster: New-man, 1961), w 2, p. 94. ÷ ÷ ÷ Revising ~,anon VOLUME 24, 1965 537 K~in D. O'Rourk~, O.P. REVIEW FOR RE£1GIOUS. 5~8 ¯ :$ubsidiarity. The second, principle might be stated as .follows: Apply the principle o[ subsidiarity to the government of religious communities. This principle requires, posi-tively, that the society which is the Church offer to the individual the help toward his goal which he Cannot provide for .himself, and negatively, that the Church so far as it is a society restrict itshelp and control in the areas where the individual carl provide for himself (W. Bertrams, S.J., "De pringipio subsidiaritatis in. iure canonico," Periodica, 46.[1957], p. 13). Abraham Lin-coln put the same thought this way: "Never let govetn-ment do for some one what he can do for himself"; and Pope John XXIII put this forward as one of the basic principles of good government (Pacem in Terris, n. 141). Clearly, insofar, as the Church is a governing body, this principle 'should be paramount, Religious communities, therefore, since they are legal .individuals, should be allowed'to direct and provide for themselves, insofar as is possible. Application of this principle does not mean that re-ligious communities should be completely auton6mous. There must b~ some contact and control exercised by the Holy See, especially over those communities that are directly subject to it, or else the common good would suffer. But the extent to which this control is now exer-cised far exceeds, the needs of good and responsible government. Consider, for example, the regulations in regard to alienation' and debts, the extent of the Quin-quennial Report and other regulations which through the O years have tended to centralize the governnient of religious in the Congregation of Religious. The concept of collegiality and the formation of na-tional episcopal conferences.are a reflection of the prin-ciple of subsidiarity and the fact that the Church is beginning to recognize the contribution of this principle toward good government. Applying this principle to the government of religious communities would pave the way for a national conference of religious .superiors which would have jurisdiction to coordinate and direct the apostolate of religious in accord with the general directives of the Holy See. Through a conference of religious superiors possessing jurisdiction, religious could be represented .in the national episcopal confer-ence; common pr6jects, such as testing and formation centers for candidates could be established; norms for combining existing theological, schools could, be out-lined; and the'rivalry and lack of contact which at present exists among religious communities to the detri-ment of the apostolate could be removed or at least alleviated, Even more important is the applicati~)n of this prin-ciple at the provincial level: In too many communities, especially in communities of religious women, there is a centralization of power in the provincial superior. In these communities, local superiors are not~ allowed to grant dispensations from the constitutions even for good reasons; and all appointments and permissions, even the more insignificant ones, are made by the .provincial su-periors. Local superiors, often mature people who would govern well, .are restricted to doing nothing that is "not in the book." Examples of the lack of subsidiarity are too well known to need repetition. Perhaps in times past there might have been some justification for such a con-centration of power; all. religious were not educated, and imprudent permissions might have resulted if too much power had been given ~o local superiors. But to-day, the religious vocation demands a degree of ma-turity in each individual; this maturity can be fostered 'and will. flourish only if subsidiarity is expressed in the general and particular laws for religious. Professional Competence The third principle is:. The active religious in the modern wo~ld must be a competent professional. This principle is perhaps the most important and far reach-lng of the three. Implicit in this principle is the need for a new mentalit~ insofar as the apostolic life of re-ligious is concerned. Moreover, realizing this principle requires that the formation o~ religious for the aposto- !ate be so ordered that greater stress is placed upon maturity than upon conformity. In the .past, profes-sional competence and the corresponding professional mode of organization which must be pre~ent to.produce professional competence were not so important because the society in which the Church existed and even flourished was not dominated by professionally compe-tent people. But now it is; the people who control ideas, the people with whom religious must compete for men's minds, are professionally competent and work in an atmosphere where the professional mode of organiza-tion dominates. Unless the Church integrates profes-sional competence into the total concept of the religious life, there will be no true adaptation of religious com-munities to meet the apostolic challenge of our times. Stressing the need for professional competence does not mean that religious should be judged solely by the technical exceUence with which they teach or. carry out. ¯ the apostolate. We all know that God accomplishes more through the virtuous than through those who are merely technically competent. No~ does it mean that all. re- Revising Canon. + ÷ ÷ Kevin ' D . O' Rour lw, O.