Suchergebnisse

Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze e tecnologie per la gestione forestale e ambientale ; La Commissione europea ha richiesto, ai paesi membri, una maggiore finalizzazione degli interventi, secondo un percorso logico e conseguente fra analisi dei fabbisogni, strategia di intervento e misure proposte, con il rispetto degli Orientamenti strategici comunitari (OSC) 2007- 2013 per lo sviluppo rurale. L'Italia ha recepito le indicazioni europee delineando un Piano strategico nazionale (PSN) per lo sviluppo rurale la quale finalità è quella di garantire la coerenza strategica tra i piani comunitari, nazionali e regionali e di garantire il raccordo strategico e finanziario tra gli strumenti di sviluppo rurale, la PAC e le politiche di coesione. In esso si definiscono: - L'analisi del contesto; - Le linee di indirizzo generale per le politiche di sviluppo rurale; - La coerenza con le altre politiche di intervento nazionali comunitarie; - Il quadro finanziario comune; - Aspetti comuni per il monitoraggio e la valutazione, controlli e le sanzioni; - I Piani di sviluppo rurale (PSR) e la loro dotazione finanziaria. Nell'ambito del Piano strategico vengono individuate alcune tipologie di indicatori da utilizzare nel processo di programmazione quali strumenti necessari per conoscere i progressi, l'efficienza e l'efficacia dei Programmi di Sviluppo Rurale (PSR). Infatti, oltre ai tradizionali indicatori finanziari, di realizzazione, di risultato e di impatto vengono introdotti gli indicatori di baseline, con i quali è possibile definire la situazione iniziale del contesto su cui agisce il programma, descrivendola anche in termini di punti di forza e debolezza, permettendo così di inquadrare al meglio la strategia d'intervento della politica di sviluppo rurale e creando i parametri su cui valutare successivamente l'efficacia della programmazione. In particolare, per l'analisi della situazione ambientale sono stati proposti i seguenti indicatori baseline: biodiversità: avifauna delle aree agricole, aree ad alto valore naturale, composizione delle specie forestali. Sulla base di questi orientamenti, sia a livello europeo che nazionale, questo lavoro propone una metodologia alternativa alle linee guida proposte dall'EEA, in cui si tenga conto dei fattori strutturali del territorio per l'individuazione delle aree agricole ad alto valore naturalistico (HNVF). Lo scopo principale dell'individuazione delle aree agricole ad alto valore naturalistico è legato al mantenimento della biodiversità nelle aree agricole, ciò implica un aumento del valore paesaggistico e crea allo stesso tempo il mantenimento delle pratiche agricole tradizionali o specifiche. L'individuazione delle HNVF è una questione di notevole rilevanza sia a livello di pianificazione territoriale il cui obiettivo è quello di preservare in un contesto dinamico queste aree per una agricoltura sostenibile, sia a livello esecutivo per redigere piani operativi di intervento e finanziamento. La gestione del territorio dipende da delle decisioni che agiscono a livello spaziale. Per questo motivo si è deciso di utilizzare i Sistemi Spaziali di Supporto alla Decisione (Spatial Decision Support Systems). Sono sistemi informatici che lavorano attraverso un'integrazione di diverse informazioni e determinano l'ordinamento delle alternative sulla base di specifici criteri. Tali strumenti integrano i Sistemi Informativi Geografici, i modelli spaziali e l'Analisi Multicriteriale per arrivare a definire una gestione che rispetti le dinamiche dei sistemi naturali ed esprima una decisione integrante i diversi criteri. Questo studio ha lo scopo di proporre un percorso metodologico per l'individuazione delle aree agricole ad alto valore naturalistico alternativo a quello attualmente proposto dall'EEA. Si prefigge lo scopo di identificare "aree sensibili" della Provincia di Viterbo dove più rilevanti possono essere gli impatti delle attività antropiche e più efficaci le misure di mitigazione, cioè, dove pratiche agricole opportune possono quindi condurre a risultati migliori. Questo obbiettivo può essere raggiunto attraverso una pianificazione per "processi" cioè che tenga conto delle peculiarità del territorio. L'obiettivo della presente ricerca è quello di sviluppare un Sistema Spaziale di Supporto alla Decisione, applicato all'individuazione delle aree agricole di elevato valore naturalistico, che tengano conto della complessità del sistema rurale, ambientale, sociale ed economico e delle relazioni fra le sue variabili. Alle aree rurali viene, quindi, riconosciuto un ruolo all'interno del sistema dinamico ambientale, come elemento di connessione con gli ambienti naturali limitrofi, tale approccio si basa sull'individuare e preservare il rapporto tra sistemi di habitat al fine di migliorare il grado di biodiversità. Principale obiettivo è la realizzazione di una cartografia delle "aree sensibili" ottenuta seguendo una procedura di analisi multicriteriale valutando il grado di influenza dei fattori "strutturali" ambientali e antropici in funzione della loro distanza e densità. ; The European Commission demanded from the member countries a better finalisation of the intervention following a logical and consequent path between analyses of needs, strategy of intervention and proposed measures, regarding the Community Strategic Guidelines 2007-2013. Italy has acknowledged the European guidelines outlining a national strategic plan (Piano strategico nazionale, PSN) for rural development, with the aim to guarantee the strategic coherence between the communitarian, national and regional plans and to guarantee the strategic and financial connection between the instruments of rural development, the PAC and the policies of cohesion. In this strategic national plan are defined the following aspects: - Analysis of the context; - The general guidelines for the policies of rural development, - The coherence between other national communitarian policies of intervention; - The common financial table ; - Common aspect for monitoring evaluations, controls and sanctions; - The national strategic plans of rural development and their financial endowment. In the ambit of the strategic plan are singled out several typologies of indicators, which can be used for the programming process as necessary instruments to understand the progress, the efficiency and efficacy of the programs of rural development (PSR). In fact, in addition to traditional indicators of finance, realisation, result and impact, are being introduced the baseline indicators, with which it is possible to define the initial state of the context in which the program operates, describing it in terms of points of strength and points of weakness. This baseline indicators permits to define in the best possible way the strategy of intervention of the policy of rural development, and creating the parameters, which help to evaluate successively the efficiency of the programming. In particular for the analysis of the environmental state, have been proposed the following baseline indicators: Biodiversity: bird population of the agricultural areas, High Nature Value Farmland, composition of the forest species. Based on this directions, both on the European level and on the National level, this work proposes a alternative methodology to the guidelines proposed by the EEA, in which are taken in account the structural factors of the territory that locates the High Nature Value Farmland (HNVF). The principal aim, to locate the High Nature Value Farmland, is linked to the maintenance of the biodiversity of the agricultural areas. This implicates an increase in the value of the landscape and creates in the same time the maintenance of the traditional, specific and agricultural practices. To locate the High Nature Value Farmland is an important matter both in a territorial planning level, in which the aim is to preserve in a dynamic context these areas for a sustainable agriculture, and in an executive level to draw up the operational plans of intervention and finance. The management of the territory depends on the decision that act in a spatial level. For this reason it has been decided to use Spatial Decision Support Systems. They are information systems that work with the integration of different information and they determine the arrangement of the alternatives based on specific criteria. This instruments integrate the Geographical Information Systems, the Spatial Models and the Multi-Criteria Analyses with the aim to define a management that respects the dynamic of the natural systems and that shows an integrated decision between different criteria. The aim of this thesis is to propose an alternative methodological path for the location of the High Nature Value Farmland, to the actual path proposed by the EEA. It has the aim to identify "sensitive areas" of the province of Viterbo, where the impacts of the anthropic activity can be more relevant and the measures of mitigations more efficient, that is, where opportune agricultural practice can lead to better results. This aim can be reached through planning of "processes", that is taking in account the peculiarity of the territory. The goal of this research is to develop a Spatial Decision Support System, applied to the location of the High Nature Value Farmland that takes in account the complex city of the rural, environmental, social and economical system and of the relation between its variables. To the rural areas then it is recognised a role within the environmental dynamic system as a connecting element with the surrounding environments. This approach is based on locating and preserving the relation between habitat systems with the aim of increasing the level of biodiversity. The main objective is the realisation of a cartography of the sensitive areas obtained following a multi-criteria analysis procedure, evaluating the level of influence of the environmental and anthropic structural factors depending on their distance and density.

