Suchergebnisse

Ethiopia's remarkable socio-economic transformation over the last decade has been marked by: a reorientation of expenditure from recurrent to capital; a significant devolution of resources from Federal Government to Regions; and a clear prioritization of infrastructure spending, while protecting spending on education at four percent of GDP. The Government of Ethiopia has also leveraged external resources to boost spending in pro-poor sectors, particularly health and social protection. As a result, Ethiopia is home to the largest social safety net program in Africa, and has also achieved remarkable health outcomes using cost effective approaches. Recent investments have seen a significant build-up of capital stock, with capital spending at sector level pointing towards increased service capacity. The current public investment-led strategy requires to be complemented by increased budgetary provisions in operations and maintenance so that new investments translate into enhanced service coverage and delivery. As Ethiopia lays the foundation to become a middle income country, and the changing global environment implies declining external assistance, it is imperative that domestic taxation activity support this transition. The current tax-to-GDP ratio is low compared to peer countries, and the tax structure would benefit from increased contributions by direct tax sources. Therefore, there is an immediate need for advancing tax reforms and improve capacity and quality of tax administration. Broadening the tax bases, through review of exemptions, as well as review of tax rates might be venues to consider. Additional revenues will create the much-needed fiscal space to increase funding for operations and maintenance for service delivery, and support fiscal sustainability. As a follow-up to this Public Expenditure Review, the Government of Ethiopia has asked the World Bank to provide further analytical support, with a view to enhance domestic revenue mobilization through simpler and more efficient taxation, while retaining equity priorities in public finances.

The current report is a milestone for preparing the Romanian climate change (CC) action plan. A CC action plan should be based on the consolidation and coordination of both mitigation and adaptation measures and options. An important step in the elaboration of such a plan is the selection of appropriate actions. This selection requires the involvement of competent authorities in the key sectors, including, in the case of Romania, transport, energy, urban, water, agriculture, and forestry. The screening approaches are used to facilitate a transparent decision-making process in various fields such as environmental impacts, dangerous substances, environmental footprint of products, or CC actions. The report is structured as follows: section one gives introduction. Section two summarizes the usage of screening approaches in the field of CC and environment by different European Union (EU) member states and by the European Commission. Section three discusses the main categories of mitigation and adaption measures that can be included in a CC action plan. Section four presents the screening approach and process and describes several complementary tools (multi-criteria analysis, cost-benefit analysis (CBA), cost effectiveness analysis (CEA), modeling) that should be used when the screening approach is insufficient. Section five provides a conclusion and key recommendations.

La tesi tratta il tema del riuso delle donazioni materiali (indumenti ed altri beni durevoli) nel mondo non profit con particolare riferimento alle organizzazioni non profit (ONP) del contesto ecclesiastico, da un doppio punto di vista: analizzando le dinamiche reali del settore e approfondendo i profili giuridici connessi. Dopo una prima contestualizzazione del fenomeno all'interno del tema del riuso di beni ed indumenti con finalità sociali, la ricerca si concentra sul settore degli indumenti usati (emblematico per la compresenza di elementi sociali, ambientali ed economici). Si analizzano quindi le dinamiche del settore: il ciclo di gestione degli indumenti, il riuso come aiuto diretto agli indigenti, il riuso per la raccolta fondi per progetti sociali. La principale criticità del settore è la discrepanza tra percezione dell'opinione pubblica e reali dinamiche riscontrate sul campo: mentre per gran parte dell'opinione pubblica il settore si esaurisce nella distribuzione gratuita agli indigenti in realtà il settore si sviluppa su logiche commerciali; la necessità di commercializzare gli indumenti è un dato strutturale dati gli enormi volumi raccolti. Dalla discrepanza tra percezione e realtà del settore si originano criticità come: servizi inefficienti, mancanza di trasparenza, basse performance sociali, ambientali ed economiche. Tali problematiche sarebbero superabili attraverso lo sviluppo di logiche commerciali con finalità sociali, facendo gestire cioè la commercializzazione alle stesse ONP che compiono la raccolta. Un esempio di tale impostazione è il caso dei charity shop anglosassoni: nel contesto del Regno Unito il settore del riuso è gestito in grande parte dalle ONP (tramite più di 11000 charity shop) seguendo logiche orientate alla raccolta fondi, con importanti risultati in termini di performance e trasparenza. L'analisi giuridica viene quindi svolta in un'ottica applicativa cercando di capire in che modo la cornice normativa ha influenzato il contesto italiano e quali interventi potrebbero essere introdotti ai fini del superamento delle criticità osservate e del miglioramento del settore. Si analizza quindi l'istituto della donazione nel codice civile qualificando il conferimento di indumenti presso le ONP prevalentemente come un "atto gratuito con scopo di solidarietà". Viene poi approfondito uno specifico riferimento normativo sulla donazione di indumenti usati con fini di solidarietà sociale: l'art. 14/ 166; in relazione a tale norma si critica la distinzione effettuata tra "donazione" e "rifiuto" in relazione al luogo di conferimento: nella realtà infatti i materiali conferiti in varie modalità finiscono per avere simili caratteristiche e vengono gestiti con simili logiche, pertanto la distinzione appare poco solida. Si analizza poi la normativa relativa alla raccolta fondi nel non profit prima e dopo la Riforma del terzo settore: si nota come parte delle criticità riscontrate sul campo provengano anche da fattori normativi (oltre che da elementi culturali e di prassi). Si argomenta quindi in favore di una chiarificazione della normativa e di agevolazioni fiscali rispetto alla rivendita di materiale donato: tali agevolazioni potrebbero avvenire in relazione alla decommercializzazione delle entrate derivanti dalla vendita del materiale donato equiparando le stesse a entrate di natura non commerciale (come avviene nel contesto anglosassone dove le agevolazioni sono bilanciate da controlli sulla trasparenza e l'impatto sociale raggiunto dalle ONP). In questo contesto sono necessari importanti cambiamenti culturali, normativi e di prassi da parte del legislatore e da parte degli stakeholder con particolare riferimento al ruolo degli enti ecclesiastici; questi ultimi, data la loro centralità nel riuso delle donazioni materiali, lavorando ad una ristrutturazione delle loro attività, potrebbero contribuire ad importanti miglioramenti per l'intero settore. ; The research explores the subject of gift in kind donations (clothes and goods in general) towards Dioceses and connected non profit organizations (NPO) from a double perspective: analysing dynamics on the field and the legal framework deduced. Unlike the UK, where gift in kind donations are mostly seen as a way for NPO to raise money for their charitable causes, in Italy, gift I kind are seen (by public opinion and most of the stakeholders) as way to directly help poor people. Extensive field research on clothing second hand sector has shown that the volumes collected hugely overcome poor people needs. The misconceptions about the sector in Italy lead to many problematic aspects: social services inefficiencies, lack of transparency, low social, environmental and economic performances. In contrast with the Italian situation UK context (with NPO active in the sector with more than 11000 charity shops) shows better performances and level of transparency. The difference between the two contexts is given by the interrelation of common practice, cultural and normative aspects. Juridical analysis is therefore conducted in an applied perspective: how legal framework has influenced the Italian context and which changes and policies should be implemented in order to improve the sector? The research examine the legal institute of "donation contract" in the Civil code and the article 14/ 166 about donations of clothes for solidaristic purposes. The law makes a clear-cut distinction between "donation" (related to the idea of giving as a gift) and "waste" (related to the idea of disposal) whereas in reality there the two concepts are closely connected in the donor behaviour: most people donate to NPO the clothes and goods they need to dispose of. Moreover the study observes the fundraising legislation before and after the Third Sector Reform of 2017: some problematic aspects identified on the field appear to be rooted in the vagueness of the legal framework about trading activities in non profit sector. Policies in support of charity retailing should be implemented in Italy as it is done in the UK where tax reliefs are balanced by controls on transparency and social impact of NPO. Summing-up the investigation has shown that many changes need to be done in Italy, by the legislator and stakeholders, about the legal framework, the cultural approach to the sector and the related common practices. Given their historical and wide presence in the reuse of gift in kind donations, catholic NPO play a crucial role in the transformation of the sector: working towards reorganizing and enhancing their activities could contribute to the improvement of the entire sector.

A rough estimation for avoidable losses in the European Union (EU) is 280 kg per capita per year, of which 13% can arise from agricultural production, 31% from product processing and 45% from households. The role of packaging in preserving fresh and processed foods is well known and documented but little research is available about the relation existing among new packaging solutions, shelf life extension and Food Loss, and waste reduction at different levels at the supply chain. Techniques as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) have been largely used to determine the Environmental Impact of food production and processing and packaging materials. However, the assessment taking into account the food and its packaging as a whole system, and of Food Loss reduction is necessary. In fact, from a life cycle perspective, no assessment of the Environmental Impact of food packaging showed the positive benefits of reduced Food Losses in the value chain. In this PhD project, the shelf life extension of red raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) and strawberries (Fragaria x Ananassa Duch) using active packaging solutions was investigated. The shelf life extension, critical indicators and cut-off criteria were defined as a tool to point out the time at which the lifetime ended and they were elaborated by multivariate approach. The final aim was to estimate the role of a new packaging technology in reducing the Environmental Impact along the supply chain in relation to the benefits of the Food Loss reduction derived from the actual Shelf Life Extension. For raspberries trial, three packaging solutions was studied: a) Lidded macro-perforated PET trays containing 125 g of berries, stored in air and considered as "traditional" packaging; b) lidded macro-perforated PET trays containing 125 g of berries inserted into master bags made of plastic materials with different permeabilities to gas and water vapour. This solution was referred to a passive modified packaging solution. c) macro-perforated PET trays containing 125 g of berries inserted into a master bag unit made of LDPE (OTR 4000 cm3*m-2*day-1 at 23 °C and 0 %RH). Before sealing, a defined volume of compressed dry air (moisturized by using distilled water applied onto paper towels), one oxygen scavenger, and a different number of pre-activated carbon dioxide emitters were added to the master bag. For strawberries trial three packaging solutions was studied: a) Lidded PET macro-perforated trays containing 250 g of fruits and stored in air were considered as "traditional" packaging; b) lidded PET macro-perforated trays (250 g of berries/tray) were inserted into an LDPE (OTR 4000 cm3*m-2*day-1 at 23 °C and 0 %RH) master bag. c) A different number of PET macro-perforated trays were inserted into an LDPE master bag. A central composite design (CCD) with four factors (number of CO2 emitters, number of O2 scavengers, ratio between packaging surface area and unfilled volume, storage time) at five levels was performed to optimize the active packaging solution. All the samples were stored in a cold chamber (5±1 °C; 70±5 %RH). Different physical-chemical and sensorial analyses were performed as following to identify for each packaging solution the shelf life value: Damaged berries (%), Mouldy berries (%); Weight loss (%); Colour (CIE L*, a* and b* parameters); Total solids (g/100g); Soluble solids (g/100g); pH; Titratable acidity (g citric acid/100 g); Consistency determined by single compression test (force*deformation at 60% of deformation); Volatile compounds by SPME-GC-MS technique; Sensorial global and Visual acceptability. In order to analyze the results from a multidimensional point of view, the obtained data were analyzed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Il ciclo di vita per ogni soluzione di imballaggio è stata valutata utilizzando il software 8.0.1 SimaPro®. The boundaries of the system was set from the berries production until the retailer storage, take into consideration also the operations to disposal of the packaging materials. The functional unit for this study was set as the day of shelf life. In the raspberries studies, the active packaging solution allowed the raspberries storage up to 11 days. This value was almost three times longer than the "traditional" packaging solution that allowed a shelf life value of 4 days. The Passive packaging solution allowed lead to a shelf life extension as 2 days in comparison to the traditional packaging. For each packaging solution have been done the assessment of the environmental impact using the LCA methodology. The "traditional" packaging solution determined the highest daily impact among the packaging solutions evaluated. The passive and active packaging solutions determined a significative reduction, in terms of environmental load, up to 55% and 70%, respectively. The extension of the lifetime of berries contribute also to reduce the food loss even if the environmental impact of packaging system (active devices and master bag) was increased. This increment was balanced from the environmental impact of food saved by using the new packaging solution. The assessment of strawberries shelf life stored in the traditional packaging systems established only 2 days as value, while in the passive packaging solution lead to a shelf life extension up to 4 days longer. The optimization of the packaging factors in the active packaging solution extended the berries storage until 12 days. The "traditional" packaging determined the highest daily impact than the other packaging solutions. The passive and active packaging solutions determined a significative reduction in environmental load respect to the "traditional" solution up to 66% and 82%, respectively. The implementation of LCA methodology with lifetime data assessed by experimental shelf life trials and multivariate analyses allowed the definition of the impact of new technologies based on active packaging, taking into account their role in shelf life extension. Although based on some assumptions, this PhD study tried to explain and measure how new packaging can affect fruits losses directly or indirectly by influencing the scenarios at different levels of the supply chain. The lack of economic and logistic information about Food Losses (and specific data on this kind of fruits) in the Italian supply and distribution chain should open to new and more useful considerations.

