eFörvaltning ses som ett medel för att göra kommunalt förvaltningsarbete mer effektivt och interoperabelt. Dock begränsas kommuner av oförmåga att uppnå det vilket försvårar genomförandet av deras uppdrag. En orsak till varför införandet av eFörvaltning inte ger de systematiska fördelar som efterfrågas beror på att införandet av informations och kommunikations teknologier (IKT) inte är tillräckligt. Förändringen som krävs kan inte ske över en natt utan är en gradvis förändring över tid som även kräver nya sätt att arbeta på. Kommuner behöver hantera sin eFörvaltningsutveckling på ett mer strukturerat sätt för att öka möjligheterna att förverkliga de fördelarna som sägs kunna erhållas. Enterprise Architecture (EA) har på senare tid kommit att ses som en möjlig lösning för att komma tillrätta med denna problematik. Genom att arbeta mot en EA skapas möjligheten att brygga IKT system med affärsprocesser och därigenom leda till effektivitet och interoperabilitet. Dock är EA inom offentlig sektor ifrågasatt. Forskare menar att EA saknar tydlig definierad omfattning och begreppsvärld, vilket gör användningen av EA inom förvaltningsarbete svår. De omfattande logiska EA ramverk som finns idag saknar innehåll som är specifikt relaterade till offentlig sektor. Vari det blir problematiskt att arbeta mot en EA inom offentlig sektor. Denna licentiatavhandling lägger följande forskningsfråga: "Vilken roll har EA för införandet av eFörvaltning inom Svenska kommuner?" Samt följande underfrågor "Vilka förutsättningar finns för att använda EA vid eFörvaltningsutveckling?" "Vad har Örebro kommun uppnått genom att arbete mot en EA i deras eFörvaltningsutveckling?" Och "Vilka problem har Örebro kommun upplevt av att arbeta mot en EA vid eFörvaltningsutvecklingen?". En longitudinell fallstudie av ett eFörvaltningsutvecklingsprojekt i Örebrokommun genomfördes mellan 2007 och 2009 med syfte att utröna dessa frågor och för att skapa insikt om EAs roll för eFörvaltningsutveckling. Förutsättningar, resultat och upplevda problem vid eFörvaltningsutvecklingen studerades. I anslutning till detta empiriska arbete genomfördes även en jämförandestudie av eFörvaltningsmål såsom de anges i officiella statliga dokument inom så väl Sverige som i EU gentemot förmodade fördelarna med EA som diskuteras i samtida EA-litteratur. Studien visar att EA som fenomen ses som en förutsättning för att lyckas med eFörvaltning. 7 viktiga aspekter gällande förutsättningen för att lyckas med kommuners eFörvaltningsutveckling identifierades: Skillnaden mellan administrativa och politiska ansvaret, Politiskt mandat, Politisk timing, Resursfördelning, Samordning under NPM, Leverantörsberoende, Val av standard och bäst praxis. För att förbättra möjligheten att röna framgång i eFörvaltningsutveckling behöver dessa aspekter aktualiseras och hanteras. New Public Management (NPM) som styrmodell utgör ett strukturellt hinder för eFörvaltningsutveckling som förhindrar en mer explicit användning av EA-ramverk, vilket påverkar möjligheten att uppnå uppsatta mål negativt. Trots den strukturella problematik som föreligger, kan stöd erhållas genom att arbeta utifrån ett "EA-tänk". Ett "EAtänk" kan här ses som ett medel för att påbörja förändringen mot en EA utan att för den delen explicit använda sig av ett EA-ramverk, eller -metod. Dock är det viktigt skapa en förståelse för att "EA-tänk" som fenomen i sin tur ger upphov till strukturer och således kan leda till problem som även de måste hanteras för att eFörvaltningsutveckling skall lyckas. eFörvaltning, NPM och ett "EA-tänk" skapar en strukturell triad där olika strukturella egenskaper i vissa fall sammanfaller med varandra vari de kan stödja kommuner i dess arbete och således bidra till positiv utveckling. Medan det i andra fall leder till negativ utveckling där administrationen upplever problem att ta till sig av de rekommendationer eFörvaltningsprojektet kan tänkas ge till organisationen som helhet. Paradoxalt nog skapar denna strukturella triad en situation där kommuner måste arbete runt sig själv för att komma framåt. Normer och befintliga strukturer i kommuner förhindrar effektiv samarbete både internt mellan olika förvaltningar och externt gentemot andra kommuner och landsting vilket leder till fragmentariska framsteg mot projektmålen och i slutänden även kommunens övergripande mål gällande eFörvaltningsutveckling. Givet de i många fall motstridiga strukturella egenskaper som finns mellan NPM och eFörvaltning innebär att det initiala arbetet mot EA i eFörvaltningsutveckling är ett ytterst komplext fenomen. För att öka möjligheten att eFörvaltningsutvecklingen blir lyckad krävs det att kommuner känner till och hantera den negativa inverkan NPM har på eFörvaltningsutveckling. Samtidigt behöver de känna till och hanterar problematiken som uppstår av att arbeta mot en EA genom ett "EA-tänk", Samt att som studien visat, EA ger inget stöd för mer politiseras mål, vari kommuner behöver annat sätt och andra strategier för sådant arbete. Detta är viktigt att beakta, speciellt med tanke på att mer politiserade mål i mångt och mycket är de mål som kommer premieras av politiker. Av just den enkla orsaken att politiker inte blir omvalda på grund av "effektiva IKT integrerade interna processer" utan blir omvalda utifrån förbättringar som är synliga och som gagnar medborgare positivt. Avhandlingen bidrar till forsknings genom att öka förståelse för och behovet av att hantera både positiva och negativa faktorer som påverkar möjligheten att lyckas med eFörvaltningsutveckling inom kommunalt arbete. Vilket inkluderar de 7 identifierade kritiska faktorer måste aktualiseras och hanteras för att öka möjligheten att lyckas. Den negativa effekt NPM har på eFörvaltningsutveckling och hur ett "EA-tänk" kan leda till positiv utveckling, även om det som denna studie visat inte kan bidra till mer politiserade mål. Vad gäller denna licentiatavhandlings bidrag till praktiken så bidrar den med att belysa den problematiska situation som föreligger av att institutionaliserade strukturer i många fall verkar som ett hinder mot förändring. Studien möjliggör även till att kommuner kan skapa en förståelse för sin egna eFörvaltningsutveckling och möjligtvis kan verka för att inte uppleva samma problematik som identifierats i Örebros eFörvaltningsutveckling samt visa på hur en kommun kan arbeta för att hantera den problematik som inte kan förhindras alternativ som uppstår trots denna kunskap. ; Governments struggle with inefficiencies and an inability to achieve interoperable information communication technology (ICT) systems. Apparent issues include a failure of local government to realize the benefits of electronic government (eGov) initiatives, high project failure rates, administrations hampered with inefficiencies, and a lack of interoperability between systems within the local government. Thus, local governments need to address their eGov initiatives in a structured way to improve their chances of providing the benefits that are sought after. Sweden's eGov model is decentralized, following a strict new public management (NPM) model. Whilst eGov ought to bring benefits to local government, Sweden is still hampered by inefficiencies and an inability to achieve interoperable ICT systems. This has been the case for quite some time. One reason why systemic gains from adopting eGov have not reached the levels sought after could be that, in many cases, ICT implementations are not enough. The transformation needed for eGov is not instantaneous; it requires various new ways of working. Enterprise Architecture (EA) has come to be seen as a possible solution to the apparent issues of developing, adopting and managing eGov successfully. By utilizing EA, it is argued that it is possible to bridge ICT systems and business processes, thus making the organization more efficient. However EA's usefulness for eGov development and adoption is the subject of debate. Some researchers argue that EA lacks clearly defined scopes and concepts, which makes the use of EA in government difficult. Whereas other argues that although EA frameworks are comprehensive logical frameworks, they lack content that is related specifically to government organizations. The thesis posits the following research questions: What is the role of EA in eGov adoption in Swedish local government? together with three sub questions: What are the prerequisites for using EA in Swedish local eGov adoption? What has the Swedish local government in Örebro achieved with its use of EA in eGov adoption? And What problems have the Swedish local government in Örebro experienced in its use of EA when adopting eGov? To explore the role of EA in eGov adoption a longitudinal case study is carried out on the municipality of Örebro's eGov project MovIT, a project launched in 2007 that ended in 2009. I study the prerequisites, results and problems associated with using EA in Swedish local government as part of eGov adoption. A comparative study is conducted of the goals of eGov, as stated in official eGov documents at EU and Swedish governmental levels will attest as to the supposed benefits of EA in contemporary EA-literature. From the study, it can be concluded that EA, as a phenomenon, is thought to be, if not a silverbullet, then at least a prerequisite to eGov success. In term of prerequisites, EA use cannot assist Swedish local government where there are more politicized objectives; in this situation, local government is required to look elsewhere to find support for its work. The study identify several critical issues from the empirical study of the prerequisites: distinction between administrative and political responsibilities; political mandate; political timing; resource allocation; coordination under NPM; dependence on providers; and choosing among standards and best practices. These issues need to be acknowledged and handled appropriately by Swedish local government in order to improve the chances for success in eGov adoption. The study also showed that NPM as governance model becomes a hindrance in eGov adoption, preventing the project from a more explicit use of an EA-framework and negatively affecting the projects possibility to adopt eGov. However, despite this structural problem, it is still possible – as observed – for a project that is based on EA-thinking to begin working. EGov, NPM and EA-thinking form a triad, with structural properties that, in some instances, correlate. In such cases, this can lead to positive changes. However, in other situations, they are contradictory, resulting in Swedish local government having a difficult time in adhering to the suggestions endorsed by the eGov project. This lead to incoherent progressions towards requested results. The existing structures hindered effective cooperation, both internally between different departments and externally with other local governments. This licentiate thesis has shown that the initial use of EA in local government eGov adoption is complex. Given the contradictory nature of NPM and eGov, local government has to acknowledge the negative impacts of NPM on eGov adoption. As well as acknowledging the issues that arise from EA use, a key area is a lack of support of local government in an area that is most likely to be endorsed by politicians. Politicians do not get re-elected based on efficient internal processes with a highly integrated ICT; rather, changes must be visible to citizens and businesses. This licentiate thesis has also shown that 'EA-thinking', as a means for local government, can move towards an EA without the explicit use of an EA framework or EA method. However, 'EA-thinking' may give rise to other issues that need to be acknowledged and dealt with. This licentiate thesis contributes to research by improving our understanding of the nature and importance of promoting and inhibiting different factors. Including critical issues for succeeding with eGov adoption, the negative effects of NPM and how EA-thinking can lead to positive changes, even though it cannot assist local government in all aspects deemed important to eGov adoption. In terms of practice, this thesis contributes by highlighting the problematic nature of institutionalized structures and the effect that this has on eGov adoption. It also contributes by enabling local governments to acknowledge the problems identified. This allows them to better understand their own development and possibly avoid similar problems or at least have a better understanding of how to handle the issues that arise.
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Despite a meticulous process in place to ensure aid worker safety in Gaza, the leading cause of death in the humanitarian sector over the last 11 months has been Israeli airstrikes.
Of the 378 aid workers killed worldwide since October 7, more than 75 percent have been killed in Gaza or the West Bank, according to the Aid Worker Security Database. The number of humanitarians killed in Palestinian territory in the last three months of 2023 was more than the deadliest full year ever recorded for aid workers. This includes an Israeli airstrike Wednesday Sept. 11 on a school being used as a shelter in Nuseirat in Central Gaza. According to reports, 18 were killed, including children and six UNRWA aid workers, the deadliest single event for that organization since the start of the war.
Israeli attacks on aid organizations have become routine, despite systems in place to avoid humanitarian deaths. Through a process called deconfliction, aid groups coordinate with warring parties to avoid being attacked. Popular deconfliction mechanisms used by aid groups in Gaza include clearly marking their assets, arranging their movements with Israeli authorities, and sharing their location with the Israeli military. However, a disturbing pattern has emerged: Aid groups share their coordinates with Israeli authorities and then are attacked by the IDF at those same coordinates.
Christopher Lockyear, Secretary General of Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders (MSF), told the United Nations Security Council in February that "this pattern of attacks is either intentional or indicative of reckless incompetence." Forty-eight hours earlier, a 120mm Israeli tank shell exploded in a MSF facility in Khan Younis, killing two people and severely injuring six others. It was the second time a MSF facility had been attacked by Israeli forces.
The White House is aware of this trend. In May, a Biden administration report to Congress noted the following:
"One specific area of concern is the impact of Israel's military operations on humanitarian actors. Despite regular engagement from humanitarian actors and repeated USG interventions with Israeli officials on deconfliction/coordination procedures, the IDF has struck humanitarian workers and facilities. While Israel repeatedly committed to improve deconfliction and implemented some additional measures, those changes did not fully prevent subsequent strikes involving humanitarian workers and facilities."
"Concern" might be too strong a word to express the White House's interest in preventing humanitarian deaths. The same day successive Israeli precision drone strikes killed seven aid workers, including one American citizen, from World Central Kitchen — a humanitarian group founded by Chef José Andrés — Biden approved the transfer of over 2,000 bombs to Israel.
Humanitarian organizations can be based in a Western country (including one upon which Israel relies for weapons), have a direct line to the IDF, follow all deconfliction procedures to a T, and still be attacked by the IDF. And when they have been, the Biden administration has done nothing but issue words of concern from the briefing podium. This lesson is not lost on aid workers: After a nurse from Project Hope was killed by an Israeli airstrike in March, the organization's director of emergency response and preparedness asked his staff if they wanted to start sleeping in a zone deconflicted with Israeli authorities. All of the staff members said no.
What follows is a non-exhaustive list of 14 Israeli attacks on known aid worker locations compiled from media reports, organizational statements, and independent investigations. Reporting by the New York Times and Human Rights Watch was especially valuable. In each case, the aid groups had notified Israeli authorities of their location and movements, their vehicles or facilities were clearly marked as humanitarians, and were often operating in Israeli-designated "safe zones," but they were attacked anyway by Israeli forces.
The Biden administration held Israel to account for zero of these 14 incidents.Fourteen times aid groups were attacked after giving the IDF their locationNovember 18, 2023: Israeli forces attacked a convoy of five clearly-marked MSF vehicles, killing two MSF staff members. MSF had coordinated the convoy's movement with Israeli authorities and followed the route prescribed by the Israeli military. MSF staff members saw no military targets in the area when they were attacked. MSF requested an explanation from the IDF but received no response.December 8, 2023: The Israeli Navy fired at facilities affiliated with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA) in Rafah with 20mm cannon rounds, damaging the west side of the two buildings. UNRWA officials had repeatedly shared the coordinates of the buildings with Israeli officials, including on the same day of the attack. Agency staff told Human Rights Watch that they were unaware of any military targets in the area. Afterwards, the Israeli military said the attack was carried out by mistake.December 16, 2023: An IDF tank fired several rounds at the Convent of the Sisters of Mother Teresa (Missionaries of Charity), part of the Holy Family Catholic Parish compound in Gaza. The attack displaced the 54 disabled people sheltering there, leaving some without the respirators "that some of them need to survive," the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem said in a statement.An aid worker was reportedly injured in the attack. Later that day, an Israeli sniper killed two women sheltering at the church, shooting one woman as she tried to carry the other to safety. When others in the church ran toward the women, Israeli snipers shot them too, wounding several, including two children. Pope Francis condemned the attack, calling it "terrorism."Emails between Catholic Relief Services and U.S. Senate staff obtained by Politico show that Catholic Relief Services (one of the largest Christian aid organizations operating in Gaza) had provided the coordinates of the two buildings to Senate staffers, who then relayed that information to the IDF. The IDF confirmed the location of the buildings that Catholic Relief Services requested for protection. The aid group also provided aerial photos of the facilities directly to Israeli authorities. The Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem Church said they shared their GPS coordinates with the IDF several times before the attack.December 28, 2023: A convoy of U.N. aid vehicles were shot at by Israeli forces in central Gaza as it was returning from delivering aid in the north. The vehicles were clearly-marked with U.N. insignia, traveling along a route designated by the Israeli military and had coordinated its plans with Israeli authorities beforehand.January 8, 2024: An Israeli tank fired at a clearly-marked MSF shelter in Khan Younis housing more than 100 staff and their family members, killing a five-year-old girl. MSF had previously notified the IDF of the shelter's location. Israeli forces denied that they fired a round at the shelter, but remnants of an Israeli-made tank shell were discovered right outside the building.January 18, 2024: An Israeli airstrike struck a residential compound housing staff from the International Rescue Committee (IRC) and Medical Aid for Palestinians (MAP) in Al-Mawasi, an Israeli-designated safe zone. The blast injured several workers and severely damaged the building. As a result, six emergency medical workers had to leave their posts, and IRC and MAP surgeons suspended their work at Nasser hospital. Forensic evidence suggests the munition used in the attack was a U.S.-made 1,000-pound MK-83 bomb, reportedly dropped by a U.S.-made F-16 aircraft. British officials had used high-level diplomatic channels to ensure the compound was deconflicted with the IDF. A month before the strike, the Israeli military explicitly reassured aid staff through text messages that they were safe. "We're aware of the location" of the compound, a message from an IDF official read. The MAP employee then clarified whether the building is still safe. "Yes," replied the IDF official.Israel provided six different — and often conflicting — explanations for the attack. It said it wasn't operating in the area; it said it was attempting to hit a target next to the MAP-IRC compound; it said it wasn't actually a bomb but a piece of the aircraft fuselage. The IDF told The New York Times that they didn't strike the location at all.January 31, 2024: Israeli forces bombed the offices of the Belgian development agency, Enabel, completely destroying the building. Handicap International, an NGO, had offices in the same structure. Belgian Foreign Minister Hadja Lahbib said that Israeli authorities "knew very well that Enabel's offices were located in this building." Earlier that day, the Belgian government announced it would not suspend funding for UNRWA, after the Israeli government claimed without evidence that UNRWA staff had participated in the October 7 massacre.In mid-February, Israeli forces claimed it had not bombed the Enabel building, but that it was destroyed when they blew up the building next door for an unspecified military reason.February 5, 2024: Israeli ships shelled a clearly-marked UNRWA convoy, damaging one of the aid trucks. The convoy was stopped at an Israeli-designated holding point when it was shelled. UNRWA had coordinated the convoy's movement with Israeli authorities. As a result of the attack, UNRWA had to pause its operations in northern Gaza for nearly three weeks, affecting 200,000 people. Israeli authorities later acknowledged the attack and said it had put in place "prevention measures" to prevent another incident. The next month, the Israeli government blocked UNRWA from providing any food assistance to northern Gaza.February 20, 2024: Two family members of MSF staff were killed when an Israeli tank fired a shell at a MSF shelter. Seven others, mostly women and children, were injured. A large MSF flag was clearly visible on the side of the building. Israeli forces provided MSF with no warning before the attack and no explanation afterwards.March 9, 2024: An Anera employee was killed in his home along with his six-year-old son and several neighbors in an Israeli airstrike. The building was registered with the Israeli military as a "sensitive site." Email records show that Anera had repeatedly shared coordinates and photos of the staff shelter with the IDF, including days before the strike. A precision-guided munition was likely used in the attack.April 1, 2024: Multiple precision Israeli drone strikes on a World Central Kitchen (WCK) convoy killed seven aid workers, including an American citizen. The Washington, DC-based group had coordinated its route with the IDF beforehand. The vehicles were struck in a deconfliction zone controlled by the Israeli military. WCK founder José Andrés said Israeli forces targeted his colleagues "systematically, car by car." Forensic evidence backs up Andrés's claim. "This was not just a bad luck situation where 'oops' we dropped the bomb in the wrong place," Andrés said, pointing to the fact that it was clearly-marked humanitarian convoy with colorful WCK logos on the vehicle roofs, and the 1.8 kilometer distance between the first and the third car in the convoy, each. It was "very clear who we are and what we do," he added.IDF Spokesman Danial Hagari said WCK had "coordinated everything correctly with the IDF in advance" and blamed "internal failures." President Joe Biden said he was "outraged and heartbroken" by the deaths, and called on Israel to investigate itself. But for WCK's founder, "The IDF cannot credibly investigate its own failure," Andrés said.April 9, 2024: A clearly-marked UNICEF aid truck was reportedly hit by Israeli gunfire south of the Salah Al-Din checkpoint. The vehicle was at a holding point when it was struck by several bullets coming from the direction of the Israeli checkpoint. The IDF had approved the convoy beforehand. The Israeli military denied that its troops had fired the shots.August 27, 2024: A U.N. World Food Programme (WFP) convoy came under fire near an Israeli checkpoint at the Wadi Gaza bridge. As the vehicles approached the checkpoint after receiving multiple clearances to proceed, Israeli troops opened fire, hitting one WFP vehicle at least ten times. Several bullets struck the vehicle's windows, just above the clearly-visible U.N. insignia and WFP logo emblazoned on the side doors. Israeli officials blamed a "communication error" for the attack.August 29, 2024: An Israeli airstrike on an Anera aid convoy killed four Palestinians as it was en route to the Emirati Red Crescent Hospital. The route was coordinated and approved by Israeli authorities. Israeli officials claim the lead car the IDF struck was carrying many weapons, but there was no indication that weapons were present. The IDF provided Anera no warning before carrying out the attack.
Históricamente las acciones en salud pública en los territorios han sido desarrolladas por las entidades territoriales municipales, con un importante componente extramural, especialmente en el Programa Ampliado de Inmunizaciones (PAI). Para su desarrollo, la inversión principal se realizaba con recursos transferidos por la Nación, lo cual fortaleció la implementación del mismo en el país. Esto lo convirtió en un programa de atención obligatoria por los mandatarios municipales, estando siempre incluido en la planeación de las acciones en salud pública a desarrollar durante cada cuatrienio. Para las entidades territoriales municipales (en adelante ETM), el desarrollo del PAI cuyo objetivo principal era del logro de coberturas útiles de vacunación, giraba en torno a dos prioridades: una social y la otra administrativa. La primera, buscaba la protección de los niños y niñas menores de cinco años frente a enfermedades inmunoprevenibles. Con la segunda se esperaba lograr un incremento o, al menos, el mantenimiento en la asignación presupuestal de los recursos provenientes del Sistema General de Participaciones (en adelante SGP) para la financiación de los programas en salud pública municipales. Como incentivo al cumplimiento de las coberturas útiles de vacunación, el Departamento Nacional de Planeación asigna una mayor fracción presupuestal del SGP para el desarrollo de las actividades de salud pública en las ETM. Si no se cumplen dichas coberturas, la consecuencia será una reducción de esos recursos, limitando presupuestalmente el desarrollo de todos los programas de salud pública en los municipios. En 2015, el Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social (en adelante MSPS) mediante la expedición de la Resolución 518, definió que las acciones extramurales del PAI, desde ese momento, estarían a cargo exclusivamente de las Entidades Administradoras de Planes de Beneficios (en adelante EAPB) con cargo a la Unidad de Pago por Capitación (UPC). Esto significó que las ETM ya no tendrían la posibilidad de realizar las acciones necesarias para lograr las coberturas exigidas por el MSPS y, a la vez, proteger a los menores de cinco años contra las enfermedades inmunoprevenibles; y, además, garantizar el flujo de los recursos del SGP para financiar todas las acciones en salud pública en su territorio. Con este trabajo se espera dar respuesta a las siguientes preguntas: ¿Cuál fue (si lo hubo) el posible efecto de la Resolución 518 de 2015 en las coberturas de vacunación de los municipios de Cundinamarca? Y, en ese sentido, ¿Existe alguna correlación entre el cumplimiento de las coberturas útiles de vacunación y el presupuesto en salud pública en los municipios de Cundinamarca para el periodo 2012 al 2018? Para esto, se realizó un estudio ecológico utilizando como fuentes de información las coberturas de vacunación para los municipios de Cundinamarca entre el 2011 y 2017, obtenidas del Programa PAI de la Gobernación de Cundinamarca y Grupo de Financiamiento del DNP. Los datos de las asignaciones presupuestales del SGP se obtuvieron del Sistema de información y consulta de distribuciones de recursos territoriales (SICODIS) y de la Dirección de Financiamiento del Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social. Los datos evidenciaron que el comportamiento temporal de las coberturas de vacunación entre los 116 municipios fue muy variable (entre ellos y dentro de ellos). En ese sentido, al comparar antes y después de 2015 en cada municipio no se pudieron establecer unívocamente magnitud ni dirección de las tendencias porque los mismos biológicos tuvieron comportamientos muy diferentes. Solo se identificaron dos patrones relativamente estables: a) Las coberturas de BCG fueron bajas siempre, y casi ningún municipio las logró. Y b) Un solo biológico se desplomó siempre después de 2015: AntiHepatitis B. Aunque no fue posible establecer la dirección y magnitud del cambio en las responsabilidades de vacunación sobre las coberturas del PAI, los análisis mostraron que el 29,3% (34 ETM) de los municipios experimentó un efecto relativamente negativo sobre sus tendencias vacunales, generando una afectación subsecuente de los presupuestos para el desarrollo de las acciones en salud pública en los territorios. En otros, al parecer aquellos con redes privadas de EPS e IPS, la Resolución 518 aparentemente no tuvo un efecto negativo o se ajustaron rápidamente y las coberturas se sostuvieron o empezaron al alza. Al revisar las asignaciones presupuestales identificamos tres tendencias: 1) municipios que venían recibiendo recursos por el cumplimiento de las coberturas útiles y estas cesaron o bajaron después de la resolución (Caqueza). 2) municipios que no percibieron asignaciones muy altas antes de la resolución y después de esta aumentaron (La Calera, Choachí, Cajicá, Gachancipa). Y unos casos emblemáticos, como Girardot, quien empezó en 2012 con 150 millones y termino con 272 millones, pero, si bien el efecto no fue presupuestal si lo fue en las coberturas de vacunación, que después de la resolución por primera vez bajaron dos años (2015 y 2016) con el aumento del riesgo epidemiológico para su población susceptible. Por lo que este punto evidencia uno de los resultados centrales del trabajo, no es sensato unir la asignación presupuestal a la protección vacunal de poblaciones vulnerables como son los niños y niñas. Esta relación nunca es directa y siempre está afectada por decisiones de cómo y cuántos recursos se asignan, por ejemplo, nunca pudimos establecer el costo de las vacunas. También, se explica por tener o no salas de parto y servicios de vacunación que dependen de lógicas políticas, geográficas y del mismo sistema de salud (el caso de San Juan de Rio Seco, único hospital provincial que no tiene sala de parto para atender a una población de 9.670 según proyección DANE para 2018). Por más mediático que parece, el efecto de la reciente migración venezolana no se identificó porque estos menores no se contabilizan en la población objeto a vacunar con la que se construyen los indicadores de cobertura municipal y sobre la cual se asigna el presupuesto. Finalmente, es importante reflexionar sobre lo inconveniente que es que, tanto los recursos del SGP para la salud pública municipal y la protección específica en los menores de 5 años en los territorios, dependan del desarrollo de acciones extramurales por parte de las EAPB, entidades que han probado dificultades para llegar a los territorios lejanos donde normalmente se encuentra la población más pobre y vulnerable del departamento. ; Historically, public health actions in the territories have been developed by municipal entities, with an important field work component, specially work related to the Expanded Immunization Program (PAI for its initials in spanish). In order to execute the program, the main investment was made with resources transferred by the nation, which strengthened its implementation in the country. In consequence, it was turned into a program of obligatory development by the local leaders, being always included into the public health action plan, every four years. For municipal territorial entities (here in after: MTE), the Expanded Immunization Program´s objective was the achievement of useful vaccination coverage and its development was related essentially around two components: a social and an administrative. The first one had the purpose of protecting children under five years of age against immune-preventable diseases; with the second one, the goal was to increase or, at least, maintain the resources assigned to this program, that came from the General Participation System (here in after: GPS). As an incentive to achieve the ideal vaccination coverage, the National Planning Department allocates a larger budgetary fraction of the GPS for the development of public health activities in the MTE; if such coverage is not fulfilled, the consequence will be a reduction of those resources, limiting budget wise, the development of all public health programs in the municipalities. In 2015, the Ministry of Health and Social Protection (MSPS for its initials in spanish) Issued the resolution number 518, which defined that the extramural actions of the PAI, would be in charge of the Entities Administering Benefit Plans (here in after: EABP) charged to the Capitation Payment Unit (CPU). This meant that the MTE would no longer have the possibility of carrying out the necessary actions to achieve the coverage required by the MSPS, affecting the protection of children under five years of age against immune-preventable diseases, and at the same time, not allowing the assurance of resources from the GPS to finance all public health actions in its territory. The purpose of this work is to answer the following questions: What was (if any) the possible effect of Resolution 518 of 2015 on vaccination coverage, in the municipalities of Cundinamarca? And, in that sense, is there a correlation between the achievement of ideal vaccination coverage and the public health budget in the municipalities of Cundinamarca between 2012 to 2018? For this purpose, an ecological study was carried out, using as information source, the vaccination coverage for Cundinamarca between 2011 and 2017, obtained from the Cundinamarca´s PAI program and the DNP´s Financing Group. Data from the GPS budget assignment was obtained from the Information and Query System of Territorial Resource´s Distribution (SICODIS for its initials in spanish) and from the Financing Department of the Ministry of Health and Social Protection. Data showed that the temporary behavior of vaccination coverage among the 116 municipalities was variable (between them and within them). In that sense, when comparing before and after 2015 in each municipality, the magnitude and direction of the trends couldn´t be certainly stablished because vaccines had different trends as well. Only two patterns were identified: a) BCG coverage was always low, and almost no municipality succeeded; and b) only Anti-Hepatitis B vaccine always collapsed after 2015. Although, it was not possible to stablish the direction and magnitude of trends in vaccination responsibilities related to the PAI coverage, the analysis showed that 29.3% (34 MTE) of the municipalities, experienced a relatively negative effect on their vaccination trends, generating a subsequent impact on the budget for the development of public health actions in the territories. In other MTE, it seemed that those with private networks of EPS and IPS, didn´t have and effect from the resolution 518; apparently, those MTE didn´t have a negative effect or were adjusted quickly, and the coverage was sustained or started to rise. When reviewing budget assignments, we identified three trends: 1) municipalities that were receiving resources due to the fulfillment of ideal coverage, ceased or lowered after the resolution (Caqueza). 2) municipalities that did not receive very high assignments before and after the resolution increased (La Calera, Choachí, Cajicá, Gachancipa). Some emblematic cases, such as Girardot, who started in 2012 with 150 million pesos and ended with 272 million pesos, although the effect was not budgetary, there was an effect over vaccination coverage, which after the resolution for the first time, fell for two years (2015 and 2016), with an increase in epidemiological risk for its susceptible population. The previous trend shows one of the central results of this work: it is not sensitive to link the budget assignment to the vaccine protection of vulnerable population such as children. This relationship is never direct and is always affected by decisions on, how and how many resources are allocated; for example, we could never stablish the cost of vaccines. At the same time, it is explained by having or not childbirth rooms and vaccination services, that depend on similar political and geographical logics and also have similar health system (the case of San Juan de Rio Seco, the only provincial hospital that does not have a delivery room to attend a population of 9,670 according to DANE projection for 2018). The effect of the recent Venezuelan migration was not identified because these minors are not counted in the population to be vaccinated, with which the municipal coverage indicators are built and taking into account that it is used to the budget is assignment. Finally, it is important to reflect on how inconvenient this problematic is; both the resources from the GPS for public health means and specific protection for children under 5 years of age, depend on the development of extramural actions by the EAPB´s, entities that have had difficulties to reach the distant territories, where the poorest and most vulnerable population is usually located.