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 540 ligious must have die ability-to do their professional work as well as their non-Catholic counterpart. But stressing professional competence does mean that we must adapt ~ new mentality, a mentality which will allow those who are able to. do so to excel as professionMs in their apostolic activities and thus have a much greater influence upon the minds of men.3 The mentality of professional competence is con-trasted to the present apostolic mentality of religious organizations by Joseph Fichter, S.J., in the following mann'er:4 Organization involves: 1. centralized leader-ship, 2. emphasis on procedure, 3. simp.lification of tasks, 4. little initiative, 5. corporate r.esponsibility, 6. imper-sonal relations, 7. ascribed status, 8. service to the system. The professional mode of organization, on the other hand, requires: I. leadership of expertness, 2. variabil-ity of proceduresl 3. totality of tasks~ 4. broad initiative, 5. personal responsibility, 6. close colleague relations, 7. achieved status, 8. service to the client (Religion as an Occupation; Notre Dame Press, 1961, p. 224). In other words, if someone becomes a competent professional in an apostolic religious community in America today; he or she does it in spite of the system not through and because of it. The apostolic spirit of the religious group. centers more .upon conformity than upon initiative. For this reason we have remained upon the fringe of those who influence society; at times one of our members may move into the influence group, that group of profes-sionals who are respected for their ability and wisdom; but we must all admit that this is not the ordinary case. What part of changing the apostolic mentality of re-lig! ous could canon law play? Changing a mentality, it seems, is accomplished only through non-legal means, for 'example, through an enthusiastic movement. Yet, any change in attitude or mentality, if it is to make a stable and lasting contribution to the common good, must be incorporated into the law. Enthusiasm may sur-vive and contribute to the common good for one genera-tion or two, but only through the law can we perma- 8 Notice ihat the need for a mentality of professional competence is confined to the apostolic effort of the community. The bureau-cratic mentality, or the stress.upon conformity, is necessary insofar as the common life is coficerned or else chaos would result in the ~ommunity. There will always be, therefore, a tension between con-formity and initiative in the life of an active religious, but it seems that in our time, the tendency to conformity has overcome initiative ¯ and hence apostolic life is severely hampered. ~Father Fichter states ihat the re.ligious mode of organization resembles thd bureaucratic, but in using this word he does not in-tend to convey the pejorative overtones that this word implies. Bu-reaucratic organization is necessary and good for some societies ~nd their activities but not, it seems, for the religious society in its apostolic effort. nently, maintain the benefits of enthusiastic movements. The liturgical movement, for example, changed the thinking of many in regard to the liturgy; But ~he change in mentality was 0nly put into .practical effect through the new law on the liturgy promulgated by Vatican Council II. Through ~he law, then, it must,be made clear that the training of religious should be so designed as to develop maturity.Supeiiors and subjects alike should be instructed in the need for personal responsi-bility and the development of initiative. By framing legislation which allows for~the development of profes-sional competence through rather than in spite of re-ligious life, we will most certainly assure that religious will adapt to present day needs of apostolic activity. This thinking is not foreign to the mind of the Holy Father. When speaking ab6ut renewal in the Church, Pope Paul VI said: Let us repeat once again for our common admonition, and profit, the Church will rediscover her renewed youthfulness not so much by changing her exterior laws as by interiorly assimilat-ing her true spirit of obedience to Christ and accordingly by ob-serving those laws which the Church prescribes for herself with the. intention of following Christ. Here is the secret of her renewal, here her exercise of perfec-tion. Even though the Church's law might be made easier to observe by the simplification of some of its precepts and by placing confidence in the liberty of the modern Christian with his greater knowledge ofhis duties and his greater maturity and wisdom in choosing the means to fulfill them, the law neverthe-less retains its essential binding force (Ecclesiam Suam). The significant words here are: "the Church's law might be made easier to observe by. placing confidence in the liberty of the modern Christian with his greater knowledge of his duties and his greater maturity and wisdom in choosing the means to fulfill them . " This principle is not restricted to lay people; it applies to religious as well. By stressing this note of personal responsibility in all laws which concern the discipline and training of religious, significant progress will be made in forming the type of apostle who will win the world for Christ. Arguing for the adaptation and implementation of this principle does not in any way mitigate the need for ready and prompt obedience to the mind of Christ; rather it