This report is the product of a comprehensive study on Benin. It highlights the country s geographical and economic situation and concentrates in particular on environmental conditions and the challenges facing Benin. This report covers the financing of priority environmental activities, as well as allocations to programs designed to improve the environment and living conditions of the population. The environmental analysis of Benin seeks to help the Government integrate the environment into policy formulation by analyzing cross-cutting aspects and the challenges of implementing sound environmental management, and creating a platform for strengthening the country s capacities in order to facilitate sustainable natural resource and environmental management. To this end, a number of measures have been recommended, among them the establishment of effective policies and institutions based on sound governance and improved effectiveness, and the mobilization of financing for environmental protection and natural resource management. The study includes the analysis of a case study on three cities: Porto-Novo, Cotonou, and Parakou, and examines the impact of environmental problems and environmental management challenges on these cities.

The COVID-19 pandemic has put unprecedented pressure on public health resources around the world. From adversity opportunities have arisen to measure the state and dynamics of human disease at a scale not seen before. Early in the COVID-19 epidemic scientists and engineers demonstrated the use of wastewater as a medium by which the virus could be monitored both temporally and spatially. In the United Kingdom this evidence prompted the development of National wastewater surveillance programmes involving UK Government agencies academics and private companies. In terms of speed and scale the programmes have proven to be unique in its efforts to deliver measures of virus dynamics across a large proportion of the populations in all four regions of the country. This success has demonstrated that wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can be a critical component in public health protection at regional and national levels and looking beyond COVID-19 is likely to be a core tool in monitoring and informing on a range of biological and chemical markers of human health; some established (e.g. pharmaceutical usage) and some emerging (e.g. metabolites of stress). We present here a discussion of uncertainty and variation associated with surveillance of wastewater focusing on lessons-learned from the UK programmes monitoring COVID-19 but addressing the areas that can broadly be applied to WBE more generally. Through discussion and the use of case studies we highlight that sources of uncertainty and variability that can impact measurement quality and importantly interpretation of data for public health decision-making are varied and complex. While some factors remain poorly understood and require dedicated research we present approaches taken by the UK programmes to manage and mitigate the more tractable components. This work provides a platform to integrate uncertainty management through data analysis quality assurance and modelling into the inevitable expansion of WBE activities as part of One Health initiatives.

This report analyzes the progress and challenges of 16 countries in the Danube watershed in delivering sustainable water and wastewater services to all, while meeting the European Union environmental acquis communautaire. After putting the services that are being delivered into context, the report analyzes the organization of services in the region and the level of access to services, that is, how well countries are doing in terms of providing access to water and wastewater services for the entire population. It then looks at the performance of the sector, including the quality of services provided and customer satisfaction with it. It also draws a picture of the efficiency of services, including whether they reflect accepted good practices. Finally, it analyzes the financing of services, looking at whether the financing of operation, maintenance, and investments is secured and affordable. The report draws largely from existing public data sources at the national and regional level, and consolidates them into a coherent, regional narrative, and analysis. The methods of analysis include horizontal comparisons among countries at a given point in time and trends within the countries or the region over a given period of time. Given shortcomings in the availability and comparability of data across 16 countries, the report seeks to encourage and inform a policy dialogue around sector challenges rather than provide a definitive set of policy recommendations.

Sustainable Energy, free from fossil fuels, has recently emerged as environmentfriendly and climate-friendly solution. Naturally, it has become the primary motto of European environmental policy and the energy industry. Pertaining developments are tremendous and have resulted in the advent of modern methods, technological advancements and better environmental protection schemes. Amongst all, biomass power generation schemes have received wide attention and popularity and are employed together with other sustainable energy options such as wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy and hydro energy to secure a safe, stable and affordable energy supply. A biomass based power generation plant applying gasification mainly consists of gasifier for the generation of producer gas, several apparatus such as filter, scrubber, cooler, Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP), etc. for reliable gas cleaning, and the subsequent utilization unit (gas engine, generator set, etc.) that converts the gas energy into green electrical energy. Such multi-stage arrangements are necessary to ensure the cleanliness of producer gas for its unrestricted conversion into clean electric power and to maintain a clean environment. Despite their importance and popularity, certain aspects of the downstream equipment used for the removal of mixtures of organic compounds (collectively known as tar), such as protection, cleaning, maintenance, etc., are not dealt with adequate care and attention. In particular, the maintenance strategies of the tar ESP units have been the same for several decades without any significant improvement. The conditions on the ceramic insulators, which can severely restrict the ESP performance, are totally ignored until their permanent failure. An attempt to monitor their condition will help in improving the operating condition of an ESP unit, thereby ensuring the cleanliness of producer gas before its energetic utilization, henceforth reaching the goal of clean power generation. To achieve this, it is necessary to understand, at-least in macroscopic scale, the possible constituents in producer gas, their electrical characteristics and their influence on the dielectric integrity of the ceramic insulator and on the operating condition of an ESP unit. This forms the subject matter of this thesis. It is certain that the dielectric condition of ceramic insulators of an ESP unit has decisive influence on its performance and cleaning efficiency. Naturally, exercising one or more condition based monitoring methods on pertinent insulators might help to initiate preventive measures at an early stage. The currently practiced maintenance procedures on ESP units are not paying much attention in ensuring the dielectric integrity of the ceramic insulators. In most cases, the ESP unit is operated until the failure of its insulator, after which the complete arrangement (ceramic feed-through insulator and the suspended discharge electrode) is replaced. The main reason for the dielectric failure is identified as the deposition of tar on the exposed surface of the insulator. These condensable compounds that are present in the producer gas have to be removed reliably since their presence impairs the dielectric condition of the insulator, thereby limiting the performance of the ESP unit and compromising the operation of power conversion equipment. Early detection of such tar depositions would clearly provide an opportunity to prevent premature failure of the insulator. The respective cleaning measures could be simplified and the severity of the threat level (to human being and to the environment) arising due to the handling and disposal of hazardous waste materials could be minimized. In this context, preliminary information regarding electric discharges on outdoor insulators and quantification of their pollution level are already available. At the same time, the electrical behavior of condensable hydrocarbon and hetero-cyclic compounds (a few of these species are di-polar in nature) and their influence on dielectric quality of ceramic insulator, a synonym for insulation condition, remains unclear. It forms the primary aim of this thesis to explore these factors. It is believed that such an investigation provides an opportunity to prevent premature failure and to help in gaining knowledge about the electrical characteristics of tar. Summarizing all, the present thesis investigates the following objectives: • Determining the influence of tar on the dielectric integrity of the ceramic insulator and the pertinent impact of tar that is deposited on the insulator surface on the operating condition and performance of a wet ESP unit. • Gaining a macroscopical insight in the collective dielectric behavior of a complex mixture of tar that is deposited on the surface of the ceramic insulator. More details regarding the test objects, analytical equipment, experimental setup, inferences and conclusions drawn are provided in the respective chapters of the thesis. ; Nachhaltige Energie, frei von fossilen Brennstoffen, hat sich in jüngster Zeit zu der idealen umwelt- und klimafreundlichen Technologie entwickelt. Dabei ist Nachhaltigkeit zu einer der wichtigsten Konzepte der europäischen Umweltpolitik und Energiewirtschaft geworden. Die nachhaltigen Entwicklungen bieten immenses Potential und haben zu moderneren und nachhaltigeren Methoden, technologischen Weiterentwicklungen und verbesserten Umweltschutzmaßnahmen geführt. Konzepte zur Stromerzeugung aus Biomasse haben große Aufmerksamkeit und Beliebtheit erhalten und werden zusammen mit anderen nachhaltigen Optionen der Energiegewinnung (nämlich Windenergie, Solarenergie, Erdwärme und Wasserkraft) eingesetzt, um eine sichere, stabile und bezahlbare Energieversorgung zu gewährleisten. Biomassekraftwerke, basierend auf der Vergasungstechnik, bestehen im Wesentlichen aus dem Vergasungsreaktor zur Produktgaserzeugung, mehreren Gasbehandlungsschritten wie Filter, Wäscher, Kühler, Elektrofilter usw., die das Produktgas reinigen, während die nachgeschalteten Aggregate (Gasmotor und Generator) das niederkalorische Produktgas in CO2 neutrale elektrische Energie verstromen. Die mehrstufigen Abscheidetechniken zur Produktgasreinigung sind erforderlich, um die uneingeschränkte Wandlung des Produktgases in Energie zu gewährleisten und um eine saubere Umwelt aufrechtzuerhalten. Trotz der Bedeutung und Beliebtheit der Biomassekraftwerke werden bestimmte Aspekte der Kraftwerkskomponenten, wie Schutz-, Reinigungs- und Wartungsstrategien, die zur Abscheidung der kondensierbaren Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen (allgemein unter dem Begriff "Teer" zusammengefasst) eingesetzt werden, nicht mit der erforderlichen Sorgfalt und nicht mit dem erforderlichen Interesse behandelt. Insbesondere die Instandhaltungsstrategien von Elektrofilteranlagen sind seit mehreren Jahrzehnten ohne nennenswerte Verbesserungen unverändert. Dem Zustand der keramischen Isolatoren der im erheblichen Maße die Elektrofilterleistung beeinträchtigt wird kaum Beachtung geschenkt, die Isolatoren werden hingegen zumeist bis zum dauerhaften Versagen betrieben. Das Bestreben, den Zustand der Isolatoren zu überwachen, wird helfen, den Betriebszustand von Elektrofiltern zu verbessern, um dadurch die Reinheit der Produktgase vor deren energetischen Nutzung sicherzustellen und somit das Ziel einer sauberen Energieerzeugung zu erreichen. Um dies zu erreichen, ist es zumindest auf makroskopischer Ebene erforderlich, die möglichen Bestandteile im Produktgas von Biomassevergasern, deren elektrische Eigenschaften und deren Einfluss auf die dielektrische Integrität von keramischen Hochspannungsisolatoren sowie auf den Betriebszustand von Elektrofilteranlagen zu verstehen. Dies ist das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit. Zweifelsfrei hat der dielektrische Zustand keramischer Stütz- und Durchführungsisolatoren von Elektrofilteranlagen einen maßgebenden Einfluss auf deren Leistung und die Reinigungswirkung. Daher ist es selbstverständlich zu erwarten, dass eine zustandsorientierte Überwachungsmethode, oder mehrere zustandsorientierte Überwachungsmethoden, auf die entsprechenden Isolatoren angewendet werden, wodurch Präventivmaßnahmen bereits in einem frühen Stadium eingeleitet werden können. Derzeitig praktizierte Instandhaltungsverfahren an Elektrofilteranlagen schenken der Gewährleistung der dielektrischen Unversehrtheit von keramischen Isolatoren keine große Aufmerksamkeit. In den meisten Fällen wird ein Elektrofilter bis zum Ausfall eines Isolators betrieben, wonach der betreffende Isolator ausgetauscht werden muss. Die Hauptursache für das dielektrische Versagen sind Ablagerungen einer Vielzahl kondensierbarer Kohlenwasserstoffe auf der gasberührten Oberfläche der Isolatoren. Diese Kohlenwasserstoffe, die im Vergaser-Poduktgas vorhanden sind, müssen vor der energetischen Verwertung aus dem Gas entfernt werden, da deren Anwesenheit den dielektrischen Zustand der Isolatoren, die Leistung der Elektrofilteranlage und den Betrieb der Energie-Wandlungseinrichtungen beeinträchtigt. Die frühzeitige Erkennung von solchen Verschmutzungen bietet eine Möglichkeit, vorzeitiges Versagen der Isolatoren zu verhindern. Die erforderlichen Reinigungsmaßnahmen könnten somit vereinfacht werden und das Ausmaß von Gefahrstoffeinwirkungen (auf Mensch und Umwelt), bedingt durch Umgang mit gefährlichen Abfällen und Entsorgung dieser Abfälle, könnte minimiert werden. Für Freiluftisolatoren, die gewöhnlichen Umwelteinflüssen ausgesetzt sind, existieren verschiedene Verfahren zur Erfassung von elektrischen Entladungen und verschiedene Modelle für die Bewertung ihres Verschmutzungsgrades. Zugleich ist das elektrische Verhalten von kondensierbaren Kohlenwasserstoffen und ihrem Einfluss auf die dielektrische Qualität der Keramikisolatoren weitestgehend unklar. Das primäre Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, diese Faktoren zu untersuchen. Es wird davon ausgegangen, dass diese Untersuchung Möglichkeiten zum Verhindern von vorzeitigen Fehlern und Anlagenausfällen bereitstellen kann und hilft, Erkenntnisse über die elektrischen Eigenschaften von kondensierbaren Kohlenwasserstoffen zu erlangen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht zusammengefasst die folgenden Aspekte: • Ermittlung des Einflusses von Teer auf den dielektrischen Zustand und die Qualität von keramischen Isolatoren und die damit verbundenen Auswirkungen auf den Betriebszustand und die Leistung von Elektrofilteranlagen. • Erkenntnisse über das makroskopische, kollektive dielektrische Verhalten von kondensierten überwiegend aromatischen und heterozyklischen Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen, die auf der Oberfläche von keramischen Isolatoren abgelagert sind. Weitere Details hinsichtlich der Prüfanordnungen, Versuchsdurchführungen, Ergebnisse und Rückschlüsse sind in den entsprechenden Kapiteln dieser Arbeit enthalten.