Density or Intensity?There is much debate about how to measure density – dwellings per hectare, bedrooms per hectare or people per hectare; including or excluding major highways, parks and open spaces; the permanent population only or the transient one too?While this gives urban planners something to disagree about it risks missing the point: great urban places are not created by density; they are created by intensity.And the difference matters. When people describe the buzz of a marketplace they do not say, "Wow - it was so dense!". They are much more likely to say how intense it was. Density is a word used by planners. Intensity is a word that real people use, and perhaps because it describes the outcomes that people experience rather than the inputs that have gone in to creating them. It is the outcomes that are ultimately more important. But planning professionals like density. Even though density fails to capture the essence of what it feels like to be somewhere, the term appeals to professional instincts. It describes the raw ingredients that planners have to handle and, once you choose which version of the formula you are going to use, density is easy to measure. It involves a simple calculation of straightforward urban quantities such as the number of people, the number of houses or the number of bedrooms, all divided by the geographic area over which those ingredients occur. Easy.In contrast, intensity seems more difficult to pin down, not least because it appears to have a subjectively emotional dimension; it speaks of feelings, of responses, of stimuli, and this raises problems about how it can be effectively measured. But intensity is also a response to context, to place and above all to people - and here we can find clues to its measurement.Observing IntensitySo what are the factors that people are responding to when they instinctively feel the intensity of a great place? For a start, they can not be calculating a planner's measure of urban density because, even if they were so minded, they could not possibly know about populations and geographic areas when they are walking along a street or sitting at a café table on a public space.What people can respond to though is what is happening around them in the public realm: they can see how many other people there are, and they can see what these people are up to. In other words, intensity is obvious, immediate and instinctively calculable to the person in the street: not only the mobile population of walkers, drivers and cyclists but also the immobile population of sitters, leaners and pausers. Intensity has a static as well as a kinetic dimension. Indeed the stationary people are the essential ingredient of intensity. They are the people who have chosen to be there, to add to the place through their semi-permanence and not simply to pass through on the way to somewhere else. Intensity is not therefore about the population density of an area but the population that is participating in the public realm of an area. And this should be obvious. And everyday. But any attempt to emphasise the benefits of static participation runs counter to the mindset of the traffic engineer and counter to the still-persuasive, kinetic legacy of Le Corbusier, who described "grinding gears and burning gasoline" as the pleasurable objectives of the Plan Voisin.Nevertheless, intense places are sticky places and especially so when people are not only co-present in space but when they are also interacting: talking to each other, sharing thoughts, ideas, opinions. This is the essence of intensity; there is an exchange - a transaction – be it economic, social, cultural, intellectual, factual or simply facile. It is the daily public life of every thriving village, town and city. It is so apparently unremarkable as to go unnoticed, unobserved and unmeasured. Until it is not there. And that is when you feel it most clearly.A number of years ago my colleagues at Space Syntax were working on a sample of towns across the UK, some historic and some new. The towns had similar residential populations and similar retail floorspace provisions across similar geographical areas; in other words, similar densities. But what the team had also done was to count the numbers of people using the centres of each town: how many were walking and sitting in public space. They had counted over several days, from morning until evening. What they found was that the historic towns consistently had many more people using their centres than the new ones - and they knew from other evidence that the historic towns had stronger economic performances. Here then were places with similar urban densities but different intensities of human activity.What seemed to explain the differences between historic and new towns were first, the spatial layout and second, the street design of each place. The historic towns were laid out around radial streets that were designed to carry cars as well as vehicles and which met at the centre of the town in a public space. Behind these radial streets were more or less continuously connected grids of residential streets, interrupted by the occasional large open space. Both cars and pedestrians could use the residential streets, while the open spaces were generally for pedestrians only. There was some limited pedestrianisation in the very centre of each town.In contrast, the new towns often had separate street networks for vehicles and pedestrians, no high street or central public space and usually one or two enclosed shopping malls. Their central areas were typically pedestrianised and spatially separated from the surrounding residential areas by a vehicle-only ring road; these residential areas were separated from each other by large swathes of open space.To summarise, the key differences were first in the intensity of the human experience and second in the design of the street network. Intensity, it seems, is facilitated by an alignment of physical and spatial factors: having the movement-sensitive land uses on sufficiently well-connected streets that are, in the main, shared by vehicles and pedestrians.Measuring IntensityImportantly, both the amount of human activity and the degree of street connectivity are measurable commodities – if you know how. This is the professional specialism of my practice, Space Syntax, and it has two key parts: one part that takes place in the studio, using purpose-designed software that measures the amount of connectivity in street grids and the other part that happens on site using some form of counting device. This device may be a camera strapped to a lamp post or, in recent years, a drone flight. Or it may simply be a set of human eyes, a pencil and a notepad. Onto these 'foundational' datasets are added other information, which might be about air quality, land value, crime rates or health outcomes. Statistical software is employed to explore relations between the datasets: how is health or wealth or educational achievement related to spatial connectivity or isolation? The product of this process is an Integrated Urban Model: a quantitative record of urban form and urban performance. A Geographical Information System is used to hold the datasets in one place and a basic form of artificial intelligence is run to explore the links between the data.However it is possible to create a primitive version of a data platform using only PowerPoint and Excel. After all, Space Syntax began its work before the Macintosh, before colour screens, before the internet, before CAD, before GIS and long before BIM. Its observations of pedestrian movements around Trafalgar Square were done with pen and paper, the results coded manually into a simple drawing programme.What matters today is what mattered then: to bring data to life using maps and colours rather than spreadsheets and charts. To make it accessible to the audiences that will be making judgments about the future of places: investors, planning officers, politicians and local communities. Measures of intensity therefore need to speak to multiple audiences and not least to the design community, into whose creative hands is entrusted the responsibility for shaping the aspirations of stakeholders. An Integrated Urban Model must be nimble, capable of responding again and again to the short and intensive programme of a rapid design process. Beware the Smart City "Control Room" stuffed with technicians; eintegratedmbrace instead a portable platform that can respond to the timescale of a creative whim.Creating a Profession of "Urban Intensity Surveyors"So why do we not measure towns and cities in such a systematic way? Why is there not a profession of urban intensity surveyors? And a culture among architects and urban planners of designing for intense human interactions?The problems start when the responsibility for thinking about cities, streets and public spaces moves from the individual enjoying the buzz of the boulevard to the collective of professional institutes charged with creating place. Density prevails over intensity and we revert to simplifications. Assumptions are made - incorrectly as we have seen - that the quality of street life will be in direct proportion to the density of people in an area. That if we have more people then the streets will be busier and the busier the streets, the better the place. But then the counter view is quite reasonably made that people need quiet streets and so densities should not be too high. And a compromise is eventually reached for neither super high nor super low densities; neither towns that are too big nor too small. And if we need big towns then they should be broken up into manageable parcels. Since we want pedestrians then we should pedestrianise.We end up with an urbanism of averages and a morphology of enclaves through an approach that is much too simplistic to ever create great place. It is not born of science and it does not reflect human experience: people know instinctively that you can turn off the busiest street in the city and immediately find yourself on a lane that is one of the quietest; that the intensity of the urban experience can transform itself in seconds. This is one of the great joys of exploring great cities: they are not pervasively busy; they are intensely quiet as well. They have a foreground grid of busy streets and a background grid of quiet ones. If we can systematically measure urban intensity then we will understand how towns and cities work in ways that will transform practice. And by transforming practice we will transform place.The Future for IntensityThe professions will be unwise to avoid the opportunities presented by technology. Both the technologies of data capture, visualisation and analysis as well as the technologies that are affecting human behaviours: broadband, social media, augmented reality (AR) and artificial intelligence (AI). Human activity is becoming ever more intense and this gives us another reason to systematically measure urban intensity. People are walking more slowly, ensconced in virtual worlds at the same time as participating in physical space; seeing their surroundings augmented with pop-up information. The trend will continue as AR on our smartphones becomes AR on our spectacles. As well as talking to each other we will be talking to objects on display in shops, to screens in buildings and on streets, and to ourselves – our digital twin may appear as an avatar walking alongside us in our peripheral vision or in front of us when trying on clothes for us. This intensity of communication can already be seen in early adopting countries, especially China, and it may seem strange at first. But there was a time, not long ago, when it seemed strangely ostentatious to put down a mobile phone on a table in a public place.The brain has a finite processing capacity and so what goes into handling increased visual information will have to be taken away from the control of bodily function. People may therefore adapt to the amplified intensity of visual stimuli by moving ever more slowly. We will need more space for these intense activities and the obvious place is the street, where we will need more space for people. Road space will have to narrow and footways will have to widen. We will need more places to sit and lean - to be sticky.And this presents a choice for designers: continue to disagree about the best way to measure density or embrace intensity and anticipate the radical transformation of place.
Life and death in the daily: reflections with the professional of health was written with the purpose of contribute with the project of the State Politics of Humanization of the assistance and of the Health Management of the State of the Ceará, that defines in your guidelines " to provide the appropriate preparation to the experience of losses, of suffering, of dying and of the death ". The work is organized in thematic about of the senses of the death and of dying in the occident. It presents four chapters that talk about the life and the death in a valuable contribution about the understanding of the death as indispensable part of the life and your inclusion in the cares offered by the professionals of the health. The authors provoke in a competent and sensitive way the rethinking about the subjects of the death and of the dying, starting from the reality lived by the professionals. They put in evidence an indispensable theme for taking care humanized in the practices of health and not give the reference to the patients and your relatives, which in some way share with the professionals of the process of taking care. The first chapter: the death and the dying in the life and your senses, contains teachings retired of the poets that through your music and poems portray the death in the most different ways, but recognizes it as part of the life in your fullness. They present an abbreviation revision about the death´s history, the transformations happened along of the time and your several meanings. Concluding the chapter the authors reminds the fact that the man is the only animal that knows that will die and this conscience provokes fear and solitude feelings. They also portray importants subjects as the aging, the losses and your implications, that are going happening along the life, and last they talk about the science´s power, that tries to postpone the death considering that in this moment the biggest part of die´s process is the professional's of the health responsibility.The second chapter: the professional of the health before the death, treats of the professional's unpreparedness, it presents some basic concepts as euthanasia, medical futility, to discuss to subjects of the emotion, of sense of the life and of the death for each person, of the need of moments for that the professionals can to reflect on the own death. To think in the own death means to reflect about the life as not as a group of vital signs that have to be monitored. The reading invites us to consider the death as not as enemy, but as a complement of the life, in that life and death form the totality of being. The third chapter: the appeal to the re-humanization of the death. The authors reflect about the technological progress of the Medicine that at every cost tries the prolongation of the life and that not always those actions are accompanied of help for a good death. They point out, in this context, the solitude, the impersonal and the inhumanization of the Being that is dying. In this same chapter is discussed still the relevance of the palliative cares and the twelve beginnings for a good death published in England.>In the fourth chapter, practical application: like this in the life as in the death, the authors propose a series of practical activities for be developed in groups, with the objective of to sensitize the professionals to share, in wheels of chats in the services of health about the life and the death. The organization of this activities is in the workshop format meddled by appreciation of poems, music and support texts.In the final considerations the prominence is given for the fact that the most important seems to be a solidary attitude together to the Being that is dying. Besides, the authors also consider important the invigoration of the Public Politics and the consolidation of the Palliative Cares.It is treat of a work with clear style, objective, easy reading, that maintains us in the expectation of reaching the end. We recommend the reading of this book is recommended to the teachers of the courses of the health, professionals of health, students, as well as for people that are interested in enlarging knowledge about the subjects of the death and of the dying. ; La vida y muerte en el periódico: las reflexiones con el profesional de la salud fue escrito con el propósito de contribuir con el proyecto de la Política Estatal de Humanización de la Atención y de la Gestión en la Salud del Estado del Ceará, que define en sus directrices "proporcionar la preparación apropiada a la vivencia de pérdidas, de sufrimiento, de el morir y de la muerte."La obra es organizada en temáticas sobre los sentidos de la muerte y de el morir en el occidente. Presenta cuatro capítulos que abordan cuestiones sobre la vida y la muerte en una valiosa contribución sobre la comprensión de la muerte como la parte imprescindible de la vida y su inclusión en los cuidados dados por los profesionales de la salud. Los autores provocan de una manera competente y sensible o repensar sobre las cuestiones de la muerte y de el morir, a partir de la realidad vivieron por los profesionales. Ponen en la evidencia un tema imprescindible para el cuidar humanizado en las prácticas de salud y no si da la referencia a los pacientes y sus parientes que en alguna manera comparten con los profesionales del proceso de cuidar.El primer capítulo: la muerte y el morir en la vida y sus sentidos contiene las enseñanzas retirados de los poetas que a través de sus músicas y los poemas retratan la muerte de las más diferentes maneras, pero a reconoce con la parte de la vida en su plenitud. Presentan una breve revisión sobre la historia de la muerte, las transformaciones pasaron a lo largo del tiempo y sus varios significados. Concluyendo el capítulo los autores recuerda el hecho que el hombre es que el único animal que sabe cuando se morirá y esa conciencia provoca sentimientos de miedo y soledad. Retratan también asuntos importantes como el envejecimiento, las pérdidas y sus implicaciones, que van pasando a lo largo de la vida, y último abordan el poder de la ciencia, que intenta posponer la muerte considerando que en este momento la mayoría del proceso del morir es responsabilidad el profesional de la de salud.El segundo capítulo: el profesional de la salud enfrente de la muerte trata de el desarreglo de los profesionales, presenta algunos conceptos básicos como la eutanasia, el distanasia, para discutir los asuntos de la emoción, del sentido de vida y muerte para cada persona, de la necesidad de momentos para que los profesionales puedan reflejar sobre la propia muerte. Pensar en la propia muerte significa reflejar sobre la vida no como un conjunto de señales vitales que se debe supervisar. Considerar la muerte no come al enemigo, pero como un complemento de la vida. La vida y la muerte forman la totalidad del ser.El tercer capítulo: la apelación para la re-humanización de la muerte. Los autores reflejan sobre el progreso tecnológico de la Medicina que a todo costo los intentan la prolongación de la vida y que no siempre esas acciones se acompañan de ayuda por una buena muerte. Resaltan la soledad, la impessoalidad y el deshumanización de el Ser que está muriendo. Presentan la relevancia de los cuidados paliativos y los doce principios para una buena muerte publicados en Inglaterra.En el cuarto capítulo, la aplicación práctica: así en la vida como en la muerte, los autores proponen una serie de actividades prácticas para sean desarrolladas en los grupos, con el objetivo de sensibilizar los profesionales a compartir, en las ruedas de conversas en los servicios de salud sobre la vida y la muerte. Los talleres son organizados con la apreciación de poemas, música y textos de apoyo.En las consideraciones últimas los autores creen que el más importante parece ser una actitud solidaria junto al Ser que está muriendo. Considera ser importante también al fortalecimiento de las Políticas Públicas y la consolidación de los Cuidados Paliativos.Se trata de una obra con el estilo claro, objetivo, fácil lectura, mantiene la expectativa de alcanzar a lo fin. Se recomienda la lectura de este libro a los maestros de los cursos de la salud, a los profesionales de salud, a los estudiantes. Es recomendado también para las personas se interesen en agrandar el conocimientos sobre los asuntos de la muerte y de el morir. ; Vida e morte no cotidiano: reflexões com o profissional da saúde foi escrito com a finalidade de contribuir com o projeto da Política Estadual de Humanização da Atenção e da Gestão em Saúde do Estado do Ceará, que define em suas diretrizes "proporcionar a preparação adequada à vivência de perdas, de sofrimento, do morrer e da morte."A obra está organizada em temáticas sobre os sentidos da morte e do morrer no ocidente. Apresenta quatro capítulos que versam sobre a vida e a morte numa valiosa contribuição sobre a compreensão da morte como parte imprescindível da vida e sua inclusão nos cuidados prestados pelos profissionais da saúde. Os autores provocam de forma competente e sensível o repensar sobre as questões da morte e do morrer, a partir da realidade vivida pelos profissionais, colocando em evidência um tema imprescindível para cuidá-lo humanizado nas práticas de saúde e não se da referência aos pacientes e seus familiares, que de alguma forma compartilham com os profissionais do processo de cuidar.O primeiro capítulo: a morte e o morrer na vida e os seus sentidos, contém ensinamentos retirados dos poetas que por meio de suas músicas e poemas retratam a morte das mais diferentes formas, mas a reconhece como parte da vida em sua plenitude. Estes apresentam uma breve revisão sobre a história da morte, as transformações ocorridas ao longo do tempo e seus diversos significados. Finalizando o capítulo os autores lembram o fato de que o homem é o único animal que sabe que vai morrer e essa consciência provoca sentimentos de medo e solidão. Retratam também questões importantes como o envelhecimento, as perdas e suas implicações, que vão ocorrendo ao longo da vida, e por último abordam o poder da ciência, que a todo custo tenta adiar a morte considerando que neste momento a maior parte do processo de morrer é responsabilidade do profissional da saúde.O segundo capítulo: o profissional da saúde diante da morte trata do despreparo dos profissionais, apresentando alguns conceitos básicos como eutanásia, distanásia para discutir a questões da emoção, do sentido de vida e morte para cada pessoa, da necessidade de momentos para que os profissionais possam refletir sobre a própria morte. Pensar a própria morte significa refletir sobre a vida não como um conjunto de sinais vitais que se deve monitorar. A leitura nos convida a ponderar a morte não como inimiga, mas como um complemento da vida, em que vida e morte formam a totalidade do Ser.No terceiro capítulo: apelo à re-humanização da morte, os autores refletem sobre o avanço tecnológico da Medicina que a todo custo tentam o prolongamento da vida e que nem sempre essas ações são acompanhadas de ajuda para uma boa morte. Ressaltam, nesse contexto, a solidão, a impessoalidade e a desumanização do Ser que está morrendo. No referido capítulo é discutida ainda a relevância dos cuidados paliativos e os doze princípios para uma boa morte publicados na Inglaterra.No quarto capítulo, aplicação prática: assim na vida como na morte, os autores propõem uma série de atividades práticas para serem desenvolvidas em grupos, com o objetivo de sensibilizar os profissionais a compartilhar, em rodas de conversas nos serviços de saúde sobre a vida e a morte. A organização de tais atividades é no formato de oficinas mediadas pela apreciação de poemas, músicas e textos de apoio.Nas considerações finais o destaque é dado para o fato de que o mais importante parece ser uma atitude solidária junto ao Ser que está morrendo. Além disso, os autores consideram importantes também, o fortalecimento das Políticas Públicas e a consolidação dos Cuidados Paliativos.Trata-se de uma obra com estilo claro, objetivo, fácil leitura, que nos mantém na expectativa de chegarmos ao fim. Recomendamos a leitura deste livro aos docentes dos cursos da saúde, profissionais de saúde, estudantes, assim como para pessoas que se interessam em ampliar conhecimentos sobre as questões da morte e do morrer.
Life and death in the daily: reflections with the professional of health was written with the purpose of contribute with the project of the State Politics of Humanization of the assistance and of the Health Management of the State of the Ceará, that defines in your guidelines " to provide the appropriate preparation to the experience of losses, of suffering, of dying and of the death ". The work is organized in thematic about of the senses of the death and of dying in the occident. It presents four chapters that talk about the life and the death in a valuable contribution about the understanding of the death as indispensable part of the life and your inclusion in the cares offered by the professionals of the health. The authors provoke in a competent and sensitive way the rethinking about the subjects of the death and of the dying, starting from the reality lived by the professionals. They put in evidence an indispensable theme for taking care humanized in the practices of health and not give the reference to the patients and your relatives, which in some way share with the professionals of the process of taking care. The first chapter: the death and the dying in the life and your senses, contains teachings retired of the poets that through your music and poems portray the death in the most different ways, but recognizes it as part of the life in your fullness. They present an abbreviation revision about the death´s history, the transformations happened along of the time and your several meanings. Concluding the chapter the authors reminds the fact that the man is the only animal that knows that will die and this conscience provokes fear and solitude feelings. They also portray importants subjects as the aging, the losses and your implications, that are going happening along the life, and last they talk about the science´s power, that tries to postpone the death considering that in this moment the biggest part of die´s process is the professional's of the health responsibility.The second chapter: the professional of the health before the death, treats of the professional's unpreparedness, it presents some basic concepts as euthanasia, medical futility, to discuss to subjects of the emotion, of sense of the life and of the death for each person, of the need of moments for that the professionals can to reflect on the own death. To think in the own death means to reflect about the life as not as a group of vital signs that have to be monitored. The reading invites us to consider the death as not as enemy, but as a complement of the life, in that life and death form the totality of being. The third chapter: the appeal to the re-humanization of the death. The authors reflect about the technological progress of the Medicine that at every cost tries the prolongation of the life and that not always those actions are accompanied of help for a good death. They point out, in this context, the solitude, the impersonal and the inhumanization of the Being that is dying. In this same chapter is discussed still the relevance of the palliative cares and the twelve beginnings for a good death published in England.>In the fourth chapter, practical application: like this in the life as in the death, the authors propose a series of practical activities for be developed in groups, with the objective of to sensitize the professionals to share, in wheels of chats in the services of health about the life and the death. The organization of this activities is in the workshop format meddled by appreciation of poems, music and support texts.In the final considerations the prominence is given for the fact that the most important seems to be a solidary attitude together to the Being that is dying. Besides, the authors also consider important the invigoration of the Public Politics and the consolidation of the Palliative Cares.It is treat of a work with clear style, objective, easy reading, that maintains us in the expectation of reaching the end. We recommend the reading of this book is recommended to the teachers of the courses of the health, professionals of health, students, as well as for people that are interested in enlarging knowledge about the subjects of the death and of the dying. ; La vida y muerte en el periódico: las reflexiones con el profesional de la salud fue escrito con el propósito de contribuir con el proyecto de la Política Estatal de Humanización de la Atención y de la Gestión en la Salud del Estado del Ceará, que define en sus directrices "proporcionar la preparación apropiada a la vivencia de pérdidas, de sufrimiento, de el morir y de la muerte."La obra es organizada en temáticas sobre los sentidos de la muerte y de el morir en el occidente. Presenta cuatro capítulos que abordan cuestiones sobre la vida y la muerte en una valiosa contribución sobre la comprensión de la muerte como la parte imprescindible de la vida y su inclusión en los cuidados dados por los profesionales de la salud. Los autores provocan de una manera competente y sensible o repensar sobre las cuestiones de la muerte y de el morir, a partir de la realidad vivieron por los profesionales. Ponen en la evidencia un tema imprescindible para el cuidar humanizado en las prácticas de salud y no si da la referencia a los pacientes y sus parientes que en alguna manera comparten con los profesionales del proceso de cuidar.El primer capítulo: la muerte y el morir en la vida y sus sentidos contiene las enseñanzas retirados de los poetas que a través de sus músicas y los poemas retratan la muerte de las más diferentes maneras, pero a reconoce con la parte de la vida en su plenitud. Presentan una breve revisión sobre la historia de la muerte, las transformaciones pasaron a lo largo del tiempo y sus varios significados. Concluyendo el capítulo los autores recuerda el hecho que el hombre es que el único animal que sabe cuando se morirá y esa conciencia provoca sentimientos de miedo y soledad. Retratan también asuntos importantes como el envejecimiento, las pérdidas y sus implicaciones, que van pasando a lo largo de la vida, y último abordan el poder de la ciencia, que intenta posponer la muerte considerando que en este momento la mayoría del proceso del morir es responsabilidad el profesional de la de salud.El segundo capítulo: el profesional de la salud enfrente de la muerte trata de el desarreglo de los profesionales, presenta algunos conceptos básicos como la eutanasia, el distanasia, para discutir los asuntos de la emoción, del sentido de vida y muerte para cada persona, de la necesidad de momentos para que los profesionales puedan reflejar sobre la propia muerte. Pensar en la propia muerte significa reflejar sobre la vida no como un conjunto de señales vitales que se debe supervisar. Considerar la muerte no come al enemigo, pero como un complemento de la vida. La vida y la muerte forman la totalidad del ser.El tercer capítulo: la apelación para la re-humanización de la muerte. Los autores reflejan sobre el progreso tecnológico de la Medicina que a todo costo los intentan la prolongación de la vida y que no siempre esas acciones se acompañan de ayuda por una buena muerte. Resaltan la soledad, la impessoalidad y el deshumanización de el Ser que está muriendo. Presentan la relevancia de los cuidados paliativos y los doce principios para una buena muerte publicados en Inglaterra.En el cuarto capítulo, la aplicación práctica: así en la vida como en la muerte, los autores proponen una serie de actividades prácticas para sean desarrolladas en los grupos, con el objetivo de sensibilizar los profesionales a compartir, en las ruedas de conversas en los servicios de salud sobre la vida y la muerte. Los talleres son organizados con la apreciación de poemas, música y textos de apoyo.En las consideraciones últimas los autores creen que el más importante parece ser una actitud solidaria junto al Ser que está muriendo. Considera ser importante también al fortalecimiento de las Políticas Públicas y la consolidación de los Cuidados Paliativos.Se trata de una obra con el estilo claro, objetivo, fácil lectura, mantiene la expectativa de alcanzar a lo fin. Se recomienda la lectura de este libro a los maestros de los cursos de la salud, a los profesionales de salud, a los estudiantes. Es recomendado también para las personas se interesen en agrandar el conocimientos sobre los asuntos de la muerte y de el morir. ; Vida e morte no cotidiano: reflexões com o profissional da saúde foi escrito com a finalidade de contribuir com o projeto da Política Estadual de Humanização da Atenção e da Gestão em Saúde do Estado do Ceará, que define em suas diretrizes "proporcionar a preparação adequada à vivência de perdas, de sofrimento, do morrer e da morte."A obra está organizada em temáticas sobre os sentidos da morte e do morrer no ocidente. Apresenta quatro capítulos que versam sobre a vida e a morte numa valiosa contribuição sobre a compreensão da morte como parte imprescindível da vida e sua inclusão nos cuidados prestados pelos profissionais da saúde. Os autores provocam de forma competente e sensível o repensar sobre as questões da morte e do morrer, a partir da realidade vivida pelos profissionais, colocando em evidência um tema imprescindível para cuidá-lo humanizado nas práticas de saúde e não se da referência aos pacientes e seus familiares, que de alguma forma compartilham com os profissionais do processo de cuidar.O primeiro capítulo: a morte e o morrer na vida e os seus sentidos, contém ensinamentos retirados dos poetas que por meio de suas músicas e poemas retratam a morte das mais diferentes formas, mas a reconhece como parte da vida em sua plenitude. Estes apresentam uma breve revisão sobre a história da morte, as transformações ocorridas ao longo do tempo e seus diversos significados. Finalizando o capítulo os autores lembram o fato de que o homem é o único animal que sabe que vai morrer e essa consciência provoca sentimentos de medo e solidão. Retratam também questões importantes como o envelhecimento, as perdas e suas implicações, que vão ocorrendo ao longo da vida, e por último abordam o poder da ciência, que a todo custo tenta adiar a morte considerando que neste momento a maior parte do processo de morrer é responsabilidade do profissional da saúde.O segundo capítulo: o profissional da saúde diante da morte trata do despreparo dos profissionais, apresentando alguns conceitos básicos como eutanásia, distanásia para discutir a questões da emoção, do sentido de vida e morte para cada pessoa, da necessidade de momentos para que os profissionais possam refletir sobre a própria morte. Pensar a própria morte significa refletir sobre a vida não como um conjunto de sinais vitais que se deve monitorar. A leitura nos convida a ponderar a morte não como inimiga, mas como um complemento da vida, em que vida e morte formam a totalidade do Ser.No terceiro capítulo: apelo à re-humanização da morte, os autores refletem sobre o avanço tecnológico da Medicina que a todo custo tentam o prolongamento da vida e que nem sempre essas ações são acompanhadas de ajuda para uma boa morte. Ressaltam, nesse contexto, a solidão, a impessoalidade e a desumanização do Ser que está morrendo. No referido capítulo é discutida ainda a relevância dos cuidados paliativos e os doze princípios para uma boa morte publicados na Inglaterra.No quarto capítulo, aplicação prática: assim na vida como na morte, os autores propõem uma série de atividades práticas para serem desenvolvidas em grupos, com o objetivo de sensibilizar os profissionais a compartilhar, em rodas de conversas nos serviços de saúde sobre a vida e a morte. A organização de tais atividades é no formato de oficinas mediadas pela apreciação de poemas, músicas e textos de apoio.Nas considerações finais o destaque é dado para o fato de que o mais importante parece ser uma atitude solidária junto ao Ser que está morrendo. Além disso, os autores consideram importantes também, o fortalecimento das Políticas Públicas e a consolidação dos Cuidados Paliativos.Trata-se de uma obra com estilo claro, objetivo, fácil leitura, que nos mantém na expectativa de chegarmos ao fim. Recomendamos a leitura deste livro aos docentes dos cursos da saúde, profissionais de saúde, estudantes, assim como para pessoas que se interessam em ampliar conhecimentos sobre as questões da morte e do morrer.