increases it. Nor does this principle signify a departure from the traditional interpretation which pictures religious obedience as a conformation of the intellect as well as of the will of the subject to the intel-lect and will of the superior who takes the place of Christ. Neither does it propose a false dichotomy be-tween law and love as motives for observing the law, as some do. Nor does it naively imply that religious should 4- ÷ Reoising t~anon Law VOLUME 24, 1965 determine what course their training should take, as though those who are .in the process of training are al-ready mature religious. Rather, this principle seeks to stress that in the process of training, maturity and ini-tiative must be tho?oughly developed so that active re-ligious can carry the message of Christ in a way that will have great impa~t upon the world. In a word, the prin-ciple of professional competence opts for a system of formation and an active apostolate which will feature religious maturity integrated with religious obedience, an apostolate and formation that will depend more upon the initiative and personal responsibility of the individual religious [or fulfillment and perfection than upon conformity to the group or direction by a su-perior. These, then, are the three principles which seem to be basic in any meaningful revision of canon law. If the revisers o~ the Code are interested in putting patches upon an aged and venerable, garment, then principles of revision need not be discussed or applied; but if they wish to face the problems of religious life and the apostolate head-on, .if they wish to update and adapt canon law to modern needs and situations, then princi-ples such as those stated above should be used when re-vising the canon law for religious. Kevi. D. O'Rour/~, OJ). REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS MOTHER M. ANGELICA,'P.C. One Heart and One Soul At the third session of the Vatican Council, a sum-mary of the Council document on religious had only a very passing reference to contemplative orders. These brief paragraphs reiterate the necessity of renewal and rejuvenation in these institutes. The fact that we are not engaged in the active life does not exempt us from necessary and careful examination and reevaluation of certain secondary details in. the general structure ofour life. Before we accomplish tl~is renewal, we must first of. all realize that when the Church speaks she is speaking to her contemplative religious as well as to the faithful. Thechanges in the Mass and the like should be made not merely to show our obedience but that we may reap those abundant fruits Which these changes seek to pro-mote. The reluctance Of cloistered communities to com-ply with the directives and ~changes promoted by the -Holy See seems to reflect a certain misunderstanding of the nun's place in the Church. Because of long-stand-ing privileges and constitutions, nuns fail to realize that the changing mind of the Church must affect them as well as it affects the laymen. In their rightful place as the loving heartof Holy Mother Church, they should be solicitously alert to her need of them as a power-house of prayer and of vigorous activity loving God and their neighbor With all the strength and talents at their command. Contemplative life is completely penetrated by di-vine charity, which inspires its actions and rewards its effbrts. In a world of turmoil, we are to be the example of the spirit and love of the first Christians.A nun filled with love cannot help'but show that love; "and this love wil! foster in the monastery a beautiful family spirit a family spirit which makes each sister feel loved and free to love in return. Where love governs a monastery and union with God is the ideal of all who live there, for-malism and regimentation are' washed away by the h,ealthy lifestream of common charity. What exactly is the family spirit, and why is it so The Reverend Mother M. Angel-ica, P.C., is the ab-bess of Our Lady of the Angels Monas-tery; Route 4--Box 66 Old Leeds Road; Birmingham, Ala-bama 35210. VOLUME 24, 1965 ÷ ÷ Mother M. Angelica, P.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS different from prevailing, conditions in many monas-teries? What changes can be made that would be com-mon to all contemplative orders while leaving to each its own distinctive spirit and aim? This article is a fam-ily project in which each nun has made a contribution in some way, and the following suggestions are the re-sult of this common effort to open the windows and let in the fresh air. Although a monastery is governed by the superior and her council, all professed nuns--at least, solemnly professed--should share in that govern-ment. When this is the case, the nuns learn to take their rightful place in the community as mature and intelli-gent women, using all their mental and physical re-sources to aid the abbess and help relieve her in some measure of her many burdens and to share her respon-sibilities. There are .many advantages to this .arrange-ment; for example, a strong bond of unity ties the nuns together and unites them as true.daughters of the mother God has given them; warm bonds of friendship and understanding prevail where sisters feel that their sug-gestions and opinions are appreciated and valued; obedience is made more reasonable and easier when the nuns know they are all pulling together for a common good; they feel that the monastery belongs to them as