Current toxicological situation in Ukraine is characterized by a sharp deterioration of chemical hazards. Today, significant areas of the state are in a direct chemical threat, which requires the immediate creation of an efficient reserve of antidote therapy in accordance with the current needs of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and medical institutions of the Ministry of Health of Ukraine. Almost all regions of Ukraine are at risk of disasters, due to the presence of chemical industrial facilities and powerful network of major road junctions through which highly toxic chemicals goods are transported. Large territory of Ukraine (Donetsk, Luhansk, Odesa, Kherson, Mykolaiv region) today is a zone of chemical hazard due to the high probability of terrorist acts and mass poisoning by industrial and household poisons. The existing regional distribution of sources of danger must be considered to effectively respond the chemical threats. In Ukraine, there are 20 thousands objects of high hazard; in Donetsk region, there are 6,500 ones, 279 of them are included in the state register of increased danger. Among these objects, there are 174 enterprises that store hazardous chemicals (11.7 % of the national number), 18 of them are at the first degree of risk (23 % of the national number). The biggest threat are "Stirol" and Horlivka factories that already have 325,000 tons of hazardous waste; it should be noted that according to preliminary estimates, 724 objects are recognized as being inadequately protected. In Luhansk region, there are 1,128 objects of chemical danger, 159 of them are in an increased risk. There are about 1,000 km of gas pipelines, 500 km of oil pipelines, and 13.2 km of ammoniac pipelines. Also, in the region there are 14 gas-condensate field and 2 underground gas storage facilities: Verhunske and Chornopopivske. The most dangerous objects in the region are: Alchevsk Iron and Steel Works, Alchevsk Coke Chemical Plant, Sievierodonetsk PA "Azot", enterprise "Lisichansk Soda", Luhansk Power Station in Shchastia, Lisichansk Oil Refinery Plant, LLC "Rubizhne Barvnyk." In Luhansk cartridge plant and Rubizhne chemical plant "Zoria", there are hundreds of thousands of tons of explosives, in form of finished products and raw materials, which is a significant risk. Narcotic analgesics; compounds of heavy metals, household poisons, nerve agents and hazardous chemical poisons with irritating, suffocating and blistering actions are of greatest danger to the population. A special group of substances, many of which are toxic to humans, are pesticides that are intended to control pests of agriculture, weeds. Disposal of the hazardous chemicals occurs throughout Ukraine (Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Vinnytsia, Rivne, Kyiv, Cherkasy, Sumy, Dnipro, Zaporizhzhia, Kharkiv). It should be noted that as of 01.01.2016, some antidotes used in acute poisoning in other countries and recommended by international programs are still not registered in Ukraine. Antidotes and other substances used in poisonings forms the list in section 4. It should be noted that antidote list contains only 12 names of chemicals and drugs, whose effectiveness has been clearly proven to meet the requirements of evidence-based medicine in cases of acute chemical poisoning. The recommended lists of essential medicines are the basis for the determining national inventories of essential medicines in many countries. However, studying the Ukrainian National List of Essential Medicines revealed that short list of 12 antidotes was reduced to 6 items for unknown reasons. Today, only a few items are used from the proposed in 2013 the WHO list of essential medicines that can be used as antidotes. It is important to note that some important positions from the list (section 4) were removed, including some specific antidotes from extremely toxic substances, which include: metal compounds (arsenic, mercury, cadmium, lead, thallium, zinc, nickel, iron); substances containing cyanide (prussic acid and its salts, nitriles, organic isocyanates); halogens (chlorine, bromine) and many other toxic substances. The need of antidotes for the above compounds included in the group of the most pressing emergency dangerous position is dictated by the peculiarities of modern chemical threats. Acetylcysteine, methylene blue, sodium thiosulfate, sodium nitrite, dimercaprol are antidotes that are widely used in the prehospital phase in a wide range of acute poisonings after extraordinary chemical incidents and in peacetime to provide emergency care for acute poisonings, household and industrial poisonings. These products are "universal antidotes", especially when it's impossible to identify toxicants quickly. It should also be noted that these positions were developed in Ukraine during the Soviet era and produced in the required quantities at pharmaceutical enterprises of Ukraine. Summarizing the above, it should be noted that today, the legal framework that regulates nomenclature, standards and the establishment and use of reserve funds of antidote therapy is significantly outdated and needs revision. Unfortunately, the authorities and government agencies which regulate these issues show low levels of awareness of the effects of existing chemical threats. There is no reserved antidote therapy in health care networks and in special units that provide assistance in emergency situations associated with the effect of chemical factors. ; Современная токсикологическая ситуация в Украине характеризуется резким повышением уровня химической опасности. Существующий формат военных действий антитеррористичного направления объединил задания медицинской службы Вооруженных сил Украины и гражданских лечебных учереждений в обеспечении защиты личного состава вооруженных формирований и гражданского населения от террористических угроз. В этом аспекте важным компонентом в системе химической безопасности государства должно быть наличие научно обоснованной номенклатуры и экономически рассчитанного объема централизованного резерва средств антидотной терапии, необходимого для ликвидации последствий чрезвычайных ситуаций и техногенных катастроф химической природы. Вместе с тем практикующие в Украине врачи постоянно высказывают обеспокоенность по поводу трудностей в получении антидотов. Рассмотрены нормативно-правовые вопросы обеспечения антидотами и другими веществами, которые используются при отравлениях в Украине. Обсуждаются нерешенные вопросы обеспечения средствами антидотной терапии специализированных токсикологических центров и отделений экстренной медицинской помощи, которые оказывают медицинскую помощь при острых отравлениях в различных регионах Украины. Авторами делается акцент на необходимости неотложного формирования национального перечня средств антидотной терапии в соответствии с современными потребностями Вооруженных сил Украины и лечебных учреждений системы Министерства здравоохранения Украины. Предлагаются пути решения задач в отношении обеспечения средствами антидотной терапии с учетом международных рекомендаций по вопросам разработки национального перечня антидотов. ; Сучасна токсикологічна ситуація в Україні характеризується різким підвищенням рівня хімічної небезпеки. Існуючий формат військових дій антитерористичного спрямування значною мірою об'єднав завдання медичної служби Збройних сил України та цивільних лікувальних закладів у забезпеченні захисту особового складу військових формувань та цивільного населення від терористичних загроз. У цьому аспекті важливим компонентом системи хімічної безпеки держави має бути наявність науково обґрунтованої номенклатури та економічно обрахованого обсягу централізованого резерву засобів антидотної терапії, передбаченого для ліквідації наслідків надзвичайних ситуацій та техногенних катастроф хімічної природи. Разом із тим практичні лікарі в Україні постійно висловлюють занепокоєність із приводу труднощів в отриманні антидотів. Розглянуті питання нормативно-правового забезпечення антидотами та іншими речовинами, що застосовуються при отруєннях в Україні. Обговорюються невирішені питання забезпечення засобами антидотної терапії спеціалізованих токсикологічних відділень та відділень екстреної медичної допомоги, що надають медичну допомогу при гострих отруєннях у різних регіонах України. Авторами робиться акцент на необхідності невідкладного формування національного переліку засобів антидотної терапії відповідно до сучасних потреб Збройних сил України та лікувальних установ системи Міністерства охорони здоров'я України. Пропонуються шляхи вирішення задач щодо забезпечення засобами антидотної терапії з урахуванням міжнародних рекомендацій із питань розробки національного переліку антидотів.

Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde im Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts "Integrierte Analyse von mobilen, organischen Fremdstoffen in Fließgewässern" (INTAFERE) am Institut für Physische Geographie an der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt erstellt. In INTAFERE wurde das Gefährdungspotenzial von mobilen, organischen Fremdstoffen (MOF) für aquatische Ökosysteme und die natürlichen Wasserressourcen in integrierter und partizipativer Art und Weise untersucht. MOF sind chemische Substanzen, die in Alltagsprodukten enthalten sind und durch unterschiedliche Eintragsfade in unbekannten Mengen in Oberflächengewässer eingetragen werden. Problematisch sind aus Umweltgesichtspunkten ihre Eigenschaften: sie besitzen im Wasser eine hohe Mobilität und sind schwer abbaubar. Dies führt zu einer Persistenz über lange Zeiträume. Für einige dieser Substanzen wurde zudem gezeigt, dass sie in sehr geringen Konzentrationen biologisch aktiv sind und für aquatische Ökosysteme eine Gefahr darstellen. In INTAFERE wurden drei zentrale Ziele verfolgt: Charakterisierung des Problemfeldes MOF, Erzeugung von praxisrelevantem Wissen für das Management von MOF und Entwicklung einer Softwareanwendung, die gesellschaftliche Aushandlungsprozesse durch eine transparente Darstellung der Wirkungszusammenhänge im Problemfeld unterstützt. Um einen Beitrag für die Erfüllung der Ziele zu leisten, war es die Aufgabe der Verfasserin, eine Akteursanalyse und -modellierung durchzuführen sowie Zukunftsszenarien im Bereich der MOF zu entwickeln. Dafür existierte keine adäquate Methodik, daher verfolgt die Dissertation zum einen die Entwicklung einer Methodik und zum anderen deren Anwendung im Kontext des Projektes INTAFERE. Da im Forschungsprozess die Durchführung von Analysen, die wissenschaftliche und gesellschaftliche Sichtweise der Problematik sowie die Erarbeitung von praktischen Lösungen im Mittelpunkt standen, wurde eine transdisziplinäre Herangehensweise gewählt. Ziel war es, eine Methodik zu entwerfen, die sowohl eine Entwicklung von Szenarien als auch eine Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen umfasst. Eine Modellierung und Visualisierung von Handlungsentscheidungen ist notwendig, um Strategien für ein Umweltproblem für verschiedene Szenarien zu ermitteln, und damit einen Lernprozess der Stakeholder zu initiieren. Dies wurde mit der transdisziplinären Methode "Akteursbasierte Modellierung" umgesetzt. Hierbei wurden insbesondere Aspekte der Problemwahrnehmung von Akteuren und deren Darstellung, der partizipativen Szenarienentwicklung sowie der semi-quantitativen Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen berücksichtigt. Die Verfasserin hat mit der semi-quantitativen akteursbasierten Modellierung eine Methode erarbeitet und getestet, die bisher unverbundene Komponenten (wie die Software Dynamic Actor Network Analysis (DANA) und die Szenarienentwicklung) zusammenführt. Um Handlungsentscheidungen unter verschiedenen Szenarien zu modellieren hat die Autorin eine sequentielle Modellierung entwickelt, die mit der Software DANA durchgeführt werden kann. Die dafür notwendige Weiterentwicklung von DANA wurde von Dr. Pieter Bots (TU Delft) umgesetzt. Die akteursbasierte Modellierung läuft in drei methodischen Schritten ab: 1. Modellierung von Akteurs-Sichtweisen in Form von Wahrnehmungsgraphen und deren Analyse, aufbauend auf Ergebnissen von qualitativen, leitfaden-gestützten Expertengesprächen (= Akteursmodellierung), 2. partizipative Szenarienentwicklung mit den Akteuren und 3. Zusammenführung der Ergebnisse der Akteursmodellierung und der Szenarienentwicklung und darauf aufbauend eine sequentielle Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen und deren Auswirkungen auf Schlüsselfaktoren. Im Zuge der Anwendung auf das Problemfeld der MOF wurde für folgende Akteure jeweils ein Wahrnehmungsgraph modelliert: Obere Wasserbehörde, Umweltbundesamt, Umwelt- und Verbraucherschutzorganisationen, Wasserversorger sowie für die Hersteller von verschiedenen MOF, weiterhin für die European Flame Retardants Association und die Weiterverarbeitende Industrie. Das Ergebnis der Szenarienentwicklung waren vier Szenarien: ein Gesundheitsszenario, unter der Annahme von hohen lokalen Umweltstandards durch nachhaltigkeitsorientierte KonsumentInnen, ein Umweltszenario, in dem eine starke Regulierung und nachhaltigkeitsorientierter Konsum Hand in Hand gehen, ein Globalisierungsszenario, in dem Wirtschaftsmacht und preisbewusste KonsumentInnen statt staatliche Regulierung vorherrschen und ein Technikszenario, unter der Annahme, dass Kläranlagen, bedingt durch eine starke Regulierung, aufgerüstet werden. Bei der Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen wurden die Wahrnehmungsgraphen und die vier Szenarien miteinander verknüpft. Pro Substanz wurde ein Modell entwickelt, welches die wichtigsten Systemkomponenten in einer angemessenen Komplexität umfasst und die von den Akteuren gemeinsam getragene Einschätzung der Wirkungsbeziehungen darstellt. Insgesamt wurden 16 Modelle entwickelt. Basierend auf den simulierten Akteurshandlungen wurden relativen Veränderungen der Schlüsselfaktoren Produktion, Import und Leistungsfähigkeit der Kläranlagen für die vier genannten Szenarien berechnet. In Zusammenarbeit mit Pieter Bots konnten algorithmische Beiträge zur Analyse- und Modellierungssoftware DANA getestet und verbessert werden. Da keine vollständige und zugleich leicht verständliche Einführung zu DANA vorlag, wurde für Nutzer im Rahmen dieser Dissertation eine Anleitung verfasst, die die Modellierung von Wahrnehmungsgraphen und deren Analyse sowie alle Schritte der akteursbasierten Modellierung mit DANA erläutert. ; This dissertation is based on the research project "Integrated analysis of mobile organic xenobiotics in rivers" (INTAFERE) at the Goethe-University Frankfurt, Institute of Physical Geography. In INTAFERE, the potential risk of mobile organic xenobiotics (MOX) for aquatic ecosystems and natural water resources was investigated in an integrated and participative manner. MOX are chemical substances, contained in everyday products, which enter the surface water in unknown quantities through several pathways. From an environmental point of view, their characteristic features are problematic: They have a high mobility in water and are not easily degradable. This causes persistence over long periods. For some of these substances it has been scientifically proven that they are biologically active in small concentrations and pose a threat to aquatic ecosystems. During the INTAFERE project, three goals were pursued: The characterization of MOX as a problem domain, the generating of practice-orientated knowledge for the management of MOX and the development of a software that supported social processes of negotiation by a transparent depiction of the interdependencies within this problem domain. In order to contribute to the accomplishment of the goals, it was the task of the author to perform an actor analysis as well as an actor modelling and develop future scenarios for the field of MOX. There were no adequate methods available; therefore, this dissertation deals with the development of a methodology and its application within the context of the INTAFERE project. Since the focus during the research process was mainly on the implementation of analyses, the scientific and social perception of the problem and the development of practical solutions, a transdisciplinary approach was chosen. The aim was to design a methodology, which comprises the development of scenarios as well as a modelling of decisions for acting. Modelling and visualization of decisions for acting is necessary in order to identify strategies for an environmental problem in different scenarios of the future, and thus initiate a learning process of the stakeholders. To achieve this, the transdisciplinary method "actor-based modelling" was developed and implemented. In this context, the problem perceptions of the actors and their visualization, the participatory development of scenarios and the semi-quantitative modelling of actions were considered. With semi-quantitative actor-based modelling, the author has developed and tested a method that combines components, which were unrelated until then, namely the software Dynamic Actor Network Analysis (DANA) and the development of scenarios. In order to model actions in various scenarios, the author has developed a sequential modelling that is carried out by DANA. The necessary software implementation within DANA was done by Dr. Pieter Bots (TU Delft). The actor-based modelling proceeds in three methodical steps: 1. the modelling of the actors' point of view with the help of perception graphs and their analysis, based on the outcomes of qualitative guided expert interviews (= actor modelling), 2. the development of scenarios with the actors and 3. the merging of the outcomes of the actor modelling and of scenario development, with a sequential modelling of actions and the impact of these actions on key factors. In the cause of the application to the problem domain MOX, one perception graph was developed for each of the following actors: water authority, Federal Environment Agency, non-governmental organisations, water supplier, producers of various MOF, European Flame Retardants Association and processing industry. The results of the scenario development were four different scenarios: A health-oriented scenario based on the assumption of high local environmental standards due to consumers who are focused on sustainability; an environmentally-oriented scenario that combines a strong regulation and an attitude of sustainability towards consumption; a globalization scenario, in which economic power and price-conscious consumers dominate instead of government control; and a technology-oriented scenario where waste water treatment is a means of regulating MOX. During the modelling, the decisions for actions and the graphs of perception as well as the four scenarios were intertwined. For each substance one model was developed, which comprises the most important components of the system in an appropriate complexity as well as the actors' shared perception of the causal relationships. Alltogether, 16 models were developed. Based on the simulated actions, relative changes of the key factors production, import and efficiency of sewage disposal facilities in all four scenarios were calculated. In collaboration with Pieter Bots, algorithmic contributions to the analysing and modelling software DANA were tested and improved. Since there was no complete and coherent introduction to DANA, a user guideline that explains the modelling of perception graphs and their analysis as well as all steps of actor-based modelling was drafted within the framework of this thesis.

Tese de doutoramento em Engenharia Química (Reactores Químicos) apresentada à Fac. de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; Water resources have never been so indulged as in recent years. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household and recreational activities. Therefore, education and awareness in the area of water management is increasingly important from a global perspective of resource valorization. Regulatory entities concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources have been legislating for the water sustainability. In particular, the disposal of wastewater streams containing highly toxic and hazardous organic pollutants generated by industrial processes has emerged as a topic of mounting concern in academia and industry. Among the numerous classes of liquid pollutants, phenols are of particular importance due to their widespread discharge in the environment and toxicity to many water living organisms. In order to meet the requirements established by stringent environmental regulations, wet air oxidation is an attractive method for the treatment of waste streams which are too dilute to incinerate and yet too toxic to treat biologically. Indeed, olive oil production is one of the oldest agricultural industries in the Mediterranean basin that generates a considerable amount of olive oil wastewater heavily contaminated. The depuration of liquid wastes produced from olive oil production is still a major challenge facing this industry. The main problems are attributed to their dark color, high organic content and toxicity levels which are due to the presence of phenolic compounds. Therefore, aiming to advance the development of catalytic multiphase reactors to operate at high values of temperature and pressure, olive oil wastewaters remediation by catalytic wet oxidation was the key motivation factor to be fulfilled among this thesis. In this regard, agro-food olive oil processing wastewaters were selected as an example of non-biodegradable and phytotoxic effluents. Specifically, major polyphenolic compounds: syringic (4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzoic), vanillic (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic),3,4,5 trimethoxybenzoic, veratric (3,4-dimethoxybenzoic), protocatechuic (3,4-dihydroxybenzoic) and trans-cinnamic acids typically found in olive oil mill wastewaters deserved particular attention. The process performance was evaluated at different levels including total organic carbon reduction, intermediate compounds formation, catalyst stability and kinetic modelling. Several commercial and laboratory-made catalysts were investigated addressing both the catalytic activity and stability. Regarding the selected catalysts, some were prepared in laboratory and others were commercially obtained. The tested active materials were manganese, copper, zinc, iron and silver, while the catalysts supports were ceria and alumina. A major importance was given to cerium based catalysts and manganese catalysts. With the present contribution, our purpose was to integrate and couple state of the art CFD codes with environmental reaction applications in the wastewater remediation by catalytic wet oxidation in trickle-bed reactors. Therefore, after the catalyst screening, kinetic studies were performed taking into account the generalized kinetic model to bring up lumped kinetic parameters necessary for the design and scale-up of pilot and industrial trickle-bed reactors making use of advanced simulation techniques. Two Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) frameworks were developed for the hydrodynamic analysis aiming to predict the liquid holdup and pressure drop in the trickling flow regime with a three-dimensional computational grid. Euler-Euler and Volume-of-Fluid multiphase models were optimized in terms of mesh density, time step, convergence criteria, discretization schemes and Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes turbulence models. Several computational runs were performed querying the effect of gas and liquid flow rates, operating pressure and temperature on liquid holdup and two-phase frictional pressure drop. Multiphase flow distribution was investigated with different gas-liquid distributors using the Eulerian framework, whereas hysteresis phenomena and wetting efficiency in trickle beds were evaluated with the Volume-of-Fluid model. The kinetic parameters were further integrated within the Euler-Euler and Volume-of-Fluid models where the reaction aspects as well as the transport mechanisms were accounted for in a high-pressure trickle-bed reactor so that both multiphase CFD frameworks were evaluated for either cold flow or reacting flow conditions. Axial and radial profiles of hydrodynamic and reaction parameters were evaluated at different operating conditions for the sake of experimental validation. The influence of gas and liquid flow rates as well as the effect of temperature and pressure were investigated in terms of total organic carbon (TOC) conversions. TOC removal efficiency depends heavily on the bed temperature while the operating pressure has minor influence in final conversion. Whereas the effect of liquid flow rate was mainly related with the reaction time, the influence of gas flow rate led to a maximum on TOC conversion. Moreover, higher values of inlet pollutant concentration led also to higher conversions. The multiphase Eulerian predictions handled agreeably better the effect of different numerical solution parameters either supported at non- and reacting flow conditions with respect to Volume-of-Fluid model. In a nutshell, CFD can be useful to obtain shorter product/process development cycles and optimize energy/environment requirements in multiphase trickle-bed reactors. ; Os recursos hídricos nunca estiveram tão em foco como nos anos mais recentes. Sendo vastas as aplicações da água, desde o seu uso na agricultura, e indústria até às actividades domésticas e recreativas, a educação e a responsabilidade da sua gestão têm vindo a ser introduzidas progressivamente como factores importantes sob o ponto de vista da valorização dos recursos aquíferos. As entidades regulamentares, seriamente preocupadas com a escalada da poluição ambiental e degradação dos recursos naturais, têm legislado, por seu turno, de forma cada vez mais rigorosa sobre a sustentabilidade da água. Em particular, a eliminação de águas residuais produzidas nos processos industriais, contendo poluentes nocivos com elevado poder tóxico, tem emergido com especial ênfase como objecto de estudo na comunidade universitária e industrial. Na extensa classe de poluentes líquidos, os fenóis assumem um papel de relevo devido à descarga em larga escala no ambiente e à sua toxicidade para a fauna e flora aquáticas. Com o objectivo de cumprir os requisitos estabelecidos pelas rigorosas directivas ambientais, a oxidação húmida é um método de tratamento que se tem revelado atractivo para efluentes que são demasiadamente diluídos para a incineração e ainda predominantemente tóxicos para o tratamento biológico. A produção de azeite é uma das actividades agro-industriais mais remotas na bacia Mediterrânea que produz volumes consideráveis de águas residuais, sendo actualmente o seu tratamento um grande desafio para esta indústria. O principal problema associado a esta classe de efluentes reside na composição de cor escura com elevado conteúdo de matéria orgânica de carácter tóxico devido maioritariamente à presença de ácidos fenólicos. Deste modo, com o intuito de progredir no âmbito do desenvolvimento de reactores catalíticos multifásicos para operar em condições de temperatura e pressão elevada, o tratamento de águas residuais provenientes da extracção de azeite por oxidação catalítica húmida foi um factor chave de motivação para o estudo aprofundado ao longo da presente tese. Neste âmbito, os efluentes agro-industriais produzidos na extracção de azeite foram seleccionados devido ao seu carácter sazonal, não-biodegradável e fitotóxico. Os compostos polifenólicos de base ácida, especificamente, os ácidos siríngico (4-hidróxi-3,5-dimetóxibenzoico), vanílico (4-hidróxi-3-metóxibenzoico), 3,4,5-trimetóxibenzoico, verátrico (3,4-dimetóxibenzoico), protocateutico (3,4-dihidróxibenzoico) e trans-cinâmico, mereceram especial atenção no que diz respeito ao desempenho do processo de oxidação catalítica húmida a diferentes níveis: remoção do carbono orgânico total, formação de compostos intermediários, estabilidade do catalisador e modelização cinética, tendo sido testados vários catalisadores laboratoriais e comerciais. Os metais activos dos catalisadores estudados foram o manganésio, cobre, zinco, ferro e prata suportados em cério e alumina. Os catalisadores de óxidos de manganésio e cério revelaram as melhores propriedades de remoção do carbono orgânico total exibindo bons parâmetros de estabilidade quantificados em adsorção de carbono e lixiviação dos metais activos. Um dos principais objectivos do presente trabalho englobou o desenvolvimento e estudo de modelos computacionais baseados nos códigos de Dinâmica de Fluidos Computacional com aplicações nos tratamentos ambientais de descontaminação de águas residuais por oxidação catalítica húmida em reactores trifásicos do tipo trickle-bed. Deste modo, após a selecção de catalisadores, foram realizados estudos com recurso ao modelo cinético generalizado, de forma a obter as expressões cinéticas necessárias ao projecto de reactores trickle-bed, através de técnicas de simulação avançadas. Ao nível da simulação computacional, foram estudados dois modelos com uma malha tridimensional com o objectivo de previsão de parâmetros hidrodinâmicos como a fracção volumétrica de líquido e a queda de pressão no regime trickling. Os modelos Euler-Euler e Volume-of-Fluid foram optimizados com diferentes densidades de malha, passos temporais, critérios de convergência, métodos de discretização e modelos de turbulência do tipo Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes. O efeito dos caudais de líquido e gás assim como a influência da temperatura e pressão foram quantificados através dos parâmetros de fracção volumétrica de líquido e queda de pressão. O modelo Euler-Euler foi utilizado nos estudos de distribuição espacial do escoamento multifásico com diferentes distribuidores gás-líquido, enquanto o fenómeno de histerese na operação hidrodinâmica e a eficiência de molhagem foram estudados com o modelo Volume-of-Fluid. Os parâmetros cinéticos foram posteriormente integrados nos modelos multifásicos Euler-Euler e Volume-Fluid nos quais foram contabilizados os fenómenos de transporte térmico e mássico no reactor trickle-bed a operar a pressões elevadas. Os perfis axiais e radiais dos parâmetros hidrodinâmicos e reaccionais foram avaliados em diferentes condições de operação e validados experimentalmente. A influência dos caudais de gás e líquido assim como o efeito da temperatura e pressão foram quantificados através da conversão de carbono orgânico total. A eficiência de descontaminação depende consideravelmente da temperatura em detrimento do efeito da pressão de operação. A influência do caudal de líquido foi atribuída maioritariamente ao tempo de reacção dos poluentes orgânicos ao passo que foi determinado um valor óptimo para o caudal de gás. O aumento da concentração do carbono orgânico total na corrente a tratar conduziu a eficiências de remoção mais rápidas. De um ponto de vista geral, as simulações computacionais do modelo Euler-Euler conferiram melhores previsões para diferentes parâmetros hidrodinâmicos e reaccionais em comparação com o modelo Volume-of-Fluid. Em suma, o modelo multifásico Euler-Euler permitirá ciclos de desenvolvimento de produto e/ou processo mais eficientes auxiliando na optimização e integração da relação mútua energia/ambiente em reactores multifásicos trickle-bed.