La gestión de los recursos pesqueros de la Unión Europea ha estado principalmente basada, desde los inicios de la Política Pesquera Común (PPC), en el establecimiento de Totales Admisibles de Captura (TAC) monoespecíficos, es decir en topes de captura individuales para cada especie o stock. Sin embargo, este sistema puede llegar a provocar grandes inconsistencias en la gestión de pesquerías mixtas donde diferentes especies son capturadas de forma simultánea por las mismas flotas, ya que facilita la práctica del descarte impidiendo la recuperación de algunos de los stocks más sensibles. Esta evidencia motivó el replanteamiento de algunos de los aspectos de la actual PPC implementada en 2002, lo que conllevó el desarrollo de nuevos enfoques también en su asesoramiento científico. No obstante, las profundas consecuencias de dichos cambios en el proceso de asesoramiento, desde el replanteamiento de programas de recopilación de datos pesqueros hasta el desarrollo de nuevas metodologías con las que modelar la complejidad de un sistema pesquero multi‐stock y multi‐flotas, han provocado que su aplicación directa a la gestión de los recursos pesqueros europeos haya sido particularmente lenta y complicada. Por ello, el objetivo principal de esta memoria es el planteamiento y realización del trabajo analítico necesario para aplicar el enfoque de gestión de pesquerías mixtas sobre la actividad de una de las flotas españolas de aguas europeas, en particular la que faena en aguas atlánticas no ibéricas. Así, los resultados obtenidos podrán servir de base al asesoramiento científico que tanto el Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), a escala nacional, como el Consejo Internacional para la Exploración del Mar (ICES), a nivel europeo, proporcionan a la Comisión Europea, que es la institución encargada de proponer al Consejo y Parlamento Europeos las medidas de gestión de recursos pesqueros que deben cumplir las flotas de los Estados miembros. Para alcanzar este objetivo, el trabajo ha sido estructurado en cuatro grandes bloques, cada uno de los cuales aborda aspectos fundamentales que proporcionan resultados finales en sí mismos, pero que, una vez integrados, permiten desarrollar un protocolo de análisis de gestión de pesquerías mixtas para el caso de estudio. Después de una introducción a los conceptos básicos de la gestión de pesquerías (Sección 1), así como las consecuencias que el replanteamiento de la actual PPC ha tenido en el actual contexto de gestión de los recursos pesqueros europeos, la Sección 2 resume una pormenorizada revisión de las aportaciones de la comunidad científica en el campo del modelado de las pesquerías mixtas, así como la recensión y descripción de los métodos predictivos de gestión de pesquerías mixtas más relevantes. Tras una valoración comparativa en que se analizan las ventajas y desventajas de cada uno de ellos, se procede a la selección del más apropiado para ser aplicado en el marco de la gestión pesquera europea, identificando al método Fcube como el que más fielmente permite integrar los objetivos de explotación sostenible de los recursos junto al cumplimiento del principio de estabilidad relativa, base del actual esquema de reparto de derechos de pesca entre Estados miembros. La Sección 3 presenta los resultados del análisis de la actividad pesquera de la flota española de aguas europeas atlánticas no ibéricas a través de sus propios diarios de pesca, a partir de los cuales es clasificada y ordenada en segmentos de flota acordes a los requerimientos tanto del método Fcube como de las directrices de la PPC. La caracterización de su actividad y características técnicas es fundamental para captar la dinámica sobre la que poder fijar las vías de intercambio de esfuerzo en un análisis de gestión de pesquerías mixtas. No obstante, para poder establecer una mejor conexión entre los objetivos de conservación de los recursos y la sostenibilidad económico‐social del sector pesquero se necesita la desagregación de la actividad pesquera en grupos homogéneos según su perfil de captura (métiers). Esta tarea, que puede resultar sencilla cuando se conoce la especie o grupo de especies objetivo de cada campaña pesquera, se complica cuando éstas no son expresamente registradas, como ocurre en los diarios de pesca oficiales de la Unión Europea. En estos casos resulta imprescindible recurrir a métodos más complejos para poder inferirlas, como es el uso combinado de métodos de análisis multivariante y programas de entrevistas a los pescadores, tal como se propone y desarrolla en la Sección 4. Finalmente, empleando el método Fcube seleccionado en la Sección 2, y conforme a los segmentos de flota y métiers obtenidos en las Secciones 3 y 4, en la Sección 5 se procede al análisis de gestión de pesquerías mixtas del caso de estudio. En cuanto a los stocks incluidos, esta misma sección abarca una completa revisión de la gestión de los stocks más relevantes para la flota de estudio, identificando aquellos que se encuentran sujetos a TAC de tipo analítico, esto es basado en evaluaciones científicas. De este modo, es posible obtener estimaciones de su biomasa (B) y mortalidades pesquera (F) y natural (M), parámetros poblaciones que el método Fcube requiriere para la parametrización de cada stock. Paralelamente, también se procede a la búsqueda de datos económicos con los que ampliar el enfoque biológico de estos análisis con los procesos de optimización económica del módulo FcubEcon del método Fcube. A partir de estos datos se desarrollan una serie de escenarios basados en medidas de gestión vigentes, pero también otros de índole exploratoria con los que examinar la capacidad predictiva del método Fcube o anticipar las consecuencias de determinadas opciones de gestión. En este sentido, a los límites de captura (TAC) de los stocks incluidos en los análisis se añaden también medidas de gestión de esfuerzo o el establecimiento de zonas de veda. Como conclusión general (Sección 6), se puede resumir que los resultados obtenidos han permitido, por un lado, ampliar el conocimiento sobre las interacciones técnicas de las pesquerías mixtas del caso de estudio, pero también perfeccionar aspectos de cálculo del método Fcube. Sin embargo, el objetivo de proporcionar un asesoramiento operativo a la gestión real de las pesquerías mixtas del caso de estudio no llega a alcanzarse debido a la ausencia generalizada de una base científica avalada en la gestión monoespecífica actual de sus principales stocks. Naturalmente, una vez quede subsanada esta deficiencia, la contribución del trabajo aquí presentado permitirá que el análisis de gestión de pesquerías mixtas de la flota española de aguas europeas atlánticas no ibéricas pueda ser fácilmente integrado en el proceso rutinario de asesoramiento que instituciones nacionales e internacionales, como IEO o ICES, proporcionan a la Comisión Europea ; The management of EU fishery resources has been mainly based on mono‐specific "Total Allowable Catch" (TAC) since the implementation of the first "Common Fisheries Policy" (CFP), i.e. catch thresholds by stock. Nevertheless, this approach may lead to high inconsistencies in mixed‐fisheries management where a number of species are simultaneously caught by the same fleets, because this system facilitates discarding practices which impair the recovery of sensitive stocks. This evidence led to re‐evaluation of some of the basic aspects of the present CFP implemented in 2002, leading also to the development of new approaches in its scientific assessment. However, the deep consequences of these challenges in the advisory process, from the re‐design of fishery data collection programmes to the development of novel methodologies to parameterize the complexity of a multi‐stock multi‐fleet fishery system, have led to a slow and complicated implementation of the fishery sampling and analysis programmes of most Member States. Therefore, the main focus of this Thesis is to plan and develop the analytical framework needed to apply the mixed‐fisheries management approach to the activity of Spanish fleets in European waters, particularly the fleet operating in non‐Spanish Atlantic waters. Thus, the results obtained may be used as a base for the scientific advice that either "Instituto Español de Oceanografía" (IEO), at the national level, or "International Council for the Exploration of the Sea" (ICES), at European level, provide to the European Commission to propose fishery management measures that the European Council and the European Parliament enforce in relation to the Member States' fleets. In order to achieve this objective, this Thesis has been organized into four main blocks, each one involving essential aspects which provide final results themselves, but also, once they are linked, provide the building blocks to satisfactorily achieve this task. After the introduction of basic concepts related to fishery management (Chapter 1), as well as the consequences of the new CFP in the present context of European fishery management, Chapter 2 provides a detailed review of the scientific community´s contributions in mixed‐fishery modelling, including a list and description of the more relevant mixed‐fisheries forecasting methods. A comparison of their analytical approaches facilitates the determination of advantages and disadvantages in order to identify the most suitable method to integrate the particular requirements of such a complex management system as the European system, where besides seeking the sustainable exploitation of fishery resources, the Relative Stability Principle, the basis of the present allocation system among Member States, needs also to be followed. Chapter 3 shows the results of analyses of fishing activity by the Spanish fleet in non‐Spanish Atlantic European waters by using data from their logbooks, in order to classify and organize the fleet into segments in accordance with both Fcube and CFP requirements. The knowledge of the activity and technical characteristics by fleet segment is basic to capture their spatial‐temporal dynamics, based on which it is possible to set the mechanism for effort distribution. However, in order to better link the targets of fishery resources conservation and economic‐social sustainability of the fishery sector, it is necessary to disaggregate the fishery activity into homogeneous groups according to their catch profile (métiers). This task, which can be simple when the target species are known, becomes particularly complicated when the target species are not registered in logbooks, as happens in the official European logbooks. In this case, it is necessary to make inferences by using more complex methods, such as the combined use of multivariate methods followed by interviews with skippers (Chapter 4). Finally, using the fleet segments from Chapter 3 and the métiers obtained in Chapter 4, the analyses of mixed‐fisheries management of the case study fleets are carried out by applying the Fcube method selected in Chapter 2: Chapter 5. Regarding the stocks taken into account, this Chapter also includes an in‐depth review of the case study stocks with analytical TAC, i.e. based on scientific assessments. Thus it is possible to obtain the biological parameters required by the Fcube method to parameterize each stock: biomass (B), fishery mortality (F), and natural mortality (M). Simultaneously, economic data are also obtained to broaden the biological approach with the economic optimization by the Fcube's module (FcubEcon). Finally, by using all these data, a number of management scenarios are explored, based on real or proposed exploratory management measures in order to test the capacity of Fcube and to anticipate the consequences of different management measures. Thus, the consequences of catch control measures (TAC) are analyzed jointly with effort‐based and area‐based management measures. As general conclusion (Chapter 6), it can be concluded that the results obtained have served, on the one hand, to broaden our knowledge of technical interactions in the case study mixed‐fisheries, and on the other hand, to improve some calculation processes within the Fcube method. Nevertheless, the main objective of providing operational mixed‐fisheries assessments in the current context of the Spanish fleets in non‐Spanish Atlantic European waters has not been completely achieved, because of the lack of an officially accepted scientific basis for management of most stocks. However, once this deficiency is repaired, this Thesis' contributions to knowledge of fleet dynamics for the case study will facilitate the integration of their mixed‐fisheries management analyses into the standard assessment process developed by national and European institutes, such as IEO and ICES, in order to provide advice to the European Commission
Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen. I am very pleased that you were all able to accept my invitation to join me here today on this landmark occasion for nursing education. It is fitting that all of the key stakeholders from the health and education sectors should be so well represented at the launch of an historic new development. Rapid and unpredictable change throughout society has been the hallmark of the twenty-first century, and healthcare is no exception. Regardless of what change occurs, no one doubts that nursing is intrinsic to the health of this nation. However, significant changes in nurse education are now needed if the profession is to deliver on its social mandate to promote peopleÃ'´s health by providing excellent and sensitive care. As science, technology and the demands of the public for sophisticated and responsive health care become increasingly complex, it is essential that the foundation of nursing education is redesigned. Pre-registration nursing education has already undergone radical change over the past eight years, during which time it has moved from an apprenticeship model of education and training to a diploma based programme firmly rooted in higher education. The Secretary General of my Department, Michael Kelly, played a leading role in bringing about this transformation, which has greatly enhanced the way students are prepared for entry to the nursing profession. The benefits of the revised model of education are clearly evident from the quality of the nurses graduating from the diploma programme. The Commission on Nursing examined the whole area of nursing education, and set out a very convincing case for educating nursing students to degree level. It argued that nurses of the future would be required to possess increased flexibility and the ability to work autonomously. A degree programme would provide nurses with a theoretical underpinning that would enable them to develop their clinical skills to a greater extent and to respond to future challenges in health care, for the benefit of patients and clients of the health services. The Commission has provided a solid framework for the professional development of nurses and midwives, including a process that is already underway for the creation of clinical nurse specialist and advanced nurse practitioner posts. This process will facilitate the transfer of skills across divisions of nursing. In this scenario, it is clearly desirable that the future benchmark qualification for registration as a nurse should be a degree in nursing studies. A Nursing Education Forum was established in early 1999 to prepare a strategic framework for the implementation of a nursing degree programme. When launching the ForumÃ'´s report last January, I indicated that the Government had agreed in principle to the introduction of the proposed degree programme next year. At the time two substantial outstanding issues had yet to be resolved, namely the basis on which nurse teachers would transfer from the health sector to the education sector and the amount of capital and revenue funding required to operate the degree programme. My Department has brokered agreements between the Nursing Alliance and the Higher Education Institutions for the assimilation of nurse teachers as lecturers into their affiliated institutions. The terms of these agreements have been accepted by all four nursing unions following a ballot of their nurse teacher members. I would like to pay particular tribute to all nurse teachers who have contributed to shaping the position, relevance and visibility of nursing through leadership, which embodies scholarship and excellence in the profession of nursing itself. In response to a recommendation of the Nursing Education Forum, I established an Inter-Departmental Steering Committee, chaired by Bernard Carey of my Department, to consider all the funding and policy issues. This Steering Committee includes representatives of the Department of Finance and the Department of Education and Science as well as the Higher Education Authority. The Steering Committee has been engaged in intensive negotiations with representatives of the Conference of Heads of Irish Universities and the Institutes of Technology in relation to their capital and revenue funding requirements. These negotiations were successfully concluded within the past few weeks. The satisfactory resolution of the industrial relations and funding issues cleared the way for me to go to the Government with concrete proposals for the implementation of degree level education for nursing students. I am delighted to announce here today that the Government has approved all of my proposals, and that a four-year undergraduate pre-registration nursing degree programme will be implemented on a nation-wide basis at the start of the next academic year, 2002/2003. The Government has approved the provision of capital funding totalling Ã'£176 million pounds for a major building and equipment programme to facilitate the full integration of nursing students into the higher education sector. This programme is due to be completed by September 2004, and will ensure that nursing students are accommodated in purpose built schools of nursing studies with state of the art clinical skills and human science laboratories at thirteen higher education sites throughout the country. The Government has also agreed to make available the substantial additional revenue funding required to support the nursing degree programme. By 2006, the full year cost of operating the programme will rise to some Ã'£43 million pounds. The scale of this investment in pre-registration nursing education is enormous by any yardstick. It demonstrates the firm commitment of myself and my Government colleagues to the full implementation of the recommendations of the Commission on Nursing, of which the introduction of pre-registration degree level education is arguably the most important. This historic decision, and it is truly historic, will finally put the education of nurses on a par with the education of other health care professionals. The nursing profession has long been striving for parity, and my own involvement in the achievement of it is a matter of deep personal satisfaction to me. I am also pleased to announce that the Government has approved my plans for increasing the number of nursing training places to coincide with the implementation of the degree programme next year. Ninety-three additional places in mental handicap and psychiatric nursing will be created at Athlone, Letterkenny, Tralee and Waterford Institutes of Technology. This will yield 392 extra places over the four years of the degree programme. A total of 1,640 places annually on the new degree programme will thus be available. This is an all-time record, and maintaining the annual student intake at this level for the foreseeable future is a key element of my overall strategy for ensuring that we produce sufficient "home-grown" nurses for our health services. I am aware that the Nursing Alliance were anxious that some funding would be provided for the further academic career development of nurse teachers who transfer to one of the six Universities that will be involved in the delivery of the degree programme. I am happy to confirm that up to Ã'£300,000 in total per year will be available for this purpose over the first four years of the degree programme. In line with a recommendation of the Commission on Nursing, my Department will have responsibility for the administration of the nursing degree budget until the programme has been bedded down in the higher education sector. A primary concern will be to ensure that the substantial capital and revenue funding involved is ring-fenced for nursing studies. It is intended that responsibility for the budget will be transferred to the Department of Education and Science after the first cohort of nursing degree students have graduated in 2006. In the context of todayÃ'´s launch, it is relevant to refer to a special initiative that I introduced last year to assist registered nurses wishing to undertake part-time nursing degree courses. Under this initiative, nurses are entitled to have their course fees paid by their employers in return for a commitment to continue working in the public health service for a period following completion of the course. This initiative has proved extremely popular with large numbers of nurses availing of it. I want to confirm here today that the free fees initiative will continue in operation until 2005, at a total cost of at least Ã'£15 million pounds. I am giving this commitment in order to assure this yearÃ'´s intake of nursing students to the final diploma programmes that fee support for a part-time nursing degree course will be available to them when they graduate in three years time. The focus of todayÃ'´s celebration is rightly on the landmark Government decision to implement the nursing degree programme next year. As Minister for Health and Children, and as a former Minister for Education, I also have a particular interest in the educational opportunities available to other health service workers to upgrade their skills. I am pleased to announce that the Government has approved my proposals for the introduction of a sponsorship scheme for suitable, experienced health care assistants who wish to become nurses. This new scheme will commence next year and will be administered by the health boards. Successful applicants will be allowed to retain their existing salaries throughout the four years of the degree programme in return for a commitment to work as nurses for their health service employer for a period of five years following registration. Up to forty sponsorships will be available annually. The new scheme will enable suitable applicants to undertake nursing education and training without suffering financial hardship. The greatest advantage of the scheme will be the retention by the public health service of staff who are supported under it, since they will have had practical experience of working in the service and their own personal commitment to upgrading their skills will be informed by that experience. I am confident that the sponsorship scheme will be warmly welcomed by health service unions representing care assistants as providing an exciting new career development path for their members. Education and health are now the two pillars upon which the profession of nursing rests. We must continue to build bridges, even tunnels where needed to strengthen this partnership. We must all understand partnerships donâ?Tt just happen they are designed and must be worked at. The changes outlined here today are powerful incentives for those in healthcare agencies, academic institutions and regulatory bodies to design revolutionary programmes capable of shaping a critical mass of excellent practitioners. You have an opportunity, greater perhaps than has been granted to any other generation in history to make certain those changes are for the good. Ultimately changes that will make the country a healthier and more equitable place to live. The challenge relates to building a seamless preparatory programme which equally respects both education and practise as an indivisible duo whilst ensuring that high tech does not replace the human touch. This is a special day in the history of the development of the Irish nursing profession, and I would like to thank everybody for their contribution. I want to express my particular appreciation of two people who by this stage are well known to all of you – Bernard Carey of my Department and Siobhán OÃ'´Halloran of the National Implementation Committee. Bernard and Siobhán have devoted considerable time and energy to the project on my behalf over the past fourteen months or so. That we are here today celebrating the launch of degree level education is due in no small part to their successful execution of the mandate that I gave them. We live in a rapidly changing world, one in which nursing can no longer rely on systems of the past to guide it through the new millennium. In terms of contemporary healthcare, nursing is no longer just a reciprocal kindness but rather a highly complex set of professional behaviours, which require serious educational investment. Pre-registration nurse education will always need development and redesign to ensure our health care system meets the demands of modern society. Nothing is finite. Today more than ever the health system is dependent on the resourcefulness of nursing. I have no doubt that the new educational landscape painted will ensure that nurses of the future will be increasingly innovative, independent and in demand. The unmistakable message from my Department is that nursing really matters. Thank you.