A primary responsibility of the government is, of course, to keep us safe. Given that obligation, you might think that the Washington establishment would be hard at work trying to prevent the ultimate catastrophe — a nuclear war. But you would be wrong.A small, hardworking contingent of elected officials is indeed trying to roll back the nuclear arms race and make it harder for such world-ending weaponry ever to be used again, including stalwarts like Senator Ed Markey (D-Mass.), Representative John Garamendi (D-Calif.), and other members of the Congressional Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control Working Group. But they face ever stiffer headwinds from a resurgent network of nuclear hawks who want to build more kinds of nuclear weapons and ever more of them. And mind you, that would all be in addition to the Pentagon's current plans for spending up to $2 trillion over the next three decades to create a whole new generation of nuclear weapons, stoking a dangerous new nuclear arms race.There are many drivers of this push for a larger, more dangerous arsenal — from the misguided notion that more nuclear weapons will make us safer to an entrenched network of companies, governmental institutions, members of Congress, and policy pundits who will profit (directly or indirectly) from an accelerated nuclear arms race. One indicator of the current state of affairs is the resurgence of former Arizona Senator Jon Kyl, who spent 18 years in Congress opposing even the most modest efforts to control nuclear weapons before he went on to work as a lobbyist and policy advocate for the nuclear weapons complex.His continuing prominence in debates over nuclear policy — evidenced most recently by his position as vice-chair of a congressionally-appointed commission that sought to legitimize an across-the-board nuclear buildup — is a testament to our historical amnesia about the risks posed by nuclear weapons.Senator StrangeloveRepublican Jon Kyl was elected to the Senate from Arizona in 1995 and served in that body until 2013, plus a brief stint in late 2018 to fill out the term of the late Senator John McCain.One of Kyl's signature accomplishments in his early years in office was his role in lobbying fellow Republican senators to vote against ratifying the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), which went down to a 51 to 48 Senate defeat in October 1999. That treaty banned explosive nuclear testing and included monitoring and verification procedures meant to ensure that its members met their obligations. Had it been widely adopted, it might have slowed the spread of nuclear weapons, now possessed by nine countries, and prevented a return to the days when aboveground testing spread cancer-causing radiation to downwind communities.The defeat of the CTBT marked the beginning of a decades-long process of dismantling the global nuclear arms control system, launched by the December 2001 withdrawal of President George W. Bush's administration from the Nixon-era Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) treaty. That treaty was designed to prevent a "defense-offense" nuclear arms race in which one side's pursuit of anti-missile defenses sparks the other side to build more — and ever more capable — nuclear-armed missiles. James Acton of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace called the withdrawal from the ABM Treaty an "epic mistake" that fueled a new nuclear arms race. Kyl argued otherwise, claiming the withdrawal removed "a straightjacket from our national security."The end of the ABM treaty created the worst of both worlds — an incentive for adversaries to build up their nuclear arsenals coupled with an abject failure to develop weaponry that could actually defend the United States in the event of a real-world nuclear attack.Then, in August 2019, during the first Trump administration, the U.S. withdrew from the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty, which prohibited the deployment of medium-range missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 kilometers. That treaty had been particularly important because it eliminated the danger of having missiles in Europe that could reach their targets in a very brief time frame, a situation that could shorten the trigger on a possible nuclear confrontation.Then-Senator Kyl also used the eventual pullout from the INF treaty as a reason to exit yet another nuclear agreement, the New START treaty, co-signing a letter with 24 of his colleagues urging the Trump administration to reject New START. He was basically suggesting that lifting one set of safeguards against a possible nuclear confrontation was somehow a reason to junk a separate treaty that had ensured some stability in the U.S.-Russian strategic nuclear balance.Finally, in November 2023, NATO suspended its observance of a treaty that had limited the number of troops the Western alliance and Russia could deploy in Europe after the government of Vladimir Putin withdrew from the treaty earlier that year in the midst of his ongoing invasion of Ukraine.The last U.S.-Russian arms control agreement, New START, caps the strategic nuclear warheads of the two countries at 1,550 each and has monitoring mechanisms to make sure each side is holding up its obligations. That treaty is currently hanging by a thread. It expires in 2026 and there is no indication that Russia is inclined to negotiate an extension in the context of its current state of relations with Washington.As early as December 2020, Kyl was angling to get the government to abandon any plans to extend New START, coauthoring an op-ed on the subject for the Fox News website. He naturally ignored the benefits of an agreement aimed at reducing the chance of an accidental nuclear conflict, even as he made misleading statements about it being unbalanced in favor of Russia.Back in 2010, when New START was first under consideration in the Senate, Kyl played a key role in extracting a pledge from the Obama administration to throw an extra $80 billion at the nuclear warhead complex in exchange for Republican support of the treaty. Even after that concession was made, Kyl continued to work tirelessly to build opposition to the treaty. If, in the end, he failed to block its Senate ratification, he did help steer billions in additional funding to the nuclear weapons complex.Our Man from Northrop GrummanIn 2017, between stints in the Senate, Kyl worked as a lobbyist with the law firm Covington and Burling, where one of his clients was Northrop Grumman, the largest beneficiary of the Pentagon's nuclear weapons spending binge. That company is the lead contractor on both the future B-21 nuclear bomber and Sentinel intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). The Sentinel program drew widespread attention recently when it was revealed that, in just a few years, its estimated cost had jumped by an astonishing 81%, pushing the price for building those future missiles to more than $140 billion (with tens of billions more needed to operate them in their years of "service" to come).That stunning cost spike for the Sentinel triggered a Pentagon review that could have led to a cancellation or major restructuring of the program. Instead, the Pentagon opted to stay the course despite the enormous price tag, asserting that the missile is "essential to U.S. national security and is the best option to meet the needs of our warfighters."Independent experts disagree. Former Secretary of Defense William Perry, for instance, has pointed out that such ICBMs are "some of the most dangerous weapons we have" because a president, warned of a possible nuclear attack by an enemy power, would have only minutes to decide whether to launch them, greatly increasing the risk of an accidental nuclear war triggered by a false alarm. Perry is hardly alone. In July 2024, 716 scientists, including 10 Nobel laureates and 23 members of the National Academies, called for the Sentinel to be canceled, describing the system as "expensive, dangerous, and unnecessary."Meanwhile, as vice-chair of a congressionally mandated commission on the future of U.S. nuclear weapons policy, Kyl has been pushing a worst-case scenario regarding the current nuclear balance that could set the stage for producing even larger numbers of (Northrop Grumman-built) nuclear bombers, putting multiple warheads on (Northrop Grumman-built) Sentinel missiles, expanding the size of the nuclear warhead complex, and emplacing yet more tactical nuclear weapons in Europe. His is a call, in other words, to return to the days of the Cold War nuclear arms race at a moment when the lack of regular communication between Washington and Moscow can only increase the risk of a nuclear confrontation. Kyl does seem to truly believe that building yet more nuclear weapons will indeed bolster this country's security and he's hardly alone when it comes to Congress or, for that matter, the next Trump administration. Consider that a clear sign that reining in the nuclear arms race will involve not only making the construction of nuclear weapons far less lucrative, but also confronting the distinctly outmoded and unbearably dangerous arguments about their alleged strategic value.The AdvocateIn October 2023, when the Senate Armed Services Committee held a hearing on a report from the Congressional Strategic Posture Commission, it had an opportunity for a serious discussion of nuclear strategy and spending, and how best to prevent a nuclear war. Given the stakes for all of us should a nuclear war between the United States and Russia break out — up to an estimated 90 million of us dead within the first few days of such a conflict and up to five billion lives lost once radiation sickness and reduced food production from the resulting planetary "nuclear winter" kick in — you might have hoped for a wide-ranging debate on the implications of the commission's proposals.Unfortunately, much of the discussion during the hearing involved senators touting weapons systems or facilities producing them located in their states, with little or no analysis of what would best protect Americans and our allies. For example, Senator Mark Kelly (D-Ariz) stressed the importance of Raytheon's SM-6 missile — produced in Arizona, of course — and commended the commission for proposing to spend more on that program. Senator Jackie Rosen (R-Nev.) praised the role of the Nevada National Security Site, formerly known as the Nevada Test Site, for making sure such warheads were reliable and would explode as intended in a nuclear conflict. You undoubtedly won't be shocked to learn that she then called for more funding to address what she described as "significant delays" in upgrading that Nevada facility. Senator Tommy Tuberville (R-Ala.) proudly pointed to the billions in military work being done in his state: "In Alabama we build submarines, ships, airplanes, missiles. You name it, we build it." Senator Eric Schmitt (R-Mo.) requested that witnesses confirm how absolutely essential the Kansas City Plant, which makes non-nuclear parts for nuclear weapons, remains for American security.And so it went until Senator Elizabeth Warren (D-Mass) asked what the nuclear buildup recommended by the commission would cost. She suggested that, if past history is any guide, much of the funding proposed by the commission would be wasted: "I'm willing to spend what it takes to keep America safe, but I'm certainly not comfortable with a blank check for programs that already have a history of gross mismanagement."The answer from Kyl and his co-chair Marilyn Creedon was that the commission had not even bothered to estimate the costs of any of what it was suggesting and that its recommendations should be considered regardless of the price. This, of course, was good news for nuclear weapons contractors like Northrop Grumman, but bad news for taxpayers.The Brink of Armageddon?Nuclear hardliners frequently suggest that anyone advocating the reduction or elimination of nuclear arsenals is outrageously naive and thoroughly out of touch with the realities of great power politics. As it happens though, the truly naive ones are the nuclear hawks who insist on clinging to the dubious notion that vast (and still spreading) stores of nuclear weaponry can be kept around indefinitely without ever being used again, by accident or design.There is another way. Even as Washington, Moscow, and Beijing continue the production of a new generation of nuclear weapons — such weaponry is also possessed by France, India, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom — a growing number of nations have gone on record against any further nuclear arms race and in favor of eliminating such weapons altogether. In fact, the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons has now been ratified by 73 countries.As Beatrice Fihn, former director of the Nobel-prize-winning International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons, or ICAN, pointed out in a recent essay in the New York Times, there are numerous examples of how collective action has transformed "seemingly impossible situations." She cited the impact of the antinuclear movement of the 1980s in reversing a superpower nuclear arms race and setting the stage for sharp reductions in the numbers of such weapons, as well as a successful international effort to bring the nuclear ban treaty into existence. She noted that a crucial first step in bringing the potentially catastrophic nuclear arms race under control would involve changing the way we talk about such weapons, especially debunking the myth that they are somehow "magical tools" that make us all more secure. She also emphasized the importance of driving home that this planet's growing nuclear arsenals are evidence that all too many of those in power are acquiescing in a reckless strategy "based on threatening to commit global collective suicide."The next few years will be crucial in determining whether ever growing numbers of nuclear weapons remain entrenched in this country's budgets and its global strategy for decades to come or whether common sense can carry the day and spark the reduction and eventual elimination of such instruments of mass devastation. A vigorous public debate on the risks of an accelerated nuclear arms race would be a necessary first step toward pulling the world back from the brink of Armageddon.This article was originally published at TomDispatch and has been republished here with permission.

This report proposes a renewable energy subsidy mechanism for Indonesia to close the gap between the costs of renewable and conventional power generation. It takes into account the additional economic benefits of renewable power and considers how the government can support its rapid deployment in the power sector. The report emphasizes the need for Indonesia to adopt international best practice for planning, procurement, contracting, and risk mitigation to reduce the financial costs of renewable energy development. To achieve this, implementation of the subsidy should be part of a broader inter-ministerial electricity policy reform program.

The importance of energy efficiency and conservation (EE&C) is commonly discussed amongst policymakers. Countries are regarding this as one of the primary principles constituting energy policy, and various types of EE&C policies have been developed and adopted. However, in reality, expected EE&C investment is not necessarily executed due to high upfront costs and financing difficulties. The first step to overcome these challenges is to understand the potential benefits of EE&C investment and financing. One incentive to invest in EE&C is that the resulting reduction in energy bills could pay off the capital expenditure. Policymakers might also become willing to allocate a budget for an EE&C financing programme if they understand that EE&C investment can bring greater benefits to a county than investment amount. Another necessary step is to learn about possible EE&C financing methods. Eliminating knowledge gaps amongst stakeholders, particularly policymakers and financing institutions, can facilitate finance and hence EE&C investment in a country. In this context, this study will try to identify possible financing methods for EE&C investment and will analyse their costs and benefits. By sharing this information with policymakers in Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member countries, this study intends to help promote EE&C investment in the region.

This handbook serves as a guide to deploying battery energy storage technologies, specifically for distributed energy resources and flexibility resources. Battery energy storage technology is the most promising, rapidly developed technology as it provides higher efficiency and ease of control. With energy transition through decarbonization and decentralization, energy storage plays a significant role to enhance grid efficiency by alleviating volatility from demand and supply. Energy storage also contributes to the grid integration of renewable energy and promotion of microgrid.

During early 2000s, the state of Madhya Pradesh faced formidable difficulties in providing energy supplies needed to spur its poverty reduction and economic development. According to the report and recommendation of the President (RRP), transmission capacity in Madhya Pradesh was inadequate as investment in the transmission network did not match increasing demand.1 The distribution system could not provide reliable supply to consumers, which suffered from severe capacity shortages with distribution losses of about 40%–45% in many areas.

The petroleum subsidy alone was over RM20 billion, which corresponds to around 10 percent of the total government expenditure. Malaysia's fiscal deficit was 4.5 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012, and the government aims to reduce it to 3 percent by 2015 and to 0 percent by 2020. The country has already started implementing policies to phase out the fuel subsidies. In December 2014, the government of Malaysia officially removed subsidy for fuels and introduced the "managed float system." The Special Industrial Tariff for electricity will also be abolished by 2020. If the subsidy in natural gas being sold to electricity companies is removed, electricity price could increase to almost double. However, the Automatic Price Mechanism on transport fuel, such as gasoline, has shifted to the flotation method per 1 December 2014. Currently, the retail price of gasoline and diesel are influenced by market price. Consequently, the price hike in transport fuel after the removal of energy subsidies turned out to be overestimated. According to this study using the 2010 Malaysian Input-Output (I-O) Table, any increase prices in electricity and transport fuel leads to a serious price impacts to other sectors in Malaysia. Looking at other price changes historically, the rise of Production Price Index in Malaysia, such as wholesale price index and consumer price index was around 9 percent and 4.9 percent, respectively, from 2000 to 2012. When compared to these numbers, the price impact of a subsidy removal ranges from 5 percent to 6 percent is considered significant and hence mitigation measures such as phasing out subsidies particularly for the highly impacted sectors are increasingly important. Electricity price hikes largely affect the hotel and restaurant sector relative to other sectors. On the other hand, a transport fuel price hike affects several sectors widely. Our study shows the overall effects of subsidy removal and accordingly we propose two options on the usage of the subsidy budget. First, the Malaysian government can use its energy subsidy budget to reduce the fiscal deficit. This option can lower GDP (1.5 percent lower compared with the reference case), with deficit improvement of 0.9 percentage.

Using a multi-faceted approach, The Asia Foundation identifies key policy barriers to inclusive and green growth, and supports agents of change who individually or by mobilizing others drive necessary reforms and actions. The important role women can and do play in economic growth is an underlying and cross-cutting theme of our work. Fundamental to our success is a political economy approach based on multi-disciplinary analysis and a deep understanding of key actors, power dynamics, and incentives for action. Through strategic, flexible, and evolving interventions, we are committed to creating effective coalitions by liaising with champions for reform, engaging sector-specific "development entrepreneurs" who enjoy the confidence of stakeholders and can drive forward the reform process, and using action research to highlight new issues, find solutions to existing questions, and raise public awareness.

This study was undertaken under the leadership of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MOFED) to assess fiduciary risks in using country financial management (FM) systems in full, or in part, for implementing Donor and Bank-financed investment projects in Zimbabwe and to identify risk mitigation measures required for such use. Fiduciary risk is the risk that Bank funds (or donor funds) will not be used for their intended purposes or that they will be used without due attention to economy and efficiency. In projects using country FM systems, Bank funds are potentially commingled with the country's own funds; therefore, a fiduciary risk assessment also needs to consider broader country PFM risks that could affect the fiduciary risk. This assessment uses a risk-based approach consistent with the interim guidance note issued by the FM Sector Board in 2009, entitled 'assessment of fiduciary risks in the use of country FM systems in bank-financed investment projects'; and supplemented by the framework methodology for channeling investment lending projects through country financial management systems and the approach used for regular FM assessments. The risk-based approach provides a ranking of the fiduciary risks to be managed as high, substantial, moderate, or low. The decision to use country systems for a specific project then rests with the project's task team, guided by the country management team, after taking into account this fiduciary risk assessment and other factors such as the nature and complexity of the project and an assessment of implementing entities.