theirhome--as in truth it does (this realization should do away with the necessity of asking permission to ob-tain needed articles, personal or otherwise, from the common store--they are entitled to this trust and free-dom). The family spirit must embrace the whole world but especially members of the active orders. In religious life we are not competitors. When we begin to think that one life is higher and another lower, we have failed in our concept of the Mystical Body. We all belong to the same religious family; we all have the same general aim; namely, personal sanctification and the salvation, of souls. The means We employ are different, .but we a~e still one.The contemplative nun must be aware of the sacrifices and hardships of her brothers and. sisters in Africa, in China, and in other mission territories, and in the hospitals, schoolrooms, and missions of her own country. What affects them affects her Spouse, and this must be of great importance to her. Only then will she be able to make her own sacrifices with greater gener-osity in order to provide the ammunition needed by those in the front lines. The active order sister, too, must realize that the contemplative nun has not chosen :the easiest life buta life that demands many sacrifices and. much love--not only to praise, love, and adore God, but in order to obtain for her other sisters many graces so they can better fulfill their vocation in the active life. .The general financial condition of the monastery should be discussed, with all chapter members so that they can intelligently practice poverty. When familiar with this condition, they will use needed articles in their respective work with greater care and economy. ¯ When all work is rotated fi:~quently, the nuns become aware of one another's, prob.lems and difficulties. This rotation.of work helps the superior to brin.g out in her daughters their abilities and talents--talents they never realized existed. If each nun is ieft freedom to fulfill her work in her. own way, even though it ma~ be differ-ent from everyone else's, the superior will help greatly in developing her personality and dignity as an indi-vidual. The superior of any monastery carries a great respon-sibility. She must not .so much command as.request, and this request must be given With love.She must lead, cajole, persuade, and direct her daughters through love, ever keeping in.mind their dignity as spouses of Christ. ¯ She should give them the opportunity, at lectures or chapters, to have round table discussions whe~:e ideas can be exchanged and suggestions encouraged. The nuns should be allowed to r~ad periodicals in regard to changes in world conditions,, new r.eligious. trends, and world crises. They should be kept abreast of the times and not allow themselves to become com-pletely .isolated. Recendy, major superiors were asked for observations and sugges.tions toward the renewal of canon law for religious. We were asked in what areas we thought re-ligious life needed study, discussion, clarification, and adaptation. The following are a few of our observations and I am sure there are many more that other com-munities will have: (1) Why could not all the major superiors of the con-templative orders meet--Carmelites, Dominicans, Poor Clares, and so forth--and discuss one another's needs and difficulties? Even though each order hasa different founder, aim, and spirit, we still have the same goal; and we could benefit one another by an exchange of ideas in the basic things common to all. (2) It' would be good to have some law requiring the 'orders to re-evaluate their-constitutions and directories every ten or fifteen years; and this should be done with + all the chapter members of .that community giving + opinions and suggestions. Many of the customs which ÷ we hold dear have become outdated and create among One Heart and ¯ young aspirants a feeling of tension and restraint, one Soul. Thege customs were beautiful and had great meaning when they were originally instituted, but the life of a vOLUME 24, 196s young girl in the world today is so different from what. 545 .÷. ÷ ÷ Mother M. Angelica, P.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 546 it was a century ago that certain customs have lost all meaning. (3) Most of our monasteries have major papal encl0, sure and all changes must be Approved by Rome. But climate and .local custom sometimes make it necessary for one monaster~ to make. changes that another would not need. It would be a tremendous help if some parts of constitutions could.be changed with the permission of the local ordinary, who knows that monastery and its problems. (4) The Sacred Constitution On. the Liturgy states that with the permission of their competent superior the nuns may say the Divine Office in English. With the English Office and the high school education that most aspirants. have, why is it necessary to retain the class of lay sister? Class distinction and rank have no place among those striving to imitate the first Christians who were one heart and one soul. (5) Many a local ordinary would no doubt be grateful if the. abbess or prioress had the faculty to grant per-mission for her daughters to go to the dentist, doctor, or hospital. New advances in medicine and treatments make it more necessary today for cloistered nuns to make trips outside the monastery than it was a century ago. (6) The greatest thing a superior can do for her com-munity is to