EFEKTIVITAS PENEGAKAN HUKUM TERHADAP PENCEMARAN UDARA DI KECAMATAN GRESIK DAN KECAMATAN KEBOMAS Ridho Awalananda (S1 Ilmu Hukum, Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Hukum, Universitas Negeri Surabaya) ridhoawalananda@yahoo.com Emmilia Rusdiana (S1 Ilmu Hukum, Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Hukum, Univeritas Negeri Surabaya) emmiliarusdiana@gmail.com Abstrak Lingkungan sangat berpengaruh untuk kehidupan. Menurut Pasal 1 Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup menyebutkan bahwa lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya, keadaan, dan makhluk hidup, termasuk manusia dan perilakunya, yang mempengaruhi alam itu sendiri, kelangsungan perikehidupan, dan kesejahteraan manusia serta makhluk hidup lainnya. Tingkat pencemaran udara di Kabupaten Gresik di ambang batas. Hasil pemantauan kualitas udara ambien di Jawa Timur menyebutkan Kabupaten Gresik memiliki kualitas udara terburuk. Data dari Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik menyebutkan masih ada industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan. Berdasarkan Pasal 69 angka 1 huruf a Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 bahwa terdapat larangan untuk melakukan perbuatan yang mengakibatkan pencemaran atau kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui efektivitas penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas serta untuk mengetahui kendala yang dihadapi oleh Dinas Linkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melaksanakan penegakan hukum terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. Jenis penelitian ini yang akan digunakan dalam penyusunan penulisan skripsi ini adalah penelitian yuridis sosiologis yang merupakan ilmu yang tetap berbasis terhadap hukum normatif tetapi bukan mengkaji mengenai sistem norma, namun mengamati bagaimana reaksi dan interaksi yang terjadi ketika sistem norma itu bekerja. Hasil penelitian dan pembahasan mengenai efektivitas penegakan hukum terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas yaitu penegakan hukum administrasi. Penegakan hukum administrasi mengenai pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas melalui pengawasan preventif dan represif. Pengawasan preventif yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik melalui tahapan penerbitan izin lingkungan, setelah itu melakukan pemantauan, pemeriksaan, dan pengujian. Pengawasan represif yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik yaitu sanksi adminstrasi berupa teguran tertulis, paksaan pemerintah, pembekuan izin, dan pencabutan izin. Penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik berjalan kurang efektif karena Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik kurang maksimal dalam menerapkan aturan hukum yang ada, kurangnya jumlah penegak hukum, industri yang masih melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup, dan kurangnya kesadaran masyarakat untuk melapor. Kendala yang dihadapi Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melaksanakan penegakan hukum adalah faktor penegak hukum yaitu kurangnya jumlah personel penegak hukum, sarana atau fasilitas yang belum memadai, serta kurangnya kesadaran masyarakat untuk melapor dan para pelaku usaha yang belum taat aturan dan masih melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. kata kunci : Penegakan Hukum, Pencemaran Udara, Kecamatan Gresik, Kecamatan Kebomas. Abstract The level of air pollution in Gresik Regency is on the threshold. The results of monitoring ambient air quality in East Java said that Gresik Regency had the worst air quality. Data from the Gresik Regency Environmental Service states that there are still industries that conduct pollution and environmental damage. Based on Article 69 number 1 letter a of Law Number 32 of 2009 that there is a prohibition to carry out acts that result in pollution or environmental damage. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of law enforcement carried out by the Office of Environment of Gresik Regency on air pollution in Gresik Regency as well as the obstacles faced by the Department of Living Environment of Gresik Regency in implementing law enforcement against air pollution in Gresik Regency. This study using juridical sociological research which is a science that remains based on normative law but does not examine the norm system in legislation, but observes how the reactions and interactions that occur when the norm system works. The results of the research and discussion on the effectiveness of law enforcement on air pollution in Gresik and Kebomas Districts are administrative law enforcement. Administrative law enforcement regarding air pollution in Gresik and Kebomas Districts through preventive and repressive supervision. Preventive supervision carried out by the Environmental Agency of Gresik Regency through the stages of publishing environmental permits then through, monitoring, inspection, testing. Repressive supervision by the Gresik Regency Environmental Agency is administrative sanctions in the form of written reprimand, government coercion, license suspension and license revocation. Law enforcement carried out by the Environmental Agency of Gresik Regency runs less effectively because the Environmental Agency of Gresik Regency is not maximal in implementing existing legal regulations, lack of law enforcement, industries that still pollute and damage the environment, and lack of public awareness to report. The constraints faced by the Gresik Regency Environmental Agency in carrying out law enforcement are law enforcement factors, namely the number of inadequate personnel, inadequate advice or facilities and the lack of funds in conducting sample tests requires considerable costs and the parties from the Environmental Service request assistance to examiners from the Province, as well as a lack of awareness of industry players to comply with regulations and protect the environment. keywords: Law Enforcement, Air Pollution, Gresik District, Kebomas District. PENDAHULUAN Lingkungan sangat berpengaruh untuk kehidupan, perubahan terhadap lingkungan seringkali diakibatkan oleh manusia untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dengan melakukan usaha dan dapat berakibat pada keselamatan, kesehatan dan kelangsungan hidup (Junctoko Subagyo,1992:3). Menurut Pasal 1 angka 1 Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup menyebutkan bahwa "Lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya, keadaan, dan makhluk hidup, termasuk manusia dan perilakunya, yang mempengaruhi alam itu sendiri, kelangsungan perikehidupan, dan kesejahteraan manusia serta makhluk hidup lainnya". Lingkungan sangat penting bagi kehidupan manusia, hewan, dan tumbuhan. Maka dari itu kita harus menjaga agar kelestarian lingkungan tetap terjaga. Udara merupakan campuran beberapa macam gas yang perbandingannya tidak tetap, tergantung pada keadaan suhu udara, tekanan udara dan lingkungan sekitarnya. Dalam udara terdapat oksigen untuk bernafas, kabondioksida untuk proses fotosintesis, dan ozon untuk menahan sinar ultraviolet. Namun dengan meningkatnya pembangunan kota dan pusat-pusat industri, kualitas udara telah mengalami perubahan yaitu terjadi pencemaran udara dan jika hal ini tidak segera ditangani dapat berdampak pada kesehatan manusia, kehidupan hewan, serta tumbuhan (Muhammad Erwin, 2008: 35). Menurut Pasal 1 angka 1 PP Nomor 41 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Udara menyebutkan bahwa "Pencemaran udara adalah masuknya atau dimasukannya zat, energi, dan/komponen lain ke dalam udara ambien oleh kegiatan manusia, sehingga mutu udara ambien turun sampai ke tingkat tertentu yang menyebabkan udara ambien tidak dapat memenuhi fungsinya". Namun dengan meningkatnya pembangunan kota dan pusat-pusat industri, kualitas udara telah mengalami perubahan yaitu terjadinya pencemaran udara yang berdampak pada kesehatan manusia, hewan dan tumbuhan (Bahrudi Supardi, 2009: 20). Kabupaten Gresik adalah kabupaten yang terkenal dengan sebutan kota industri. Alasan Kabupaten Gresik dikenal sebagai kota industri karena banyak berdiri industri-industri di Kabupaten Gresik. Industri yang paling banyak berada di Kecamatan Gresik dengan jumlah 304 industri dan Kecamatan Kebomas dengan jumlah industri sekitar 2.034 industri. Dengan banyaknya jumlah industri di Kabupaten Gresik, masalah-masalah lingkungan mulai bermunculan seperti pencemaran udara. "Terdapat salah satu berita pencemaran udara di Kabupaten Gresik di ambang batas. Tingkat polusi yang tinggi dari industri membuat geram masyarakat di Kabupaten Gresik. Pencemaran udara umumnya merata di wilayah terutama wilayah yang banyak industrinya". Dari hasil pengukuran indeks kualitas udara ambien yang dilakukan oleh Badan Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Jawa Timur menunjukan bahwa Kabupaten Gresik memiliki kualitas udara terburuk di Jawa Timur dengan nilai 65.81. Pengukuran indeks kualitas udara ambien dilakukan ditempat pemukiman, lalu lintas dan area sekitar wilayah industri. Parameter yang dipantau meliputi Sulfur Dioksida, Karbon Monoksida, Nitrogen Dioksida,Ozon, PM10, dan Timbal. Dari hasil pemantauan kualitas udara ambien di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas menunjukan adanya pencemaran udara berupa debu yang melebihi baku mutu udara ambien. Penyebab terjadinya pencemaran udara karena aktivitas industri Lokasi yang paling berdampak yaitu di Jalan Mayjen Sungkono di Kecamatan Kebomas dan Jalan Jaksa Agung Suprapto di Kecamatan Gresik. Berdasarkan Pasal 69 angka 1 huruf a Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup menyebutkan bahwa "setiap orang dilarang melakukan perbuatan yang mengakibatkan pencemaran dan/atau kerusakan lingkungan hidup". Pasal ini menjelaskan bahwa ada larangang bagi setiap orang untuk melakukan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Menurut Pasal 21 Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 41 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Udara menyebutkan bahwa "Setiap orang yang melakukan usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang mengeluarkan emisi dan/atau baku tingkat gangguan ke udara ambien wajib : a. Mentaati baku mutu udara ambien, baku mutu emisi, dan baku tingkat gangguan yang ditetapkan untuk usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang dilakukannya; b. Melakukan pencegahan dan/atau penanggulangan pencemaran udara yang diakibatkan oleh usaha dan/atau kegiatan yang dilakukannya; c. Memberikan informasi yang benar dan akurat kepada masyarakat dalam rangka upaya pengendalian pencemaran udara dalam lingkungan usaha dan/atau kegiataannya. Pasal ini menjelaskan bahwa bagi pelaku usaha untuk mentaati baku mutu udara yang sudah ditetapkan oleh pemerintah, melakukan pencegahan dan penanggulangan agar tidak terjadi pencemaran udara, dan memberikan informasi kepada masyarakat untuk upaya pengendalian pencemaran udara. Oleh karena itu dibutuhkan peran Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik untuk melakukan penegakan hukum administrasi. Menurut Pasal 61 ayat (1) Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Gresik Nomor 6 Tahun 2015 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup menyebutkan bahwa "Bupati menerapkan sanksi administrasi kepada penanggungjawab usaha dan/atau kegiatan jika dalam pengawasan ditemukan pelanggaran". Pasal 61 ayat (2) Perda Kabupaten Gresik Tentang Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup menyebutkan bahwa "bentuk sanksi administrasi terdiri atas : Teguran tertulis; Paksaan pemerintah; Pembekuan izin lingkungan; Pencabutan izin lingkungan; Pemberian sanksi administrasi dilakukan oleh satuan kerja perangkat daerah yang tugas pokok dan fungsinya bertanggungjawab di bidang lingkungan hidup untuk mencegah, mengakhiri, serta menanggulangi akibat yang ditimbulkan atas pelanggaran yaitu Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik. Penulis memandang bahwa faktanya masih banyak industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas dan masih melanggar izin lingkungan, serta Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik belum maksimal dalam menerapkan sanksi administrasi kepada industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui efektivitas penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas serta untuk mengetahui kendala yang dihadapi oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melaksanakan penegakan hukum terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. Kajian Teoritik yang berkaitan dengan permasalahan mengenai efektivitas penegakan hukum terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kecamatan Kebomas ialah efektivitas hukum, lingkungan hidup, penegakan hukum, dan izin. Efektivitas hukum merupakan proses yang bertujuan agar hukum berlaku efektif. Ketika berbicara sejauh mana efektivitas hukum maka kita pertama-tama harus dapat mengukur sejauh mana aturan hukum itu ditaati atau tidak ditaati. Jika suatu aturan hukum ditaati oleh sebagian besar target yang menjadi sasaran ketaatannya maka akan dikatakan aturan hukum yang bersangkutan efektif (Achmad Ali, 2009: 375). Teori efektivitas hukum menurut Soerjono Soekanto ditentukan oleh lima faktor yaitu (Soerjono Soekanto, 2000: 80) : a. Faktor hukumnya sendiri; b. Faktor penegak hukum; c. Faktor sarana atau fasilitas; d. Faktor masyarakat; e. Faktor budaya. Lingkungan adalah jumlah semua benda kondisi yang ada dalam ruang yang kita tempati yang mempengaruhi kehidupan kita. Secara teoritis lingkungan tidak terbatas jumlahnya, oleh karena misalnya matahari dan bintang termasuk di dalamnya. Namun secara praktis kita selalu memberi batas pada ruang lingkungan itu. menurut kebutuhan kita batas itu dapat ditemukan oleh faktor alam seperti jurang, sungai atau laut, faktor ekonomi, faktor politik atau faktor lain. Tingkah laku manusia juga merupakan bagian lingkungan kita, oleh karena itu lingkungan hidup harus diartikan secara luas, yaitu tidak saja lingkungan fisik dan biologi, melainkan juga lingkungan ekonomi, sosial, dan budaya (Otto, 2009: 48). Penegakan hukum dalam bahasa Belanda disebut dengan rechtoepassing atau rechtshandhaving dan dalam bahasa inggris law enforcement meliputi pengertian yang bersifat makro dan mikro. Bersifat makro mencakup seluruh aspek kehidupan masyarakat, berbangsa dan bernegara, sedangkan dalam pengertian mikro terbatas dalam proses pemeriksaan di pengadilan termasuk proses penyelidikan, penyidikan, penuntutan hingga pelaksanaan putusan pidana yang telah mempunyai kekuatan hukum tetap (Chaerudin, 2008: 87). Secara umum izin merupakan suatu persetujuan dari penguasa berdasarkan undang-undang atau peraturan pemerintah dalam keadaan tertentu menyimpang dari ketentuan larangan perundang-undangan. Dalam izin dapat dipahami bahwa suatu pihak tidak dapat melakukan sesuatu kecuali diberi izin, artinya kemungkinan seseorang atau suatu pihak tertutup kecuali diizinkan oleh pemerintah. Dengan demikian pemerintah mengikatkan perannya dalam kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh orang atau pihak yang bersangkutan (Pudyatmoko, 2009:7). METODE Penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian yuridis sosiologis. Penelitian yuridis sosiologis merupakan ilmu yang tetap berbasis terhadap undang-undang tetapi bukan mengkaji sistem norma dalam aturan perundang-undangan, namun mengamati bagaimana reaksi dan interaksi yang terjadi ketika sistem norma itu bekerja (Mukti Fajar dan Yulianto Achmad, 2017: 47). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan dan mendeskripsikan mengenai efektivitas penegakan hukum serta kendala yang dihadapi Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melaksanakan penegakan hukum administrasi terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. Lokasi penelitian ini diantaranya Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik, Kelurahan Ngipik, Perumahan GKGA Kedanyang, Kelurahan Indro, PT Wilmar Nabati Indonesia, PT Newera Rubberindo, PT Gramitrama Jaya Steel. Informan dalam penelitian ini yaitu Kepala Bidang Pengendalian Pencemaran dan Kerusakan Lingkungan Hidup dan Kepala Seksi Pengendalian Pencemaran dan Kerusakan Lingkungan Hidup Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik, Ketua RT 02 Perumahan GKGA Kedanyang, Ketua RT 03 Kelurahan Ngipik, Ketua RT 03 Kelurahan Indro. Jenis data dalam penelitian ini yaitu data primer dan sekunder. Data primer adalah data yang diperoleh langsung dilapangan melalui wawancara dengan informan. Data sekunder adalah data yang diperoleh melalui bahan kepustakaan yang berupa buku, jurnal, dan referensi lainnya. Teknik pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini melalui tahapan observasi dengan cara melalui pengamatan terhadap objek penelitian setelah itu mencatat dengan sistematis hasil dari observasi. Setelah itu melalui wawancara dengan cara melakukan tanya jawab dengan informan, dan melalui dokumentasi yang dapat berupa dokumen berbentuk tulisan, gambar, atau karya-karya monumental dari seseorang. Teknik pengolahan data dalam penelitian ini melalui teknik klasifikasi yaitu proses pemilahan data. Hasil data melalui wawancara, observasi, dan dokumentasi diklasifikasi sesuai dengan kategori berdasarkan pertanyaan dalam rumusan masalah dalam topik penelitian ini. Setelah itu mengedit yaitu kegiatan mengolah data dengan cara melakukan proses pemeriksaan ulang data yang telah diperoleh dari penelitian. Teknik analisis data dalam penelitian ini dengan melalui proses mengorganisasikan dan mengurutkan data ke dalam pola, kategori, dan satuan uraian dasar sehingga dapat ditemukan tema dan dapat dirumuskan ide yang disarankan oleh data. Kegiatan analisis data dalam penelitian ini yaitu reduksi data. Reduksi data adalah merangkum, memilih hal-hal pokok, memfokuskan pada hal-hal yang penting setelah itu dicari tema dan polanya. Jadi reduksi data yaitu menentukan data yang telah diproses dari hasil observasi, wawancara, dan dokumentasi di lapangan, setelah itu disesuaikan dengan tema dalam penelitian ini yaitu mengenai efektivitas penegakan hukum administrasi terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan kebomas. Teknik analisis data selanjutnya yaitu Penyajian data. Penyajian data adalah cara merangkai data untuk mempermudah dalam hal membuat kesimpulan. Data yang diperoleh dari penelitian akan dikategorikan sesuai dengan pembahasan dan akan disajikan dalam bentuk bagan, tabel, dan sejenisnya. Kegiatan analisis data yang terakhir yaitu verifikasi data dan kesimpulan. Verifikasi adalah mengecek kembali data yang sudah terkumpul untuk mengetahui keabsahan datanya agar sesuai dengan tema penelitian ini.verifikasi dilakukan dengan cara mendengar, membaca, dan mecocokan kembali hasil dari observasi, wawancara, dan dokumentasi yang sudah dilakukan oleh peneliti di lapangan. HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN 1. Efektivitas Penegakan Hukum Yang Dilakukan Oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik Terhadap Pencemaran Udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas Penegakan hukum dalam bahasa Belanda disebut dengan rechtoepassing atau rechtshandhaving dan dalam bahasa inggris law enforcement meliputi pengertian yang bersifat makro dan mikro. Bersifat makro mencakup seluruh aspek kehidupan masyarakat, berbangsa, dan bernegara, sedangkan dalam pengertian mikro terbatas dalam proses pemeriksaan di pengadilan termasuk proses penyelidikan, penyidikan, penuntutan hingga pelaksanaan putusan yang telah mempunyai kekuatan hukum tetap (Chaeruddin, 2008: 82). Penegakan hukum pada dasarnya yaitu sepenuhnya untuk upaya tegaknya atau fungsinya norma-norma hukum secara nyata dalam masyarakat sebagai pedoman perilaku dalam bermasyarakat, berbangsa, dan bernegara (Soerjono Soekanto, 2012: 5). Proses penegakan diharapkan dapat membantu melaksanakan kebijakan yang telah ditetapkan dapat membantu melaksanakan kebijakan yang telah ditetapkan untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah direncanakan secara efektif dan efisien (Soerjono Soekanto, 1996: 19). Penegakan hukum lingkungan merupakan upaya untuk mencapai ketaatan terhadap peraturan dan persyaratan dalam ketentuan hukum yang berlaku secara umum dan individual, melalui pengawasan dan penerapan atau ancaman sarana administrasi, kepidanaan, dan keperdataan (Siti Sundari, 2005: 214). Menurut Soerjono Soekanto faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi efektif atau tidaknya suatu hukum yaitu (Soerjono Soekanto, 2012: 8) : a. Faktor hukum itu sendiri, yang dimana dalam tulisan ini dibatasi pada undang-undang. Mengenai berlakunya undang-undang tersebut terdapat beberapa asas yang tujuannya adalah agar undang-undang itu mempunyai dampak yang positif. Artinya, supaya undang-undang tersebut mencapai tujuannya sehingga efektif dan dapat diterima oleh masyarakat. b. Faktor penegak hukum, yakni pihak-pihak yang membentuk maupun menerapkan hukum itu. masalah peranan dianggap sangat penting, oleh karena pembahasan mengenai penegak hukum sebenarnya lebih banyak tertuju pada diskresi yang dimana diskresi tersebut menyangkut pengambilan keputusan yang tidak sangat terikat oleh hukum, dimana penilaian pribadi juga memegang peranan. c. Faktor sarana atau fasilitas yang mendukung penegakan hukum, artinya sarana dan fasilitas mempunyai peranan yang sangat penting untuk penegakan hukum. tanpa adanya sarana atau fasilitas tersebut, tidak mungkin bagi penegak hukum untuk menyerasikan peranan yang seharusnya dengan peranan yang aktual dan nyata. d. Faktor masyarakat, yakni lingkungan atau wilayah dimana hukum tersebut berlaku atau diterapkan. Dimana penegakan hukum itu berasal dari masyarakat dan bertujuan untuk mencapai kedamaian dan ketertiban di dalam masyarakat. Oleh karena itu jika dipandang dari sudut tertentu, maka masyarakat dapat mempengaruhi penegakan hukum. e. Faktor budaya, yakni sebagai hasil karya, cipta, dan rasa yang didasarkan pada karsa manusia di dalam pergaulan hidupnya. Kebudayaan hukum mencakup nilai-nilai yang mempengaruhi konsepsi-konsepsi abstrak mengenai hal yang dianggap baik dan buruk. Penegakan hukum ditujukan guna meningkatkan ketertiban dan kepastian hukum dalam masyarakat. Hal ini dilakukan antara lain dengan menertibkan fungsi, tugas, dan wewenang lembaga-lembaga yang bertugas menegakan hukum menurut proporsi ruang lingkup masing-masing serta didasarkan atas sistem kerjasama yang baik dan mendukung tujuan yang hendak dicapai (Soerjono Soekanto, 1996: 19). A. Pengawasan Preventif Pengawasan preventif dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik terhadap izin lingkungan yang dimiliki oleh industri. Secara umum izin merupakan suatu persetujuan dari penguasa berdasarkan undang-undang atau peraturan pemerintah dalam keadaan tertentu menyimpang dari ketentuan larangan perundang-undangan. Dalam izin dapat dipahami bahwa suatu pihak tidak dapat melakukan sesuatu kecuali diberi izin, artinya kemungkinan seseorang atau suatu pihak tertutup kecuali dizinkan pemerintah. Dengan demikian pemerintah mengikatkan perannya dalam kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh orang atau pihak yang bersangkutan (Pudyatmoko, 2009: 7). Tahapan dalam penerbitan izin lingkungan yaitu : a. Konsultasi; b. Persiapan Amdal; c. Proses Penilaian Dan Pemeriksaan; d. Penyusunan Izin lingkungan; e. Penerbitan Izin Lingkungan. Setelah diterbitkannya izin lingkungan, Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik juga melakukan pengawasan untuk mengetahui industri tersebut dalam melakukan kegiatan seperti pembuangan emisi gas, limbah, instalasi, dan sebagainya sudah sesuai dengan izin lingkungan atau tidak. Proses pengawasan yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik yaitu : a. Pemantauan Pemantauan dan pengawasan yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dilakukan dengan cara melihat langsung ke lapangan sebagai informasi untuk mengetahui kemungkinan terjadinya pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. b. Pemeriksaan Pemeriksaan yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik terhadap pelaku usaha industri merupakan tindakan mencari dan mengumpulkan fakta yang berkaitan dengan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Dalam hal ini Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik memeriksa dokumen izin serta instalasi saluran pembuangan limbah. c. Pengujian Pengujian baku mutu udara dilakukan secara langsung oleh tim dari Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dan dari Badan Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Jawa Timur dengan melakukan percobaan dan penelitian atas hasil sampel dari bagian obyek yang diuji agar dapat mengetahui terjadinya pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup, berdasarkan hasil pengujian baku mutu udara ambien yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik, menetapkan kualitas udara ambien di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas melampaui ambang batas. B. Pengawasan Represif Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik diberikan wewenang untuk melaksanakan kebijakan daerah tentang perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup. Wewenang Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik diatur di dalam Pasal 57 Perda Kabupaten Gresik Nomor 6 Tahun 2015 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik yang menyebutkan bahwa: "Untuk mewujudkan keterpaduan dan keserasian pelaksanaan kebijakan daerah tentang perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup, Bupati dapat melimpahkan wewenang tertentu dalam perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup kepada Satuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah yang bertanggungjawab di bidang lingkungan hidup". Penegakan hukum administrasi dianggap sebagai upaya hukum yang terpenting, karena selain bertujuan untuk menghukum pelaku pencemar (Sukanda Husin, 2009: 92). Pengawasan secara periodik dilakukan terhadap kegiatan yang memiliki izin lingkungan sebagai upaya pemantauan penataan persyaratan perizinan oleh instansi yang berwenang memberi izin lingkungan (Suparto.2017:10). Penerapan sanksi merupakan konsekuensi lanjutan dari tindakan pengawasan. Sanksi administrasi mempunyai fungsi instrumental pengendalian perbuatan terlarang yang terdiri dari (Suparto, 2017: 15) : a. Paksaan pemerintah; b. Uang paksa; c. Penutupan tempat usaha; d. Penghentian kegiatan mesin perusahaan; e. Pencabutan izin. Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik memberikan sanksi administrasi berdasarkan hasil pemeriksaan dan pengujian sampel pada tahapan pengawasan preventif. Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik memberikan sanksi administrasi kepada industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Sanksi administrasi yang diberikan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik bagi industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup yang pertama yaitu teguran secara lisan. Teguran lisan ini dilakukan apabila tim pengawas menemukan adanya pelanggaran yaitu pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan yang dilakukan oleh pelaku usaha industri. Sanksi berikutnya yaitu teguran tertulis. Teguran tertulis akan diberikan kepada pelaku usaha apabila setelah adanya teguran secara lisan pelaku usaha tersebut masih melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup, dengan catatan bahwa teguran yang diberikan baik secara lisan atau tertulis menjadi upaya awal terhadap penegakan sanksi administrasi terhadap pelaku usaha industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Sanksi kedua yaitu paksaan pemerintah. Paksaan pemerintah yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dapat berupa tindakan menyingkirkan, menghalangi, atau mengembalikan keadaan seperti semula. Selanjutnya yaitu pembekuan izin, pembekuan izin akan diberikan kepada pelaku usaha apabila melakukan kegiatan selain yang tercantum dalam izin lingkungan. Sanksi administrasi terakhir yaitu pencabutan izin lingkungan. Sanksi ini merupakan sanksi administrasi terakhir yang akan diberikan kepada pelaku usaha apabila memang terdapat pelanggaran izin lingkungan. Efektivitas merupakan tingkat keberhasilan dalam pencapaian tujuan. Efektivitas adalah pengukuran dalam arti tercapainya sasaran atau tujuan yang sudah ditentukan sebelumnya. Ketika kita ingin mengetahui sejauh mana efektivitas hukum, maka harus dapat mengukur sudah sejauh mana hukum itu ditaati oleh sebagian besar target yang menjadi sasaran ketaatannya (Achmad Ali, 2009: 375). Dalam penegakan hukum tentunya tidak terlepas dari faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi tegaknya penegakan hukum itu sendiri. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi penegakan hukum yaitu : a. Faktor hukum; b. Faktor Penegak Hukum; c. Faktor Sarana atau Fasilitas; d. Faktor Masyarakat; e. Faktor Budaya. Aturan sebagai pedoman penegak hukum yang mengatur mengenai perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup tertulis dengan jelas di dalam Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup, Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 41 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Udara, dan Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Gresik Nomor 6 Tahun 2015 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup, maka sudah dibilang aturan yang mengatur mengenai perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup di Kabupaten Gresik sudah terpenuhi. Penegak hukum yang dimaksud yaitu Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik yang memiliki peran untuk melaksanakan aturan terkait penegakan hukum terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas tidak terpenuhi. Alasannya karena penegak hukum yang memiliki kewenangan untuk melakukan penegakan hukum di bidang lingkungan hidup belum maksimal dalam menerapkan aturan yang ada sehingga kurang berdampak signifikan kepada masyarakat. Sarana atau fasilitas juga ikut mendukung proses jalannya penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik. Sarana atau fasilitas yang dimaksud yaitu seperti alat uji, laboratorium, dan lain-lain yang dapat membantu proses penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melakukan penegakan hukum lingkungan. Dalam hal ini sarana atau fasilitas yang dimiliki oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabuapten Gresik masih terbatas. Masyarakat di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas juga ikut andil dalam proses jalannya penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkugnan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik terhadap industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Tetapi, masyarakat di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas belum memiliki kesadaran hukum dalam hal ini kesadaran masyarakat untuk melakukan tindakan seperti melapor ke Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik masih kurang karena masyarakat masih belum paham dengan aturan yang ada, dan pelaku usaha yang masih melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. Budaya merupakan nilai-nilai yang tumbuh di dalam pergaulan hidup masyarakat yang mencakup nilai-nilai yang dianggap baik dan buruk untuk dilakukan. Dalam hal ini budaya masyakarat di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas sudah terpenuhi karena nilai-nilai untuk menjaga kebersihan dan tidak melakukan pelanggaran yang mengakibatkan merugikan lingkungan sudah diajarkan di dalam proses pendidikan. Menurut hasil temuan dari Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik, bahwa masih banyak industri di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas yang diduga melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup. Beberapa industri sudah diberikan sanksi administrasi. Dari jumlah industri di Kabupaten Gresiksekitar 2.300 industri, kira-kira 1000 industri yang masih melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup dan masih ada industri yang belum memiliki izin lingkungan. Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam memberikan sanksi administrasi tidak hanya sebatas terguran tertulis saja, seharusnya industri yang melanggar izin lingkungan diberikan sanksi administrasi berupa pencabutan izin atau pembekuan izin lingkungan dengan segera agar memberikan efek jera kepada industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup agar tidak merugikan lingkungan dan masyarakat di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. Kendala yang Dihadapi Oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam Melaksanakan Penegakan Hukum Terhadap Pencemaran Udara Di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melaksanaan penegakan hukum terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas terdapat beberapa kendala yaitu : a. Faktor Penegak Hukum Dalam melakukan pengawasan dan penegakan hukum, Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik kekurangan personel. Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik hanya memiliki tiga personel pengawas, dan Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik juga belum mempunyai tim ahli untuk melakukan uji sampel sehingga Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik meminta bantuan tim ahli dari Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Jawa Timur. b. Faktor Sarana atau Fasilitas Kendalal berikutnya yaitu Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik belum memiliki sarana atau fasilitas yang memadai. Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik belum memiliki laboratorium penguji sampel dan alat penguji sampel yang sudah tidak layak. Hal ini disebabkan karena keterbatasan dana. c. Faktor Masyarakat Kendala yang terakhir yaitu kurangnya kesadaran dari pelaku usaha industri untuk mentaati peraturan dan menjaga lingkungan. Hal ini didasarkan pada hasil temuan dari Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik pada tahun 2017 masih ada industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup di wilayah Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas dan masih banyak industri yang belum memiliki peralatan yang memadai untuk mengelola hasil limbah industri. PENUTUP Simpulan Berdasarkan hasil dari pembahasan yang dilakukan oleh penulis berdasarkan dengan rumusan masalah maka penulis berkesimpulan sebagai berikut: 1. Penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik terhadap pencemaran udara di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas berjalan tidak efektif, karena Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik tidak maksimal dalam menerapkan aturan hukum yang ada, jumlah personel penegak hukum yang tidak kompeten baik dari segi kualitas dan kuantitas, ada beberapa industri yang masih terbukti melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkugan hidup, dan juga kesadaran masyarakat yang rendah. 2. Kendala dalam proses penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik yaitu masih kurangnya tenaga personel. Kendala berikutnya masih ditemukan pelaku usaha yang belum taat aturan dan masih melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup, kurangnya kesadaran masyarakat untuk melapor, dan kendala berikutnya sarana atau fasilitas yang belum memadai. Saran Berdasarkan kesimpulan dari hasil pembahasan di atas, maka peneliti memberikan saran sebagai berikut: 1. Bagi Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik dalam melakukan penegakan hukum terhadap industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan perlu dilakukan penambahan jumlah personel. Selain itu perlu dilakukan sosialisasi dari Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik kepada para pelaku usaha industri agar mereka selalu menjaga lingkungan dan taat aturan hukum yang berlaku di Kabupaten Gresik. 2. Bagi para pelaku usaha diharapkan untuk selalu menjaga lingkungan sekitar agar lingkungan di Kabupaten Gresik khususnya di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas tetap bersih dan nyaman bagi masyarakat dan juga harus memperhatikan masyarakat sekitar yang merasa terganggu dengan polusi yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan industri. 3. Bagi masyarakat, perlunya kesadaran hukum dari masyarakat di Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas untuk melapor ke Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Gresik jika ditemukan industri yang melakukan pencemaran dan kerusakan lingkungan hidup di wilayah Kecamatan Gresik dan Kebomas. DAFTAR PUSTAKA Buku Ali Achmad. 2009. Teori hukum (Legal Theory) dan Teori Peradilan (Judicialprudence) Termasuk Interpretasi Undang-Undang (Legisprudence), Jakarta: Penerbit Kencana. Danusaputra, Munadjat. 1985. Hukum Lingkungan Buku II. Bandung: Nasional Binacit. Erwin, Muhammad. 2011. Hukum Lingkungan Dalam Sistem Kebijaksanaan Pembangunan Lingkungan Hidup. Bandung: Refika Aditama. Fajar, Mukti dan Yulianto, Achmad. 2017. Dualisme Penelitian Hukum Normatif dan Empiris. Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar. Hamzah, Andi. 2005. Penegakan Hukum Lingkungan. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika. Soebagyo, Juntoko. 1992. Hukum Lingkungan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. Soekanto, Soerjono. 2014. Pengantar Penelitian Hukum. Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia. Soekanto, Soerjono. 1996. Sosiologi Hukum Suatu Pengantar. Bandung: Rajawali Pers. Soekanto, Soerjono. 1985. Efektivitas Hukum dan Peranan Sanksi. Jakarta: Rajagrafindo Persada. Soekanto, Soerjono. 2012. Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Penegakan Hukum. Jakarta: Rajagrafindo Persada. Soemarwoto, Otto. 2008. Ekologi Lingkungan Hidup Dan Pembangunan. Jakarta: PT. Bumi Perkasa. Supardi, Bahrudi. 2009. Berbakti Untuk Bumi. Bandung: Rosdakarya. Sundari, Siti. 2000. Hukum Lingkungan Dan Kebijaksanaan Lingkungan Nasional. Surabaya: Airlangga University Press. Syaiful, Chaerudin. 2008. Hukum Lingkungan Di Indonesia Sebuah Pengantar. Bandung: Refika Tama. Wibawa, Samodra. 2000. Efektivitas Kebijakan Kelembagaan Pengawasan. Jakarta: Rajagrafindo Persada. Perundang-undangan Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2009 Nomor 140 Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Nomor 5059. Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 41 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pengendalian Pencemaran Udara Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1999 Nomor 86 Tambahan Lembaran Negara Nomor 3853. Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Gresik Nomor 6 Tahun 2015 Tentang Perlindungan Dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup Lembaran Daerah Kabupaten Gresik Tahun 2015 Nomor 026.