Modern health care systems are characterized by pronounced prevention and cost-optimized treatments. This dissertation offers novel empirical evidence on how useful such measures can be. The first chapter analyzes how radiation, a main pollutant in health care, can negatively affect cognitive health. The second chapter focuses on the effect of Low Emission Zones on public heath, as air quality is the major external source of health problems. Both chapters point out potentials for preventive measures. Finally, chapter three studies how changes in treatment prices affect the reallocation of hospital resources. In the following, I briefly summarize each chapter and discuss implications for health care systems as well as other policy areas. Based on the National Educational Panel Study that is linked to data on radiation, chapter one shows that radiation can have negative long-term effects on cognitive skills, even at subclinical doses. Exploiting arguably exogenous variation in soil contamination in Germany due to the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, the findings show that people exposed to higher radiation perform significantly worse in cognitive tests 25 years later. Identification is ensured by abnormal rainfall within a critical period of ten days. The results show that the effect is stronger among older cohorts than younger cohorts, which is consistent with radiation accelerating cognitive decline as people get older. On average, a one-standarddeviation increase in the initial level of CS137 (around 30 chest x-rays) is associated with a decrease in the cognitive skills by 4.1 percent of a standard deviation (around 0.05 school years). Chapter one shows that sub-clinical levels of radiation can have negative consequences even after early childhood. This is of particular importance because most of the literature focuses on exposure very early in life, often during pregnancy. However, population exposed after birth is over 100 times larger. These results point to substantial external human capital costs of radiation which can be reduced by choices of medical procedures. There is a large potential for reductions because about one-third of all CT scans are assumed to be not medically justified (Brenner and Hall, 2007). If people receive unnecessary CT scans because of economic incentives, this chapter points to additional external costs of health care policies. Furthermore, the results can inform the cost-benefit trade-off for medically indicated procedures. Chapter two provides evidence about the effectiveness of Low Emission Zones. Low Emission Zones are typically justified by improvements in population health. However, there is little evidence about the potential health benefits from policy interventions aiming at improving air quality in inner-cities. The chapter ask how the coverage of Low Emission Zones air pollution and hospitalization, by exploiting variation in the roll out of Low Emission Zones in Germany. It combines information on the geographic coverage of Low Emission Zones with rich panel data on the universe of German hospitals over the period from 2006 to 2016 with precise information on hospital locations and the annual frequency of detailed diagnoses. In order to establish that our estimates of Low Emission Zones' health impacts can indeed be attributed to improvements in local air quality, we use data from Germany's official air pollution monitoring system and assign monitor locations to Low Emission Zones and test whether measures of air pollution are affected by the coverage of a Low Emission Zone. Results in chapter two confirm former results showing that the introduction of Low Emission Zones improved air quality significantly by reducing NO2 and PM10 concentrations. Furthermore, the chapter shows that hospitals which catchment areas are covered by a Low Emission Zone, diagnose significantly less air pollution related diseases, in particular by reducing the incidents of chronic diseases of the circulatory and the respiratory system. The effect is stronger before 2012, which is consistent with a general improvement in the vehicle fleet's emission standards. Depending on the disease, a one-standard-deviation increase in the coverage of a hospitals catchment area covered by a Low Emission Zone reduces the yearly number of diagnoses up to 5 percent. These findings have strong implications for policy makers. In 2015, overall costs for health care in Germany were around 340 billion euros, of which 46 billion euros for diseases of the circulatory system, making it the most expensive type of disease caused by 2.9 million cases (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2017b). Hence, reductions in the incidence of diseases of the circulatory system may directly reduce society's health care costs. Whereas chapter one and two study the demand-side in health care markets and thus preventive potential, chapter three analyzes the supply-side. By exploiting the same hospital panel data set as in chapter two, chapter three studies the effect of treatment price shocks on the reallocation of hospital resources in Germany. Starting in 2005, the implementation of the German-DRG-System led to general idiosyncratic treatment price shocks for individual hospitals. Thus far there is little evidence of the impact of general price shocks on the reallocation of hospital resources. Additionally, I add to the exiting literature by showing that price shocks can have persistent effects on hospital resources even when these shocks vanish. However, simple OLS regressions would underestimate the true effect, due to endogenous treatment price shocks. I implement a novel instrument variable strategy that exploits the exogenous variation in the number of days of snow in hospital catchment areas. A peculiarity of the reform allowed variation in days of snow to have a persistent impact on treatment prices. I find that treatment price increases lead to increases in input factors such as nursing staff, physicians and the range of treatments offered but to decreases in the treatment volume. This indicates supplier-induced demand. Furthermore, the probability of hospital mergers and privatization decreases. Structural differences in pre-treatment characteristics between hospitals enhance these effects. For instance, private and larger hospitals are more affected. IV estimates reveal that OLS results are biased towards zero in almost all dimensions because structural hospital differences are correlated with the reallocation of hospital resources. These results are important for several reasons. The G-DRG-Reform led to a persistent polarization of hospital resources, as some hospitals were exposed to treatment price increases, while others experienced reductions. If hospitals increase the treatment volume as a response to price reductions by offering unnecessary therapies, it has a negative impact on population wellbeing and public spending. However, results show a decrease in the range of treatments if prices decrease. Hospitals might specialize more, thus attracting more patients. From a policy perspective it is important to evaluate if such changes in the range of treatments jeopardize an adequate nationwide provision of treatments. Furthermore, the results show a decrease in the number of nurses and physicians if prices decrease. This could partly explain the nursing crisis in German hospitals. However, since hospitals specialize more they might be able to realize efficiency gains which justify reductions in input factors without loses in quality. Further research is necessary to provide evidence for the impact of the G-DRG-Reform on health care quality. Another important aspect are changes in the organizational structure. Many public hospitals have been privatized or merged. The findings show that this is at least partly driven by the G-DRG-Reform. This can again lead to a lack in services offered in some regions if merged hospitals specialize more or if hospitals are taken over by ecclesiastical organizations which do not provide all treatments due to moral conviction. Overall, this dissertation reveals large potential for preventive health care measures and helps to explain reallocation processes in the hospital sector if treatment prices change. Furthermore, its findings have potentially relevant implications for other areas of public policy. Chapter one identifies an effect of low dose radiation on cognitive health. As mankind is searching for new energy sources, nuclear power is becoming popular again. However, results of chapter one point to substantial costs of nuclear energy which have not been accounted yet. Chapter two finds strong evidence that air quality improvements by Low Emission Zones translate into health improvements, even at relatively low levels of air pollution. These findings may, for instance, be of relevance to design further policies targeted at air pollution such as diesel bans. As pointed out in chapter three, the implementation of DRG-Systems may have unintended side-effects on the reallocation of hospital resources. This may also apply to other providers in the health care sector such as resident doctors. ; Moderne Gesundheitssysteme zeichnen sich sowohl durch eine ausgeprägte Prävention als auch durch kostenoptimierte Behandlungen aus. Diese Dissertation bietet neue empirische Erkenntnisse darüber, wie nützlich solche Maßnahmen sein können. Das erste Kapitel analysiert, wie Strahlung, ein Hauptschadstoff im Gesundheitswesen, die kognitive Gesundheit negativ beeinflussen kann. Das zweite Kapitel konzentriert sich auf die Auswirkungen von Umweltzonen auf die öffentliche Gesundheit, da die Luftqualität die wichtigste externe Quelle für Gesundheitsprobleme ist. Beide Kapitel zeigen Potenziale für präventive Maßnahmen auf. Schließlich wird in Kapitel drei untersucht, wie sich Änderungen von Behandlungspreisen auf die Reallokation von Krankenhausressourcen auswirken. Im Folgenden fasse ich jedes Kapitel kurz zusammen und diskutiere die Relevanz für Gesundheitssysteme und andere Politikbereiche. Basierend auf dem Nationalen Bildungspanel, welches wir mit Strahlungsdaten verknüpfen, zeigt Kapitel eins, dass Strahlung, auch in geringen Dosen, negative Langzeitwirkungen auf die kognitiven Fähigkeiten haben kann. Dazu nutzen wir die exogene Variation der Bodenkontamination in Deutschland nach der Tschernobyl-Katastrophe von 1986. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Menschen, die einer höheren Strahlung ausgesetzt waren, 25 Jahre später in kognitiven Tests deutlich schlechter abschneiden. Die Identifizierung wird durch anormale Niederschläge innerhalb eines kritischen Zeitraums von zehn Tagen nach dem Reaktorunfall gewährleistet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der Effekt bei älteren Kohorten stärker ist als bei jüngeren Kohorten, was mit der Theorie übereinstimmt, dass Strahlung den altersbedingten Rückgang der kognitiven Leistungsfähigkeit beschleunigt. Im Durchschnitt ist eine Erhöhung des Anfangsniveaus von CS137 um eine Standardabweichung (ca. 30 Thoraxröntgenaufnahmen) mit einer Abnahme der kognitiven Fähigkeiten um 4,1 Prozent einer Standardabweichung verbunden (ca. 0.05 Schuljahre). Die Ergebnisse in Kapitel eins zeigen, dass geringe Strahlungswerte auch nach der frühen Kindheit negative Folgen haben können. Dies ist von besonderer Bedeutung, da sich der Großteil der Literatur auf die Exposition in sehr frühen Lebensphasen konzentriert, oft während der Schwangerschaft. Die nach der Geburt exponierte Bevölkerung ist jedoch über 100-mal größer. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf erhebliche externe Humankapitalkosten der Strahlung hin, die zum Beispiel durch die Wahl medizinischer Verfahren reduziert werden können. Es bestehen große Reduktionspotenziale, da beispielsweise etwa ein Drittel aller CT-Scans als medizinisch nicht gerechtfertigt angesehen werden (Brenner and Hall, 2007). Unter der Annahme, dass Menschen aufgrund wirtschaftlicher Anreize unnötige CT-Scans erhalten, weist dieses Kapitel auf zusätzliche externe Kosten von Gesundheitsmaßnahmen für die Gesundheit der Patienten hin. Außerdem erweitern die Ergebnisse die Informationsgrundlage für Risiko-Nutzen-Abwägungen medizinischer Behandlungen. Kapitel zwei liefert Belege für die Wirksamkeit von Umweltzonen. Umweltzonen sind in der Regel durch eine Verbesserung der Gesundheit der Bevölkerung gerechtfertigt. Es gibt jedoch wenig Belege für den gesundheitlichen Nutzen solcher politischen Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Luftqualität in Innenstädten. In dem Kapitel analysieren wir, wie sich die Ausdehnung der Umweltzonen auf die Luftverschmutzung und die Krankenhausaufenthalte auswirkt. Dazu nutzen wir zeitliche Unterschiede bei der Einführung der Umweltzonen in Deutschland. Hierfür kombinieren wir Informationen über die geografische Abdeckung der Umweltzonen mit umfangreichen Paneldaten von allen deutschen Krankenhäusern im Zeitraum von 2006 bis 2016. Die Krankenhausdaten enthalten präzise Informationen über Krankenhausstandorte und die jährliche Häufigkeit detaillierter Diagnosen. Um sicherzustellen, dass unsere Schätzungen der gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen der Umweltzonen auf eine Verbesserung der lokalen Luftqualität zurückzuführen sind, verwenden wir Daten aus dem offiziellen deutschen Luftmessnetz und ordnen den Umweltzonen Monitorstandorte zu. Hierdurch prüfen wir, ob Messungen der Luftverschmutzung durch die Abdeckung einer Umweltzone beeinflusst werden. Die Ergebnisse in Kapitel zwei bestätigen frühere Ergebnisse, die zeigen, dass die Einführung von Umweltzonen die Luftqualität durch die Reduzierung der NO2- und PM10-Konzentrationen deutlich verbessert. Darüber hinaus zeigt das Kapitel, dass Krankenhäuser, deren Einzugsgebiete in eine Umweltzone fallen, deutlich weniger durch Luftverschmutzung bedingte Krankheiten diagnostizieren, insbesondere durch die Verringerung von chronischen Krankheiten des Kreislaufs und der Atemwege. Der Effekt ist vor 2012 stärker, was sich durch eine allgemeine Verbesserung der Abgasnormen für Fahrzeuge erklären lässt. Wird der Anteil eines Krankenhauseinzugsgebiets mit Umweltzone um eine Standardabweichung erhöht, reduziert sich die jährliche Anzahl der entsprechenden Diagnosen um bis zu 5 Prozent. Diese Ergebnisse sind für politische Entscheidungsträger von Bedeutung. Im Jahr 2015 gab Deutschland 46 Milliarden Euro für Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen aus, die teuerste Krankheitsform mit 2,9 Millionen Fällen. Die Reduktion von Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen würde die Gesundheitskosten der Gesellschaft unmittelbar senken. Während Kapitel eins und zwei die Nachfrageseite in Gesundheitsmärkten und damit das Präventionspotenzial untersuchen, analysiert Kapitel drei die Angebotsseite. Unter Verwendung desselben Krankenhauspaneldatensatzes wie in Kapitel zwei untersuche ich die Auswirkungen von veränderten Behandlungspreisen auf Krankenhausressourcen in Deutschland. Ab 2005 wurden die Behandlungspreise für Patienten durch das G-DRG- System umgewandelt, was bis 2010 zu allgemeinen idiosynkratischen Preisschocks für einzelne Krankenhäuser führte. Die vorhandene Literatur bildet den Effekt von allgemeinen Preisschocks auf Krankenhausressourcen jedoch nur unzureichend ab. Außerdem erweitere ich die vorhandene Literatur indem ich zeige, dass Preisänderungen auch dann langfristige Auswirkungen auf Krankenhausressourcen haben können, wenn die Preisschocks verschwinden. Einfache OLS-Regressionen würden den wahren Effekt aufgrund von endogenen Preisschocks unterschätzen. Unter Zuhilfenahme von hochauflösenden Satellitendaten nutze ich eine Instrumentenvariablenstrategie, welche exogene Schwankungen der Wetterbedingungen im Einzugsbereich von Krankenhäusern nutzt. Eine Besonderheit der Reform führt dazu, dass Abweichungen der Wetterbedingungen zum Zeitpunkt der Reformeinführung einen nachhaltigen Einfluss auf die Behandlungspreise hatten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Preiserhöhungen im Laufe der Zeit zu einem Anstieg des Pflegepersonals, von Ärzten und der Vielfalt der angebotenen Behandlungen führen, aber zu einem Rückgang des Behandlungsvolumens. Bei privaten und größeren Krankenhäusern sind die Auswirkungen stärker. Darüber hinaus sinkt die Wahrscheinlichkeit von Krankenhausfusionen und Privatisierungen. IV-Ergebnisse zeigen gegen Null verzerrte OLS-Schätzungen in fast allen Dimensionen, da strukturelle Krankenhausunterschiede mit der Reallokation von Ressourcen korreliert sind. Diese Ergebnisse sind aus mehreren Gründen wichtig. Die G-DRG-Reform führte zu einer anhaltenden Polarisation von Krankenhausressourcen, da Krankenhäuser sowohl Preisanstiege als auch Preissenkungen erfuhren. Wenn Krankenhäuser das Behandlungsvolumen durch unnötige Therapien erhöhen, hat das negative Auswirkungen auf die öffentliche Gesundheit der Bevölkerung und die öffentlichen Ausgaben. Andererseits zeigen die Ergebnisse einen Rückgang der Bandbreite der angebotenen Behandlungen bei sinkenden Preisen. Krankenhäuser könnten sich stärker spezialisieren und so mehr Patienten anziehen. Aus politischer Sicht ist es wichtig zu beurteilen, ob solche Veränderungen in der Vielfalt der angebotenen Behandlungen eine angemessene flächendeckende Versorgung gefährden. Des Weiteren zeigen die Ergebnisse einen Rückgang der Zahl der Krankenschwestern und Ärzte, wenn die Preise sinken. Dies könnte die Pflegekrise, welche die Bundesregierung in Deutschland beschreibt, teilweise erklären. Da sich die Krankenhäuser jedoch stärker spezialisieren, können sie möglicherweise Effizienzsteigerungen erzielen, die eine Verringerung der Inputfaktoren rechtfertigen, ohne an Qualität zu verlieren. Weitere Untersuchungen sind notwendig, um die Auswirkungen auf die Qualität der Gesundheitsversorgung nachzuweisen. Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt sind Veränderungen in der Organisationsstruktur. Viele öffentliche Krankenhäuser werden privatisiert oder mit anderen Krankenhäusern fusioniert. Meine Ergebnisse zeigen, dass dies zumindest teilweise auf die G-DRG-Reform zurückzuführen ist. Dies kann zu einem Mangel an angebotenen Behandlungen in einigen Regionen führen, wenn sich fusionierte Krankenhäuser spezialisieren oder wenn Krankenhäuser von kirchlichen Organisationen übernommen werden, die aus moralischen Gründen nicht alle Behandlungen anbieten. Insgesamt unterstreicht diese Dissertation das große Potenzial von Gesundheitsvorsorgemaßnahmen und hilft, Reallokationsprozesse im Krankenhaussektor zu erklären. Darüber hinaus haben die Ergebnisse potenziell relevante Auswirkungen auf andere Bereiche der Politik. Kapitel Eins identifiziert einen Einfluss von geringer Radioaktivität auf die kognitive Gesundheit. Auf der Suche nach neuen Energiequellen wird die Kernenergie wieder populär. Die Ergebnisse von Kapitel Eins deuten jedoch auf erhebliche Kosten von Kernenergie hin, die in der aktuellen Debatte noch nicht berücksichtigt wurden. Kapitel Zwei findet starke Hinweise darauf, dass die Verbesserung der Luftqualität durch Umweltzonen, selbst bei relativ geringer Luftverschmutzung, zu einer Verbesserung der Gesundheit führt. Diese Ergebnisse können für die Einführung weiterer Maßnahmen zur Bekämpfung der Luftverschmutzung von Bedeutung sein, wie beispielsweise Fahrverbote für Dieselfahrzeuge. Wie in Kapitel Drei dargelegt, kann die Einführung von DRG-Systemen unbeabsichtigte Effekte bei der Reallokation von Krankenhausressourcen haben. Dies kann auch für andere Anbieter im Gesundheitswesen wie niedergelassene Ärzte gelten.