The Malaysian economy decelerated as solid domestic demand was not sufficient to offset a weakening external environment. Private consumption growth continued at a healthy pace. Favorable rubber and palm oil prices drove up incomes of smallholders while continued employment and wage growth supported urban incomes. In contrast, fixed investment was more volatile, with private investment showing signs of picking up while public investments lagged. Malaysia's overall balance of payments recorded a larger surplus in the first half of the year reflecting a widening current account surplus and substantial net financial inflows. Malaysia's open economy is expected to slow further in the remainder of 2011 and into early 2012 mainly due to the deterioration in the outlook for external demand. Cities are central to Malaysia's aspiration to become a high-income economy. Smart cities are skilled and innovative. They play a crucial role in catalyzing economic growth by generating productivity gains through agglomeration economies. Smart cities are green and sustainable. They ensure a high quality of life to all citizens and the sustainability of economic gains. Finally, smart cities are resilient.

The Cambodia environment monitor 2008 is one of a series of environmental reports prepared for East Asian countries under an initiative sponsored by the World Bank. The objective of this series is to present a snapshot of environmental trends across a range of issues. The purpose of the monitor is to engage and inform interested stakeholders about key environmental changes in an easy to understand format accessible to a wide audience. This report identifies seven strategic priorities for the Royal government of Cambodia and its conservation partners. 1)articulate a clear and shared vision and re-commitment to conservation goals and objectives; 2)formalize a meaningful enabling legal and regulatory framework for management and protection of conservation areas; 3)formulate clear strategies for recognizing and improving community benefit sharing in conservation areas; 4) strengthen mechanisms for institutional coordination across the ministries; 5) adopt new approaches and paradigms for conservation areas management; 6) with donors, develop and secure sustainable sources of funding for conservation; and 7) reinforce the human resource capacity to implement and manage conservation areas.