La población mundial, que cuenta dos mil millones de habitantes alrededor del año 1950, ha crecido a un ritmo casi exponencial en las décadas siguientes hasta 4 mil millones y 5,3 en 1990 (Naciones Unidas - Departamento de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales, 2010). Sin duda un gran aumento tanto en términos absolutos cuanto relativos. Según las estimaciones de las Naciones Unidas, la población mundial se estima que alcanzará los ocho millones y medio de 2025. Estas tasas de crecimiento se producen, obviamente, tanto en Europa, donde la población ha crecido de 550 millones en 1950 a 750 millones en 2010, y en Italia, donde en el período 1861 a 2008 hubo un aumento de la población de 22 millones de habitantes a casi 60 millones (fuente: ISTAT, 2010). La población ha crecido, sin embargo, a tasas más altas en los países en desarrollo, con una tendencia a la constante en los países industrializados en las últimas décadas. Dicha población mundial intenso tiene consecuencias directas sobre el territorio urbano, mientras que lleva a una extensión de las actuales áreas urbanas menores y pequeñas ciudades. Todo esto, cada vez más, dar lugar a problemas de gestión y uso del suelo, produciendo un crecimiento del componente de la vulnerabilidad en la ecuación de riesgo. Crecimiento de la población no justifica un aumento de las condiciones hidrogeológicas de la inestabilidad. Si es así, ya que la población se ha convertido en firme en los últimos años, al menos en la mayoría de los países industrializados, no hay que hacer frente a riesgos cada vez mayor. En cambio, el modelo de desarrollo económico, basado principalmente en redes e infraestructuras, así como los asentamientos, por supuesto, produce un doble efecto: un aumento de los activos expuestos a la amenaza, una presión sobre el territorio, capaz de hacer la activación de los fenómenos peligrosos más frecuentes. Los fenómenos naturales también tienen un impacto en el marco socio-económico, ya que son responsables de la pérdida de bienes y servicios y, en ocasiones, una pérdida en términos de vidas humanas. En tal situación, la vulnerabilidad de la zona está relacionado con el desarrollo de su sistema de infraestructura social, civil y urbano. Este concepto se expresa claramente en la declaración "Los desastres ocurren cuando los riesgos se encontra con la vulnerabilidad" (Wisner et al., 2004). Esto nos lleva a considerar los desastres naturales como los fenómenos sociales reales. Cuando se habla de riesgo geomorfologicos y de políticas ambientales, uno de los pioneros es, sin duda, Earl E. Brabb, que ya en 1991 en un artículo titulado "El problema de movimientos de ladera del mundo", sostuvo que los deslizamientos son un problema mundial que cientos causa de muertes y miles de millones de dólares de daño cada año en todo el mundo. Los poblemas geomorfológicos son y serán un tema importante y un requisito fundamental del conocimiento para la política de toma de decisiones. A pesar de 20 años han pasado desde que el trabajo Brabb, la situación no parece haber cambiado. No son aún insuficientes los procedimientos de todo el mundo aunque sólo sea compartida que permite evaluar la calidad y precisión de un inventario de deslizamientos o la forma de clasificar en términos de susceptibilidad a los deslizamientos de un área y para evaluar cuantitativa y cualitativamente el rendimiento predictivo. Las imágenes y escenas de devastación, destrucción y muerte que ocurren cada año, hacen que el problema de los riesgos geomorfológicos en un problema social. ¿Quien es el responsable? Seguimos construyendo, incluso en lugares que no son adecuados para la construcción. Tenemos que admitir por lo menos una doble responsabilidad. Si bien es cierto que los acontecimientos que causar un derrumbe apenas son "previsibles", por el contrario sí podemos identificar y predecir donde estos fenómenos se producen con mayor capacidad destructiva, produciendo más daños y reducir al mínimo la vulnerabilidad. Por lo tanto, si no es posible evitar, ya que no es posible predecir, la palabra clave debe ser "la prevención". Cada vez deslizamientos de tierra u otros eventos con características destructivas y letales, que a menudo se supone y se define como "impredecible", nos ofrece con el escenario de las víctimas, los heridos y desaparecidos, el público se estremece y recuerda la vulnerabilidad de los bienes de la comunidad y direciona la discusión sobre el tema de prevención de los desastres naturales o por lo menos tratar de minimizar las consecuencias trágicas que lo acompañan. La ola emocional que sigue a la fase de emergencia se produce entre las llamadas a "enrollar las mangas" a una "cultura de prevención" que "nunca vuelva a suceder", e induce a los legisladores y los técnicos para intervenir con una variedad de medidas urgentes de mitigación y obras y de intervención inmediata, tal vez proponiendo también las regulaciones y leyes dirigidas a "evitar otro desastre similar". Hoy Saponara, ayer Génova, el día antes Giampilieri y San Fratello y así sucesivamente durante décadas: Salerno (1954) con 318 víctimas, 250 heridos y sin hogar cerca de 5.500, y el Longarone y el desastre de Vajont (1963) con cerca de 2.000 muertes de Agrigento, (1966), Valtellina (1987) 53 muertes y 4.000 millones de liras de los daños, el deslizamiento de tierra en el Val di Stava de julio de 1985 (269 muertos), las corrientes rápidas del 5 de mayo de 1998 y Sarno y Quindici y otras áreas de la región Campania, con 153 muertes, Maierato (2010), son algunos de los eventos más importantes que lleva a más de 4.000 las muertes causadas por movimientos gravitativos en medio siglo, un promedio de 4 muertes por mes, además de un daño económico incalculable. Pero cada día hay una lista de los deslizamientos de tierra, carreteras y puentes bajando, a pesar de que pasa desapercibido. A falta de una cultura de prevención y un aumento de la cultura de emergencia en su lugar. Y la protección civil se ve ahora como la única ancla de salvación y la asistencia de los municipios y la población involucrada. Italia es un País que se desmorona debido a la negligencia del hombre y a la falta de prevención. Hay 5,596 sobre 8,101 municipios en riesgo hidrogeológico, el 84% de los centros de población se define en riesgo. Esto sin duda demuestra que las construcciones se construyeron cuando no se podia. De estos municipios, 1.700 (alrededor del 21%) están en riesgo de deslizamientos, 1.285 (casi el 16%) en riesgo de inundación y 2.596 (32%) se encuentran en una combinación de deslizamientos de tierra y riesgo de inundación. El área total clasificada como de alto riesgo asciende a 36.551 km2 (7,1% del total nacional) dividido en km2 de áreas de deslizamientos de tierra y 7.791 km2 de áreas inundadas 13.760. Estas cifras ponen de relieve la inestabilidad hidrogeológica con el que cada región debe enfrentar, tarde o temprano, contra la cual el flujo de millones de euros, a menudo sólo le prometió, no servirá de mucho para la estabilización y obras de medida de seguridad. El informe de Legambiente revela que los municipios son la punta de lanza de una evidente debilidad de nuestro territorio. No hay una única manera de preparar los mapas de susceptibilidad, como lo demuestra la enorme cantidad de artículos científicos producidos incluso durante la última década, y lo mismo es cierto en cuanto a la zonificación de los peligros y los riesgos involucrados, todavía sigue siendo un problema sin resolver en gran medida (Carrara et al., 2009). La contribución de este trabajo las siguientes fases de un estudio con el fin de definir la estructura de la sensibilidad, los riesgos y peligros de un área: 1. Construcción de la base de datos: en este trabajo las diferentes técnicas y métodos de detección de deslizamiento de tierra y delimitación se comparan directamente (trabajo de campo) e indirectamente (fotografías aéreas, software de visualización remota del territorio) y su posterior despliegue en un sistema GIS. 2 Elección y definición de la escala de análisis: De hecho, uno de los problemas más actuales de la proposición se relaciona con los métodos de evaluación de susceptibilidad a escala múltiple. 3 Unidades cartográficas: las diferentes unidades se utilizan para la cartografía y zonificación del territorio, cuya previsión de resultados se comparan con el fin de ser capaces de identificar las unidades de la asignación básica más adecuada para la planificación y para fines de defensa civil, teniendo en cuenta la exactitud científica de que la modelo debe soportar. 4 Elección de los factores control: en el trabajo, es la posibilidad de identificar el conjunto más probable de los factores que se consideran relacionados directamente o indirectamente a la inestabilidad de la ladera. Se proponen procedimientos de prueba y seleccionar el conjunto de posibles factores de control, así como la construcción de modelos específicos para cada tipo de deslizamientos. 5 Construcción de modelos: como para la construcción de un modelo geo-estadístico, las soluciones se comparan diferentes y el modelo de presentación de los mismos resultados y la objetividad que se elija, teniendo en cuenta que las necesidades de una implementación más bajo en términos de costo y tiempo. 6 Validación: los modelos están sujetos a diferentes técnicas de validación, que luego se comparan entre ellos. 7 Exportación espacial de un modelo de susceptibilidad: este es un ensayo para definir y validar los términos de susceptibilidad a los deslizamientos de una amplia zona en los gustos de cientos o miles de kilómetros cuadrados, en base a los estudios de detalle de algunos sectores que lo representan. Al igual que muchos otros autores, con el propósito de este trabajo es hacer una contribución a la comunidad científica, tratando de ofrecer una modesta contribución en la solución de algunos problemas en este campo a través de experimentos y modelos realizados en una variedad de contextos y comparar los resultados entre ellos. En este sentido, unas pruebas se llevaron a cabo en algunas áreas, previamente seleccionadas, será probado y verificado el resultado de algunos de los procedimientos en los años de investigación doctoral. A continuación, un resumen de los resultados vendrán de estas pruebas experimentales TEST 1a: TUMMARRANO river basin: Model Exportation En el marco de un estudio de la susceptibilidad de deslizamientos regional en el sur de Sicilia, una prueba se ha realizado en la cuenca del río Tumarrano (unos 80 km2) tiene como objetivo caracterizar las condiciones de su susceptibilidad movimientos de ladera mediante la exportación de un modelo, definido y entrenado en el interior un número limitado (unos 20 km2) representativas del sector ("el área de origen''). Además, la posibilidad de explotar software de Google Earth y el banco de datos de fotos para producir imágenes de los archivos deslizamiento de tierra ha sido comprobado. El modelo de susceptibilidad se define, de acuerdo con un enfoque multifactorial basadas en el análisis condicional, con unidades únicas condiciones (UCUs), los cuales fueron obtenidos mediante la combinación de cuatro factores seleccionados control: litología afloramiento, la pendiente, la curvatura del plan y el índice de humedad topográfica. La capacidad de predicción del modelo de exportación, formado con 206 deslizamientos de tierra, se compara con la estimada para toda el área estudiada, mediante el uso de un archivo completo de deslizamiento de tierra (703 deslizamientos de tierra), para ver hasta qué punto el mayor tiempo/dinero necesario se tienen en cuenta los costos para. TEST 1b. Tummarrano river basin: modelo de susceptibilidad basado en la Forward logistic regression La regresión logística con pasòs hacia adelante, nos ha permitido obtener un modelo de susceptibilidad por los flujos de tierra en la cuenca del río Tumarrano, que se definió mediante el modelado de las relaciones estadísticas entre un archivo de eventos 760 y un conjunto de 20 variables predictoras. Para cada movimiento del inventario, un punto de identificación de deslizamientos (LIP) se produce de forma automática, como corresponde al punto más alto a lo largo de la frontera de los polígonos de deslizamientos de tierra. Los modelos equilibrados (760 stable/760 inestable) se presentaron a adelante el procedimiento de regresión logística. Una estrategia de construcción del modelo se aplicó para ampliar la zona considerada en la preparación del modelo y para comprobar la sensibilidad de los modelos de regresión con respecto a los lugares específicos de las células se considera estable. Un conjunto de dieciséis modelos se preparó de forma aleatoria extraer los subconjuntos diferentes céldas estables. Los modelos fueron sometidos a regresión logística y validado. Los resultados mostraron que las tasas de error satisfactoria y estable (0,236 en promedio, con una desviación estándar de 0,007) y AUC (0.839, para la formación, y 0.817, para conjuntos de datos de prueba). Como en relación a los predictores, la pendiente en el barrio de las células y la curvatura topográfica de gran perfil y plan local-fueron seleccionados de forma sistemática. Litología arcillosa afloramiento, drenajes midslope, crestas locales y midslope y los accidentes geográficos cañones eran también muy frecuentes (de 8 a 15 veces) en los modelos de la selección hacia adelante. La estrategia de construcción del modelo nos ha permitido producir un modelo de flujo de tierra realizando la susceptibilidad, cuyo modelo de ajuste, la predicción de la habilidad y solidez se estimaron sobre la base de los procedimientos de validación. Test 2. Imera river basin: modelo de susceptibilidad por flujo de tierra basado en las unidades de ladera. Un mapa de susceptibilidad de un área, que es representativa en términos de marco geológico y los fenómenos de inestabilidad de ladera de grandes sectores de los Apeninos de Sicilia, fue producida usando unidades de ladera y un modelo multiparamétrico univariado. La zona de estudio, que se extiende por aproximadamente 90 km2, fue dividida en 774 unidades de la pendiente, cuya ocurrencia esperada avalancha se estimó un promedio de siete valores de vulnerabilidad, determinado para el control de los factores seleccionados: litología, pendiente media del gradiente, SPI en el pie, el índice de humedad topográfica y la curvatura del perfil, y el rango de altitud. Cada uno de los reconocidos 490 deslizamientos de tierra estuvo representada por su punto de centro de gravedad. Sobre la base de análisis condicional, la función de la susceptibilidad aquí adoptada es la densidad, calculado para cada clase. Modelos univariante fueron preparados para cada uno de los factores que controlan, y su rendimiento predictivo se estimó por curvas de tipos de predicción y la relación de efectividad aplicada a la categorías de vulnerabilidad. Este procedimiento nos permitió discriminar entre factores efectivos y no efectivos, de modo que sólo la primera se combinó posteriormente en un modelo multiparamétrico, que fue utilizada para producir el mapa de susceptibilidad final. la validación de este último mapa nos permite comprobar el rendimiento y la fiabilidad de la predicción modelo. Los principales factores reguladores resultaron: la litología y, subordinadamente, el SPI a el pies de la unidad, y tambien el gradiente medio de la pendiente, la curvatura del perfil, y el índice de humedad topográfica dieron resultados satisfactorios. ; The World population, which counted two billion inhabitants around 1950, has grown at an almost exponential rate in the following decades up to four billion in 1980 and 5,3 in 1990 (United Nations – Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2010). Definitely a high increase both in absolute and relative terms. According to estimates by the United Nations, the World population is estimated to reach eight billion and a half around 2025 (Chart 1.1), and then it will become steady around ten billion in 2050 because of the expected decline in fertility. These growing rates occur, obviously, both in Europe, where population has grown from 550 million in 1950 to 750 million in 2010, and in Italy, where in the period from 1861 to 2008 there was a surge in population from 22 million inhabitants to almost 60 million, (source: ISTAT, 2010). The population has grown, however, at higher rates in developing Countries (Fig. 1.1), with a tendency to become steady in industrialized Countries in the last decades. Such an intense world population has direct consequences on urban territory while leading to a spread of current minor urban areas and small towns. All this will, increasingly, result in management and land use problems, producing a growth of the vulnerability component in the risk equation. Population growth alone does not justify an increase of hydro-geological conditions of instability. If so, since the population has become steady in recent years, at least in most industrialized countries, we should not face increasing risks. Instead, the economic development model, largely based on networks and infrastructures, as well as settlements of course, produces a double effect: an increase of assets exposed to threat; a stress on the territory, able to make the activation of hazardous phenomena more frequently. It is however true that recent disasters with great loss of lives (i.e., Sarno Giampilieri, Aulla, Genova and Saponara) are actually the results of the response (letting nature take its course) to the changes in territorial asset occurred after the war. Another cause may be found in environmental changes: when the stress regime in a region changes (such as extraordinary rainfall intensity), the response is obviously new for both sides/slopes and the population. The WWF notes that from 1956 to 2001, urbanized areas in Italy have increased by 500 times and it is estimated that from 1990 to 2005 we have transformed 3.5 million hectares of land. The problem of interaction between humans and the natural environment is a very complex and diversified issue, not often approached in a systematic way, also because of the severe limitations of sources to be invested on research on a medium and long-term, for a better and effective knowledge of the environment, primarily on measures aimed at reducing risk (Plattner, 2005). Natural phenomena also have an impact within the social-economic framework as they are responsible for the loss of goods and services, and sometimes, a loss in terms of lives. In such a situation, the vulnerability of the area is related to the development of its social, civil, and urban infrastructural system. This concept is well expressed in the statement "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability" (Wisner et al., 2004). This leads us to consider natural disasters as real social phenomena. This condition is strongly valid especially with regard to landslides (Brabb and Harrod, 1989; Brabb, 1991). Since economic problems common to all countries do not allow either to invest in research projects on a medium and long-term or the stabilization of structures or areas on a large-scale, a new philosophy of environmental policy opens up for all active political and administrative subjects that should govern the use and exploitation of the territory. For this reason, the scientific community is engaged in a continuous search for methods and techniques to estimate the degree of real and potential instability, using the minimum amount of equipment and possible economic resources. Usually there is a substantial difficulty in identifying the most reliable procedures, that allow to approach this matter in a non-traditional manner based on modeling and investigative techniques built on the exchange of experiences between experts and conducting studies and experiments on all continents, and showing different strategies and possible technical combinations depending on the type and/or the number and complexity of the investigation, producing susceptibility, hazard and risk maps, used as the basis for decision-making processes in land management. In this framework, further efforts are needed in trying to make the different methods more objective and shared by all in order to be simple and reproducible, and most of all in transferring the knowledge gained in laws that underpin territorial planning, building regulations, and in civil defense plans (Guzzetti, 2006). When discussing about landslides and environmental policies, one of the pioneers is undoubtedly Earl E. Brabb, who already in 1991 in a paper entitled "The World Landslide Problem", sustained that landslides are a worldwide problem that cause hundreds of deaths and billions of dollars of damage every year all over the world. The same added that these losses can be reduced if the problem is identified and acknowledged in time, but many countries are simply equipped with maps showing where landslides produced problems in the past and they have even less susceptibility maps that could allow policy makers control land use. Landslides, adds Brabb, are generally more predictable and controllable than other natural events of catastrophic nature such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and storms, but despite this, few countries have taken advantage of this knowledge to reduce landslide hazard. Geomorphological problems are and will be an important issue and a fundamental requirement of knowledge for the politics of decision-making. Although 20 years have gone by since Brabb's work, the situation does not seem to have changed. There are still insufficient globally shared procedures even just allowing to assess the quality and accuracy of a landslide inventory or how to classify in terms of landslide susceptibility of an area and to evaluate quantitatively and qualitatively predictive performance. 1.2 Basic concepts One of the most obvious effects of rapid territory development in the past decades is the increasing impact that natural disasters have on man and his activities. Institutions are therefore committed to investing their resources in both the implementation of structural interventions to mitigate the risk as well as implementation of early warning systems and defining guidelines for land management; the latter activities allow, in fact, to avoid or minimize damage to persons and property, produced by natural phenomena, without necessarily investing in expensive resources and long structural interventions. The term "risk" is used in relation to the various components of the social and territorial fabric, as an expression of the expected consequences in the assets as a result of this disastrous phenomenon of assigned intensity at a given time interval. Within the guidelines for the preparation of prevention and management plans in terms of geological risk of the Sicilian Civil Protection Service (Regional Hydro-geological and Environmental Risks department), the term Hydro-geological Risk means the effect on different parts of the territory led by natural disasters such as landslides (geomorphological risk) and floods (hydraulic risks) triggered by events related to climate and its changes. Two main components contribute to the definition of risk: territorial hazard (geomorphological and hydraulic) and vulnerability. The latter depends on both the physical resistance of structures or assets exposed to the threat and the so-called vulnerability of social organization, which is linked, in fact, to the capacity of disaster prevention and management that a community has developed prior to the same disaster. The propensity of a territory to be affected by new landslides, the degree of hazard or risk that characterizes it, are usually expressed with the help of a map in which the area is divided into different zones according to the different values that qualify it. In this mapping, the territory is zoned or divided into homogeneous zones or user-defined fields/areas, whose ranking is defined according to their real or potential degree of landslide hazard (Varnes, 1984). Over the decades, many research groups and national and international commissions have tried to provide precise definitions, trying to reduce the existing confusion of terms in the management of natural hazards. In this section, some basic concepts are expressed as well as the terminology that will be used in the thesis below. Landslide events that develop in a given area involve a large number of environmental variables, to determine undoubted difficulties in identifying a suitable action of management, control and planning. In order to do so, understanding the problem without having a clear conceptual framework and method to be used may not be sufficient. The "forecast" of the phenomena and therefore the modeling phase is always required to designated public administration bodies and territorial control, carried out by the creation of digital simulation models which become crucial at the time when decisions must be taken/made. The creation of maps indicating the different vocation planning of an area, based for example on landslide hazard maps, not only allows you to compose the scene of the incident consequences of a given failure, but also to react under emergency, if magnitude, area, and associated potential damage are known. Planning is a subject which studies and regulates the processes of local governance and to evaluate the resulting dynamics of evolution and development. The principles guiding the choice of planning require development policies coherent with the principles of environmental protection and sustainability in an effort to control the excessive human presence, able to transform irreversibly natural systems and preserve the quality of life for future generations. Information, territorial knowledge and assessment of its natural predisposition and vulnerability are the basis of planning. These forms of knowledge and the use and application of the best technologies available to facilitate information processing and optimization of procedures for evaluation and zoning of the territory, will yield the best design solutions to achieve the desired objectives. Planning is aimed to government land use and management of spatial information, and is achieved by regulating the area according to different uses, which should be awarded taking into account the natural predispositions. Planning activities can affect a large portion of territory, in other words include a supra-municipal area or one that does not match with administrative boundaries (e.g. Provincial Territorial Coordination Plan, Hydro-geological Plan) or urban (e.g. General Regulation Plan). The geological, geomorphological, hydro-geological and seismic component should be placed at the base of the strategic development of the territory. In national legislation, water management is understood both as a natural resource but also as an element of risk, and has been regulated at the watershed level since the nineties (national framework law 183/89 on soil protection). This allow us to overcome divisions and inconsistencies produced by the adoption of targeted areas having only administrative boundaries that, therefore, do not take into account natural dynamics. The zoning of landslide hazard area is considered the most effective level of knowledge for territorial planning and territorial governance purposes. A map showing portions of an area classified as "hazardous" is of great importance due to the fact that these areas are subject to limitations and constraints that also affect the usability or simply the economic value. 1.2.1 Landslides and soil protection Italy, besides having a territory particularly prone to heavily collapse, has a highly populated territory with a density of 189 inhabitants per km2, much higher than France (114 inhabitants/km2) and Spain (89 inhabitants/km2), in Lombardy and Campania respectively, the density changes to 379 and 420 inhabitants per km2. As clear from the Report on landslides in Italy (National Geological Survey, 2007), commissioned by the ISPRA (National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research), in the last 50 years almost 500 thousand landslides have been recognized and recorded for an area of about 20 thousand km2, corresponding to 6.6% of the entire national territory. These data should be updated. As indicated by the last study conducted by the Ministry of the Environment (2010), 9.8% of the national area is to be ranked highly hydro-geological critical and 6.633 municipalities are involved, representing 81.9 percent of the national territory. This value, according to a report EURISPES ( Report Italy, 2010) is "largely underestimated", therefore agreeing that "a reliable estimate is made up of about 2 million phenomena and consequently the percentage of the Italian territory subject to ongoing phenomena is more than 20%." The Ministry of Environment, through the work for the realization of development plans undertaken by the hydrogeological Basin Authority, estimated a funding requirement of almost 40 billion euros to hydro-geologically secure the entire country, and 4.1 billion for more urgent works. Undoubtedly, the amounts are considerably high, but it is enough to consider that almost 21 billion euros were spent just to stanch the damages by hydro-geological disasters occurred in the decade 1994-2004. 1.3 Aims and scientific contribution There is no single way to prepare susceptibility maps, as evidenced by the enormous amount of scientific papers produced even during the last decade, and the same is true as for the zoning of the hazard and risk involved, still remaining a largely unsolved problem (Carrara et al., 2009). The contribution of this paper the following phases of a study in order to define the susceptibility structure, hazard and risk of an area. 1 Construction of the landslide database: in this work different techniques and methods of landslide detection and delimitation are compared, directly (field work) and indirectly (aerial photographs, remote viewing software of the territory) and their subsequent deployment in a GIS system. 2 Choice and definition of the analysis scale: the problem of scale models of susceptibility is approached. In fact, one of the most actual problems of the proposition is related to approaches to multi-scale susceptibility evaluation. 3 Mapping units: different units are used for mapping and zoning of the territory, whose foresight results are compared in order to be able to identify the basic mapping units most suitable for planning and for civil defense purposes, taking into account the scientific accuracy that the model must bear. 4 Choice of controlling factors: during the work, it is the possible to identify the most probable set of factors considered to be directly or indirectly related to the instability of the slope. Procedures for testing and selecting the set of possible controlling factors are proposed as well as the construction of specific models for each type of landslide. 5 Model building: as for the construction of a geo-statistical model, different solutions are compared and the model presenting the same results and objectivity is chosen, considering it needs a lower implementation in terms of cost and time. 6 Validation: models are subject to different validation techniques, which are then compared to each other. 7 Spatial exporting of a landslide susceptibility model: this is a trial to define and validate the terms of landslide susceptibility for a wide area in the likes of hundreds or thousands of square kilometers, based on studies of some fields that represent it. Having clear that the result of this type of study is intended to provide maps that can be used by planners in a useful manner, these must be characterized by an immediacy in understanding even by non-experts and they must also be easy to read and interpret. Therefore, these methods should be as simple as possible, for example, susceptibility levels must be clearly expressed not only in quantitative but also in descriptive terms (Clerici et al., 2010). Like many other authors, the purpose of this work is to make a contribution to the scientific community by trying to offer a modest contribution in solving some problems in this field through experiments and modeling carried out in a range of contexts and comparing the results between them.