Introduction: After the Second World War, the political and economical block that today we call European Union started when six countries sought to ensure the peace among them. Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands put their heavy industries under a common management, with the Coal and Steel Treaty, so no one could build weapons or develop its war industry without the others knowing it. This experience led to the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and 50 years later the ideas of people, goods and service freedoms continue spreading around, and the European Union has become one of the best examples of economical, political and cultural integration, and a reference around the world to encourage other regions to group. Therefore, among others, the Latin America Free Trade Association (LAFTA) appeared in 1960, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in 1967; the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA), in 1991; and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in 1993. In the case of South America , in spite of their good intentions, the huge asymmetries between LAFTA members caused the apparition of sub-regional blocs: the Andeans Community (CAN) founded in 1969, and now grouping Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru; and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) founded in 1991, between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Nowadays, after more than 40 years of integration processes, there are still strong problems inside both sub-regional blocs. CAN Member States have several diplomatic discussions regarding their political models; and Peru, Ecuador and Colombia have or are negotiating independent Free Trade Agreements with external blocs, including USA and the EU. In the other side, MERCOSUR's main players -Argentina and Brazil- have commercial disputes at the World Trade Organization, surrounding their own sub-regional bodies . Nevertheless, these two sub-regional associations were the basis for the South American Community of Nations (CSN on Spanish) in 2004, and from that point, the present attempt to unify South-America: the South American Union of Nations (UNASUR, 2008), with the participation of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay and Venezuela. The integration levels in political and economical affairs in this latter group are expected to change the way international relations will be conduit in the future of South-America. This new regional bloc has an extension of 17 658 Km² and 383 million inhabitants (2007) . With a general GDP of $2348 953 (2007) and a GDP per capita of $6126 (2007), it is one of the regions with more perspectives of development, but it is also one of the regions with the highest degrees of economic asymmetry. While in 2007 Chile, Venezuela and Brazil had a GDP per capita (2007) of $9865, $8601 and $6819, there were other countries like Paraguay and Bolivia, with a GDP per capita (2007) of $1669 and $1342. These asymmetries have leaded to strong disagreements between South American countries during previous integration process. An example that just pooling economies is not the whole solution for development is the case of Paraguay, in the middle of MERCOSUR and with barely a quarter of the MERCOSUR's GDP $6642 (2007). 'Integration' will not always mean international governmental organizations where Member States have decided to transfer competitions and empowerment of supranational institutions; in this Master Thesis, the South American integration processes will be defined as '(...)the creation and maintenance of intense and diverse patrons of interaction between previously autonomous units.' Furthermore, 'Integration' in the context of the South American reality included two concepts: 'Regionalism' and 'Regionalization'. The first is related to the wave of thinking, the interaction projects and the political initiatives (the processes) and the second, to the institutions or the agreements that represent the integration (the result). This Master Thesis tries to be oriented to describe the processes more than the institutions or the agreements; nevertheless, it is not possible to present the first without the second and vice versa. What kind of integration can be expected in South America? What kind of goals, challenges and success can South-American Nations find in their way to a social, political and economical integration? Whereas the EU is -since its very beginning- a supranational initiative, South American regional and sub-regional blocs are characterised for being mostly, the result of intergovernmental agreements. Will this difference be determinant in the integration processes? In this thesis of Master in European Studies, the South American integration -processes and institutions- will be review under the framework of six dimensions that give the EU its character of integrated regional bloc and are advocated to deep the South America Integration. Three of them related to structural bodies: executive, judicial and legislative; and the other three related to the policies that defines a Union: Monetary Policy, Foreign and Security Policy; and, Social and Development Policy. In order to do not miss the main emphasis, the description and analysis of the executive supranational body will be deeper than the corresponding to judicial and legislative bodies and the three common policies. In addition, two cases of the South American Integration will be modeled, to present the best possible scenarios to foster the integration. By the comparison of the structures and policies, and by the scenario modeling; this Master Thesis attempts to demonstrate that the lack of supranational authority and law enforcement power will play a determinant role in the success or failure in the South American integration process. The analysis in this thesis can be divided in two sections, the descriptive part and the analysis of Case Study. The information for the descriptive part is mostly from published books, research papers, journals and case studies, the information for the Case Study comes mostly from News and Newspaper articles. The technique used in the analysis of the Case Studies is the Theory Game: a shared-decision model with two players that have different priorities for the same decision. The methodology for that is described more widely in section 4.1 Fundamentals of Game Theory. This Master Thesis presents the South American integration as a whole, and the UNASUR as the present meeting point of the Andean Community and MERCOSUR. Therefore, wherever South American Integration is mentioned, it is not limited to UNASUR, CAN or MERCOSUR analysis, because they coexist and overlap each other at the same time. Instead, time framework and integration approaches are considerations that need to be undeniably included. To write about the integration processes in South America is to review almost 40 years of history and political agreements and disagreements of twelve countries and the influence that they received from external factors, like Central-, North America and Europe. Nowadays, the remaining sub-regional blocs face the opportunity to pool agreements in a new attempt, together with the risk of breaking-off of the Treaties, by the influence of external agreements of Member States with third parties around the world. For reasons of space, and to focus in the present regional integration process, those external agreements, like the NAFTA or the negotiations between the CAN and the EU, and their influence in the South American regional integration process are not going to be covered in this Master Thesis. That does not mean that their influence is negligible, rather than that, in some cases, like the Free Trade Agreements between the USA and Colombia, or Peru, it means the risk of the end of the CAN as a sub-regional economic bloc. In addition, a commercial developments analysis of the South American integration process requires a separate review of each commercial category and each bilateral agreement and therefore, a deeper description of those topics is not included. Other issues that are not going to be covered in this Master Thesis are those integration processes or commercial agreements that are not part or do not lead to the South American Union of Nations, like the 'Bolivarian Alternative for Our Americas' (on Spanish ALBA) or the 'Commercial Agreement of the Peoples' (on Spanish TCP). Their own dynamic and priorities are quite interesting; nevertheless going deeper in these issues could mean to reduce attention in the main topics of this Master Thesis. This Master Thesis uses study cases to describe two facets of the South American Integration process under the Two-Person Model of the Game Theory. The model used in this Master Thesis is characterised for the intersection of two players with mutual influence and different priorities. Game Theory is a useful analysis tool with many applications in mathematics, economics and political fields; nevertheless, as a model, it is a simplification of the reality and therefore, some details like the simplicity of its initial assumptions, the deep of the analysis, outsider players and feedback, are limited, further details of these limitations are presented in section 4.2. The analysis of a play of a Game, under the Game Theory can also be made by a mathematical approach. That mathematical approach is not going to be considered in this Master Thesis in order to keep the focus in the integration process.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Content: Dedicatory and Acknowledgementsii Abstractiii List of Contentsiv List of Tablesv List of Figuresvi List of Acronymsvii I.INTRODUCTION1 1.1Introduction2 1.2Methodology4 1.3Remarks4 II.SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT6 2.1Political Framework Development towards the South-American Union of Nations7 III.SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION UNDER THE EU FRAMEWORK26 3.1'New Regionalism' and the functional approach of South American integration.27 3.2South American- and EU- Integration Structures and Policies34 3.2.1A Supranational Executive Body37 3.2.2Supranational judicial functions41 3.2.3Supranational legislative functions43 3.2.4Common Currency and Supranational Monetary Institution46 3.2.5A Common Foreign and Security Policy47 3.2.6A Common Social and Development Policy48 IV.GAME THEORY AND SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION CASE STUDIES50 4.1Game Theory51 4.1.1Fundamentals of Game Theory51 4.1.2Limitations of Game Theory54 4.2Case Studies55 4.2.1Case Study 1: Political Integration, the creation of the South American Energy Council (2007)55 4.2.2Case 2: Economical Integration, the Ecuadorian safeguards settlement (2009)62 V.CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL COMMENTS67 REFERENCES71 APPENDIXES Appendix A: South American figures78 Appendix B: Game Theory Glossary82 Appendix C: Combined priorities84 DISCLAIM89Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.2.1, A Supranational Executive Body: Regarding the legal order, Supranationalism means that sovereign states agree to abide by norms which are adopted at a higher level of organization. In the case of the European Union, Supranationalism is not referred to the transfer of sovereignty; it is only the transfer of the power to exercise that sovereignty. Together with that, the supremacy of the Community law and the principle of direct effect present that the legal system of the Community has a federal nature. Thence, a Supranational Institution has competences to exercise powers that belong to sovereign States. In addition, the exercise of this power should be in line with the principles of proportionality, i.e. No action shall go beyond that it is necessary; and subsidiarity, i.e. In competences that Supranational Institution shares with Member States, it does intervene only if the objective of the action cannot be achieved by the Member State. The interaction between national governments and EU Institutions, together with the freedom to act according to those competences, is the basis for the adoption of the EU rules. Beyond the legal order, Supranationalism may be employed in decision-making, monitoring and enforcement. Supranationalism can also be divided in decisional (pooling sovereignty) and normative (delegation of power). Decisional Supranationalism is referred to those decisions taken by voting procedures other than unanimity, and when governments decided to act either jointly or not at all. Normative Supranationalism refers to the delegation of power to autonomous institutions that are created by the Member States. Therefore, a Supranational Executive Body will be an Institution with the right to adopt normative decisions directly based on the Treaties, with the autonomy to execute those decisions, and without the need of approval by the Member States. Supranational actors contribute to the integration by different means and reasons. Moravscik presented that pooling or delegation in the EU, are means to assure that other governments will accept agreed legislation or enforcement in issue-areas, where joint gains are high and distributional conflicts are moderate, and where there is uncertainty about future decisions. Other contribution of supranational bodies to integration process is that they might reduce the transaction costs by institutionalizing the integrative dynamic and negotiating procedure; and, it may assist national governments in issues area in which there are reasonably clear added benefits working according to the rules, but with predictable temptations to chat in response to short-term pressures. In addition, supranational institutions bring mutual confidence; smaller countries, which want their interests taken in account, especially in multinational scenarios where there is not veto power, can relay in the impartiality of supranational actors, instead of intergovernmental decision-making procedures, where the most powerful Member States shape the process. Probably the best example of the contribution of a Supranational Executive Body to Regional Integration is in Competition Policy: The Commission received decision powers in the sphere of state aid, based on the EEC Treaty provisions, due to the necessity of an impartial and independent body to apply agreed rules to face national pressures. One of the earliest Community Regulations fixed the modalities by which the Commission would exercise that power directly to ensure that undertakings respected antitrust rules. A supranational executive body can also shape the process and foster the integration. An example is the development of the European Monetary Union (EMU). Monetary union was neither the uncontested solution to economic problems, nor an easily obtainable response to German reunification. Nevertheless, Commission officials successfully disseminated the notion that EMU altogether provided a coherent solution to the problems created by financial globalization and the end of the Cold War; furthermore, they were leading actors in the sudden proliferation of governmental initiatives in France, Italy and German in favour of the EMU. By doing that, they fostered solid political momentum behind an originally lukewarm and unfocused demand for monetary integration. There are several reasons and examples of the benefits of a Supranational Executive Body; nevertheless, South American Nations still working with Intergovernmental Structures. During the negotiations for the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty, its former General Secretary, Rodrigo Borja, presented a proposal for the authority and competences of UNASUR. In that document, member states, '(...) in exchange of the economical, political and geopolitical advantages that a common order can offer; agreed in the limitation of some of their sovereign faculties and will form the Union with common decision and executive multinational bodies'. The proposal was not accepted and finally, was part of the reasons of Borja's resignation. While in the case of the EU, the presence of a Supranational Executive Body is one of the strongest driving forces of the integration process, in the South American context, there is not yet a political will to pool sovereignty. Solón, pro-tempore General Secretary of UNASUR from 2006 to 2008, affirms 'Nobody doubts that in the future it will be necessary to move to supranational authorities (...) but today they want an agreement where everybody shall count with the other to have a meeting point'. Behind that attitude, the reasons that can be drawn are the political will of member states, driven by governments or national monopolies, which do not want to lose control over the process and the stagnation of the over-institutionalism in the past (Central America Common Market and the CAN). The stagnation of over-institutionalism drives member states to appeal to external bodies in the dispute settlement, continuing the weakening of the idea of a supranational body; the political will of member states, or its absence, could be explained for the existence of strong national political elites, allowed for the late trade liberalizations of national monopolies. Rajagopal refers to studies of how MERCOSUR member states have been primarily driven by domestic political considerations when they have furthered the integration process. This it could lead to conclude that they are not likely to develop the kind of supranational governance institutions present in the European Union; as policy elites in MERCOSUR, member states desire to maintain a great deal of domestic policy autonomy. In addition of its intergovernmental character, the faculties of the UNASUR Secretariat as Executive body are restricted by its small budget of 3 million US$/year, much more limited than the 5,4 million US$/year of the CAN General Secretariat ; and by the denial of the proposal of pooling the executive bodies of CAN and MERCOSUR. Another issue to consider is that the feasibility for South American countries to pool sovereignty or to delegate power varies from one Member State to another, according to their own constitutive and legal framework. In some cases, Constitutional texts are quite clear in stimulating regional integration and stressing the prevalence of regional law, like the Venezuelan Constitution that allows to 'confer on supranational organisations (...) the exercise of the powers necessary to carry out these integration processes (...)'(Art. 153, Venezuelan Constitution 1999). The Colombian external relations 'are based on national sovereignty (...) and on recognition of the principles of international law accepted by Colombia' and 'The State shall promote economic, social and political integration with other nations(…)', (Art. 19 and Art. 227, Colombian Constitution 1991). There are, however, other Member States whit Constitutions that needs amendment to pool sovereignty; like the Bolivian Constitutions which states 'The public authorities may not delegate the powers conferred on them by this Constitution, or confer on the executive branch powers other than those expressly conferred on them by it' (Art. 30, Bolivian Constitution). Therefore, the creation of a supranational executive body could not be totally accepted until the totality of the national Constitutions were in line with it. In addition to the considerations presented above, Chapter IV presents two Case Study based on the Game Theory to demonstrate the strong influence of an executive body with supranational competences in the integration process. Nevertheless, it is likely to expect that present integration structures will remain tied to intergovernmental political intentions, and the integration process will loose the benefits of a Supranational Executive Body.