[spa] El sector agroalimentario se ha dedicado, desde siempre, a la obtención de productos ligados a la tierra siguiendo las costumbres y las tradiciones que le son propias. En este sentido, la elaboración del aceite de oliva es un claro ejemplo de este tipo de productos. Las mejoras tecnológicas conjuntamente con los esfuerzos de las personas implicadas, cada vez más cualificadas, así como el control y la difusión de los Consejos Reguladores de las Denominaciones de Origen han dado como resultado una importante mejora en la calidad del aceite de oliva que se comercializa como aceite de oliva virgen extra. En este contexto, en el presente trabajo se han propuesto varios objetivos. En una primera etapa, se procedió a evaluar la influencia de la variedad y del grado de madurez de las aceitunas, así como de los efectos agroclimáticos de suelo, clima y paisaje, sobre la calidad del aceite de oliva virgen extra. En una segunda etapa, el objetivo fue estudiar nuevas estrategias que permitan la mejora del proceso de conservación del aceite de oliva. Para ello se determinaron los efectos de la temperatura, la ausencia de luz y la utilización de una atmosfera modificada sobre la calidad del aceite de oliva. Además, como propuesta innovadora, también se evaluó el efecto de la eliminación parcial o total del oxígeno presente en la matriz del aceite de oliva mediante la aplicación de ultrasonidos (US) de potencia. Finalmente, la tercera y última línea de trabajo se centró en evaluar el posible aprovechamiento de los subproductos de almazara, como fuente de compuestos bioactivos. En concreto, se estudió la aplicación de los US de potencia como mecanismo para favorecer la extracción de compuestos antioxidantes a partir del orujo de almazara El proceso de extracción se llevó a cabo utilizando un disolvente no tóxico y a baja temperatura, potenciando de esta forma el posible uso alimentario de los extractos como ingredientes funcionales. En la primera fase del trabajo, se consideraron las variedades de aceituna autorizadas por la DO "Olí de Mallorca" (arbequina, picual y empeltre) recogidas manualmente en diferentes estados de madurez: verde (aceituna totalmente verde), en envero (aceituna mitad verde, mitad morada) y madura (aceituna totalmente morada). Se elaboraron los diferentes aceites mediante el sistema Abencor, y posteriormente se analizaron los principales parámetros físico-químicos de calidad: grado de acidez (GA), índice de peróxidos (IP) y coeficientes de extinción K2 3 2 y K2 7 0 , además de analizar el perfil de ácidos grasos, el perfil fenólico y el contenido en fenólicos totales (FT), la capacidad antioxidante, la estabilidad oxidativa, y las coordenadas de color dentro del espacio CieLab. Por último, y para terminar de definir la calidad global del aceite de oliva también se llevó a cabo el análisis sensorial de todas las muestras. Mediante la aplicación de un análisis multivariable de los diferentes parámetros analizados se pudo visualizar la importancia tanto del efecto varietal como del estado de madurez de la aceituna, sobre las propiedades físico-químicas y organolépticas del aceite de oliva. Todos los aceites analizados, tomando en consideración los parámetros de calidad que definen la categoría del aceite de oliva, independientemente del grado de madurez de las aceitunas de procedencia, se clasificaron dentro de la categoría virgen extra (de acuerdo con el Reglamento CEE 2568/91). No obstante, los parámetros GA y K2 7 0 experimentaron un ligero incremento a medida que aumentó el grado de madurez de las aceitunas. En cuanto al perfil de ácidos grasos de los diferentes aceites analizados, para una misma variedad de aceituna, no se observaron diferencias significativas (p 0,05) entre los aceites elaborados con aceitunas en diferente estado de madurez. Como resultado de esta primera fase de la investigación se ha propuesto una metodología capaz de diferenciar entre aceites de oliva, elaborados a partir de una misma variedad de aceituna, con diferente procedencia geográfica, en función de las características físico-químicas de los aceites y de los atributos agroclimáticos de la zona, sin incluir el factor humano. En la segunda etapa de este trabajo, se evaluaron diferentes estrategias para la conservación del aceite de oliva basadas en la utilización de una atmosfera inerte, ausencia de luz y baja temperatura, incorporando una nueva técnica, innovadora en este campo, basada en la aplicación de un pretratamiento con US de potencia, con el fin de desplazar el oxígeno disuelto en la matriz del aceite de oliva. Este estudio se llevó a cab o con dos tipos de aceite de oliva virgen extra; un primer aceite caracterizado por su bajo GA bajo (0,15% ácido oleico), procedente de la variedad arbequina, y un segundo tipo, procedente de la variedad empeltre, caracterizado por un GA relativamente elevado (0,74% ácido oleico), próximo al límite legislado para la categoría virgen extra. En el estudio se determinaron los principales parámetros de calidad definidos en el Reglamento CEE 2568/91 (GA, IP y los coeficientes de extinción K2 3 2 y K2 7 0 ) , así como el perfil de ácidos grasos, el contenido en fenoles totales, la estabilidad oxidativa, y se llevó a ca bo un exhaustivo análisis organoléptico tanto de los atributos positivos, como de los posibles atributos negativos, durante un período de conservación de 16 meses. Antes de iniciar el estudio de conservación, se comprobó, a p artir del análisis inicial de las muestras pretratadas con US de potencia, como dicho tratamiento no modificó de forma significativa las propiedades físico-químicas y sensoriales del aceite de oliva, lo cual permitió la incorporación de las muestras tratadas con esta nueva metodología al estudio de conservación. A partir del estudio basado en el seguimiento de los diferentes parámetros físicoquímicos y sensoriales de las muestras, durante un periodo de conservación de 16 meses, pudo observarse como en el caso de trabajar con un aceite de oliva con valores iniciales correspondientes a los parámetros de calidad muy por debajo de los límites establecidos para la categoría virgen extra (en particular, un bajo GA: 0,1-0,2 % ácido oleico), el hecho de conservar el aceite de oliva en condiciones que minimizan las reacciones de oxidación (atmosfera inerte, ausencia de luz, baja temperatura y/o mediante pretratameinto con US de potencia) no tuvo efectos significativos sobre la calidad del mismo, durante al menos un período de 16 meses. Sin embargo, cuando el aceite de oliva virgen extra desde un principio no es de buena calidad (valores de los parámetros de calidad, sobretodo el GA, próximos al límite establecido par la categoría virgen extra), los procesos de conservación en atmosfera inerte o en ausencia de luz no fueron eficaces para el mantenimiento de la calidad del aceite de oliva como virgen extra, más allá de los cuatro meses de almacenamiento. En este caso, solo la conservación del aceite de oliva a baja temperatura (con y sin pretratamiento con US) consiguió que el aceite de oliva se mantuviera dentro de la categoría virgen extra, durante un período de como mínimo 12 meses. También es interesante destacar, en el caso de las muestras almacenadas a baja temperatura con y sin pretratamiento con US de potencia, el hecho que las muestras pretratadas con pulsos ultrasónicos presentaran, en la parte final del periodo de almacenamiento, unos valores inferiores para el índice de peróxidos, una mayor estabilidad oxidativa y una mayor intensidad del atributo frutado. La conservación del aceite de oliva a baja temperatura implica la aparición de un proceso cristalización de los triglicéridos que va en detrimento de la calidad del mismo. No obstante, en los estudios de conservación, llevados a ca bo con las variedades arbequina y empeltre, se observó como las muestras pretratadas con US de potencia y conservadas a baja temperatura, presentaron una significativa reducción del proceso de cristalización de los triglicéridos, durante el período de almecenamiento. Este descubrimiento, de claro interés industrial, dio lugar a l a obtención de una patente (P25827ES00) con el fin de proteger la propiedad intelectual de esta nueva metodología. Finalmente, en la tercera y última fase de la presente tesis doctoral, se evaluó el proceso de obtención de extractos, a partir del orujo de almazara, con un alto contenido en compuestos fenólicos y que presentaran una elevada capacidad antioxidante. La metodología aplicada para la extracción se basó en la aplicación US de potencia con la finalidad de mejorar la eficacia del proceso. En un estudio inicial se comprobó como un aumento de la potencia de la sonda de US utilizada, provocaba un s ignificativo aumento del contenido en compuestos fenólicos extraídos a partir del orujo de almazara, utilizando una solución etanol:agua (1:1, v/v), con un ratio disolvente/soluto de 15/1 (mL/g), un tiempo de extracción de 15 min y una temperatura de 20 °C. Es interesante resaltar que la aplicación de los US de potencia permitió la utilización de una mezcla de disolventes de extracción no tóxicos y aptos para su uso en la industria alimentaria (mezcla etanol/agua (1:1, v/v)), obteniéndose porcentajes de extracción similares a los descritos en la bibliografía utilizando disolventes de gran poder extractor pero elevada toxicidad, como por ejemplo el metanol. Con el fin de optimizar el proceso de extracción de compuestos bioactivos a partir del orujo de almazara se aplicó la metodología de superficie de respuesta (RSM), utilizando como variables la potencia de US, el ratio disolvente/soluto y el tiempo de extracción. Todas las experiencias se llevaron a cabo a una temperatura controlada de 20 °C, utilizando una mezcla etanol:agua (1:1, v/v) como disolvente. Se utilizó un diseño tipo Box-Behnken (BBD) para evaluar el efecto de las variables independientes mencionadas: potencia de ultrasonidos (X1 = 175 - 375 W/L), grado de ratio disolvente/soluto (X2 = 5 - 25 mL/g) y tiempo de extracción (X3 = 27 - 3 min). Los datos experimentales obtenidos, mediante el BBD, relativos a la extracción de compuestos fenólicos (FT), así como los correspondientes a la capacidad antioxidante de los extractos, determinada mediante las técnicas CUPRAC, y FRAP, se ajustaron de forma significativa a u n modelo lineal (p 0,05) entre els olis elaborats amb olives en diferent estat de maduresa. Com a r esultat d'aquesta primera fase de la investigació s'ha proposat una metodologia capaç de diferenciar entre olis d'oliva, elaborats a p artir d'una mateixa varietat d'oliva, en funció de les caracteristiques fisicoquimiques dels olis i dels atributs agroclimàtiques de la zona, sense incloure-hi el factor humà . Dins la segona etapa d'aquest treball, es van avaluar diferents estratègies per a la conservació de l'oli d'oliva basades en la utilització d'una atmosfera inert, absència de llum i b aixa temperatura, a més d'incorporar una nova tècnica, innovadora en aquest camp, basada en l'aplicació d'un pretractament amb US de potència, per tal de desplaçar l'oxigen dissolt en la matriu de l'oli d'oliva i aixi minimitzar, encara més les reaccions d'oxidació. Aquest estudi es va dur a terme amb dos tipus d'oli d'oliva verge extra, un primer oli caracteritzat pel seu baix GA (0,15% àcid oleic), procedent de la varietat arbequina, i un segon tipus, procedent de la varietat empeltre, caracteritzat per un GA relativament elevat (0,74% àcid oleic), el qual es troba pròxim al limit legislat per a la categoria verge extra. En l'estudi es van determinar els principals paràmetres de qualitat definits en el Reglament CEE 2568/91, (GA, IP i els coeficients d'extinció K232 i K270) , aixi com el perfil d'àcids grassos, el contingut en fenols totals, l'estabilitat oxidativa, aixi com un exhaustiu anàlisi organolèptic tant dels atributs positius, com dels possibles atributs negatius, durant un periode de conservació de 16 mesos. Abans d'iniciar l'estudi de conservació, es va comprovar, a partir de l'anàlisi inicial de les mostres pretractades amb US de potència, com aquest tractament no va modificar de manera significativa les propietats fisicoquimiques i sensorials de l'oli d'oliva, la qual cosa va permetre la incorporació de les mostres tractades amb aquesta nova metodologia a l'estudi de conservació . A partir de l'estudi basat en el seguiment dels diferents paràmetres fisicoquimics