La popolazione mondiale è in continua espansione e la crescita demografica ed economica inducono allo sfruttamento progressivo dell'ambiente ed al depauperamento delle risorse naturali (acqua ed energia in particolare), con conseguenti impatti potenzialmente importanti sul cambiamento globale. Si rende, pertanto, necessaria ed urgente una più efficiente gestione delle risorse basata sulla rielaborazione di obiettivi sostenibili di politiche e strategie ambientali e sulla riduzione del consumo delle risorse, promuovendo la transizione da un modello di economia lineare ad uno circolare, costituito da un ciclo continuo di sviluppo positivo che preserva e migliora il capitale naturale, ottimizzando l'utilizzo delle risorse a tutte le scale. Come noto, l'Ingegneria Naturalistica (IN) utilizza le piante come materiale da costruzione nelle opere per la riqualificazione ambientale e paesaggistica del territorio. Le opere di IN sono infatti a basso impatto ambientale ed in grado di innescare processi di rinaturalizzazione che favoriscono la biodiversità, offrendo una promettente strategia di mitigazione e adattamento ai cambiamenti climatici. Fondamentale per il raggiungimento di questi obiettivi, risulta essere quindi l'uso di materiali adeguati, sostenibili, di facile reperimento e basso costo. Tenuto conto della grande disponibilità dei residui derivanti dalla potatura annuale delle viti (sarmenti) e dallo spiaggiamento annuale delle foglie di Posidonia oceanica (banquette) in Sicilia, la presente tesi ha come obiettivo principale la descrizione e l'analisi di questi nuovi materiali organici di scarto in relazione alla possibilità di uso degli stessi in opere di Ingegneria Naturalistica. Ogni anno infatti la potatura dei vigneti produce un elevato quantitativo di residui (sarmenti), che rappresentano una biomassa da smaltire; nel contempo, il fenomeno dello spiaggiamento dei residui di P. oceanica è percepito come un disagio dai cittadini, entrando in conflitto con alcune attività economiche (turismo, stabilimenti balneari, ecc). Nonostante il fondamentale ruolo ecologico che rivestono le fanerogame marine sia per limitare l'erosione della costa che per favorire la formazione del sistema dunale costiero, la presenza di residui di P. oceanica lungo la costa può comportare la riduzione del valore turistico delle spiagge; conseguentemente è richiesta alle amministrazioni locali la rimozione delle banquette ed il loro conferimento in discarica. L'utilizzo della biomassa prodotta comporta quindi un duplice vantaggio: la risoluzione del problema dello smaltimento dei residui prodotti e la creazione di nuovi prodotti, locali ed a basso costo, riutilizzabili anche nel campo del risanamento ambientale. La biomassa residuale viene vista in questo modo come una risorsa e non più un rifiuto, acquisendo un valore sia dal punto di vista ecologico che dal punto di vista economico Nell'ottica dell'economia circolare, i sarmenti sono stati assemblati in forma di fascina per costituire l'elemento base per realizzare il modulo di una fascinata, opera lineare di IN con funzioni antierosive, consolidanti e di stabilizzazione, mentre, i residui di P. oceanica sono stati utilizzati come substrato di coltivazione per rendere "viva" l'opera dopo la messa a dimora di specie autoctone al suo interno. Nella tesi sono state eseguite una serie di analisi e sperimentazioni volte: i) a caratterizzare i due materiali per valutarne l'idoneità come costituenti della fascina, ii) ad individuare le specie vegetali biotecnicamente più idonee a rendere viva l'opera, iii) ad eseguire una prima valutazione sulla funzionalità dell'opera nel suo insieme utilizzando osservazioni fatte su un piccolo prototipo di fascinata messa in opera nei campi sperimentali dell'Università di Palermo. Viene infine presentata una tecnica costruttiva innovativa delle fascinate oggetto di brevettazione da parte dell'Università degli Studi di Palermo e sviluppata nel corso delle attività di questo dottorato di ricerca. Con l'obiettivo di stimare indicatori di resistenza e durabilità delle fascine sperimentali sono state, in primo luogo, individuate quattro aziende vitivinicole che operano nel territorio siciliano, disponibili a fornire a titolo gratuito i sarmenti appena potati. Le prove meccaniche di resistenza a flessione (valutazione di tensioni di rottura e modulo di elasticità) sono state quindi eseguite su 122 provini di 8 differenti cultivar di sarmento (Cabernet, Inzolia, Nero d'Avola, Grecanico, Grillo, Chardonnay, Sirah e Catarratto). I provini di sarmento, di lunghezza L=10 cm ed umidità "normale" (12%), sono stati selezionati con criterio di assenza di nodi ed imperfezioni, uniformità di diametro ed asse longitudinale rettilineo (cilindricità). Sotto l'ipotesi di validità della legge di Hook, le prove di resistenza a flessione eseguite secondo lo schema a tre punti (3 point bending test) sino alla rottura delle fibre inferiori dei provini, hanno permesso di ricavare il modulo di elasticità longitudinale (lungo le fibre), E, e la tensione di rottura sulla base dei diagrammi sforzo/deformazione e della forza a rottura. Dai primi risultati si rileva come i vitigni Cabernet, Grillo e Sirah presentino le migliori caratteristiche di resistenza flessionale (maggiore rigidità) con netta prevalenza del Sirah (4878.6 MPa), mentre più deformabili risultano essere i sarmenti di Grecanico, Chardonnay, Catarratto e Nero d'Avola (1200 - 2000 MPa). I valori maggiori di tensioni di rottura si riscontrano invece per il Cabernet (70 MPa). Nel complesso, mettendo in relazione le tensioni di rottura campionarie ai corrispondenti moduli di elasticità, le migliori caratteristiche di resistenza e di maggiore durabilità riscontrate sono quelle del Cabernet e dello Chardonnay, che possono quindi trovare potenziale impiego come materiale da costruzione nelle opere di Ingegneria Naturalistica. Pertanto, i sarmenti di Cabernet sono stati utilizzati per il confezionamento delle fascine nell'installazione sperimentale, insieme al Catarratto che è la cultivar maggiormente coltivata nella regione e che, conseguentemente, produce il maggior quantitativo di biomassa annuale. L'area di prelievo dei residui di P. oceanica è stata individuata nella costa prospicente l'abitato di Custonaci in provincia di Trapani. La banquette dalla quale sono stati prelevati i residui presenta un'altezza di 4 m e si estende per centinaia di metri lungo la costa rocciosa alle spalle di Monte Cofano. I residui di P. oceanica spiaggiata sono stati rimossi meccanicamente e depositati in un'area di stoccaggio appositamente realizzata nel vicino Parco Sub urbano di Custonaci. Allo scopo di valutare l'abbattimento della salinità a mezzo dilavamento naturale è stato studiato il processo di infiltrazione che si attua nei residui di P. oceanica accumulata nei siti di stoccaggio. Un contributo alla caratterizzazione idrologica dei residui di P. oceanica è stato fornito eseguendo una sperimentazione su campioni di residui sottoposti ad una pioggia di fissata intensità, al fine di mettere a punto un modello semplificato di infiltrazione, valido per ammassi porosi altamente permeabili. Più precisamente il modello di infiltrazione a base fisica adottato stima il tempo di ritardo, (o di primo gocciolamento) ovvero il tempo necessario affinchè il fronte di umidità, a partire dall'inizio dell'evento piovoso, raggiunga la base dell'ammasso. Il protocollo di sperimentazione è stato studiato in modo da variare progressivamente le condizioni iniziali di umidità sullo stesso campione così da non alterare le caratteristiche fisiche del campione stesso rendendo omogenei i risultati. I campioni di residui di P. oceanica, preparati in laboratorio con una densità apparente, pari a quella misurata su campioni indisturbati nel sito di stoccaggio, sono stati posti in anelli metallici di diametro, D = 200 mm liberamente drenanti al fondo, chiusi con tessuto non tessuto e rete metallica di contenimento. Le prove di infiltrazione sono state condotte con un simulatore di pioggia di diametro pari a quello degli anelli, alimentato con una bottiglia di Mariotte (pressione costante). Nella sequenza delle prove le condizioni iniziali di umidità sono variate da 0.030 a 0.197, mentre il volume drenato, si è incrementato da 0.030 a 0.32. La condizione iniziale di umidità ha influenzato i tempi di ritardo che sono passati dai 3.87 minuti della prima prova ai 13.62 minuti dell'ultima prova. La densità apparente, stimata empiricamente in funzione dell'altezza H del campione, ha mostrato una variazione, da 0.130 a 0.140 g/cm3 che ha comportato una riduzione della porosità. Dalle prove eseguite è emerso come la compattazione dei residui di Posidonia abbia giocato un ruolo determinante durante il processo di infiltrazione. Sulla base di questa osservazione il modello teorico di infiltrazione adottato, valido su mezzi altamente porosi ma a porosità costante, è stato modificato introducendo sia l'effetto della compattazione che quello della parzializzazione della superficie effettivamente interessata dal processo di infiltrazione. La legge di infiltrazione tarata sui dati sperimentali per valori dell'intensità di pioggia variabili da i=20 a i=100 mm/h, per un ammasso di P. oceanica, messa a confronto con l'analoga legge di infiltrazione relativa ad un terreno con stesse caratteristiche idrologiche della P. oceanica, ha evidenziato in definitiva la differenza di comportamento dei due media. I residui di P. oceanica mostrano rispetto al terreno, tempi di ritardo molto brevi (infiltrazione veloce), poco variabili sia con l'intensità che con le condizioni iniziali di umidità. Per condizioni di umidità iniziale superiori a 0.15 i tempi di ritardo per il campione dei residui di P. oceanica tendono a crescere all'aumentare dell'umidità indicando, in questo campo, una lieve riduzione della permeabilità del mezzo. L'abbattimento della salinità nei residui di P. oceanica è stato valutato in laboratorio simulando in un campione un processo di lavaggio a pressione costante. I campioni di residui di P. oceanica appena spiaggiati mostrano un elevato valore di conducibilità elettrica (CE) iniziale nell'acqua di drenaggio ( 20 mS/cm) ed un rapido abbattimento del contenuto in sali già con i primi tre lavaggi unitari (di peso pari al peso del materiale dilavato). Gli ulteriori sei lavaggi hanno affinato la riduzione di CE fino al raggiungimento di valori accettabili all'utilizzo agricolo ( 2 mS/cm). Assunta una densità della P. oceanica pari a 0,1 g/cm3 un lavaggio unitario di un ammasso alto un metro corrisponde allora ad un volume d'acqua specifico di 100 mm. I valori estremi del processo di lavaggio dei residui appena spiaggiati sono stati confermati da analisi di salinità svolte secondo metodo standard con diluizione 1:20. L'abbattimento del contenuto salino dei residui di P. oceanica accumulati nel deposito all'aperto di Custonaci è avvenuto, in modo sostenibile, a mezzo di un dilavamento naturale durato poco più di un anno che ha ridotto il valore di CE a 2,8 mS/cm. Tale riduzione concorda con le sperimentazioni fatte, infatti, tenuto conto che la precipitazione media annua alla stazione pluviografica di S. Vito Lo Capo vale 474 mm e che lo spessore medio dell'ammasso è di 1 m, il deposito è stato soggetto a circa 6 lavaggi unitari che sono bastati per abbattere significativamente il valore di CE. Ulteriori lavaggi unitari applicati ad un campione di P. oceanica prelevato dal deposito hanno portato ad un CE pari a 1,8 mS/cm, dopo il primo lavaggio, che si è ridotto ulteriormente del 33,3% (CE=1,2 mS/cm) al terzo lavaggio unitario. L'individuazione delle specie vegetali biotecnicamente più idonee a rendere viva l'opera è stata condotta a mezzo di prove di resistenza a trazione, Tr, delle radici. Il prelievo delle specie vegetali autoctone da utilizzare per rendere vive le fascine è stato eseguito in 5 differenti stazioni nella provincia di Palermo. Gli elevati valori di tensioni di rottura delle radici delle specie vegetali prese in esame nello studio (A. mauritanicus, O. miliaceum, H. coronarium. M. lupulina, L. spartum, B. distachyon, R. officinalis, R. coriaria e S. junceum) confermano la loro adeguatezza nel campo del ripristino ambientale, della stabilizzazione dei versanti e nella prevenzione delle frane. In particolare S. junceum ha mostrato le migliori caratteristiche biotecniche in termini di legge tensioni/diametri e quindi è stato individuato come materiale da utilizzare preferibilmente per rendere vive le fascine. Da un'analisi più approfondita delle radici di S. junceum che crescono nelle due differenti giaciture di piano e di pendenza (22°- 28°- 40°), è stato possibile evidenziare come la giacitura in pendenza influenzi significativamente sia l'architettura complessiva del sistema radicale che lo stato tensionale dello stesso. L'indagine è stata eseguita in tre siti di prelievo (A, B e C) tutti in provincia di Palermo Nelle prove di trazione effettuate, in accordo con il maggiore sviluppo e la differente architettura radicale, i campioni di S. junceum prelevati in giacitura di pendenza hanno presentato i valori di tensione a rottura mediamente più alti. In corrispondenza dei diametri più bassi (0,5 mm) i valori di tensione a rottura sono risultati molto simili (61-70 MPa) nelle due giaciture mentre in corrispondenza dei diametri maggiori (>1 mm) la tensione a rottura dei campioni in piano risulta minore rispetto ai campioni in pendenza. Il test di covarianza (ANCOVA) applicato al campione delle tensioni di rottura con covariata il Diametro e variabili indipendenti il sito (A, B, C) e la giacitura (piano, pendenza) ha permesso di considerare non significativa la differenza tra i siti (suoli) e significativa la differenza tra le due giaciture. Nell'installazione delle fascine sperimentali si è stimata la crescita delle piantine in fitocella di S. junceum messe a dimora in diversi substrati. Dalle prime evidenze le piante cresciute sul substrato costituito dai residui di P. oceanica hanno presentato la maggior percentuale di attecchimento e la maggiore crescita epigea. Tale risultato può essere, con buona probabilità, attribuito alle proprietà fisiche ed alla capacità isolante dei residui. Difatti, la maggiore capacità drenante del substrato costituito dai residui di P. oceanica, rilevato durante le prove di infiltrazione, sembra aver giocato un ruolo positivo nell'attecchimento e sviluppo della pianta. Il controllo del microclima all'interno delle fascine è stato eseguito con misure di temperatura rilevate ad intervalli di 30 minuti da sensori hobo data logger inseriti ad una profondità di 5 cm, lasciati indisturbati per tutta la durata delle misure (dal 14.07.2017 al 20.11.2017). I dati sono stati misurati: a) nell'ambiente atmosferico, b) all'interno dei residui di P. oceanica contenuti nelle fascine e c) nel terreno contiguo all'istallazione. In totale sono stati raccolti 6201 valori di temperatura per ognuno dei tre sensori. Le misure di temperatura hanno evidenziato l'elevata capacità isolante dei residui di P. oceanica che si è manifestata con una significativa attenuazione, a livello dell'apparato radicale, delle temperature massime (36.6°C) nei residui di Posidonia e minime giornaliere (9.7°C), rispetto alle temperature massime (55.1°C) e minime (5.6°C) misurate nell'ambiente esterno nei due periodi considerati (estate e autunno). Le temperature medie più basse si sono registrate nei residui di Posidonia all'interno delle fascine, sia nel periodo estivo (25.7±3.6) che nell'arco temporale delle misure (21.8±5.2). È interessante osservare come il ruolo che tale materiale ha nel campo dell'edilizia come isolante termico possa risultare di interesse anche nel campo della coltivazione di specie vegetali. Infine, la ricerca svolta nei tre anni di dottorato ed i risultati conseguiti hanno portato al miglioramento della tecnica di realizzazione della fascinata le cui metodologie sono oggetto di una domanda di brevetto depositata dall'Università di Palermo. I vantaggi della nuova metodologia rispetto alle tecnologie attuali, possono sintetizzarsi come segue: • Riutilizzo sostenibile di materiali organici di scarto (sarmenti e P. oceanica spiaggiata e dilavata) con conseguente economia di realizzazione di una fascinata (opera I.N. lineare di consolidamento e protezione idrogeologica). • Meccanizzazione della produzione dei manufatti modulari (fascina) costituenti l'opera, che nell'attuale pratica prevede un assemblaggio solo di tipo manuale, con conseguente riduzione dei tempi di costruzione e dei costi ad esso associati. • Il prodotto proposto rende "strutturale", con un sistema di collegamento dei moduli, un'opera che staticamente non è resistente alle azioni di spinta delle terre. • Riduzione dei tempi di messa in opera del manufatto lineare. Con la tecnica innovativa avanzata, grazie alla caratteristica strutturale del manufatto, si potranno realizzare opere su più piani (non più di tre) o opere chiuse. I residui di potatura della vite ed i residui di P. oceanica sono stati utilizzati anche nell'ambito di un progetto, finanziato dalla Comunità Europea, al Comune di Custonaci dal titolo "Primi interventi finalizzati a contenere il fenomeno della desertificazione del territorio Comunale Parco sub-urbano Portella del Cerriolo". Recenti controlli di qualità dell'Unione Europea sulle opere realizzate con i suddetti materiali di scarto nel Parco sub-urbano Portella del Cerriolo a Custonaci, hanno evidenziato gli ottimi risultati raggiunti dal progetto. Per tale motivazione, La UE ha proposto la candidatura del suddetto progetto come best practices nell'area mediterranea per la lotta al fenomeno della desertificazione. L'uso dei due materiali, che rappresentano uno scarto di produzione agricola ed un rifiuto solido, ampiamente presenti sia in Sicilia che nella maggior parte dell'area mediterranea, si inquadra in un uso efficiente delle risorse (riuso sostenibile), nel risparmio economico ed energetico e nel pieno rispetto dell'ambiente. ; The world population is expanding continuously, and economic and demographic growth are leading to the exploitation of the environment and the reduction of natural resources (water and energy in particular), with potentially important impacts on global climate change. Therefore, more efficient management of resources is necessary, based on the reworking of sustainable objectives of environmental policies and strategies and lower consumption of resources, thus promoting the transition from a linear economy model to a circular one, consisting of a continuous positive development cycle that preserves and improves natural capital, optimizing the use of resources. Soil and Water Bioengineering uses plants as living building material in environmental and landscape development works. Such works with low environmental impact, promote biodiversity and, in addition, offer a promising strategy for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Thus, the use of adequate, sustainable, easy to find and low-cost materials are essential for the achievement of these objectives. Considering the great availability of residues resulting from the annual pruning of vines and the annual cleaning of beaches from the leaves of Posidonia oceanica in Sicily, the aim of this thesis is to describe and apply innovative Soil and Water Bioengineering techniques that involve the construction of modular structures made with organic waste materials, namely, the residues of vine pruning (vine shoots) and beachside P. oceanica (banquette). In fact, every year, the pruning of vines produces high quantity residues (vine shoots), which represent a biomass to be disposed. At the same time, the beaching of P. oceanica residues is considered a problem by the population. It conflicts with a number of economic activities (tourism, bathing establishments, etc.). Even though seagrasses have a fundamental ecological role to play in limiting coastal erosion and promoting the formation of the coastal dune system, the presence of P. oceanica residues along the coast can reduce the tourism value of beaches. As a result, local authorities are required to remove banquette and dispose of them in landfills. Therefore, the use of this biomass has a double beneficial effect. It constitutes a solution to the problem of waste disposal and an opportunity for the creation of local and low-cost new products. Moreover, this waste can also be used in the field of environmental restoration. Therefore, the residual biomass considered a resource and no longer as waste, and has ecological and economic value. From the viewpoint of the circular economy, vine shoots were assembled in the form of fascines to constitute the basic element used to create a fascinate module, a linear Soil and Water Bioengineering work with anti-erosive, consolidation and stabilization functions, while the residues of P. oceanica were used as a growing medium to render the work "alive" after planting with native species. A series of analyses and experiments were carried within the framework of the thesis, in order to i) characterize both materials and evaluate their suitability as constituents of fascines, ii) identify the most biotechnically suitable plant species for rendering the work "alive", and iii) evaluate the functionality of the work as a whole using observations made on a small prototype of fascinate set up in experimental fields at the University of Palermo. Finally, an innovative fascinates construction technique is presented, which is the object of patenting by the University of Palermo and was developed during the activities of this research doctorate. First of all, we identified four wine-producing companies operating in Sicily and available to provide vine shoots just after pruning and free of charge. In order to estimate the durability of the experimental fascines, mechanical tests were carried out in the laboratory (tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) on 122 samples of 8 different vine shoot cultivars (Cabernet, Inzolia, Nero d' Avola, Grecanico, Grillo, Chardonnay, Sirah and Catarratto). The vine shoot samples, L=10 cm long and "normal" humidity (12%), were selected based on the criteria of absence of knots and imperfections, uniformity of diameter and straight longitudinal axis (cylindricality). The abiotic (mechanical) durability of the vine shoots was then estimated by means of flexural strength tests and measurement of tensile strength. Under the hypothesis of validity of Hook's law, flexural strength tests were carried out according to the three-point scheme up to the rupture of the lower fibres of the samples, which allowed to obtain the longitudinal elasticity modulus E (along the fibres) and the tensile strengthon the basis of the force/deformation diagram and tensile strength. The first results show that Cabernet, Grillo and Sirah vine shoots have the best flexural strength characteristics (greater rigidity) with a clear prevalence of Sirah (4878.6 MPa), while the vine shoots of Grecanico, Chardonnay, Catarratto and Nero d' Avola (1200 - 2000 MPa) are the most deformable. The highest values of tensile strength were found for the Cabernet (70 MPa). Consequently, by linking sample tensile strength to the corresponding elasticity modules, Cabernet and Chardonnay display the best resistance and durability characteristics, and could be used potentially as a building material in Soil and Water Bioengineering works. Therefore, Cabernet vine shoots have been suggested and used for the packaging of fascines in the experimental installation, together with Catarratto, which is the variety most cultivated in the region and, consequently, produces the largest quantity of annual biomass. P. oceanica residues were collected on the coast of Custonaci, Trapani (Southern of Italy). The "banquette" from which the residues were obtained is 4 metres high and extends hundreds of metres along the rocky coast behind Monte Cofano. P. oceanica residues were removed mechanically and deposited in a storage area created in the nearby Custonaci Park. In order to evaluate the reduction of salinity by natural runoff, the infiltration process that takes place in the residues of P. oceanica accumulated at the storage sites was studied. The investigation carried out on samples of P. oceanica residues subjected to rain of fixed intensity, allowed the development of a simplified theoretical model, valid for highly permeable porous storage. Furthermore, an analysis was performed in order to characterise P. oceanica residues from a physical and hydrological point of view and verify the applicability of a physical infiltration model for the estimation of delay time, starting from the beginning of the rainy event and ending with the storage site. The experimental protocol was studied in order to modify gradually the initial humidity conditions of the same sample and not modify the physical characteristics of the sample for the results to be homogeneous. The samples of P. oceanica residues, prepared in the laboratory with an apparent density equal to that measured on undisturbed samples at the storage site, were placed in metal rings, D = 200 mm, with free draining at the bottom, closed with non-textile and metal mesh containment. The infiltration tests were conducted with a rain simulator equal in diameter to that of the rings, and connected to a Mariotte bottle. In the test sequence, the initial humidity conditions varied from 0.030 to 0.197, while the drained volume increased from 0.030 to 0.32. Modification of the initial humidity condition had an effect on delay times. In particular, the times, with certain dispersion, increased by initial humidity conditions from the initial values of 3.87 minutes for the first test to 13.62 minutes for the last test. The apparent density empirically estimated as a function of the height H of the sample, showed a variation from 0.130g/cm3 to 0.140 g/cm3 which resulted in a reduction of porosity. The tests carried out showed that the compaction of P. oceanica residues played a decisive role during the infiltration process. Following this observation, the infiltration model on highly porous media was modified by introducing the effect of both compaction and that of the surface actually affected by the infiltration process. The infiltration law calibrated on the experimental data for rain intensity values varying from i=20 to i=100 mm/h, for P. oceanica storage, compared with the analogous infiltration law relative to soil with the same hydrological characteristics as stored P. oceanica. The difference in behaviour of the two media was revealed. P. oceanica residues show very short delay times in relation to soil (fast filtration); small differences are measured in the intensity and the initial humidity conditions. While the soil shows a typical monotonous reduction in delay times, for P. oceanica there is a slight increase in time after a given initial humidity condition, which indicates a slight reduction in permeability of the medium in this field. The reduction of salinity in P. oceanica residues was evaluated in the laboratory by means of a constant pressure washing process. P. oceanica residue samples show a high initial electrical conductivity (EC) value in drainage water (20 mS/cm) and a rapid reduction of the salt content with the first three unit washes. The six additional washings refined EC reduction to an acceptable level for agricultural use (2 mS/cm). The extreme values of the residue washing process were confirmed by salinity analysis using the standard method with dilution 1:20. The reduction of the salt content of P. oceanica residues was also achieved in a sustainable way by means of natural runoff in open storage for more than one year (≈ 500 mm/year of rain). The measurements taken at the first unit wash showed an EC of 1.8 mS/cm, which was reduced by 33.3% (CE=1.2 mS/cm) after the second unit wash. The most biotechnically suitable plant species were then identified to make the work "alive" by means of laboratory tests of Tr tensile strength of the roots. The native plant species used to make the fascine "alive" were collected at 5 different stations in the province of Palermo. The high tensile strength values of the roots of the plants considered in the study (A. mauritanicus, O. miliaceum, H. coronarium. M. lupulina, L. spartum, B. distachyon, R. officinalis, R. Coriaria and S. junceum) confirm their suitability in the field of environmental restoration, slope stabilization and landslide prevention. In particular, S. junceum displayed the best biotechnological characteristics in relation to the tension/diameter law and has therefore been identified as a material to be used for making fascine "alive". A more detailed analysis of the morphological parameters of S. junceum roots, growing at two different positions (plane and slope of 22°- 28°- 40°), showed that the position on the slope significantly influences the root system of the plant and the overall architecture of the root system at the three sampling sites (A, B and C). In the tensile strength tests carried out, in accordance with the greater development and the different radical architecture, the samples of break strength values taken in a slope position showed the highest break strength values. As regards the lowest diameters (0.5 mm), the break strength values are similar (61-70 MPa) in the two positions, while for larger diameters (2 mm) the break strength values of plane samples are lower than those of slope samples. In fact, they range from 20 MPa to almost 80 MPa at site A, 20 MPa to 50 MPa at site B, and 20 MPa to 40 MPa at site C. In the experimental installation, we estimated the growth of S. junceum planted in different substrates. The first evidence shows that the plants grown on the substrate consisting of P. oceanica residues showed the highest percentage of rooting and the greatest aerial growth (121.3 cm). This result can, most probably, be attributed to the physical properties and insulating capacity of the residues. In fact, the increased draining capacity of the substrate of P. oceanica residues, detected during infiltration tests, may have played a positive role in plant rooting and development. The micro-climate inside the fascines was estimated with temperature measurements using hobo data logger sensors inserted at a depth of 5 cm from 14.07.2017 to 20.11.2017, carried out continuously and with a time interval of 30 minutes. The data were recorded: a) in the external environment, b) inside the P. oceanica residues contained in fascines and c) in the land adjacent to the installation. A total of 6201 temperature values were collected by each of the three sensors. The temperature measurements showed the high insulating capacity of the P. oceanica residues, which manifested itself with a significant attenuation, at root level, of the maximum temperatures (36.6°C) in P. oceanica residues and daily minimum temperatures (9.7°C), compared to the maximum temperatures (55.1°C) and minimum temperatures (5.6°C) measured in the external environment during the two periods considered (summer and autumn). The lowest average temperatures were recorded in P. oceanica residues inside fascines, both in the summer period (25.7±3.6) and throughout the measurement period (21.8±5.2). It is interesting to note that the thermal insulation role of this material in the building industry also applies to agriculture. Finally, the research carried out during the three years of doctoral studies has led to the improvement of the fascinate production technique, and this methodology is subject to a patent application filed by the University of Palermo. The benefits of the new methodology compared to current technologies can be summarised as follows: • The proposed product makes "structural", with a module connection system, a work frequently used in Soil and Water Bioengineering that is not statically resistant to the actions of soil thrust. • Sustainable reuse of organic waste materials with consequent economy of construction. • Mechanisation of modular manufactured products, which in current practice provides for assembly only by hand with consequent reduction of construction time and costs. • Reduction of installation time for hydrogeological protection structures. The advanced innovative technique, to be developed with future experimental installations, has provided for the construction of a modular building made with eco-compatible materials at low cost; vine pruning residues (vine shoots) and Posidonia oceanica beaches (banquette). Vine pruning residues and P. oceanica residues were also used in a project, funded by the European Community, to the Municipality of Custonaci entitled " Primi interventi finalizzati a contenere il fenomeno della desertificazione del territorio Comunale Parco sub-urbano Portella del Cerriolo". European Union quality controls on these works has shown the excellent results achieved with the waste materials. For this reason, the EU has suggested project application as "best practices" in the mediterranean area for combating desertification. The use of these two materials, namely agricultural production waste and solid waste which are widely available in both in Sicily and most of the Mediterranean area, constitutes an efficient use of resources (sustainable use) that is low-cost, energy efficient and totally respects the environment.