This guidance report is a product of activity 4.1 under work package 4 "Best practices in chemicals management in the industry" of the HAZBREF-project. This report addresses the chemical industry and its two sub-sectors: manufacture of large volume inorganic chemicals (with the focus on production of fertilizers) and polymers. The other case sectors are textile industry and surface treatment of metals and plastics which are addressed in separate reports. Aims, areas of interest, methodology and structure This sector-specific report provides guidance to key actors at national level (chemical industries and competent authorities) on how to improve chemical management at installation level. In this respect, it takes reference to relevant requirements such as the Industrial Emission Directive (IED) and the sectoral Best Available Techniques Reference Documents (BREFs). The findings of the guidance, especially concerning BAT candidates in chapter 5, will also feed into the anticipated forthcoming revision of the BREFs for the Chemical industry sectors (LVIC and possibly others). They are further used for HELCOM recommendations on how to reduce the discharge of hazardous substances into the Baltic Sea. The document summarises key findings of interviews and discussions with HAZBREF experts, representatives from chemical industry and relevant authorities as well as insights from case studies in Finland, Estonia and Sweden. In addition to that two polymer installations in Poland were selected for analysing circular economy issues. The report focuses on prevalent practices and challenges related to the IED permitting process, with special reference to hazardous chemicals for polymer and fertilizer installations. The report also reflects findings of other Work packages under HAZBREF and refers to recommendations published under the European Union Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law (IMPEL). The first chapter of the report provides a short introduction to the scope of this report. The second chapter provides an introduction to the chemical sector, focusing on Europe and the production of fertilizers and polymers. The third chapter describes relevant hazardous chemicals related to the production of fertilizers and polymers, regulatory framework for the hazardous chemicals and both regulatory and non-regulatory chemical reference lists. The section also describes how identification of relevant substances in the polymer and fertilizer industry can be done. The fourth chapter describes legal obligations laid down in IED, REACH, CLP, WFD and other relevant legislation as well as recommendations from HELCOM. It also contains information about using and producing safety data sheets and exposure scenarios. Furthermore, it describes how chemical inventories can be developed and how substance flow analysis (SFA) and material flow analysis (MFA) can be used. It also contains a short description of how to use an interactive scheme, developed in HAZBREF, for the identification of relevant hazardous substances. Best practice in chemical management and identification of BAT candidates are described in the fifth section. The section also contains guidance on chemical management system (CMS), chemical and raw material inventories, chemical storage and transportation, optimization of process integrated recycling, substitution, process mapping of hazardous substances, management of hazardous waste and waste water treatment. The section contains both generally applicable practices and recommendations on BAT candidates. Most of the BAT candidates are applicable to all installations. All the BAT candidates are described in detail in Annex 1. The sixth section explains the different steps of the IED permitting procedure and provides guidance and good practices and recommendations to both operators and permitting authorities on how to carry out the respective steps with particularly focusing on good chemicals management. Circular economy issues in the polymer sector and findings from the case studies are described in the seventh section. Main findings and proposals Chemical industry covers many types of different processes and installations. There are many laws regarding the installation, and this leads to challenges in chemical management for both operators and authorities. The requirements from authorities are based on law but often the companies have their own programs and rules which are stricter than the requirements based on current law. The authorities need a lot of knowledge on chemical issues, but this information is not always readily available. Proposal for improvement of chemical management system A Chemical Management System (CMS) provides a systematic way of managing chemicals. The CMS can be integrated with the Environmental Management System (EMS). The purpose of the CMS is to control the chemicals and hazardous substances at the site, increase knowledge of the characteristics, risks and impact and improve the processes to reduce emissions of hazardous substances. The HAZBREF project recommends the use of a CMS following the principles described as BAT candidate 1 in Annex 1. HAZBREF also recommends that a requirement to establish and maintain a CMS at installations is included to the revised BREFs. Proposal for development of inventories and databases In order to know which hazardous substances are used or generated at the site, a chemical inventory is needed. It is important to list all types of chemicals and raw materials used in all processes and activities at the site in a database. The chemical list or database is a key part of chemical management allowing for systematic risk assessment, management of chemicals flows and their storage. It is also useful in the permitting processes as it provides easy access to data for chemicals used in the installations. The information in the chemical list/database must be searchable and the list should be updated regularly. Most of the information needed is available in the safety data sheets (SDS). If some information is missing from the SDS, the supplier should be asked to provide this. The HAZBREF project recommends the development and use of a chemical and raw material inventory following the principles described as BAT candidate 2 in Annex 1. HAZBREF also recommends that such a requirement to perform inventories at installations is included to the revised BREFs. Proposal for quality and use of safety data sheets To allow for efficient chemicals management, it must be assured that all SDS keep a good quality level. If a chemical supplier fails to provide SDS with good quality, it is the duty of both the operator and the competent authority to demand the missing information from the chemical supplier. Better SDSs, including improved data on environmental hazards, and exposure scenarios would make risk assessment of individual chemicals in specific process easier for the installations. This would lead to more efficient monitoring and help to focus more on most the problematic substances. The SDSs of raw materials should contain more information on impurities. Also, the chemical inventory could be improved if detailed data about the impurities or intentionally added constituents would be available in SDS. Exposure Scenarios are not usually directly usable for the operators. Sector specific environmental release categories (SPERCs), based on measurements and info about the typical environmental fate of substances in the sites could help but they have not yet been developed for many industrial uses. Proposal for process mapping of hazardous substances In order to be able to take measures to reduce emissions of hazardous substances, good knowledge of the production processes is needed. One way to do this is to use process mapping of hazardous substances. The purpose of the method is to identify the mass flows and release routes of the substances. The purpose is also to optimise monitoring and identify cost efficient ways to reduce emissions. The process mapping is a tool which supports the chemical inventory. The HAZBREF project recommends mapping of hazardous substances following the principles described as BAT candidate 3 in Annex 1. Proposal for substitution Substitution is an important measure to minimise chemical risks at the installation. A successful substitution work can be performed in four stages; Identification of hazardous substances - Screening for possible alternatives - Evaluation and choice of alternatives and Development of new alternatives. Regrettable substitution should be avoided. Proposal for the permitting process The permit process should be streamlined with more communication during the application phase between the applicant and permitting authorities and communication with WWTP operators should be ensured in case of indirect emissions. More co-operation between chemical, environmental and occupational health authorities is suggested to achieve smooth information flow and reduce double work. More exchange of information and good experiences between Member States would in the long run also contribute to more harmonised and better practices on European level. The format for a chemical inventory should be standardised. An appropriate approach is given in Annex 5. It is the duty of the operator to provide information in a way that it can be quickly assessed and that conclusions in the form of permit requirements, stipulations and conditions can be more easily drawn. ; Denna vägledningsrapport har tagits fram inom aktivitet 4.1 i arbetspaket 4 "Bästa praxis för kemikaliehantering i branschen" i HAZBREF-projektet. Rapporten behandlar den kemiska industrin och dess två delsektorer: produktion av oorganiska högvolymkemikalier (med fokus på produktion av gödselmedel) och polymerer. Textilindustrin och ytbehandling av metaller och plast behandlas i separata rapporter. Mål, intresseområden, metodik och struktur Denna sektorsspecifika rapport ger vägledning till nyckelaktörer på nationell nivå (kemiska industrier och behöriga myndigheter) om hur man kan förbättra kemikaliehanteringen på anläggningsnivå. I detta avseende hänvisas till relevanta krav, såsom industriutsläppsdirektivet (IED) och referensdokumenten för bästa tillgängliga teknik (BREF). De resultat som redovisas i vägledningen, särskilt beträffande BAT-kandidater i kapitel 5, kommer också att ingå i kommande revision av BREF-dokument för kemisk industri (LVIC och eventuellt andra). De används vidare för HELCOM-rekommendationer om hur man kan minska utsläppen av farliga ämnen i Östersjön. Rapporten sammanfattar viktiga resultat från intervjuer och diskussioner med HAZBREF-experter, representanter från kemisk industri och relevanta myndigheter samt från genomförda fallstudier i Finland, Estland och Sverige. Även två polymerverksamheter i Polen har analyserats med avseende på cirkulär ekonomi. Rapporten fokuserar på tillämpningar och utmaningar relaterade till IEDtillståndsprocessen, och speciellt på användningen av farliga kemikalier i polymeroch gödselmedeltillverkning. Rapporten återspeglar också slutsatserna från andra arbetspaket i HAZBREF-projektet och hänvisar till rekommendationer som publicerats av Europeiska unionens nätverk för genomförande och efterlevnad av miljölagstiftningen (IMPEL). Det första kapitlet i rapporten ger en kort introduktion av tillämpningsområdet. Det andra kapitlet ger en introduktion till den kemiska sektorn med fokus på Europa och produktion av gödselmedel och polymerer. Det tredje kapitlet beskriver relevanta farliga kemikalier relaterade till produktion av gödselmedel och polymerer, regelverk för de farliga kemikalierna och både reglerande och icke-reglerande kemiska referenslistor. Kapitlet beskriver också hur identifiering av relevanta ämnen i polymer- och gödselmedelsindustrin kan göras. Det fjärde kapitlet beskriver krav enligt IED, REACH, CLP, WFD och annan relevant lagstiftning samt rekommendationer från HELCOM. Det innehåller också information om användning och framtagande av säkerhetsdatablad och exponeringsscenarier. Vidare beskrivs hur kemikalieinventeringar kan utvecklas och hur substansflödesanalys och materialflödesanalys kan användas. Den innehåller också en kort beskrivning av hur man använder ett interaktivt verktyg, utvecklat i HAZBREF, för identifiering av relevanta farliga ämnen. Bästa praxis för kemikaliehantering samt identifiering av BAT-kandidater beskrivs i det femte kapitlet. Kapitlet innehåller också vägledning om kemikaliehanteringssystem, kemikalie- och råvaruinventeringar, lagring och transport av kemikalier, optimering av processintegrerad återvinning, substitution, processkartläggning av farliga ämnen, hantering av farligt avfall och avloppsvattenbehandling. Kapitlet innehåller både allmänt tillämplig praxis och rekommendationer om BATkandidater. De flesta av BAT-kandidaterna är allmänt tillämpliga. Alla BATkandidater beskrivs i detalj i bilaga 1. Det sjätte kapitlet förklarar de olika stegen i tillståndsförfarandet enligt IED och ger vägledning, goda exempel och rekommendationer till både verksamhetsutövare och tillståndsmyndigheter om hur man utför respektive steg med särskilt fokus på bra kemikaliehantering. Frågor om cirkulär ekonomi inom polymersektorn och resultat från fallstudier beskrivs i det sjunde kapitlet. Huvudsakliga resultat och förslag Kemisk industri omfattar många olika typer av processer och verksamheter. Det finns många lagar som gäller för verksamheterna, och detta leder till utmaningar i kemikaliehantering för både operatörer och myndigheter. Kraven från myndigheter är lagbaserade men ofta har företagen egna program och regler som är strängare än kraven enligt gällande lag. Myndigheterna behöver mycket information om kemikaliefrågor, men denna information är inte alltid lättillgänglig. Förslag till förbättring av kemikaliehanteringssystem För att veta vilka farliga ämnen som används eller uppkommer i verksamheten krävs en kemikalieinventering. Det är viktigt att lista alla typer av kemikalier och råvaror som används i verksamheten i en databas. Kemikalielistan eller databasen är en viktig del av kemikaliehanteringen och möjliggör systematisk riskbedömning, hantering av kemikalieflöden och kemikalielagring. Det är också användbart i tillståndsprocesserna eftersom det ger enkel åtkomst till data för de kemikalier som används i verksamheterna. Informationen i kemikalielistan/databasen måste vara sökbar och listan bör uppdateras regelbundet. Merparten av den information som behövs finns i säkerhetsdatabladen. Om viss information saknas i säkerhetsdatabladet bör leverantören uppmanas att lämna denna. HAZBREF-projektet rekommenderar framtagande och användning av en kemikalie- och råvaruinventering enligt principerna som beskrivs som BAT-kandidat 2 i bilaga 1. HAZBREF rekommenderar också att framtagande och användning av kemikalie- och råvaruinventeringar förs in som krav i de reviderade BREF-dokumenten. Förslag rörande kvalitet och användning av säkerhetsdatablad För att möjliggöra effektiv kemikaliehantering måste det säkerställas att alla säkerhetsdatablad håller en god kvalitetsnivå. Om en kemikalieleverantör inte tillhandahåller säkerhetsdatablad av god kvalitet, är det både operatörens och den behöriga myndighetens skyldighet att kräva den saknade informationen från kemikalieleverantören. Bättre säkerhetsdatablad, inklusive förbättrad data om risker för miljön, och exponeringsscenarier skulle göra riskbedömning av enskilda kemikalier i specifika processer enklare för verksamheterna. Detta skulle leda till effektivare övervakning och bidra till att fokusera på de mest problematiska ämnena. Säkerhetsdatablad för råvaror bör innehålla mer information om ingående föroreningar. Kemikalieinventeringen skulle också kunna förbättras om detaljerade data om föroreningar eller avsiktligt tillsatta beståndsdelar skulle finnas tillgängliga i säkerhetsdatabladen. Exponeringsscenarier är vanligtvis inte direkt användbara för operatörerna. Sektorsspecifika miljöutsläppskategorier (SPERC), baserade på mätningar och information om ämnens karakteristik och typiska rörelsemönster på anläggningen kan hjälpa, men de har ännu inte utvecklats för många industriella användningar. Förslag till processkartläggning av farliga ämnen För att kunna vidta åtgärder för att minska utsläppen av farliga ämnen behövs god kunskap om produktionsprocesserna. Ett sätt att få det är att göra processkartläggningar av farliga ämnen. Syftet med metoden är att identifiera ämnets massflöde och läckagevägar. Syftet är också att optimera övervakningen och identifiera kostnadseffektiva sätt att minska utsläppen. Processkartläggningen är ett verktyg som stöder kemikalieinventeringen. HAZBREF-projektet rekommenderar kartläggning av farliga ämnen enligt principerna som beskrivs som BAT-kandidat 3 i bilaga 1. Förslag till substitution Substitution är en viktig åtgärd för att minimera kemiska risker vid verksamheten. Ett framgångsrikt substitutionsarbete kan utföras i fyra steg; Identifiering av farliga ämnen - Screening efter möjliga alternativ - Utvärdering och val av alternativ och Utveckling av nya alternativ. Substitution som senare kan komma att ångras bör undvikas. Förslag till förbättring av tillståndsprocessen Tillståndsprocessen bör effektiviseras genom mer kommunikation under ansökningsfasen mellan den sökande och tillståndsmyndigheterna och även med reningsverkets operatörer vid indirekta utsläpp. Mer samarbete mellan kemikalie-, miljö- och arbetsmiljömyndigheter föreslås för att uppnå ett smidigt informationsflöde och minska dubbelarbete. Mer utbyte av information och goda erfarenheter mellan medlemsstaterna skulle på sikt också bidra till mer harmoniserad och bättre praxis på europeisk nivå. Hur en kemikalieinventering ska vara utformad bör standardiseras. En lämplig metod ges i bilaga 5. Det är operatörens skyldighet att tillhandahålla information så att den lätt kan bedömas och att slutsatser i form av tillståndskrav och villkor lättare kan dras.