make sure there is someone qualified to take her. place. There can be great danger when one superior is allowed to stay in office over a long period of. time; on the other hand, forcing an upheaval in a small community, every Six years can also be .detrimental. Set-ting a definite term .of years for one person in office seems to infringe upon the freedom of the nuns to vote, as mature women, for the superior tliey wish. Postula-tion and application to ihe Holy See seem to be extraor-dinary barriers which, influence voting. With periodic visitations, injustices could be handled when they arose mwithout influencing the nuns in either direction. This is a prbblem p.revalent in small communities. (7) It is understandable why a priest is bound under pain of mortal sin in the recitation of the Divine Office (although the helpfulness of this has been questioned); but why nuns? The penalty for omitting a small part of the Divir.e Office seems greater than the offense. A nun must recite her Office out of love, in a spirit of adora-tion, realizing that next to the Mass this is her most important work. A nun who is not imbued with this spirit is not really saying the Office but is only .pro-nouncing the word~, and the penalty of mortal sin will never give her the zeal she lacks. By the same token, the penalty of excommunication for breaking the enclosure in a minor point seems high. Again--the enclosure must be kept out of love. (8) Major. superiors should understand that their. nuns are daughters and not subjects.They must be treated as m~ture women with the right to an explana-tion of a command or request. This does not mean that they must have an explanation of every request made, but superiors should no~ resent giving hn' eXplanation if it is asked; a nun does not fail in obedi~nce.because she does not .understand. (9) The public accusation of faults, commonly called "chapter," seems to need some type of revision. The weekly recital of faults against rules and customs seems to have lost some ofits effectiveness; it hasbecome a routine exercise, that arouses little enthusiasm or inter-est. Unless public s~andal is involved, the minor fail-ures of religious ~hould be corrected by the superior or novice mistress in their lectures or private interviews. (10) It is becoming more difficult' to get vocations to the contemplative orders. It may be because young girls who feel they.have a vocation have no contact with us. Since letters can be very misleading in determining "a vocation, it may be. of help. to the order and to the aspirants if the nuns welcome them into ~h.e monastery enclosure on a specified day each year to give them a. better idea of the life, the monastery, and the nuns. An-other solution might be to have a representative of the monastery at the yearly vocation day p~ojects which many of the high schools conduct for their area. (11) Is it necessary to have age requirements for the election of officers? Is it not more important to stress capabilities? Here again, we must realize that young nuns are, for the most part, well educated and capable of handling responsibilities. (12) Extra devotional activities should be left to the individual nun and not be made compulsory by con-stitutional requirements. More emphasis Should be put on the Mags and the Divine Office as the focal point of the nun's spiritual life. (13) Excessive formulas at chapters for investment, profession, and so forth should be avoided. Often a novice finds these a real burden; and they leave her open to temptations, discouragement, and frustration. In-stead, the beauty of the religious life should be pre-sented to her so that ~he can prayerfully and gratefully accept this tremendous gift from God. We hope this article shows how many facets of our life need careful examination and .reevaluation not only that the nuns who live the life can do so with greater freedom and joy of heart but that those who consider living our life may find in it all. the means they need in this modern age to become great contemplatives. ÷ ÷ ÷ One Heart and One Soul VOLUME 24, 1965 547 CHARLES A. SCHLECK, C.S.C. Poverty and Sanctification ÷ ÷ ÷ Charles A. Schleck, C.S.C., teaches the-ology at Holy Cr6ss College; 4001 Hare-wood Road, N.E.; Washington 17,D.C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Oftentimes* we may have wondered why religious men and women have received as a kind of vested right the general title of "religious." Certainly, they are by no means alone in their practice and exercise of the worship of God; for this, as we know, is binding on the Church as a whole, on each and every member of the People of. God. It is established on the fact that all the faithful are consecrated to God by their baptism and have thereby received a share in the priesthood of the Lord Jesus ex; isting in power. Thus, their whole llfe is meant to be "consecrator~," ordained to cult, at least, understood in the broad sense; consequently, their entire life is meant to be reI!gious.1 Moreover, we know that there are per-sons who are not "i:eligious" in the usually accepted sense of this word but who spend more. time in their actual ~ worship of God than do those who are "religious." Yet only .those who have entered an institute in which the public profession of vows is made are called "religi0us.7 There is a rather special reason for this, admirably indi-cated by St. Thomas: "As stated above (q.141, a.1) that which is applicable to many things in common is ascribed antonomastically to that. to which it is applicable by way of excellence. Thus the name of fortitude, is claimed by the virtue which preserves the firmness of mind in regard to most difficult things, and the name of temperance by.that Virtue which tempers the greatest pleasures. Now religion as stated above (q.81, a.2; a.3, resp. 2) is a virtue by which.a man offers something to the service and worship of God. Therefore those who "give themselves up entirely to the ¯ This is the revised version of the second of six lectures that Father Schleck gave in the summer of 1962 to the Conference of Major Superiors of Women Religious of the United States. The first of the lectures was published in REvn~w FOR RELIClOUS, v. 24 (1965), pp. 161-87. 