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As the race to net zero needs to accelerate in the upcoming years, climate policies are increasingly affecting citizens and companies, intensifying the urgency of a just transition. Civil society organisations (CSOs) play a role in raising awareness and keeping the attention high on climate issues, while pushing for national decarbonisation strategies. Moreover, CSOs can promote multilevel dialogue among different stakeholders and contribute to overcoming the growing polarisation on climate policies. Dialogue is crucial between CSOs as well, especially to promote cooperation between unions and environmental groups that can help build a fair transition. CSOs may also act as impartial advisors to both institutional and private sector stakeholders, offering a data-driven point of view on a range of environmental issues. Therefore, promoting the dialogue and exchange of best practices between German and Italian CSOs may contribute to enacting a just and inclusive transition in both countries.CSOs as promoters of multi-stakeholder dialogue CSOs in both countries have been at the forefront of climate debate over the years and have demonstrated their potential to foster dialogue among diverse stakeholders, pushing for more ambitious targets from which private and institutional actors might shy away. This can be done both at the national and European levels, with CSOs having recently been involved in climate discussions trough public consultation to design the National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) in the framework of European energy governance. They are also crucial in the implementation of the transition at the local level as they are often in direct contact with local communities; therefore, they represent the ideal player to design context-specific solutions and to promote them in multi-stakeholder dialogues, while at the same time channelling public concerns for environmental and social impacts. This is well exemplified by the case of Civitavecchia coal plant phase-out in Italy. The plant, initially destined for conversion to gas, was ultimately decommissioned to be replaced by offshore wind farms, largely due to dialogue between local CSOs, such as WWF Italy and Legambiente, also involving trade unions, local authorities and energy companies.[1] This kind of CSO-initiated dialogue has been key to address social aspects of the transition in Germany as well, for example trough the Sector Dialogue on Automotive Industry.[2] This aims to integrate social sustainability criteria into the automotive sector by bringing together representatives of the civil society, such as Germanwatch and Transparency International Deutschland, along with institutional actors and private companies. However, the potential for CSOs to stimulate cooperation in Germany and Italy is not without challenges. Growing polarisation around climate policies, fears over the costs of the transition and the slow pace of structural reforms may be difficult to overcome.Dealing with growing polarisation Climate policies have become a divisive issue in Italy and Germany, and the subsequent political polarisation creates challenges for social dialogue.[3] The Scholz coalition government, comprised of the Greens, Liberals, and Social Democrats, has been tested on its climate approach due to internal disagreements among the three parties. Moreover, the energy crisis triggered by Russia's invasion of Ukraine has created an opening for the opposition party Alternative for Germany (AfD), which has capitalised on public discontent by promising to slow down the transition.[4] Similarly, in Italy, climate issues have become highly polarised. Even if the right-wing narrative has increasingly acknowledged the necessity of the transition, situations of conflict arise when the debate focuses on the best strategies to cope with this process.[5] As climate discourse becomes more polarised, CSOs find it more difficult to foster multi-stakeholder dialogue. This is especially testing for the Italian civil society, which has traditionally been scarcely engaged by political institutions and the private sector, leaving CSOs excluded from climate governance and unable to raise issues in debates on the social dimension of the transition.[6] In principle, CSOs may contribute to reducing polarisation by providing citizens with evidence-based information and promoting public participation in climate discussions. Many CSOs specialise in specific issue areas, such as air pollution, renewables or green mobility, developing expertise and data-driven information that could be used to facilitate informed discussions. However, even when their dissemination efforts are grounded in empirical research, their findings may still be challenged as part of a one-sided narrative. Furthermore, CSOs may encourage a more diverse public participation in climate discussions. Indeed, polarisation on the matter is often linked to factors like age, education, household income and political affiliation.[7] CSOs may offer spaces where people from diverse social backgrounds can engage with the issue directly, fostering a constructive dialogue.Ensuring a just transition Decarbonisation carries risks of significant social inequalities if not managed orderly. Both Italy and Germany are exposed to job losses, diminished industrial competitiveness and decreased energy security. Italy has a historically fragile job market, marked by high unemployment, which makes it even more difficult to integrate "climate losers" into the transition. Similarly, the decarbonisation of German industries, such as the chemicals and steel sectors, may create significant pressure on existing jobs.[8] Against this backdrop, there is a need for coordination between environmental groups and trade unions to implement decarbonisation strategies that also consider workers' needs, particularly in carbon-intensive sectors. One way to achieve this is by supporting the creation of just transition dialogues, bringing together governments, employers and unions to plan more comprehensive social safety nets for those segments of the population penalised by the transition. However, this model presents challenges in both Germany and Italy. Both countries have traditionally strong and heterogeneous unions. For example, only one member of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB), the United Services Trade Union, is part of the German Climate Alliance, the main German civil society forum for promoting climate objectives. By contrast, unions representing workers in carbon-intensive industries, like the Industrial Mining, Chemistry and Energy Union (IG BCE), have been largely outspoken against German environmental groups pushing for the phase-out of coal and nuclear. On the contrary, the Construction, Agriculture and Environment Workers Union (IG BAU) has pushed for more ambitious climate policies than those proposed by the government, stating that industrial growth and climate policy can be complementary and promote opportunities for development.[9] In Italy, the dialogue between unions and environmental groups has been equally challenging, but recent attempts to cooperate have emerged in the Climate-Work Alliance (Alleanza Clima Lavoro), a platform to promote dialogue between environmental groups and unions, composed among others of FIOM-CGIL, FILT-CGIL, FLAI-CGIL, Kyoto Club, Legambiente, WWF Italia and Greenpeace.[10]Institutional advocacy and participation in climate governance In both Italy and Germany, CSOs' advocacy is not always effective in addressing policy gaps and promoting structural reforms. In Italy, CSOs' efforts to have a larger role in climate governance are challenged by a centralised approach to energy and infrastructural planning which makes it more difficult for civil society organisations to bring their voices to institutional stakeholders.[11] In Germany, due to its federal system, regional (Länders') governments are sometimes more receptive to the social consequences of the transition for their own constituencies. However, this does not necessarily translate to tangible benefits because compensating companies and workers affected by the transition requires financial means that are not always available at the regional level. CSOs effectiveness for legislative change is also highly volatile. Traditionally, they can mobilise public support for climate reforms when specific events or crises capture public attention. In these cases, momentum can be channelled into pressuring governments to enact more ambitious climate targets. For example, in Germany, a coalition of 40 environmental and development organisations significantly influenced the country's climate ambitions through a comprehensive action plan, the German Civil Society Climate Protection Plan 2050, by capitalising on the public attention to climate issues generated by the Paris Agreement.[12] Italy has not witnessed a similar joint effort; Legambiente, for example, launched its own proposals before the 2022 elections, but the lack of a broad coalition behind it and the absence of external events arousing public interest for climate action, minimised the document's influence on the public debate.[13] On another level, European climate governance offers CSOs a way to influence national legislators. Under the regulation on the governance of the Energy Union and climate action, member states are asked to carry out public consultations with citizens, businesses and competent authorities to draft the updated NECPs, the documents outlining how EU countries aim to reach its energy and climate targets for the period 2021-2030. The regulation specifically calls for inputs from civil society to better design transition strategies that address the social dimension. The Climate Action Network and WWF have criticised the Italian and German consultation models as inadequate, blaming both governments for having given too short of a timeframe between public consultations with CSOs and the submitting of the policy documents, which made it impossible to integrate any feedback.[14] However, for the submission of updated draft plans in 2023, Germany reinforced dialogue platforms such as the Climate-Neutral Electricity System Platform and the Alliance for Transformation,[15] which took the form of roundtables on transition issues involving different stakeholders, while Italy launched new public consultations through parliamentary hearings and online questionnaires.[16]Looking ahead As both Italy and Germany try to decarbonise their economies, CSOs will need to cooperate with governments and the private sector to address the social consequences of the transition. The Italian and German civil societies have the potential to foster dialogue among different stakeholders (European, national and local; public, private and individual) and to increase the general level of ambition of climate policies by raising public awareness and promoting engagement. CSOs may act as intermediaries between the public and governments, making them accountable, and contribute to an independent collection of data and monitoring of green pledges. CSOs' action can be especially effective at the local level, where they can promote participatory planning that gives voice to communities and at the same time disseminate information and data about possible consequences of climate change. This communication can help to raise awareness and stimulate new ideas and initiatives to actively impact and promote the social dimension of the transition. To achieve this, CSOs' action at the local level should aim to have long-term horizons, rather than focus on short-term projects or one-off events. However, such engagement efforts are challenged by growing political polarisation and fears over the possible losses brought about by an ill-managed transition. While heterogeneity among CSOs – with trade unions and environmental groups representing often diverging interests – may further complicate cooperation, it may also represent an opportunity for developing solutions for social equity that do not preclude climate ambition. Large coalitions of CSOs may promote the inclusion of workers' rights and social protection mechanisms in just transition policies at the national and European levels, while at the same time advocating for prioritising clean energy and infrastructural projects that provide job opportunities not only for highly skilled workers, but for the labour force at large. CSOs should therefore leverage their advocacy efforts and coordinate at the bilateral and European levels to increase their reach, while at the same time remaining connected to the local level to design context-tailored strategies for the implementation of the transition.Alessio Sangiorgio is Junior Researcher in the Energy, Climate and Resources Programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI). This commentary presents some of the key issues discussed during a workshop organised by IAI, which brought together civil society representatives from both Germany and Italy. The event is part of a broader IAI project, "An Italian-German Dialogue on Energy Security and Transition amid Russia's War on Ukraine", supported by the German Federal Foreign Office.[1] Andrea Ballocchi, "Parco eolico offshore: passi avanti per il progetto galleggiante condiviso", in Infobuildenergia, 26 October 2023, https://www.infobuildenergia.it/?p=146289.[2] German Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Sector Dialogue Automotive Industry – Guideline for the Core Element: Reporting, November 2023, https://www.bmas.de/EN/Services/Publications/a433e-6-automotive-industry-guideline-reporting.html.[3] Maik Herold et al., "Polarization in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Ten European Countries", in MIDEM Studies, No. 2023-1 (April 2023), https://forum-midem.de/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/TUD_MIDEM_Study_2023-1_Polarization_in_Europe_.pdf.[4] Hans Pfeifer, "Germany's Far-Right AfD Profits from Climate Change Spat", in Deutsche Welle, 6 January 2023, https://www.dw.com/en/a-65797438.[5] Stefano Ghinoi and Bodo Steiner, "The Political Debate on Climate Change in Italy: A Discourse Network Analysis", in Politics and Governance, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2020), p. 215-228, https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i2.2577.[6] Maria Kousis, Donatella Della Porta and Manuel Jiménez, "Southern European Environmental Movements in Comparative Perspective", in American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 51, No.11 (2008), p. 1627-1647 DOI 10.1177/0002764208316361.[7] Maik Herold et al., "Polarization in Europe", cit.[8] Cesar Barreto, Robert Grundke and Zeev Krill, "The Cost of Job Loss in Carbon-Intensive Sectors: Evidence from Germany", in OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1774 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1787/6f636d3b-en.[9] Birgit Kraemer, "Germany: Trade Unions' Approach to Climate Change Policies", in Eurofound, 30 January 2018, https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/en/node/19786.[10] Italian Chamber of Deputies Budget Committee, Audizione dell'Alleanza Clima Lavoro, 12 March 2024, https://documenti.camera.it/leg19/documentiAcquisiti/COM05/Audizioni/leg19.com05.Audizioni.Memoria.PUBBLICO.ideGes.32922.12-03-2024-09-22-40.114.pdf.[11] Carlo Frappi and Arturo Varvelli, "Le strategie di politica energetica dell'Italia. Criticità interne e opportunità internazionali", in Quaderni di Relazioni Internazionali, No. 12 (April 2010), p. 98-114, https://www.ispionline.it/sites/default/files/pubblicazioni/qri12_0.pdf; Natalia Magnani and Giorgio Osti, "Does Civil Society Matter? Challenges and Strategies of Grassroots Initiatives in Italy's Energy Transition", in Energy Research and Social Science, Vol. 13 (March 2016), p. 148-157, DOI 10.1016/j.erss.2015.12.012.[12] Klima-Allianz Deutschland, Klimaschutzplan 2050 der deutschen Zivilgesellschaft, April 2016, https://www.klima-allianz.de/publikationen/publikation/klimaschutzplan-2050-der-deutschen-zivilgesellschaft.[13] Legambiente, La transizione ecologica che serve all'Italia, September 2022, https://www.legambiente.it/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Dossier-Legambiente-La-transizione-ecologica-che-serve-allItalia.pdf.[14] Climate Action Network Europe and WWF, Public Participation in National Energy and Climate Plans. Evidence of Weak and Uneven Compliance in Member States, April 2023, https://www.wwf.eu/?10023916.[15] German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, The Climate-Neutral Electricity System Platform – In Dialogue for a New Market Design, May 2024, https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/EN/Dossier/the-climate-neutral-electricity-system-platform.html; German Federal Government, Focus on Climate-Neutral Economy, Digitalisation and Sustainable Work, 14 June 2022, https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/schwerpunkte/klimaschutz/alliance-for-transformation-2052454; and Viel mehr als Mülltrennung und Dosenpfand, 2 February 2024, https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/nachhaltigkeitspolitik/allianz-fuer-transformation-2255608.[16] Italian Ministry of the Environment and Energy Security, Quesiti consultazione pubblica 2024 PNIEC, 26 February 2024, https://www.gse.it/PNIEC.
Eine dauerhafte Verfügbarkeit ist nicht garantiert und liegt vollumfänglich in den Händen der Herausgeber:innen. Bitte erstellen Sie sich selbständig eine Kopie falls Sie diese Quelle zitieren möchten.
Members of the Transatlantic Writers' Group analyze the evolving dynamics of transatlantic cooperation as the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine enters its third year. The security environment in Europe has irrevocably shifted, with repercussions on the European Union, NATO, and the future of Ukraine's trajectory towards European integration. Tough questions abound–with few clear answers.How has the Russian invasion of Ukraine impacted the European Union? The second anniversary of the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine finds the European Union more committed to security and defense, but also at a time of immense flux and uncertainty. By opening accession negotiations with Ukraine, the EU enlargement process takes on new geopolitical dimensions–much in line with the goals of von der Leyen's geopolitical Commission rhetoric and Borrell's vision of a geopolitical EU. However, all this is happening at the cusp of significant political changes both inside and outside the EU. In addition to the European Parliament elections, changes are coming to the Commission and the European Council leadership. These shifts are expected to take place as Hungary, the "problem child" of the EU, assumes the rotating Council presidency in July. In the meantime, the US will be going through its election cycle, where a repeat of the 2020 candidates' configuration appears very probable.A commitment to becoming a geopolitical EU is essential in the face of new security threats–in particular as new networks of malign actors, namely Russia, Iran, and North Korea work together in unprecedented ways–but this will be a difficult road to walk. It requires a strong EU leadership and a clear vision for the future that gives center stage to the security and defense of each member state–current and future. It is also time to consider how this can be achieved. What will reality look like at next year's anniversary of Russia's most recent brutal attack on Ukraine's sovereignty? How has the war impacted EU enlargement?In December 2023, accession talks began for Ukraine to become a member of the European Union. Ukraine initially applied for EU membership in February 2022 and was swiftly granted candidate status as a show of good faith while Ukraine fought a war for its very survival. Although the pace of Ukraine's EU candidacy is laudable, it has been met with skepticism in the Western Balkans, where progress has been slow, seriously questioning the credibility of the enlargement process. The EU promised future membership for the Western Balkan countries at the Thessaloniki Summit in 2003. The promise seemed highly credible bolstered by the EU's significant expansion a year later, welcoming 10 new countries and in 2007, Romania and Bulgaria. Afterwards, the appetite for enlargement started to diminish (Croatia being the last country to join in 2013) and was further exacerbated by a series of crises, including the migrant crisis, Brexit, the unlawful Russian annexation of Crimea, and the COVID-19 pandemic. The EU entered a phase of enlargement fatigue, and consequently, the accession process for the six Western Balkan countries encountered significant challenges, leaving these countries in a protracted state of anticipation with no urgency from the EU to enlarge further. Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 marked a pivotal moment, pushing the EU to reassess its enlargement policy. Enlargement was back on the table for the first time in a decade. Once again, the EU found itself compelled to take action, not out of a desire to be proactive but in response to the direct threat posed by Russia. In November 2023, the European Commission (EC) recommended opening EU membership talks with Ukraine and Moldova, but there was little to offer for the Western Balkan countries. The Western Balkans, while happy for the Ukrainian and Moldovan people, wondered whether they were still being seriously considered for EU membership or if they would be left in limbo. This highlighted the complex interplay between geopolitical events and the EU's enlargement considerations.The prospects of Ukraine's integration into the EU appear to be driven more by geopolitical factors than by actual implementation of policy reforms. This poses a risk to the overall credibility of the EU enlargement process. Furthermore, there is a possibility that Ukraine may find itself caught in a situation akin to the Western Balkans, where countries face prolonged waiting periods with uncertain outcomes. In the end, Ukraine continues to pursue and prioritize reforms to align with the EU in pursuit of membership, even as it fights for survival. Is the EU able to step up as a security actor to support Ukraine?European countries have allocated an unprecedented amount of military support to Ukraine over the last two years—the latest data by Kiel Institute even shows EU countries have now surpassed the United States when it comes to committed military aid. Germany, the Nordic and Eastern European countries have been leading in these efforts. However, the strategy of only building national defense budgets has exposed Europe's defense procurement and production limitations. As most of the military equipment now comes from the United States, Europe is seeking to overcome fragmentation and scale-up defense production to continue supporting Ukraine's military objectives. Several senior European officials have therefore started looking for answers at the EU level.Efforts to deepen EU defense cooperation are not new but have been amplified since the Russian invasion of Ukraine. There have been some significant developments already prior, such as the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), the European Defense Fund (EDF) and the European Peace Facility (EPF), however with limited results. In the last two years, the EU has built upon that. The European Peace Facility was just topped off with additional 5 billion euros and on February 27, Internal Market Commissioner Breton is expected to unveil the highly expected European Defense Industry Strategy (EDIS). Most recently, Charles Michel stated the EU could invest over 600 billion euros in defense industries over the next 10 years. While greater European defense capabilities might not be tangible yet, a political will seems to be developing to invest more and invest smarter into a common European defense, including procurement taking place on the EU level. In a recent visit to Sweden, French President Emmanuel Macron called for the EU to step up its capabilities, saying "when it is about designing our architecture of security - we have to be the one to decide."The EU has been working intensely on initiatives and strategies to build up its defense production capacities. These however are tools that require extensive investment and time to render results. While these steps will likely strengthen Europe's defense capabilities in the long run, the question of short-term military support for Ukraine still looms large.The recent announcement by Joseph Borrell, that the highly ambitious Act in Support of Ammunition Production (ASAP) will not deliver the needed 1 million ammunition rounds to Ukraine by March shows there is still much work ahead. Europe is not yet ready to fill a potential gap left by the United States, but is nevertheless on track to be a more capable and stronger supporter of Ukraine.Will Ukraine join NATO?Although NATO has confirmed the Euro-Atlantic future of Ukraine, the actual progress has been notably minimal. This can be attributed to Ukraine's ongoing war and concern of greater escalation, especially on the part of the United States and Germany. As NATO approaches its 75th anniversary and with the Washington Summit a unique opportunity for bold moves, NATO should recognize a mere declaration of support will not suffice and should instead offer to begin Ukraine's accession process.In June 2020, Ukraine was granted the Enhanced Opportunities Partner (EOP) status due to successes in reforming the defense and security sector of Ukraine since 2014. After the Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine, Sweden and Finland decided to apply for NATO membership. From a Ukrainian perspective, the EOP status lost its credibility and importance for Ukraine. At the Madrid NATO summit in June 2022, a new Strategic Concept was adopted, where Russia was mentioned as the main security threat for the Euro-Atlantic area. Also in Madrid, NATO Trust Funds that have been launched since 2014 were combined and strengthened in the Comprehensive Assistance Package. On 30 September 2022, after sham Russian "referendums" in the temporarily occupied territories of Ukraine, Ukraine's political leadership prepared an application for accelerated accession to NATO.NATO provides Ukraine with non-lethal support and plays a coordination role (hosting of the US-led Ukraine Defence Contact Group meetings). During the Vilnius summit in July 2023, the NATO-Ukraine commission, formed in 1997 with the signing of the Charter on a Distinctive Partnership between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and Ukraine, was transformed into the NATO-Ukraine Council. It's one more step in deepening the political dialogue and opportunity of attending the North Atlantic Council by Ukraine. As the war in Ukraine persists, NATO member states remain committed to offering commitments and bolstering support for Ukraine. The "as long as it takes" phrase has become a slogan that encapsulates their unwavering support and dedication to Ukraine. Recognizing that beyond military, financial, and humanitarian aid, political backing is crucial for sustaining morale and advancing transatlantic ambitions among the Ukrainian people, and that the West continues to emphasize its solidarity. The UK set the example of security commitment for G7 and NATO countries by signing the security agreement with Ukraine January 12. The real security guarantees Ukraine could get only after joining NATO. The latter depends on the political positions of Allies (particularly the USA and Germany) and the reform of the security and defense sector of Ukraine by NATO standards with civil control of the army, defense procurement, operations planning, and army management. If public support for Ukraine starts to wane, however, Ukraine will face a reality check. The sustained backing it is counting on from its Western partners – including through security agreements – also needs support from the citizens of those countries. Clearly, this is where both Ukraine and Western governments need to ramp up engagement with the public, and show why defense of Ukraine affects broader European and transatlantic security. What does a post-conflict Ukraine reconstruction effort look like? A post-war Ukraine reconstruction effort seeks to overhaul the country's society and economy through infrastructural and institutional modernization. This process will likely be comprehensive and prolonged. Reconstruction will need to focus on a wide range of issues covering different layers of the country. Governance is an area incentivized by possible future EU membership, where government corruption is still a legitimate question in the country, although Russian disinformation will need to be effectively combatted. National and local systems would also need support, utilizing resources bolstered through international donors, such as a joint US-EU collaboration effort for Ukraine to succeed. Finance will be one of the biggest issues in post-war Ukraine, with reconstruction costs estimated to be around $349 billion and steadily increasing, with some 10-year plans proposing sending $750 billion over several years, encompassing hundreds of projects. To help finance some of these projects, Ukraine, the EU, Canada, and others proposed utilizing frozen Russian assets. Addressing the divergent needs of groups throughout Ukrainian society will be needed through a multi-stakeholder process. This can be achieved through ensuring broad support in the private and public sectors. Reconstruction will likely take decades. Efforts to de-mine the areas currently under Russian occupation will also likely take decades to make clear for human habitation. Resources and services will also be needed for families affected by the ongoing war. Drawing historical lessons from the Balkans Wars in the 1990s could also be useful in charting Ukraine's future in a post-conflict environment. For the future of Ukraine, responsible governance must take hold in areas needing the most support to allow reconstruction to have a lasting impact, mainly in the eastern and southern oblasts where the fighting has been the most destructive. However, If Russia maintains de-facto control of the illegally annexed and occupied territories (Crimea, parts of Donetsk, Kherson, Zaporizhia, and Luhansk oblasts), Western reconstruction assistance will focus on regions Ukraine controls.Can transatlantic support for Ukraine hold amid the heightened tensions in the Middle East? The unwavering military support for Ukraine in European capitals has shown signs of weakening. The recent declaration by the new Prime Minister of Slovakia rejecting military aid for Ukraine, carries a significant political weight in the context of the collective European response to Russia's aggression, even though Slovakia's impact on the overall military aid to Ukraine is relatively limited. Furthermore, Hungary has previously obstructed vital funds destined for the European Peace Facility. Consequently, maintaining unified military support for Ukraine is proving increasingly difficult. The conflict in the Middle East adds another layer of complexity. Theconflict in October 2023 unequivocally drew attention away from Ukraine. The United States and its allies must now strike a balance between fulfilling its promises to Ukraine whilst deterring further escalation in the Middle East. On January 22, 2024, the US Department of Defense's deputy press secretary highlighted Washington's growing reliance on its European allies to compensate for the shortfalls in US lethal aid to Ukraine. This has not gone unnoticed in Kyiv, as President Zelensky continues to advocate for his country's urgent need for continued munitions to maintain their war effort.Furthermore, Houthi attacks on commercial shipping in the Red Sea have elicited direct military action by the US and UK. Rejecting the Houthi claim that attacks are in direct response to Israel's invasion of Gaza, both countries perceive them as part of wider regional tensions. Despite being the only Western powers to conduct airstrikes in Yemen, the US and UK face growing interest from several EU member states in contributing to enhanced regional maritime security. Italian Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani has recently called for an expansion of the European maritime mission to the Red Sea.Middle East tensions, US and EU political debates, and the increased European presence in the Red Sea pose serious challenges to the allied approach for ensuring Ukrainian security. As attention shifts towards the Middle East, there's a growing concern that the urgency of addressing Ukraine's defense may lose prominence on the global political agenda.What will 2024 and beyond look like for Ukraine?The impact of Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on transatlantic security remains no less salient as the fight enters its third year. Ukraine has been fighting against Russian aggression for a decade now, since Russia first invaded Crimea in 2014. Wavering support in some capitals–especially as a new conflict began in the Middle East last fall and widens to the Red Sea–will hopefully be a short-term side effect and not an enduring trend. Ukraine needs the continued support of transatlantic partners to win its war with Russia. Kyiv cannot afford the nation's defense to become a political talking point, where essential aid is constrained by domestic political rhetoric. As demonstrated by the response to last year's counter offensive, future aid risks becoming increasingly contingent on Ukraine's performance on the battlefield. This dynamic will only benefit Russia, which is counting on outlasting international support for Ukraine. Pertinent questions are being asked, such as what will the end of the war look like, what is the path for Ukraine's future in the EU and NATO, and how does Ukraine rebuild after a devastating Russian invasion that hasn't abated since 2014? NATO's future credibility and effectiveness as an instrument of collective defense hangs in the balance. 2024 is a critical year: a year when capabilities for Ukraine matter more than ever, a year when elections put security in the spotlight, a year when NATO marks 75 years as an effective Alliance. The decisions NATO leaders make at the July Summit will shape security – for the US, Europe, and Ukraine – for years to come. Inaction is also an action.