The use of chemicals is one of the key factors in the sustainability and has a particular relevance in the textile and clothing sector, due not only to the legislation related with chemicals used (specially REACH, CLP and BPR Regulations) but also to clients RSL (restricted substance list) and campaigns from non-governmental organizations, such as the Detox campaign and ZDHC programme. As response to this challenges some methodologies and tools are available:ZDHC toolsOEKO-TEX® products: STANDARD 100 (appendix 6) and DETOX TO ZEROGM SUB toolZDHC toolsThe ZDHC (Zero Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals) Programme main objective is to eliminate the use of priority chemicals (11 category of chemicals) and for that has developed some tools that the companies can use, including:Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (version 1.1, from 2015) provides a list of priority chemicals and specifies the maximum concentration limit of each substance within commercial chemical formulations. It has 2 chapters, one for textiles and synthetic leather processing and the other for natural leather processing. And 2 groups, group A for raw material and finished product (substances that are banned from intentional use in facilities that process raw materials and manufacture finished products), and group B for chemical supplier (substances are restricted to concentration limits in chemical formulations commercially available from chemical suppliers)Interim MRSL Conformance Guidance, help brands and suppliers judge their confidence in whether a perceived MRSL compliant formulation from a supplier actually meets the requirements of the ZDHC MRSL standardMRSL Supplier Acknowledgement Letter (template letter)Chemical Guidance Sheets (substance use, reason for restriction, and safer alternatives), for chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols, halogenated solvents, organotins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/ naphthalene, toluene, long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids (LCPFAAs), nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs), phthalates and short-chain chlorinated paraffinsChemical Management Systems (CMS) Guidance Manual (from 2015), focuses on the approach, structure and documentation needed to create and support a ZDHC Programme. The CMS is structured in five sections that follow the plan-do-check-act: commitment to CMS (plan phase), assessment, planning and prioritisation (plan phase), chemicals management (do phase), monitoring (check phase) and management review (act phase)Right to Know Disclosure Methodology Research (2014), present the ZDHC team research results on chemical compliance and disclosure methodologiesZDHC Academy provides brands and manufacturers with ZDHC certified training to improve their knowledge and practice of responsible chemical management STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX® (appendix 6)STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX® is a worldwide consistent, independent testing and certification system for raw, semi-finished, and finished textile products at all processing levels, as well as accessory materials used. The certified textile products are tested for harmful substances, legally banned and controlled substances, chemicals known to be harmful to the health (but not yet legally controlled) and parameters for health protection.Appendix 6 of STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX® was specially developed for companies focused in Detox campaign. The limits in this annex does not take from human ecological point of view but considering special environmental friendly production conditions, therefore the limit values are stricter (than in appendix 4) DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX®DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX® is a comprehensive verification and reporting system that prepares facilities along the textile chain for the requirements requested by the Detox campaign of Greenpeace. The DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX® service is focused on:the establishment of a transparent chemical management systema continuous improvement plan to reduce hazardous substances in the production process, e.g. comprehensive MRSL examinationwastewater and sludge measurementsimprovement of protective measures for the protection of the environmentDETOX TO ZERO provides an annual status report about chemicals used, evaluation of waste and wastewater treatment analysis and environmental protection measures so the facility and its buyers have a continuous monitoring tool focused on achieving Detox campaign alignment. In addition, OEKO-TEX® pays particular attention to the following:Elimination:Eliminating all release of toxic chemicals and recognising that there are no environmentally safe levels for hazardous substances according to Greenpeace's priority list of 11 hazardous chemicals/chemical groups.Prevention and precaution:Review and analysis of processes and measures for continuous improvement regarding preventive measures for the handling and the use of hazardous substances.Right to know:Documentation of the company's operations including training, environmental reporting, internal and external communications. One of the targets is a publicly available register on the OEKO-TEX website.Within the scope of DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX®, tests are conducted to check against the requirements of the Detox campaign, but OEKO-TEX® has added incremental elements such as, for example, resource efficiency, health protection, environmental protection and prevention of water pollution, and occupational safety.This procedure for this OEKO-TEX® service is the following:Online-application or contact an OEKO-TEX® instituteUser accesses an online questionnaire (DETOX assessment tool) to gather information about the Chemical Management System, inventory of chemicals used including CAS number, MSDS information as well as main ingredients, components additives and, if possible, information about impurities, wastewater and sludge informationOn-site visit from an OEKO-TEX® specialist to verify the stated company data and process information.Final status report including improvements and compliance level. This validity of the report is one year. A renewal can be applied for up to three months before the end of the validity period GM SUBGM SUB is a software tool for SDS (safety data sheets) and chemical management, developed by CITEVE and MACWIN company. The information is based on the chemicals used in a company, considering their SDS, places where they are used, legislation and chemical incompatibilities.Based on that information, GM-SUB automatically creates communication documents in a quick and effective manner, such as:Safety data sheet (on paper or in digital format), the complete version or a summary of the most relevant information (to be available in the places where chemicals are stored or used)Labels (for instance when the original recipient losses the label or for new recipients, when collecting samples for laboratory use, for example, or for repackaging)Awareness posters, like posters with safety alerts/ hazard and precautionary statements, like storage incompatibilities and good practice for handling and storing chemical substancesIt also allows the user to search specific substances and/or mixtures used in the company (indicating the workplaces where they are used), based on:CAS Number, EC Number or REACH registration number,Hazard classes or R-, S-, H- and P-phrasesRisk assessment of chemicals is a key issue in companies, and one of the biggest difficulties is related to determining chemical incompatibility. So GM SUB permits to check for compatibility between chemical substances used in a company, based on the hazard class and CAS number.As the protection of workers when handling chemical substances is very important, GM-SUB allows the identification of the necessary personal protective equipment, by chemical and/or by workplace, within a given workplace, when handling a particular chemical, moreover, it permits to identify the personal protective equipment for each worker.GM-SUB is continuously updated in accordance with the latestSVHClist (Substances of Very High Concern). This way at any time the user can access information on whether a substance used in the company has been placed on the candidate list or a new substance the company intend to use is already on the candidate list. These methodologies and tools are essential to the new sustainable chemistry, including reduction of hazardous chemicals (hazardous for humans or for the environment), specially to answer the challenges of the chemicals used in textile sector, namely the legislation related with chemicals speciallyREACH,CLPandBPR Regulations) but also to clients RSL (restricted substance list) and campaigns from non-governmental organizations, such as the Detox campaign and ZDHC programme.Since 2006, with the publication of theREACH(Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) Regulation (Regulation CE 1907/2006), the chemicals start to be analyses in a more comprehensive way, which means, this Regulation was adopted to improve the protection of human health and the environment from the risks that can be posed by chemicals, so the legislation includes the articles, beside the chemical substances and the mixtures. The application of the REACH Regulation in textile articles (from fibres to final products) has three possible levels of application:The registration of substances in articles (when the substance, in quantity superior to 1 ton/year, is intended to be released from articles to provide added value)The authorization, including the candidate list of substances of very high concern (SVHC) for authorization (if an article has a substance in theSVHClist in quantity superior to 0,1%, the supplier has to provide to the client enough information to allow the safe use of the article, as a minimum the name of the substance in question has to be communicated. And if thatSVHCis present in these articles in quantities totaling over 1 ton/year, the company have to notify ECHA, no later than six months after the inclusion of the substance in the candidate list), and the annex XIV – list of substances subject to authorization (these substances cannot be placed on the market or used after a given date, unless an authorisation is granted for their specific use, or the use is exempted from authorization)The restriction defined in annex XVII (includes specific restriction for textile articles and some general restriction that are relevant to textile articles)TheBPR(Biocidal Product Regulation), Regulation EU 528/2012, concerns the placing on the market and use of biocidal products, which are used to protect humans, animals, materials or articles against harmful organisms, like pests or bacteria, by the action of the active substances contained in the biocidal product. This regulation defines that biocidal products need an authorization before they can be placed on the market, and the active substances contained in that biocidal product must be previously approved. There rules applies to several types of products (PT), including two that are relevant to textile articles, the PT2: Disinfectants and algaecides not intended for direct application to humans or animals, used to be incorporated in textiles, tissues, masks, paints and other articles or materials with the purpose of producing treated articles with disinfecting properties, and PT9: Fibre, leather, rubber and polymerized materials preservatives, used for the preservation of fibrous or polymerised materials, such as leather, rubber or paper or textile products by the control of microbiological deterioration. This product-type includes biocidal products which antagonise the settlement of micro-organisms on the surface of materials and therefore hamper or prevent the development of odour and/or offer other kinds of benefits.The Detox campaign was launched in 2011, by Greenpeace, with the main objective of remove from the textile supply chain a group of 11 categories of chemicals, until 2020. A company commitment with this campaign represent the adoption of measures to phase out the use and release of some chemicals from their global supply chain and products. The commitment is based in three fundamental principles:Zero discharge of all hazardous chemicals: this means really eliminating all releases: whether via waste water pipe discharges, other production emissions (e.g. air and solid wastes) or later life "losses" from the final product — recognising that there are no environmentally safe levels for hazardous substancesPrevention and Precaution: this means taking preventative action towards the elimination of hazardous chemicals in the face of scientific uncertainty. This should be focused on elimination at source through substitution with sustainable alternatives or even product redesignRight to know. this means that brands and their supply chains need to be fully transparent and that they need to publicly disclose information about the hazardous chemicals used and discharged when making their productsUntil now the Detox campaign has been public adopted by nineteen brands, namely,Nike, Adidas,Puma,H&M,M&S,C&A, Li-Ning,Zara,Mango, Esprit,Levi's,Uniqlo,Benetton,Victoria's Secret,G-Star RawValentino,Coop,Canepa,BurberryandPrimark. The group of 11 categories of chemicals that must be eliminated arealkylphenols,phthalates,brominated and chlorinated flame retardants,azo dyes,organotin compounds,perfluorinated chemicals,chlorobenzenes,chlorinated solvents,chlorophenols,short-chain chlorinated paraffinsandheavy metals: cadmium, lead, mercury and chromium (VI).The ZDHC (Zero Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals) Programme, developed by ZDHC Foundation, takes a holistic approach to tackling the issue of hazardous chemicals in the global textile and footwear value chain. The objective is to eliminate the use of priority chemicals by focussing on the following areas:Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (MRSL): is a list of chemical substances banned from intentional use in facilities that process textile materials and trim parts in apparel and footwear. It establishes acceptable concentration limits for these substances as impurities or by-products in chemical formulations used within manufacturing facilities. It is supported by the documentZDHC MRSL V1.1, from 2015.Wastewater Quality: Well-designed, properly functioning wastewater treatment plants, good process controls and effective chemicals management are key to minimizing chemical, physical and biological pollutants discharged into the environmentAudit Protocol: was developed to ensure consistency in environmental auditing across the supply chain and sharing of audit findings. The Audit Protocol is supported by the ZDHC Chemical Management System (CMS) Guidance Manual, released in 2015Research: Research List is a list of prioritized chemical substances for which there are no safer alternatives in the market today. It lists priority chemical substances that require additional research or substitutionData and Disclosure: While implementing the Joint Roadmap, the need for integrated data management became apparent. The ZDHC Programme and its value chain participants including mills, tanneries, chemical companies and third-party service providers began exploring the challenges in data capture, reporting and global synchronizationTraining: is designed to support implementation of ZDHC standards throughout the value chain. Training is aimed at all parts of the value chain, including, brands, chemical suppliers, manufacturers and other intermediaries to adopt ambitious chemical management standardsDue to this new challenges the textile sector must implement a chemical management system that, in a first step, identify the problematic chemicals and in a second phase, look for safer alternatives. Considering that the textile wet or chemical processes (like dyeing, printing, coating, etc.), uses a huge quantity of chemicals, the management of those chemicals can only be effective if supported by tools and structured methodologies that help the chemical textile user to move for a sustainable chemistry. Relevant links:REACH Regulation:https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/SVHC candidate list:https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-tableAuthorization list:https://echa.europa.eu/addressing-chemicals-of-concern/authorisation/recommendation-for-inclusion-in-the-authorisation-list/authorisation-listRestrictions:https://echa.europa.eu/addressing-chemicals-of-concern/restrictions/substances-restricted-under-reachCLP Regulation:https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/clpBPR regulation:https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/biocidal-products-regulationList of authorised biocidal products:https://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals/biocidal-productsDetox campaign:http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/detox/water/detox/intro/ZDHC programmehttp://www.roadmaptozero.com/programme/OEKO-TEX® Products:https://www.oeko-tex.com/en/business/business_home/business_home.xhtml