i sensorials de les mostres, durant un periode de conservació de 16 mesos, es va poder observar com en el fet de treballar amb un oli d'oliva amb valors inicials corresponents als paràmetres de qualitat molt per sota dels limits establerts per a l a categoria verge extra (en particular un baix grau d'acidesa: 0,1-0,2 % àcid oleic), el fet de conservar l'oli d'oliva en condicions que minimitzin les reaccions d'oxidació (atmosfera inert, absència de llum, baixa temperatura i/o mitjancant un pretractament amb US de potència) no va tenir efectes significatius sobre la qualitat del mateix, durant almenys un periode de 16 mesos . Malgrat això, quan l'oli d'oliva verge extra des d'un principi no es de tan bona qualitat (valors dels paràmetres de qualitat, sobretot del grau d'acidesa, pròxim la limit establert per aquesta categoria), les metodologies de conservació en atmosfera inert o en absència de llum no van ser eficaces per al manteniment de la qualitat de l'oli d'oliva com verge extra, més enllà dels quatre mesos d'emmagatzematge. En aquest cas, només la conservació a baixa temperatura (amb i sense pretractament amb US) va aconseguir que l'oli d'oliva es mantingués dins de la categoria verge extra, almenys fins als 12 mesos. També és interessant destacar, que en el cas de les mostres emmagatzemades a baixa temperatura amb i sense pretractament amb US, les mostres en les quals s'havia fet un pretractament amb polsos ultrasònics presentaren, al final del periode d'emmagatzematge, uns valors inferiors per a l'index de peròxids, una major estabilitat oxidativa, aixi com una major intensitat de l'atribut fruitat d'oliva. A més, la conservació de l'oli d'oliva a baixa temperatura implica la cristal-lització dels triglicèrids, fet que va en detriment de la qualitat del mateix. En els estudis de conservació, duts a terme amb les varietats arbequina i empeltre, es va observar com les mostres pretractades amb US de potència i emmagatzemades a baixa temperatura, van presentar un menor grau de cristal- lització dels triglicèrids, al llarg del periode de conservació. Aquest descobriment, de clar interès industrial, va donar lloc a l'obtenció d'una patent (P25827ES00) per tal de protegir la propietat intel-lectual d'aquesta nova metodologia. Finalment, dins la darrera fase de la present tesi doctoral, es va avaluar el procés d'obtenció d'extractes, amb un alt contingut en compostos fenòlics i elevada capacitat antioxidant, a partir de la pinyolada, residu sòlid procedent de obtenció de l'oli d'oliva. La metodologia aplicada per a l'extracció es basà en l'aplicació US de potència amb la finalitat de millorar l'eficàcia del procés . En un estudi inicial es va comprovar com un augment de la potència d'US, aplicat mitjançant una sonda d'ultrasons, provocava un augment significatiu del contingut en compostos fenòlics extrets a p artir de la pinyolada, utilitzant com a dissolvent una solució etanol:aigua (1:1 , v/v) , amb una relació dissolvent/solut de 15/1 (mL/g), un temps d'extracció de 15 min i una temperatura controlada de 20 ° C. És interessant remarcar que l'aplicació dels US de potència va permetre la utilització d'una barreja de dissolvents d'extracció no tòxics i aptes per al seu ûs en la industria alimentària, obtenint percentatges d'extracció semblants als descrits en la bibliografia utilitzant dissolvents de gran poder extractor, però elevada toxicitat, com el metanol. Per tal d'optimitzar el procés d'extracció de compostos bioactius a partir d'aquest subproducte de tafona es va aplicar la metodologia de superficie de resposta (RSM), utilitzant com a variables la potència d'US, la relació dissolvent/solut i el temps d'extracció. Totes les experiències es van dur a terme a una temperatura controlada de 20 ° C , utilitzant una barreja etanol:aigua (1:1, v/v) com a dissolvent. Es va aplicar un disseny tipus Box-Behnken ( BBD ) per avaluar l'efecte de les variables independents esmentades: potència d'ultrasons ( X1 = 175-375 W / L), grau de dilució dissolvent/solut (X2 = 5-25 mL/g) i temps d'extracció ( X3 = 3-27 min) . Les dades experimentals obtingudes, mitjançant el BBD, relatives a l'extracció de compostos fenòlics (FT) , aixi com les corresponents a la capacitat antioxidant dels extractes, determinada mitjançant les tècniques CUPRAC i FRAP, es van ajustar de forma significativa amb un model lineal (p 0.05) between the oils elaborated with olives at different ripening degrees were observed. As a r esult of this first phase, a methodology was proposed, being capable to differentiate between olive oils elaborated from the same olive variety, with different geographical origin, depending on the oil physicochemical characteristics and on the agro-climatic attributes of each geographical zone (excluding the human factor). At the second stage of this research, different strategies were evaluated in order to improve the conservation process of olive oil. These strategies were based on: the utilization of an inert atmosphere, the absence of light and the use of low temperature. Moreover, a n ew strategy, innovative in this field, based on the application of a pretreatment with US power to remove the oxygen dissolved in the olive oil counterfoil was also considered. This study was carried out with two types of extra virgin olive oil. The first oil was characterized by its low acidity degree (0.15 % oleic acid), produced from the arbequina variety; and the second one, produced from empeltre variety and characterized by a relatively high acidity degree (0.74 % oleic acid), close to the limit established for the extra virgin category. In this study, the main quality parameters defined on the European Regulation CEE 2568/91 (GA, IP and the extinction coefficients K232 and K270), as well as the fatty acids profile, the total phenols content and the oxidative stability were monitored for 16 months. Also, a co mplete sensory analysis, for both positive and negative attributes, was also carried out during a conservation period of 16 months. Previous to the conservation study, it was verified, from the initial analysis of the samples pretreated with power US, that this treatment did not significantly modify the physicochemical and/or sensory properties of the olive oil. This fact allowed the incorporation of the samples, treated with this new methodology, within the conservation study. From the study based on the characterization of the physicochemical and sensory parameters of the samples during a conservation period of 16 months, it could be observed that, when considering an olive oil with initial values for the quality parameters far below the established limits for the extra virgin olive oil (i.e. with a low acidity degree of 0.1-0.2 % oleic acid), the different strategies used for preserving olive oil by minimizing the oxidation reactions (inert atmosphere, absence of light, low temperature and/or by applying a US of power pretreatment) did not show significant effects on the oil quality during at least a period of 16 months. On the contrary, when the initial extra virgin olive oil was of lower quality (with quality parameter values, in particular the GA value close to the limit for this category), the methods of preservation based on the use of an inert atmosphere or the absence of light were not effective in maintaining the quality of extra virgin olive oil beyond four months of storage. In fact, only the strategies based on the application of low temperature (with and without US pretreatment) maintained the extra virgin category for at least a conservation period of 12 months. It is also interesting to emphasize that in the case of the samples stored at low temperature, with and without US pretreatment, the samples pretreated with ultrasonic pulses presented, at the end of the storage period, lower values for the peroxide index, a higher oxidative stability and higher intensity for the fruity attribute. It is well known that the conservation of the olive oil at low temperature implies the appearance of a cr ystallization process of the triglycerides, reducing the overall quality of the olive oil. In this study, carried out with arbequina and empeltre varieties, samples pretreated by US power and stored at low temperature, presented a significant reduction of the crystallization process during the storage period. This discovery, of clear industrial interest, gave place to a patent (P25827ES00), in order to protect the intellectual property of this new methodology. Finally, in the third and last phase of the present doctoral thesis, the extraction process of olive oil mill waste extracts, with a high phenolic content and elevated antioxidant capacity, was evaluated. The methodology applied for the extraction was based on the application of power US with the aim of improving the process efficiency. In an initial study, it was observed that an increase on the power of the US probe promoted a significant increase on the phenolic content extracted from the olive oil mill waste, using a solution of ethanol:water (1:1, v/v), with a dissolvent/solute ratio of 15/1 (mL/g), an extraction time of 15 min and a temperature of 20 °C. It is interesting to note that the application of the power US allowed the utilization of non-toxic and suitable solvents for the food processing industry, such as an ethanol/water mix (1:1, v/v)), obtaining similar extraction percentages to those described in the bibliography using solvents with a high extractor power but also with high toxicity, as for example, methanol. In order to optimize the extraction process of bioactive compounds proceeding from olive oil mill waste, the response surface methodology (RSM) technique was applied, using as independent variables: the power of the US probe, the solvent/solute ratio and the extraction time. All the experiences were carried out at a c ontrolled temperature of 20 °C, using a mixture of ethanol:water (1: 1, v/v) as a solvent. A Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to evaluate the effect of the independent variables: power of US (X1 = 175 - 375 W/L), solvent/solute ratio (X2 = 5 - 25 mL/g) and extraction time (X3 = 3 - 27 min). The information obtained by means of the BBD, relative to the extraction of phenolic compounds (FT), as well as the antioxidant capacity of the extracts, measured with the methods CUPRAC and FRAP, could be adjusted to a linear model (p < 0.05), and was capable to explain satisfactorily the system behavior and to predict the answers in the experimental domain considered. On the other hand, the antioxidant capacity evaluated by means of the ABTS method, could be significantly adjusted (p < 0.05) to a quadratic model. The experimental conditions, resulting from the RSM application, that allowed to obtain the maximum FT yield, as well as extracts from olive oil mill waste that exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, were the following: 375 W/L of ultrasonic power, 25 mL/g in the solvent/solute ratio and extraction time of 27 min. The methodology established for the extraction of bioactive compounds from olive oil mill waste, with ultrasonic assistance, allowed the extraction of thermo labile compounds at low temperature, using a non-toxic solvent and with a minimum extraction time, significantly lower to that used in conventional extraction processes with mechanical stirring. Globally, the research carried out for this Doctoral Thesis pretended to contribute and to support, inside our possibilities, the olive oil sector of the Balearic Islands, and in particular, the olive oil producers from the Majorca Island, by means of the characterization of the olive oil proceeding from the three authorized varieties by the AOP "Oli de Mallorca" (arbequina, picual and empeltre), depending on the olive ripening degree and on the agroclimatic factors from Majorca olive cultivars. In addition, a new methodology of olive oil conservation, which allows the storage at low temperature, preserving the physicochemical and sensory properties and reducing significantly the crystallization process of the triglycerides, have been placed at the disposal of the producers assigned to the AOP "Oli de Mallorca". Finally, a procedure based on the application of US, which allows the utilization of the olive oil mill waste, contributing in this way, to take advantage of the product, has also been included in this work.