1 Pope Paul VI, Allocution on Religious LiJe, May 23, 1964, view FOR R~.mmtJs, v. 23 (196_4) p. 699. divine service, as offering a holocaust to God, are called religious antonomastically (or by special right).2 If we were to study the virtue of religion we would find that it is responsible not only for those acts which normally are its proper sphere, such as devotion or promptness in the service' 6f God or sacrifice or adora-tion, but also for those acts of other virtues which are commanded by religion's attitude and referred to it. Thus the acts of all the virtues, to the extent that they are referred to God's service and honor, become acts of the virtue, of religion. From this it follows that since a religious is one who devotes her whole life to the divine service, her whole life belongs to the exercise of the vir-tue of religion. It is a life in which every action is one of cult, one of worship, an act of her common priest-hood. It is for this reason that such a life is called the "religious life," and that those who embrace it are called by this special name. It is St. Gregory the Great who compares the religious consecration to a holocaustal offering: "When one vows something of himself to God, o. 2-2, q.186, a.l. "Admittedly, the doctrine of the universal.vocation of the faithful to holiness of life (regardless of their position or so-cial situation) has been advanced very much in modern times. This is as it should be, for it is based on the fact that all the .faithful are consecrated to God by their baptism. Moreover, the very necessities of the times demand that the fervor of Christian life should inflame souls and radiate itself in the world. In other words, the needs of the times demand a consecration of the world and this tasl~, pertains pre-eminently to the laity . However, we must be on our guard lest [or this very reason, the true notion o] religious life as it has tradi-tionally flourished in the Church, should become obscured. We must beware lest our youth, becoming confused while thinking about their choice of a state in life, should be thereby hindered in some way from having a clear and distinct vision of the special function and immutable importance of the religious state within the Church . for'this stable way of life, which receives its proper character from profession of the evangelical vows, is a perfect way of living accord-ing to the example and teaching of Jesus Christ. It is a state of life which keeps in view the constant growth of charity leading to its final perfection. In other ways of life, though legitimate in them-selves, the specific ends, advantages, and functions are of a temporal character. "On the other hand, right now it is of supreme importance for the Church to bear witness socially and publicly. Such witness is pro-claimed by the way of life embraced by the religious institutes. And the more it is stressed that the role of the laity demands that they live and advance the Christian life in the world, so much the more necessary is it for those who have truly renounced the world to let their example radiantly shine forth. In this way it will clearly be shown that the kingdom of Christ is not of this world. "Hence it follows that the profession of the evangelical dounsels is a super-addition to that consecration which is proper to baptism. It is indeed a special consecration which perfects the former one in-asmuch as by it, the follower of Christ totally commits and dedicates himself to God, thereby making his entire life a service to God alone" (Paul VI, Allocution on Religious Life, May 23, 1964 [italics mine]; REVIEW FOR RELIGtOUS, V. 23 [1964], pp. 699--700). ÷ ÷ ÷ Poverty and Sanctification VOLUME 24, 1965 549 ÷ Charles d. $chleck, C.$,C. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 550 and yet retains something for himself, it is a sacrifice on his. part. But when one vows to God all that he has, all that he lives, all that he relishes, then we have a holo-caust, which in Latin means all incense." s The reference which St. Gregory has in mind is unmistakable. The holocaust was the sacrifice par excellence [or the Jews in the Old Testament. It was the most perfect, the most excellent that could be offered to God. And the meaning of this action was symbolic. It indicated that God was sovereign, that man owed Him his complete and entire subjection. Thevictim offered was considered as going up in flame and smoke tO Yahweh. It was a sign or symbol or a kind of "saci'ament" of what was supposed to be the interior attitude of the donor, .of his inner worship, of soul, of the. complete gift and surrender of self to the Lord. The entire victim was consumed on