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :농업생명과학대학 농생명공학부,2020. 2. 최영진. ; 현대사회에서 인간의 평균수명은 지속적으로 증가하고 있으며, 이에 따른 행복과 건강에 대한 관심이 크게 증가하고 있다. 전세계적인 이러한 현상은 자연스럽게 진단기술의 개발을 촉진시켰다. 특히, 바이오센서는 현장 진단용 기술로 큰 기대를 받고 있다. 분석물을 생체 인식 시스템을 이용하여 분석하는 장치인 바이오센서는 일반적으로 감지기, 변환기, 신호 분석 시스템 세 가지 요소로 구성된다. 바이오센서의 목표는 생물학적인 감지를 높은 민감도와 선택도로 구현하는 것이다. 의료 및 현장검사(point-of-care testing, POCT) 용을 시작으로 발전한 바이오센서의 진단기술은 식품안전, 군사, 환경 모니터링 등의 다양한 분야로 확대·응용되었다. 식품안전 분야에서의 바이오센서의 개발은 큰 어려움이 존재하는데, 그 이유로는 식품이 가지는 매우 다양하고 복잡한 matrix 때문이다. 즉, 식품은 종류도 다양하며, 그 안의 구성 matrix도 매우 복잡·다양해서 바이오센서의 작동을 어렵게 한다. 따라서, 식품 안전분야의 바이오센서의 개발은 식품에 대한 이해를 토대로 연구개발되어야 한다. 즉, 식품안전분야에서는 전처리 과정이 적으며, 식품의 matrix에 영향을 많이 받지 않으면서, 많은 양의 샘플을 처리할 수 있는 현장적용이 가능한 바이오센서의 개발이 필요하다. 또한, 현장 적용에 최적화되기 위해서는 장치의 소형화, 자동화, 간편화 등이 동반되어야 한다. 금 나노입자의 응집을 이용한 비색반응은 육안으로 신호분석을 할 수 있어서 특별한 분석장비가 필요하지 않다는 이유로 현장적용에 적합한 기술로 평가받고있다. 하지만 이 반응은 약 1010 ea/mL이상의 농도의 금 나노입자를 이용해야만 하는 점과 분석물의 감지와 신호분석이 동시에 일어나는 특성이 맞물려서 민감도가 좋지 않다는 한계점이 존재한다. 이에 따라서, 이중기능링커(bi-functional linker), 동일한 의미인 스위치어블 링커(switchable linker)를 사용한 새로운 금 나노입자의 응집 시스템은 금 나노입자의 응집과 분석물과의 반응을 서로 독립시켜서 이러한 문제점을 해결함으로써, 현장 적용에 적합한 바이오센서로서 대두되었다. 본 연구에서는 이중기능링커를 활용한 금 나노입자의 응집반응으로 토마토에서 살모넬라 균(Salomonella Typhimurium)을 간단한 조작으로 45분 이내에 10 cells/mL 이하로 검출할 수 있음을 보임으로서 식품산업현장에 적용가능성을 입증하였다. 또한, 1/10 희석한 serum에서 단백질 바이오마커인 prostate-specific antigen을 100 fg/mL의 수준까지 검출 가능함을 보임으로서 다양한 분석물에 적용할 수 있음을 보였다. 마지막으로, 3-way valve chamber와 주사기 필터를 적용한 소형화된 검출 장치를 통하여 살모넬라 균(Salomonella Typhimurium)을 검출함으로서, 이중기능링커의 금 나노입자 응집반응 시스템이 현장에 적용할 수 있음을 보였다. 물론 본 전략이 식품현장에서 사용하기 위해서는 자동화, 대량화, 안정성 등의 문제를 해결해야 할 것이다. 하지만, 간편하고, 민감하며, 매우 빠르게 분석물을 진단할 수 있다는 점에서 현장적용의 잠재력이 높다고 판단된다. ; The average human life span is continuously increasing as are efforts worldwide to improve health and happiness, which has spurred the development of diagnostic technologies. In particular, great advances are being made in biosensors that enable on-site diagnosis. Biosensors, i.e., devices that examine analytes using biometric systems, typically consist of three components: detectors, transducers, and signal analysis systems. The goal for biosensors has evolved to enable biological sensing with high sensitivity and selectivity. The use of biosensor diagnostic technology developed for medical and point-of-care testing has been expanded and is now applied in various fields, including food safety, the military, and environmental monitoring. The development of biosensors in the field of food safety presents significant challenges because of the very diverse and complex matrices that characterize food. In other words, foods come in many varieties, and their composition matrices are complex and diverse, which makes it difficult for biosensors to operate. Therefore, biosensors in the field of food safety must be researched and developed based on our current understanding of food. Such a biosensor must require minimal pretreatment and be able to process a large number of samples without being affected by the food matrix. In addition, to be optimized for field application, the device must be miniature in size, automated, and simple to use. Colorimetric methods that employ the strategy of gold nanoparticle (Au NP) aggregation have been determined to be suitable for field application because they can perform signal analysis using only the naked eye and require no specialized analytical equipment. However, these methods are limited by their poor sensitivity for the following reasons: First, color can be distinguished by the naked eye only when using Au NPs at a concentration of about 1011 ea/mL or more. Second, in general, Au NPs facilitate both detection and signal analysis. As a result, high concentrations of Au NPs require high concentrations of analytes for signal analysis. Accordingly, a novel Au NP aggregation system is proposed that uses a bi-functional linker (BL), which has the same function as a switchable linker, and thus solves this problem by separating the signal analysis step from the analyte detection step by the aggregation of Au NPs. In addition, a BL-based assay, which has advantages such as simple operation and requiring no washing step, has emerged as a biosensor suitable for application in the food industry. In this study, the aggregation strategy of using Au NPs as a BL showed that Salmonella Typhimurium could be detected in tomatoes at concentrations of less than 10 cells/400 μL within 45 minutes through simple manipulation. This indicates that this strategy is applicable to the food industry. In addition, prostate-specific antigen, a protein biomarker, was detected at a concentration of 100 fg/mL in a serum diluted to 1/10, which indicates that this strategy could be applied to various analytes. Finally, by detecting Salmonella Typhimurium using a miniaturized detection device with a 3-way valve chamber and a syringe filter, the BL-based assay could be applied in the field. Of course, to qualify this strategy for use in the food field, issues related to automation, sample bulk-up, and stability must be addressed. However, the potential for field application is high due to this strategy's simplicity, sensitivity, and rapid diagnosis of analytes. ; Chapter I. Introduction: 1 I-1. Biosensors 2 I-1-1. Background of biosensors 2 I-1-2. Biosensors in the food field 5 I-1-3. Biosensors for on-site detection 5 I-2. Colorimetric assay in the food safety field 8 I-2-1. The methods for the identification of food-borne pathogens 7 I-2-2. Au NP-based colorimetric biosensing strategy 7 I-2-3. Au NP-based colorimetric biosensing in the food safety 11 I-3. Bi-functional linker-based assay 16 I-4. References 17 Chapter II. A bi-functional linker based immunoassay for ultrasensitive visible detection of Salmonella in tomatoes 20 II-1. Introduction 21 II-2. Materials and Methods 24 II-2-1. Chemicals, reagents, and instruments 24 II-2-2. Preparation of streptavidin-coated Au NPs 25 II-2-3. Bacterial strain and culture conditions 25 II-2-4. Artificial inoculation of tomato samples with Salmonella 26 II-2-5. Comparision of homogenization methods 27 II-2-6. Time for large-scale aggregation using st Au NPs and b-Ab 28 II-2-7. Selectivity of b-Ab as a BL 28 II-2-8. BL-based immunoassay 29 II-2-9. Validation test 32 II-2-10. Statistical Analysis 32 II-3. Results and Discussion 34 II-3-1. The principle of BL-based immunoassay 34 II-3-2. Optimization of the conditions for the BL-based immunoassay 35 II-3-2-1. The range of BL concentration 35 II-3-2-2. The reaction time for creating large-scale aggregates 38 II-3-2-3. Selectivity 40 II-3-3. Detection of Salmonella using the BL-based immunoassay 42 II-3-4. The use of an BL-based assay with contaminated tomato samples 45 II-4. References 48 II-5. Appendix: Optimization of BL-based assay 50 II-5-1. Evaluation of the degree of shift in REVC 50 II-5-2. Detection of a single bacterium 51 II-5-3. Confirmation of the effectiveness of homogenization 52 II-5-4. Quantification of Color Change by Precipitation 52 Chapter III. Colorimetric bi-functional linker based bioassay for ultrasensitive detection of prostate-specific antigen as a protein target 53 III-1. Introduction 54 III-2. Materials and Methods 57 III-2-1. Chemicals, reagents, and instruments 57 III-2-2. Nanoparticle fabrication 58 III-2-3. Au NP surface functionalization 58 III-2-4. Detection of streptavidin and PSA using BL-based assay 61 III-2-5. Selectivity of b-antibody as a BL 61 III-2-6. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 62 III-2-7. Statistical Analysis 63 III-3. Results and Discussion 64 III-3-1. BL-based assay scheme: characteristics of the BL and its construction 64 III-3-2. Determination of the concentration of Au NPs 68 III-3-3. Ultra-sensitive performance of the immunoassay 71 III-3-4. Selectivity of the BL-based immunoassay 75 III-3-5. Detection of PSA in serum 77 III-3-6. Comparison of colorimetric biosensors and ELISA method 79 III-3-7. Sensitivity difference with respect to the BL design 79 III-4. References 81 III-5. Appendix: Optimization of BL-based assay for detection of protein targets 84 III-5-1. Optimization of degree of REVC shift 84 III-5-2. Optimization of shift in REVC differences 85 III-5-3. Shift in REVC of the BL-based assay for detecting streptavidin 86 III-5-4. Schematic representation of the switching off process 87 Chapter IV. Development of a portable lab-on-a-valve device for the primary diagnostic fields based on gold nanoparticle aggregation induced by bi-functional linker 88 IV-1. Introduction 89 IV-2. Materials and Methods 92 IV-2-1. Chemicals, reagents, and instruments 92 IV-2-2. Preparation of colloidal streptavidin-coated Au NPs 93 IV-2-3. Fabrication of the portable kit 95 IV-2-4. Optimization of the syringe filter 97 IV-2-5. Detection procedure 99 IV-2-6. Optimization of secondary reaction time for filteration 100 IV-2-7. Statistical Analysis 100 IV-3. Results and Discussion 101 IV-3-1. Optimization of 3-way valve chamber (3-VC) 101 IV-3-2. The BL-based immunosensing mechanism by 3-VC 101 IV-3-3. System stability of pH and salt conditions 101 IV-3-4. Determination of reaction time (first reaction time) for targets to crosslink with bi-functional linkers 105 IV-3-5. Determination of reaction time (second reaction time) for producing the REVC signal using the filter 107 IV-3-6. Evaluation experiments 109 IV-4. References 110 국문 초록 112 ; Doctor