[spa] El sector agroalimentario se ha dedicado, desde siempre, a la obtención de productos ligados a la tierra siguiendo las costumbres y las tradiciones que le son propias. En este sentido, la elaboración del aceite de oliva es un claro ejemplo de este tipo de productos. Las mejoras tecnológicas conjuntamente con los esfuerzos de las personas implicadas, cada vez más cualificadas, así como el control y la difusión de los Consejos Reguladores de las Denominaciones de Origen han dado como resultado una importante mejora en la calidad del aceite de oliva que se comercializa como aceite de oliva virgen extra. En este contexto, en el presente trabajo se han propuesto varios objetivos. En una primera etapa, se procedió a evaluar la influencia de la variedad y del grado de madurez de las aceitunas, así como de los efectos agroclimáticos de suelo, clima y paisaje, sobre la calidad del aceite de oliva virgen extra. En una segunda etapa, el objetivo fue estudiar nuevas estrategias que permitan la mejora del proceso de conservación del aceite de oliva. Para ello se determinaron los efectos de la temperatura, la ausencia de luz y la utilización de una atmosfera modificada sobre la calidad del aceite de oliva. Además, como propuesta innovadora, también se evaluó el efecto de la eliminación parcial o total del oxígeno presente en la matriz del aceite de oliva mediante la aplicación de ultrasonidos (US) de potencia. Finalmente, la tercera y última línea de trabajo se centró en evaluar el posible aprovechamiento de los subproductos de almazara, como fuente de compuestos bioactivos. En concreto, se estudió la aplicación de los US de potencia como mecanismo para favorecer la extracción de compuestos antioxidantes a partir del orujo de almazara El proceso de extracción se llevó a cabo utilizando un disolvente no tóxico y a baja temperatura, potenciando de esta forma el posible uso alimentario de los extractos como ingredientes funcionales. En la primera fase del trabajo, se consideraron las variedades de aceituna autorizadas por la DO "Olí de Mallorca" (arbequina, picual y empeltre) recogidas manualmente en diferentes estados de madurez: verde (aceituna totalmente verde), en envero (aceituna mitad verde, mitad morada) y madura (aceituna totalmente morada). Se elaboraron los diferentes aceites mediante el sistema Abencor, y posteriormente se analizaron los principales parámetros físico-químicos de calidad: grado de acidez (GA), índice de peróxidos (IP) y coeficientes de extinción K232 y K270, además de analizar el perfil de ácidos grasos, el perfil fenólico y el contenido en fenólicos totales (FT), la capacidad antioxidante, la estabilidad oxidativa, y las coordenadas de color dentro del espacio CieLab. Por último, y para terminar de definir la calidad global del aceite de oliva también se llevó a cabo el análisis sensorial de todas las muestras. Mediante la aplicación de un análisis multivariable de los diferentes parámetros analizados se pudo visualizar la importancia tanto del efecto varietal como del estado de madurez de la aceituna, sobre las propiedades físico-químicas y organolépticas del aceite de oliva. Todos los aceites analizados, tomando en consideración los parámetros de calidad que definen la categoría del aceite de oliva, independientemente del grado de madurez de las aceitunas de procedencia, se clasificaron dentro de la categoría virgen extra (de acuerdo con el Reglamento CEE 2568/91). No obstante, los parámetros GA y K270 experimentaron un ligero incremento a medida que aumentó el grado de madurez de las aceitunas. En cuanto al perfil de ácidos grasos de los diferentes aceites analizados, para una misma variedad de aceituna, no se observaron diferencias significativas (p 0,05) entre los aceites elaborados con aceitunas en diferente estado de madurez. Como resultado de esta primera fase de la investigación se ha propuesto una metodología capaz de diferenciar entre aceites de oliva, elaborados a partir de una misma variedad de aceituna, con diferente procedencia geográfica, en función de las características físico-químicas de los aceites y de los atributos agroclimáticos de la zona, sin incluir el factor humano. En la segunda etapa de este trabajo, se evaluaron diferentes estrategias para la conservación del aceite de oliva basadas en la utilización de una atmosfera inerte, ausencia de luz y baja temperatura, incorporando una nueva técnica, innovadora en este campo, basada en la aplicación de un pretratamiento con US de potencia, con el fin de desplazar el oxígeno disuelto en la matriz del aceite de oliva. Este estudio se llevó a cabo con dos tipos de aceite de oliva virgen extra; un primer aceite caracterizado por su bajo GA bajo (0,15% ácido oleico), procedente de la variedad arbequina, y un segundo tipo, procedente de la variedad empeltre, caracterizado por un GA relativamente elevado (0,74% ácido oleico), próximo al límite legislado para la categoría virgen extra. En el estudio se determinaron los principales parámetros de calidad definidos en el Reglamento CEE 2568/91 (GA, IP y los coeficientes de extinción K232 y K270), así como el perfil de ácidos grasos, el contenido en fenoles totales, la estabilidad oxidativa, y se llevó a cabo un exhaustivo análisis organoléptico tanto de los atributos positivos, como de los posibles atributos negativos, durante un período de conservación de 16 meses. Antes de iniciar el estudio de conservación, se comprobó, a partir del análisis inicial de las muestras pretratadas con US de potencia, como dicho tratamiento no modificó de forma significativa las propiedades físico-químicas y sensoriales del aceite de oliva, lo cual permitió la incorporación de las muestras tratadas con esta nueva metodología al estudio de conservación. A partir del estudio basado en el seguimiento de los diferentes parámetros físico-químicos y sensoriales de las muestras, durante un periodo de conservación de 16 meses, pudo observarse como en el caso de trabajar con un aceite de oliva con valores iniciales correspondientes a los parámetros de calidad muy por debajo de los límites establecidos para la categoría virgen extra (en particular, un bajo GA: 0,1-0,2 % ácido oleico), el hecho de conservar el aceite de oliva en condiciones que minimizan las reacciones de oxidación (atmosfera inerte, ausencia de luz, baja temperatura y/o mediante pretratameinto con US de potencia) no tuvo efectos significativos sobre la calidad del mismo, durante al menos un período de 16 meses. Sin embargo, cuando el aceite de oliva virgen extra desde un principio no es de buena calidad (valores de los parámetros de calidad, sobretodo el GA, próximos al límite establecido par la categoría virgen extra), los procesos de conservación en atmosfera inerte o en ausencia de luz no fueron eficaces para el mantenimiento de la calidad del aceite de oliva como virgen extra, más allá de los cuatro meses de almacenamiento. En este caso, solo la conservación del aceite de oliva a baja temperatura (con y sin pretratamiento con US) consiguió que el aceite de oliva se mantuviera dentro de la categoría virgen extra, durante un período de como mínimo 12 meses. También es interesante destacar, en el caso de las muestras almacenadas a baja temperatura con y sin pretratamiento con US de potencia, el hecho que las muestras pretratadas con pulsos ultrasónicos presentaran, en la parte final del periodo de almacenamiento, unos valores inferiores para el índice de peróxidos, una mayor estabilidad oxidativa y una mayor intensidad del atributo frutado. La conservación del aceite de oliva a baja temperatura implica la aparición de un proceso cristalización de los triglicéridos que va en detrimento de la calidad del mismo. No obstante, en los estudios de conservación, llevados a cabo con las variedades arbequina y empeltre, se observó como las muestras pretratadas con US de potencia y conservadas a baja temperatura, presentaron una significativa reducción del proceso de cristalización de los triglicéridos, durante el período de almecenamiento. Este descubrimiento, de claro interés industrial, dio lugar a la obtención de una patente (P25827ES00) con el fin de proteger la propiedad intelectual de esta nueva metodología. Finalmente, en la tercera y última fase de la presente tesis doctoral, se evaluó el proceso de obtención de extractos, a partir del orujo de almazara, con un alto contenido en compuestos fenólicos y que presentaran una elevada capacidad antioxidante. La metodología aplicada para la extracción se basó en la aplicación US de potencia con la finalidad de mejorar la eficacia del proceso. En un estudio inicial se comprobó como un aumento de la potencia de la sonda de US utilizada, provocaba un significativo aumento del contenido en compuestos fenólicos extraídos a partir del orujo de almazara, utilizando una solución etanol:agua (1:1, v/v), con un ratio disolvente/soluto de 15/1 (mL/g), un tiempo de extracción de 15 min y una temperatura de 20 ºC. Es interesante resaltar que la aplicación de los US de potencia permitió la utilización de una mezcla de disolventes de extracción no tóxicos y aptos para su uso en la industria alimentaria (mezcla etanol/agua (1:1, v/v)), obteniéndose porcentajes de extracción similares a los descritos en la bibliografía utilizando disolventes de gran poder extractor pero elevada toxicidad, como por ejemplo el metanol. Con el fin de optimizar el proceso de extracción de compuestos bioactivos a partir del orujo de almazara se aplicó la metodología de superficie de respuesta (RSM), utilizando como variables la potencia de US, el ratio disolvente/soluto y el tiempo de extracción. Todas las experiencias se llevaron a cabo a una temperatura controlada de 20 ºC, utilizando una mezcla etanol:agua (1:1, v/v) como disolvente. Se utilizó un diseño tipo Box-Behnken (BBD) para evaluar el efecto de las variables independientes mencionadas: potencia de ultrasonidos (X1 = 175 – 375 W/L), grado de ratio disolvente/soluto (X2 = 5 - 25 mL/g) y tiempo de extracción (X3 = 27 – 3 min). Los datos experimentales obtenidos, mediante el BBD, relativos a la extracción de compuestos fenólicos (FT), así como los correspondientes a la capacidad antioxidante de los extractos, determinada mediante las técnicas CUPRAC, y FRAP, se ajustaron de forma significativa a un modelo lineal (p 0,05) entre els olis elaborats amb olives en diferent estat de maduresa. Com a resultat d'aquesta primera fase de la investigació s'ha proposat una metodologia capaç de diferenciar entre olis d'oliva, elaborats a partir d'una mateixa varietat d'oliva, en funció de les característiques fisicoquímiques dels olis i dels atributs agroclimàtiques de la zona, sense incloure-hi el factor humà . Dins la segona etapa d'aquest treball, es van avaluar diferents estratègies per a la conservació de l'oli d'oliva basades en la utilització d'una atmosfera inert, absència de llum i baixa temperatura, a més d'incorporar una nova tècnica, innovadora en aquest camp, basada en l'aplicació d'un pretractament amb US de potència, per tal de desplaçar l'oxigen dissolt en la matriu de l'oli d'oliva i així minimitzar, encara més les reaccions d'oxidació. Aquest estudi es va dur a terme amb dos tipus d'oli d'oliva verge extra, un primer oli caracteritzat pel seu baix GA (0,15% àcid oleic), procedent de la varietat arbequina, i un segon tipus, procedent de la varietat empeltre, caracteritzat per un GA relativament elevat (0,74% àcid oleic), el qual es troba pròxim al límit legislat per a la categoria verge extra. En l'estudi es van determinar els principals paràmetres de qualitat definits en el Reglament CEE 2568/91, (GA, IP i els coeficients d'extinció K232 i K270) , així com el perfil d'àcids grassos, el contingut en fenols totals, l'estabilitat oxidativa, així com un exhaustiu anàlisi organolèptic tant dels atributs positius, com dels possibles atributs negatius, durant un període de conservació de 16 mesos. Abans d'iniciar l'estudi de conservació, es va comprovar, a partir de l'anàlisi inicial de les mostres pretractades amb US de potència, com aquest tractament no va modificar de manera significativa les propietats fisicoquímiques i sensorials de l'oli d'oliva, la qual cosa va permetre la incorporació de les mostres tractades amb aquesta nova metodologia a l'estudi de conservació . A partir de l'estudi basat en el seguiment dels diferents paràmetres fisicoquímics i sensorials de les mostres, durant un període de conservació de 16 mesos, es va poder observar com en el fet de treballar amb un oli d'oliva amb valors inicials corresponents als paràmetres de qualitat molt per sota dels límits establerts per a la categoria verge extra (en particular un baix grau d'acidesa: 0,1-0,2 % àcid oleic), el fet de conservar l'oli d'oliva en condicions que minimitzin les reaccions d'oxidació (atmosfera inert, absència de llum, baixa temperatura i/o mitjançant un pretractament amb US de potència) no va tenir efectes significatius sobre la qualitat del mateix, durant almenys un període de 16 mesos . Malgrat això, quan l'oli d'oliva verge extra des d'un principi no es de tan bona qualitat (valors dels paràmetres de qualitat, sobretot del grau d'acidesa, pròxim la límit establert per aquesta categoria), les metodologies de conservació en atmosfera inert o en absència de llum no van ser eficaces per al manteniment de la qualitat de l'oli d'oliva com verge extra, més enllà dels quatre mesos d'emmagatzematge. En aquest cas, només la conservació a baixa temperatura (amb i sense pretractament amb US) va aconseguir que l'oli d'oliva es mantingués dins de la categoria verge extra, almenys fins als 12 mesos. També és interessant destacar, que en el cas de les mostres emmagatzemades a baixa temperatura amb i sense pretractament amb US, les mostres en les quals s'havia fet un pretractament amb polsos ultrasònics presentaren, al final del període d'emmagatzematge, uns valors inferiors per a l'índex de peròxids, una major estabilitat oxidativa, així com una major intensitat de l'atribut fruitat d'oliva. A més, la conservació de l'oli d'oliva a baixa temperatura implica la cristal•lització dels triglicèrids, fet que va en detriment de la qualitat del mateix. En els estudis de conservació, duts a terme amb les varietats arbequina i empeltre, es va observar com les mostres pretractades amb US de potència i emmagatzemades a baixa temperatura, van presentar un menor grau de cristal•lització dels triglicèrids, al llarg del període de conservació. Aquest descobriment, de clar interès industrial, va donar lloc a l'obtenció d'una patent (P25827ES00) per tal de protegir la propietat intel•lectual d'aquesta nova metodologia . Finalment, dins la darrera fase de la present tesi doctoral, es va avaluar el procés d'obtenció d'extractes, amb un alt contingut en compostos fenòlics i elevada capacitat antioxidant, a partir de la pinyolada, residu sòlid procedent de obtenció de l'oli d'oliva. La metodologia aplicada per a l'extracció es basà en l'aplicació US de potència amb la finalitat de millorar l'eficàcia del procés . En un estudi inicial es va comprovar com un augment de la potència d'US, aplicat mitjançant una sonda d'ultrasons, provocava un augment significatiu del contingut en compostos fenòlics extrets a partir de la pinyolada, utilitzant com a dissolvent una solució etanol:aigua (1:1 , v/v) , amb una relació dissolvent/solut de 15/1 (mL/g), un temps d'extracció de 15 min i una temperatura controlada de 20 º C. És interessant remarcar que l'aplicació dels US de potència va permetre la utilització d'una barreja de dissolvents d'extracció no tòxics i aptes per al seu ús en la indústria alimentària, obtenint percentatges d'extracció semblants als descrits en la bibliografia utilitzant dissolvents de gran poder extractor, però elevada toxicitat, com el metanol. Per tal d'optimitzar el procés d'extracció de compostos bioactius a partir d'aquest subproducte de tafona es va aplicar la metodologia de superfície de resposta (RSM), utilitzant com a variables la potència d'US, la relació dissolvent/solut i el temps d'extracció. Totes les experiències es van dur a terme a una temperatura controlada de 20 º C , utilitzant una barreja etanol:aigua (1:1, v/v) com a dissolvent. Es va aplicar un disseny tipus Box-Behnken ( BBD ) per avaluar l'efecte de les variables independents esmentades: potència d'ultrasons ( X1 = 175-375 W / L), grau de dilució dissolvent/solut (X2 = 5-25 mL/g) i temps d'extracció ( X3 = 3-27 min) . Les dades experimentals obtingudes, mitjançant el BBD, relatives a l'extracció de compostos fenòlics (FT) , així com les corresponents a la capacitat antioxidant dels extractes, determinada mitjançant les tècniques CUPRAC i FRAP, es van ajustar de forma significativa amb un model lineal (p 0.05) between the oils elaborated with olives at different ripening degrees were observed. As a result of this first phase, a methodology was proposed, being capable to differentiate between olive oils elaborated from the same olive variety, with different geographical origin, depending on the oil physicochemical characteristics and on the agro-climatic attributes of each geographical zone (excluding the human factor). At the second stage of this research, different strategies were evaluated in order to improve the conservation process of olive oil. These strategies were based on: the utilization of an inert atmosphere, the absence of light and the use of low temperature. Moreover, a new strategy, innovative in this field, based on the application of a pretreatment with US power to remove the oxygen dissolved in the olive oil counterfoil was also considered. This study was carried out with two types of extra virgin olive oil. The first oil was characterized by its low acidity degree (0.15 % oleic acid), produced from the arbequina variety; and the second one, produced from empeltre variety and characterized by a relatively high acidity degree (0.74 % oleic acid), close to the limit established for the extra virgin category. In this study, the main quality parameters defined on the European Regulation CEE 2568/91 (GA, IP and the extinction coefficients K232 and K270), as well as the fatty acids profile, the total phenols content and the oxidative stability were monitored for 16 months. Also, a complete sensory analysis, for both positive and negative attributes, was also carried out during a conservation period of 16 months. Previous to the conservation study, it was verified, from the initial analysis of the samples pretreated with power US, that this treatment did not significantly modify the physicochemical and/or sensory properties of the olive oil. This fact allowed the incorporation of the samples, treated with this new methodology, within the conservation study. From the study based on the characterization of the physicochemical and sensory parameters of the samples during a conservation period of 16 months, it could be observed that, when considering an olive oil with initial values for the quality parameters far below the established limits for the extra virgin olive oil (i.e. with a low acidity degree of 0.1-0.2 % oleic acid), the different strategies used for preserving olive oil by minimizing the oxidation reactions (inert atmosphere, absence of light, low temperature and/or by applying a US of power pretreatment) did not show significant effects on the oil quality during at least a period of 16 months. On the contrary, when the initial extra virgin olive oil was of lower quality (with quality parameter values, in particular the GA value close to the limit for this category), the methods of preservation based on the use of an inert atmosphere or the absence of light were not effective in maintaining the quality of extra virgin olive oil beyond four months of storage. In fact, only the strategies based on the application of low temperature (with and without US pretreatment) maintained the extra virgin category for at least a conservation period of 12 months. It is also interesting to emphasize that in the case of the samples stored at low temperature, with and without US pretreatment, the samples pretreated with ultrasonic pulses presented, at the end of the storage period, lower values for the peroxide index, a higher oxidative stability and higher intensity for the fruity attribute. It is well known that the conservation of the olive oil at low temperature implies the appearance of a crystallization process of the triglycerides, reducing the overall quality of the olive oil. In this study, carried out with arbequina and empeltre varieties, samples pretreated by US power and stored at low temperature, presented a significant reduction of the crystallization process during the storage period. This discovery, of clear industrial interest, gave place to a patent (P25827ES00), in order to protect the intellectual property of this new methodology. Finally, in the third and last phase of the present doctoral thesis, the extraction process of olive oil mill waste extracts, with a high phenolic content and elevated antioxidant capacity, was evaluated. The methodology applied for the extraction was based on the application of power US with the aim of improving the process efficiency. In an initial study, it was observed that an increase on the power of the US probe promoted a significant increase on the phenolic content extracted from the olive oil mill waste, using a solution of ethanol:water (1:1, v/v), with a dissolvent/solute ratio of 15/1 (mL/g), an extraction time of 15 min and a temperature of 20 ºC. It is interesting to note that the application of the power US allowed the utilization of non-toxic and suitable solvents for the food processing industry, such as an ethanol/water mix (1:1, v/v)), obtaining similar extraction percentages to those described in the bibliography using solvents with a high extractor power but also with high toxicity, as for example, methanol. In order to optimize the extraction process of bioactive compounds proceeding from olive oil mill waste, the response surface methodology (RSM) technique was applied, using as independent variables: the power of the US probe, the solvent/solute ratio and the extraction time. All the experiences were carried out at a controlled temperature of 20 ºC, using a mixture of ethanol:water (1:1, v/v) as a solvent. A Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to evaluate the effect of the independent variables: power of US (X1 = 175 - 375 W/L), solvent/solute ratio (X2 = 5 - 25 mL/g) and extraction time (X3 = 3 - 27 min). The information obtained by means of the BBD, relative to the extraction of phenolic compounds (FT), as well as the antioxidant capacity of the extracts, measured with the methods CUPRAC and FRAP, could be adjusted to a linear model (p < 0.05), and was capable to explain satisfactorily the system behavior and to predict the answers in the experimental domain considered. On the other hand, the antioxidant capacity evaluated by means of the ABTS method, could be significantly adjusted (p < 0.05) to a quadratic model. The experimental conditions, resulting from the RSM application, that allowed to obtain the maximum FT yield, as well as extracts from olive oil mill waste that exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, were the following: 375 W/L of ultrasonic power, 25 mL/g in the solvent/solute ratio and extraction time of 27 min. The methodology established for the extraction of bioactive compounds from olive oil mill waste, with ultrasonic assistance, allowed the extraction of thermo labile compounds at low temperature, using a non-toxic solvent and with a minimum extraction time, significantly lower to that used in conventional extraction processes with mechanical stirring. Globally, the research carried out for this Doctoral Thesis pretended to contribute and to support, inside our possibilities, the olive oil sector of the Balearic Islands, and in particular, the olive oil producers from the Majorca Island, by means of the characterization of the olive oil proceeding from the three authorized varieties by the AOP "Oli de Mallorca" (arbequina, picual and empeltre), depending on the olive ripening degree and on the agroclimatic factors from Majorca olive cultivars. In addition, a new methodology of olive oil conservation, which allows the storage at low temperature, preserving the physicochemical and sensory properties and reducing significantly the crystallization process of the triglycerides, have been placed at the disposal of the producers assigned to the AOP "Oli de Mallorca". Finally, a procedure based on the application of US, which allows the utilization of the olive oil mill waste, contributing in this way, to take advantage of the product, has also been included in this work.