Eine dauerhafte Verfügbarkeit ist nicht garantiert und liegt vollumfänglich in den Händen der Herausgeber:innen. Bitte erstellen Sie sich selbständig eine Kopie falls Sie diese Quelle zitieren möchten.
Members of the Transatlantic Writers' Group analyze the evolving dynamics of transatlantic cooperation as the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine enters its third year. The security environment in Europe has irrevocably shifted, with repercussions on the European Union, NATO, and the future of Ukraine's trajectory towards European integration. Tough questions abound–with few clear answers.How has the Russian invasion of Ukraine impacted the European Union? The second anniversary of the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine finds the European Union more committed to security and defense, but also at a time of immense flux and uncertainty. By opening accession negotiations with Ukraine, the EU enlargement process takes on new geopolitical dimensions–much in line with the goals of von der Leyen's geopolitical Commission rhetoric and Borrell's vision of a geopolitical EU. However, all this is happening at the cusp of significant political changes both inside and outside the EU. In addition to the European Parliament elections, changes are coming to the Commission and the European Council leadership. These shifts are expected to take place as Hungary, the "problem child" of the EU, assumes the rotating Council presidency in July. In the meantime, the US will be going through its election cycle, where a repeat of the 2020 candidates' configuration appears very probable.A commitment to becoming a geopolitical EU is essential in the face of new security threats–in particular as new networks of malign actors, namely Russia, Iran, and North Korea work together in unprecedented ways–but this will be a difficult road to walk. It requires a strong EU leadership and a clear vision for the future that gives center stage to the security and defense of each member state–current and future. It is also time to consider how this can be achieved. What will reality look like at next year's anniversary of Russia's most recent brutal attack on Ukraine's sovereignty? How has the war impacted EU enlargement?In December 2023, accession talks began for Ukraine to become a member of the European Union. Ukraine initially applied for EU membership in February 2022 and was swiftly granted candidate status as a show of good faith while Ukraine fought a war for its very survival. Although the pace of Ukraine's EU candidacy is laudable, it has been met with skepticism in the Western Balkans, where progress has been slow, seriously questioning the credibility of the enlargement process. The EU promised future membership for the Western Balkan countries at the Thessaloniki Summit in 2003. The promise seemed highly credible bolstered by the EU's significant expansion a year later, welcoming 10 new countries and in 2007, Romania and Bulgaria. Afterwards, the appetite for enlargement started to diminish (Croatia being the last country to join in 2013) and was further exacerbated by a series of crises, including the migrant crisis, Brexit, the unlawful Russian annexation of Crimea, and the COVID-19 pandemic. The EU entered a phase of enlargement fatigue, and consequently, the accession process for the six Western Balkan countries encountered significant challenges, leaving these countries in a protracted state of anticipation with no urgency from the EU to enlarge further. Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 marked a pivotal moment, pushing the EU to reassess its enlargement policy. Enlargement was back on the table for the first time in a decade. Once again, the EU found itself compelled to take action, not out of a desire to be proactive but in response to the direct threat posed by Russia. In November 2023, the European Commission (EC) recommended opening EU membership talks with Ukraine and Moldova, but there was little to offer for the Western Balkan countries. The Western Balkans, while happy for the Ukrainian and Moldovan people, wondered whether they were still being seriously considered for EU membership or if they would be left in limbo. This highlighted the complex interplay between geopolitical events and the EU's enlargement considerations.The prospects of Ukraine's integration into the EU appear to be driven more by geopolitical factors than by actual implementation of policy reforms. This poses a risk to the overall credibility of the EU enlargement process. Furthermore, there is a possibility that Ukraine may find itself caught in a situation akin to the Western Balkans, where countries face prolonged waiting periods with uncertain outcomes. In the end, Ukraine continues to pursue and prioritize reforms to align with the EU in pursuit of membership, even as it fights for survival. Is the EU able to step up as a security actor to support Ukraine?European countries have allocated an unprecedented amount of military support to Ukraine over the last two years—the latest data by Kiel Institute even shows EU countries have now surpassed the United States when it comes to committed military aid. Germany, the Nordic and Eastern European countries have been leading in these efforts. However, the strategy of only building national defense budgets has exposed Europe's defense procurement and production limitations. As most of the military equipment now comes from the United States, Europe is seeking to overcome fragmentation and scale-up defense production to continue supporting Ukraine's military objectives. Several senior European officials have therefore started looking for answers at the EU level.Efforts to deepen EU defense cooperation are not new but have been amplified since the Russian invasion of Ukraine. There have been some significant developments already prior, such as the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), the European Defense Fund (EDF) and the European Peace Facility (EPF), however with limited results. In the last two years, the EU has built upon that. The European Peace Facility was just topped off with additional 5 billion euros and on February 27, Internal Market Commissioner Breton is expected to unveil the highly expected European Defense Industry Strategy (EDIS). Most recently, Charles Michel stated the EU could invest over 600 billion euros in defense industries over the next 10 years. While greater European defense capabilities might not be tangible yet, a political will seems to be developing to invest more and invest smarter into a common European defense, including procurement taking place on the EU level. In a recent visit to Sweden, French President Emmanuel Macron called for the EU to step up its capabilities, saying "when it is about designing our architecture of security - we have to be the one to decide."The EU has been working intensely on initiatives and strategies to build up its defense production capacities. These however are tools that require extensive investment and time to render results. While these steps will likely strengthen Europe's defense capabilities in the long run, the question of short-term military support for Ukraine still looms large.The recent announcement by Joseph Borrell, that the highly ambitious Act in Support of Ammunition Production (ASAP) will not deliver the needed 1 million ammunition rounds to Ukraine by March shows there is still much work ahead. Europe is not yet ready to fill a potential gap left by the United States, but is nevertheless on track to be a more capable and stronger supporter of Ukraine.Will Ukraine join NATO?Although NATO has confirmed the Euro-Atlantic future of Ukraine, the actual progress has been notably minimal. This can be attributed to Ukraine's ongoing war and concern of greater escalation, especially on the part of the United States and Germany. As NATO approaches its 75th anniversary and with the Washington Summit a unique opportunity for bold moves, NATO should recognize a mere declaration of support will not suffice and should instead offer to begin Ukraine's accession process.In June 2020, Ukraine was granted the Enhanced Opportunities Partner (EOP) status due to successes in reforming the defense and security sector of Ukraine since 2014. After the Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine, Sweden and Finland decided to apply for NATO membership. From a Ukrainian perspective, the EOP status lost its credibility and importance for Ukraine. At the Madrid NATO summit in June 2022, a new Strategic Concept was adopted, where Russia was mentioned as the main security threat for the Euro-Atlantic area. Also in Madrid, NATO Trust Funds that have been launched since 2014 were combined and strengthened in the Comprehensive Assistance Package. On 30 September 2022, after sham Russian "referendums" in the temporarily occupied territories of Ukraine, Ukraine's political leadership prepared an application for accelerated accession to NATO.NATO provides Ukraine with non-lethal support and plays a coordination role (hosting of the US-led Ukraine Defence Contact Group meetings). During the Vilnius summit in July 2023, the NATO-Ukraine commission, formed in 1997 with the signing of the Charter on a Distinctive Partnership between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and Ukraine, was transformed into the NATO-Ukraine Council. It's one more step in deepening the political dialogue and opportunity of attending the North Atlantic Council by Ukraine. As the war in Ukraine persists, NATO member states remain committed to offering commitments and bolstering support for Ukraine. The "as long as it takes" phrase has become a slogan that encapsulates their unwavering support and dedication to Ukraine. Recognizing that beyond military, financial, and humanitarian aid, political backing is crucial for sustaining morale and advancing transatlantic ambitions among the Ukrainian people, and that the West continues to emphasize its solidarity. The UK set the example of security commitment for G7 and NATO countries by signing the security agreement with Ukraine January 12. The real security guarantees Ukraine could get only after joining NATO. The latter depends on the political positions of Allies (particularly the USA and Germany) and the reform of the security and defense sector of Ukraine by NATO standards with civil control of the army, defense procurement, operations planning, and army management. If public support for Ukraine starts to wane, however, Ukraine will face a reality check. The sustained backing it is counting on from its Western partners – including through security agreements – also needs support from the citizens of those countries. Clearly, this is where both Ukraine and Western governments need to ramp up engagement with the public, and show why defense of Ukraine affects broader European and transatlantic security. What does a post-conflict Ukraine reconstruction effort look like? A post-war Ukraine reconstruction effort seeks to overhaul the country's society and economy through infrastructural and institutional modernization. This process will likely be comprehensive and prolonged. Reconstruction will need to focus on a wide range of issues covering different layers of the country. Governance is an area incentivized by possible future EU membership, where government corruption is still a legitimate question in the country, although Russian disinformation will need to be effectively combatted. National and local systems would also need support, utilizing resources bolstered through international donors, such as a joint US-EU collaboration effort for Ukraine to succeed. Finance will be one of the biggest issues in post-war Ukraine, with reconstruction costs estimated to be around $349 billion and steadily increasing, with some 10-year plans proposing sending $750 billion over several years, encompassing hundreds of projects. To help finance some of these projects, Ukraine, the EU, Canada, and others proposed utilizing frozen Russian assets. Addressing the divergent needs of groups throughout Ukrainian society will be needed through a multi-stakeholder process. This can be achieved through ensuring broad support in the private and public sectors. Reconstruction will likely take decades. Efforts to de-mine the areas currently under Russian occupation will also likely take decades to make clear for human habitation. Resources and services will also be needed for families affected by the ongoing war. Drawing historical lessons from the Balkans Wars in the 1990s could also be useful in charting Ukraine's future in a post-conflict environment. For the future of Ukraine, responsible governance must take hold in areas needing the most support to allow reconstruction to have a lasting impact, mainly in the eastern and southern oblasts where the fighting has been the most destructive. However, If Russia maintains de-facto control of the illegally annexed and occupied territories (Crimea, parts of Donetsk, Kherson, Zaporizhia, and Luhansk oblasts), Western reconstruction assistance will focus on regions Ukraine controls.Can transatlantic support for Ukraine hold amid the heightened tensions in the Middle East? The unwavering military support for Ukraine in European capitals has shown signs of weakening. The recent declaration by the new Prime Minister of Slovakia rejecting military aid for Ukraine, carries a significant political weight in the context of the collective European response to Russia's aggression, even though Slovakia's impact on the overall military aid to Ukraine is relatively limited. Furthermore, Hungary has previously obstructed vital funds destined for the European Peace Facility. Consequently, maintaining unified military support for Ukraine is proving increasingly difficult. The conflict in the Middle East adds another layer of complexity. Theconflict in October 2023 unequivocally drew attention away from Ukraine. The United States and its allies must now strike a balance between fulfilling its promises to Ukraine whilst deterring further escalation in the Middle East. On January 22, 2024, the US Department of Defense's deputy press secretary highlighted Washington's growing reliance on its European allies to compensate for the shortfalls in US lethal aid to Ukraine. This has not gone unnoticed in Kyiv, as President Zelensky continues to advocate for his country's urgent need for continued munitions to maintain their war effort.Furthermore, Houthi attacks on commercial shipping in the Red Sea have elicited direct military action by the US and UK. Rejecting the Houthi claim that attacks are in direct response to Israel's invasion of Gaza, both countries perceive them as part of wider regional tensions. Despite being the only Western powers to conduct airstrikes in Yemen, the US and UK face growing interest from several EU member states in contributing to enhanced regional maritime security. Italian Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani has recently called for an expansion of the European maritime mission to the Red Sea.Middle East tensions, US and EU political debates, and the increased European presence in the Red Sea pose serious challenges to the allied approach for ensuring Ukrainian security. As attention shifts towards the Middle East, there's a growing concern that the urgency of addressing Ukraine's defense may lose prominence on the global political agenda.What will 2024 and beyond look like for Ukraine?The impact of Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on transatlantic security remains no less salient as the fight enters its third year. Ukraine has been fighting against Russian aggression for a decade now, since Russia first invaded Crimea in 2014. Wavering support in some capitals–especially as a new conflict began in the Middle East last fall and widens to the Red Sea–will hopefully be a short-term side effect and not an enduring trend. Ukraine needs the continued support of transatlantic partners to win its war with Russia. Kyiv cannot afford the nation's defense to become a political talking point, where essential aid is constrained by domestic political rhetoric. As demonstrated by the response to last year's counter offensive, future aid risks becoming increasingly contingent on Ukraine's performance on the battlefield. This dynamic will only benefit Russia, which is counting on outlasting international support for Ukraine. Pertinent questions are being asked, such as what will the end of the war look like, what is the path for Ukraine's future in the EU and NATO, and how does Ukraine rebuild after a devastating Russian invasion that hasn't abated since 2014? NATO's future credibility and effectiveness as an instrument of collective defense hangs in the balance. 2024 is a critical year: a year when capabilities for Ukraine matter more than ever, a year when elections put security in the spotlight, a year when NATO marks 75 years as an effective Alliance. The decisions NATO leaders make at the July Summit will shape security – for the US, Europe, and Ukraine – for years to come. Inaction is also an action.
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Over the past year, a surge in migrant people arriving from Tunisia to Europe has thrust the North African country into the heart of European political agendas, sparking concerns across the continent's capitals about its hardships and risk of economic and social collapse. The immediate policy response involved a frenzy of Euro-Tunisian diplomatic activity guided by the Italian government – itself needing to demonstrate some kind of answer to increased migratory arrivals to its shores – and culminated in the signing of the EU-Tunisia Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in July 2023.[1] The MoU, structured around five key areas of collaboration – macroeconomic stability, trade cooperation, green energy transition, people-to-people contacts, and migration and mobility – is said by so-called "Team Europe" to aim fostering a strategic and comprehensive partnership between the European Union and Tunisia. However, observers highlighted its detrimental shortsightedness, the flaws in its legal nature, as well as the necessity to allocate political and financial resources beyond migration management to truly diversify the agreement.[2] Against this backdrop, three European experts offer here considerations on challenges and prospects in EU–Tunisia relations and propose alternative avenues where cooperation can evolve, emphasising the creation of a stable and equitable political environment in both Europe and Tunisia.Putting Tunisia into context and empowering local voicesby Akram Ezzamouri[3] Tunisia's path through political transition and democratic consolidation after the 2010–2011 uprisings earned it for years the label of "regional model" for advancements in public freedoms. However, in the current Tunisian context – marked by a continuous decline in rule of law and rights following the power grab by President Kais Saied in July 2021, a shrinking social space and an increasingly numbed political alternative – this standing is seriously compromised. This change in the Tunisian trajectory has come hand in hand with Europe pivoting away from policies initially supporting reforms and the establishment of democratic spaces in Tunisia. Instead, the focus has shifted towards short-term securitisation measures addressing mainly European priorities in the fields of migration and counterterrorism, while overlooking the country's urgent socio-economic needs. The signature of the EU–Tunisia MoU in July 2023 has proved yet another step confirming this trend and marking the establishment of an uncoordinated, transactional and unbalanced European approach to Tunisia. Presented by Italy and the European Commission as a blueprint for the establishment of new or rebranded relations with African countries,[4] both the focus of the MoU and the process underlying its design and implementation are reminiscent of past bilateral initiatives with Libya, Morocco and Turkey. European measures externalising and informalising migration management,[5] coupled with more comprehensive dossiers spanning from energy cooperation, development and economic support have rarely produced the intended improvements in the Southern neighbourhood. On the contrary, they often proved to be self-defeating as they intertwined European interests with the illusion of authoritarian stability. The recent abuses of migrant people's rights in Tunisia and the constant clampdown on voices opposing Kais Saied, highlight how ill-fated funnelling funds into the Tunisian government without concurrently supporting reforms in the country's security sector is. To forge a sustainable partnership, shared challenges between the EU and Tunisia should not be addressed in isolation; they should rather be linked to the broader Tunisian context of centralised power and social fragmentation. In line with this, the so-called "Rome process", designed on the initiative of the Italian government to address irregular migration to Europe through the promotion of development in origin or transit countries,[6] must not overlook the underlying factors of instability related to the deterioration of governance. The Tunisian case is evidence of how strictly interconnected these issues are. The persistent socio-economic challenges drive people to leave the country, opting for perilous journeys across the Mediterranean.[7] This is exacerbated by the flourishing smuggling industry, a direct consequence of inadequate state control and documented collusions with elements within the Tunisian security forces.[8] To improve the Tunisian situation and address the real root causes of instability, the EU should contribute to reinstating a safe and pluralist political landscape in Tunisia, particularly with an eye on the 2024 presidential elections, if maintained. Advancing EU–Tunisia relations in this direction is surely an uphill battle, given Saied's rejection of any external or internal pressure challenging his agenda, as well as the credibility crisis faced by European countries and institutions among the regional population, stemming from their stance and divisions on Israel's war on Gaza.[9] However, empowering local voices and giving them space when discussing the way forward in EU–Tunisia relations could constitute a first step towards a more positive dynamic. It could also contribute to "ensure a safe and enabling environment for civil society, as well as freedom of expression, of the press, of peaceful assembly and of association", in line with what Italy recommended during Tunisia's fourth Universal Periodic Review in November 2022.[10]Folly of cynicism and naivete: Europe's failures to advance a Tunisia strategyby Colin Powers[11] On 16 July, EU Commissioner for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Olivér Várhelyi and Mounir Ben Rjiba, Tunisian Secretary of State to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Migration and Tunisians Abroad, signed a MoU defining "a strategic and global partnership between the EU and Tunisia". In substance, the EU offered a package comprising financial assistance, support to Tunisia's border control capacity and to projects in the energy sector, and facilitation of legal mobility between the two parties. In exchange, they expected the autocratic regime in Tunisia to dutifully (and quietly) accept its role as a deputised patrolman for Europe's southern border. Visibly ill-conceived as the MoU was – particularly in light of the Tunisian President's sovereigntist pretensions – it swiftly proved ill-fated too. A few months after pen was put to paper, Tunis would take the extraordinary step of returning a 60 million euro grant which had been designated as part of a previous European Covid-19 recovery programme.[12] Signalling a wider diplomatic breakdown, the reverse transfer also marked a de facto pause on the implementation of the MoU. Beyond the uncertainty that has come to prevail as a result, the EU suffered significant institutional and reputational damage from the entire venture. Team Europe's freestyling and sidestepping of treaty-making procedures not only pushed the bounds of legality. These actions also caused fissures amongst EU member states while introducing confusion both in Brussels and foreign capitals over who has the right to act in the Union's name abroad.[13] The Commission's attempts at paying off an autocrat whose record of repression, cruelty to immigrants and racialised human rights abuses grows with each day, meanwhile, has eaten away at Europe's moral standing and degraded the EU's status as a defender of international law. To chart a better path in Tunisia and further afield, it is essential that Europe move beyond the superficial engagements it has favoured in addressing complex issues like immigration. There is, at this stage, little ambiguity about what drives Tunisians (and those transiting through the country) to brave a sea-crossing: it is the desire for a better life. Similarly, there is little ambiguity as to why such desires cannot be realised where those people currently reside. The Tunisian economy is structurally compromised, beleaguered by a domineering oligarchy, poor policy design and a subordinate position in global systems of production, trade and finance. Just as distressingly, the spectre of state violence haunts citizens and non-citizens alike at all times, with civil and political liberties won by way of the uprisings of 2010–2011 having been almost entirely wound back. In view of all this, it should be obvious why an MoU like the one agreed to in July last year, even if honoured to the letter, would fail to deliver what its European signatories seek. Economically, the agreement lacks the scale, comprehensiveness and discernment needed to alter Tunisia's structural condition. Politically, it subsidises some of the institutions most responsible for popular repression and helps underwrite the Saied autocracy. In other words, the MoU helps reproduce the grievances compelling people to flee. If equipping a repressive government to intercept more boats off the Tunisian coast, then, an agreement of this type will never stop those boats from departing in the first instance. A wiser policy would attempt to address causality at its source. Materially, it might combine some measure of debt relief conditional on political and security sector reform with fair-minded revisions to trade and investment treaties and concessionary capital deployments for developmentally and ecologically useful projects, for starters. Looking ahead, it is equally critical that the EU henceforth speaks with a single voice on Tunisia, that it installs mechanisms to restrict improvisational interventions like those led by the European Commission last summer, and that it adopts a people- rather than regime-first approach. Under von der Leyen's direction, Team Europe has been content to support Kais Saied under the premise that he might act as a guardian of stability. Weighing the upheaval Saied has already sown against the contributions he has made to the emigration wave, the misguidedness of this gambit can hardly be overstated. It is past time that Europe reverse course. Relevant parties in Europe need pursue a pact with Tunisia and the rest of Africa based not on the expedience a strongman may promise, but on a recognition of all people's fundamental dignity.Flipping the leverage script in EU–Tunisia relationsby Emmanuel Cohen-Hadria[14] There was a time when High Representative Josep Borrell's predecessors were hoping to add Tunisia's democratic transition to the list of EU foreign policy success stories, next to the EU-facilitated Serbia–Kosovo dialogue and the EU-mediated Iran nuclear deal. Tunisia's democratic transition was expected to epitomise the success of a principled and transformative EU foreign policy. Since then, Tunisian domestic developments have forced the EU to fast-track its shift from a principled to a transactional approach. While the former failed to bring about changes in the country, it recently became clear that the latter has not succeeded in promoting the EU's interests. In the weeks following the signature of the controversial MoU between Tunisia and the EU on 16 July 2023, irregular migrant arrivals in Italy increased.[15] Meanwhile, a poorly engineered plan, including promises of additional financial assistance, created expectations that the EU did not manage to meet. This culminated in the highly symbolic decision from Tunisia to refund 60 million euros of EU Covid-related aid in October 2023,[16] de facto freezing the implementation of the MoU.[17] There was a time when Tunisia was seen as a showcase of the EU's comprehensive and united approach, with member states and EU institutions playing off the same hymn sheet. The signature of the MoU broke these dynamics, bringing back the EU's old demons of disunity. In a leaked letter to Commissioner Várhelyi, HRVP Borrell wrote that several member states had expressed their "incomprehension regarding the Commission's unilateral action".[18] There are at least three takeaways from this episode. First, assuming that the shift towards a more transactional foreign policy is most probably unavoidable, transactional moves need nonetheless to be carefully calibrated and negotiated amongst all EU stakeholders, if the EU wants to minimise the risk of backfire. Second, the EU cannot afford poor coordination with other partners. The 400 million US dollar soft loan Saudi Arabia pledged four days after the signature of the MoU is probably good news for Tunisia in the short term.[19] It will indeed help the country's public finances stay afloat in the upcoming months. Yet, in the absence of any indication that Saudi Arabia's initiative was discussed with the EU, it ended up weakening further the EU's efforts to incentivise reforms in the North African country. Third, over-prioritising migration in the bilateral relationship of the EU with its southern partners weakens the former and increases the playing field of the latter. The bad news is that there is no easy fix. Migration will not disappear anytime soon from the top of the list of European priorities. Tunisia will not be the success story the EU had wished for. The EU should, however, make sure it does not turn into a complete failure story.[1] European Union and Tunisia, Mémorandum d'entente sur un partenariat stratégique et global entre l'Union européenne et la Tunisie, 16 July 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_3887.[2] Luca Barana and Asly Okyay, "Shaking Hands with Saied's Tunisia: The Paradoxes and Trade-offs Facing the EU", in IAI Commentaries, No. 23|40 (August 2023), https://www.iai.it/en/node/17362.[3] Akram Ezzamouri is a Research Fellow in the Mediterranean, Middle East and Africa Programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), Italy.[4] Benjamin Fox and Eleonora Vasques, "Tunisia Pact a 'Blueprint' for New 'Cash for Migrant' Deals, Says EU Chief", in Euractiv, 27 June 2023, https://www.euractiv.com/?p=1946104.[5] Catherine Woollard, "The EU's Dodgy Deal with Tunisia Is a Classic of the Genre: Undemocratic, Unlawful and Unlikely to Work", in ECRE Weekly Bulletin, 26 July 2023, https://ecre.org/?p=15766.[6] International Conference on Development and Migration Conclusions, 23 July 2023, https://www.governo.it/en/node/23251.[7] World Bank, Tunisia Economic Monitor, Fall 2023: Migration Amid a Challenging Economic Context, December 2023, http://hdl.handle.net/10986/40676.[8] Refugees International, "European and Tunisian Migration Policies: A Recipe for Failure and Suffering", in IAI Commentaries, No. 24|02 (January 2024), https://www.iai.it/en/node/17964.[9] Nathalie Tocci, "Europe's Stance on Gaza Has Undermined Its Credibility", in Politico, 5 January 2024, https://www.politico.eu/?p=4076316.[10] United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: Tunisia (A/HRC/52/6), 14 December 2022, para. 145.73, https://undocs.org/A/HRC/52/6. See also the OHCHR website: Universal Periodic Review – Tunisia, https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/upr/tn-index.[11] Colin Powers is a Senior Fellow and Chief Editor for the Noria Research MENA Program, France.[12] Jorge Liboreiro, "In Stunning Move, Tunisia Snubs Brussels and Refunds €60 Million in EU Aid", in Euronews, 12 October 2023, https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2023/10/12/in-stunning-move-tunisia-snubs-brussels-and-refunds-60-million-in-eu-aid.[13] Lisa O'Carroll, "EU States Expressed 'Incomprehension' at Tunisia Migration Pact, Says Borrell", in The Guardian, 18 September 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/p/pv3qp.[14] Emmanuel Cohen-Hadria is the Director of the Euro-Mediterranean Policies Department at the European Institute of the Mediterranean (IEMed), Spain, and co-founder of Diplomeds.[15] "Migration Rates from Tunisia to Italy Increase Despite EU Deal", in Middle East Monitor, 30 August 2023, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230830-migration-rates-from-tunisia-to-italy-increase-despite-eu-deal.[16] Jorge Liboreiro, "In Stunning Move, Tunisia Snubs Brussels and Refunds €60 Million in EU Aid", cit.[17] In December 2023, the EU and Tunisia came to an agreement on a 150 million euro financial programme part of the MoU. See European Commission, The European Union and Tunisia Come to an Agreement on a EUR 150 Million Programme, 20 December 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6784.[18] Lisa O'Carroll, "EU States Expressed 'Incomprehension' at Tunisia Migration Pact, Says Borrell", cit.[19] "Saudi Arabia to Give Tunisia $500 Million as Soft Loan and Grant", in Reuters, 20 July 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/saudi-arabia-give-tunisia-500-mln-soft-loan-grant-2023-07-20.