the altar so that it might denote that the whole person of the donor was giving itself to God for the purpose of union in life.4 What was offered to Yahweh was life, not death; and it was offered joyfully and freely. The New Testament, since it is the completion and fulfillment of the Old, asks an even more perfect act of sacrifice and holocaust. And this is found especially in the religious profession which has not only an individual dimension but a christic and ecclesial dimension as well. It is an act which signifies the complete dominion which God has over" the whole of creation; and it is an act which signifies most perfectly the act of redemption par excellence, the paschal mystery. The two elements which are found in this holocaustal act of the Lord--the spirit which prompted him to undergo it, namely, divine charity or love for the Father and men, and the human nature in and through which this act was undergone-- are found also in the religious profession whereby one dedicates and consecrates hi~s or her entire life and per-son to the service of God in such a way that this person and life pertains to o~cially accepted or public cult. The religious vocation is a call or an invitation from God, an act by which He through a special communica-tion of His salvific and loving mercy stoops down, so to speak, and touches certain persons in the Church, en-abling them or appointing them to exercise a symbolic and sacramental ministry or dial~onia in the Church, His Body. They are called to be a sign of the Person, not merely individual, but also social, corporal, the Body- Person which is the Church in search for God; they are called to be a sign of the heavenly Jerusalem, the bride who has been adorned not by the artistry of men, but from heaven, by an artistry that comes from above, wait- 8 In Ezechielern, Hom. 8, bk. 2, P.L., 76, 1037. ~ 1-2, q.102, a.3, ad 8 and 9; see also Lv 1:1-17. ing for the Lord with the eagerness of a bride ready .to meet her husband.5 The religious proIession, in its turn, is merely a re-sponse to this invitation implying the gift and complete surrender of one's person to the Lord by way of public consecration. This profession is merely' an,outward ex-pression or manifestation or epiphany of an inward love. It is the public and ritual revelation' of the most fundamental duty and response which the creature can make to the Creator. For by it more than by" any other merely human act we tell God that He is God, that we are His creatures, that we are at His complete disposal, that His will is the law and center of our life. Thug, at the basis of this ritual and holocaustal gift there must lie a most intense activity of' the virtues of love and religion especially, but also of the ~other virtues as well, since the infused virtues grow and operate with proportionate in-tensity.~ When we ask ourselves what this profession involves, the answer, is quite clear. It involves the living of the common life (for those who are religious in the strict sense of this word) and the .observance of the evangelical counsels under vow3 There is a long history behind this de facto ~ituation, one which we cannot go into in the present article. Suffice it to say that in the early Church one of the marks that Was characteristic according to the idyllic presentation of the Acts of the Apostles (2:42) was the sharing of things in common. Just exactly what this implied is not certain, but most probably it was nothing more than a deep concern and spontaneous generosity in regard .to the material needs of the members of the Christian community. The earliest form of asceticism-- implying consecration also--seems to have been the practice of virginity for the sake of the kingdom of God.s While a kind of apostolic poverty was practised from the v.ery beginning of the Church, still the stark message of the gospel: "Go sell what thou hast and give ¯ to the poor," did not receive any "specialized" response until the time of St. Antony (d. 356). A~ first the practice was .personal, that is, not pract!sed in community, as was .also true of virginity; and it was characterized by a spiritual joy, the hope of heaven, and trust and confidence and hope in the Lord. From a personal prac-tice aimed at bringing out the perfection of hope and ~Ap 21:2. e 1-2, q.66, a.2. ~ There are some few exceptions with regard to the demand of liv-ing dommunity life; for example, the Daughters of the Heart of Mary. See. Suzanne Cita-Malard, Religio~s Orders o! Women (New York: Hawthorn, 1964), p. 21. 8 1 Cot.7. 4- Poverty and Sanctification VOLUME 24, 1965 ultimately of charity, .it was soon transformed into a community af

El centenar de textos que conforman este libro -escritos por un movimiento de prestigiosos/as juristas y abogados- desgranan el procedimiento al que fue sometido Lula. En la opinión de las y los autores de los artículos las normas no fueron observadas, y su inobservancia llevó a que se dictaminase una decisión injusta. Frases del estilo "Voy a tomar una decisión revolucionaria, dejando de lado la ley, porque por la ley no se puede condenarlo de ninguna manera", dichas en los juicios por las más altas autoridades judiciales militares y civiles, hoy son conocidas gracias a quienes se abocaron al trabajo de escuchar los audios de aquellas sesiones, nutriendo las reflexiones que argumentan sobre el imperativo de la hora: restablecer el estado de derecho y absolver al presidente Lula Da Silva.