On 5 May 1998, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (hereinafter referred to as the ECHR), becoming a component of the legal system of the Russian Federation, introduced into the Russian law a fundamentally new mechanism for ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens, including a supranational judicial institution - the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), which is responsible for all matters relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions of the Convention and the Protocols thereto. This body is intended to be an important mechanism for guaranteeing the guarantees set forth in the Convention, but its international status, which allows the ECtHR to significantly reduce the possibility of influence on the Court by the national authorities, at the same time gives rise to the possibility of improper treatment of the implementation of its decisions at the national level. In addition, in many countries, especially in Eastern Europe, disputes over the limits of the intervention of international bodies in national jurisdiction continue to subside.In the Russian legal reality, this issue again became relevant after the decision of the European Court of Human Rights in the case "Anchugov and Gladkov v. Russia", which was the basis for the appeal to the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation by a group of deputies of the State Duma on the verification of the constitutionality of the provisions of Article 1 of the Federal Law "On Ratification Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and its Protocols ", paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 32 of the Federal Law" On International Treaties of the Russian Federation ", as well as a number of articles of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation, the AIC, to the binding, the courts and other state authorities certainly execute ECHR decisions even against the basics of Russian law.For this reason, it is of interest to analyze part 1 of Article 46 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which establishes the duty of States to implement the final judgments of the ECtHR in cases in which they are parties, as well as the body of the Council of Europe responsible for monitoring the execution process decisions of the ECtHR. This provision, being extremely laconic, does not detail the mechanism for realizing this obligation in detail. But such a mechanism is reflected in the practice of the ECHR itself. Currently, there are many different works on the implementation of the ECtHR judgments and the analysis of the previously mentioned provision of the ECHR, but most of them are either mostly theoretical in nature or, on the contrary, provide an overview of existing practice, which significantly limits their audience and the possibility of applying the knowledge gained.In this connection, the commentary to Part 1 of Article 46 of the ECHR given in the book "Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" is extremely useful. Volume II. Comments on articles 19-59 and additional protocols edited by Professor Lech Garlicky. " In this paper, the view of the problem analyzed is not only an outstanding scientist, but also a specialist who is well acquainted with the practical component of this problematic. Lech Garlitsky is a unique researcher who had experience as judges of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Poland (1993-2001) and judges of the ECHR. In addition, the above work provides an opportunity to learn how to look at the problem of the implementation of ECtHR judgments in the Eastern European states that have undergone socio-political changes similar to those in Russia. Moreover, the authors of the commentary analyze the view on the implementation of the ECHR judgments, both from the point of view of the ECHR practice, and from the point of view of the Polish legislation and the national judiciary. ; 5 мая 1998 года Европейская конвенция о защите прав человека и основных свобод (далее – ЕКПЧ), ставсоставляющей правовой системы Российской Федерации, внедрила в российское право принципиально новый механизм обеспечения прав и свобод граждан, включающий в себя наднациональный судебный институт – Европейский суд по правам человека (ЕСПЧ), в ведении которого находятся все вопросы, касающиеся толкования и применения положений Конвенции и Протоколов к ней. Данный орган призван стать важным механизмом обеспечения гарантий, закрепленных в Конвенции, однако его международный статус, позволяющий ЕСПЧ значительно снизить возможность влияния на Суд со стороны национальных органов, в тоже время порождает возможность ненадлежащего отношения к исполнению его решений на национальном уровне. Кроме того, во многих странах, особенно в Восточной Европе, не утихают споры относительно пределов вмешательства международных органов в национальную юрисдикцию. В российской правовой действительности данный вопрос вновь обрел актуальность, после принятия решения ЕСПЧ по делу «Анчугов и Гладков против России», явившегося основанием для обращения в Конституционный Суд Российской Федерации со стороны группы депутатов Государственной Думы о проверке конституционности положений статьи 1 Федерального Закона «о ратификации Конвенции о защите прав человека и основных свобод и Протоколов к ней», пунктов 1 и 2 статьи 32 ФЗ «о международных договорах РФ», а также ряда статей ГПК РФ, АПК РФ, КАС РФ и УПК РФ, как обязывающих, суды и иные государственные органы безусловно выполнять решения ЕСПЧ даже вопреки основам российского законодательства. По этой причине интерес представляет анализ части 1 статьи 46 Европейской конвенции о защите прав человека и основных свобод, в которой закрепляется обязанность государств исполнять окончательные постановления ЕСПЧ по делам, в которых они являются сторонами, а равно обозначается орган Совета Европы, ответственный за контроль процесса исполнения решений ЕСПЧ. Данная норма, являясь крайне лаконичной, детально не раскрывает механизм реализации данного обязательства. Зато такой механизм нашел свое отражение в практике самого ЕСПЧ. В настоящее время существует множество различных работ, посвященных исполнению решений ЕСПЧ и анализу ранее указанного положения ЕКПЧ, однако большинство из них носят либо преимущественно теоретический характер, либо, напротив, представляют обзор существующей практики, что, значительно ограничивает их аудиторию и возможность применения полученных знаний. В этой связи крайне полезной работой является комментарий к части 1 статьи 46 ЕКПЧ, данный в книге «Конвенция о защите прав человека и основных свобод. Том II. Комментарии к статьям 19-59 и дополнительным протоколам под редакцией профессора Леха Гарлицкого». В данной работе, нашел свое отражение взгляд на анализируемую проблему не только выдающегося ученого, но и специалиста, хорошо знакомого с практической составляющей этой проблематики – Лех Гарлицкий является уникальным исследователем, имевшим опыт как судьи Конституционного Суда Республики Польша (1993–2001), так и судьи ЕСПЧ. Кроме того, вышеуказанная работа дает возможность ознакомиться с тем, как смотрят на проблему исполнения решений ЕСПЧ в восточно-европейских государствах, переживших социально-политические изменения, подобные российским. Причем авторы комментария анализируют взгляд на проблему исполнения решений ЕСПЧ, как с точки зрения практики ЕСПЧ, так и с точки зрения польского законодательства и национальных судебных органов. ; 5 травня 1998 року Європейська конвенція про захист прав людини і основних свобод (далі - ЄКПЛ), ставши складовою правової системи Російської Федерації, впровадила в російське право принципово новий механізм забезпечення прав і свобод громадян, що включає в себе наднаціональний судовий інститут - Європейський суд з прав людини (ЄСПЛ), у віданні якого поширюється на всі питання, що стосуються тлумачення і застосування Конвенції та протоколів до неї. Даний орган покликаний стати важливим механізмом забезпечення гарантій, закріплених в Конвенції, однак його міжнародний статус, що дозволяє ЄСПЛ значно знизити можливість впливу на Суд з боку національних органів, в той же час породжує можливість неналежного ставлення до виконання його рішень на національному рівні. Крім того, у багатьох країнах, особливо в Східній Європі, не вщухають суперечки щодо меж втручання міжнародних органів в національну юрисдикцію.У російській правовій дійсності дане питання знову набуло актуальності, після прийняття рішення ЄСПЛ у справі «Анчугов і Гладков проти Росії», який став підставою для звернення до Конституційного Суду Російської Федерації з боку групи депутатів Державної Думи про перевірку конституційності положень статті 1 Федерального Закону «про ратифікацію Конвенції про захист прав людини і основних свобод і Протоколів до неї », пунктів 1 і 2 статті 32 ФЗ« про міжнародні договори РФ », а також ряду статей ЦПК РФ, АПК РФ, КАС РФ і КПК РФ, до до зобов'язуючих, суди та інші державні органи безумовно виконувати рішення ЄСПЛ навіть всупереч основ російського законодавства.З цієї причини інтерес представляє аналіз частини 1 статті 46 Європейської конвенції про захист прав людини і основних свобод, в якій закріплюється обов'язок держав виконувати остаточні рішення ЄСПЛ у справах, в яких вони є сторонами, а так само позначається орган Ради Європи, відповідальний за контроль процесу виконання рішень ЄСПЛ. Дана норма, будучи вкрай лаконічною, детально не розкриває механізм реалізації даного зобов'язання. Зате такий механізм знайшов своє відображення в практиці самого ЄСПЛ. В даний час існує безліч різних робіт, присвячених виконанню рішень ЄСПЛ та аналізу раніше зазначеного положення ЄКПЛ, однак більшість з них носять або переважно теоретичний характер, або, навпаки, представляють огляд існуючої практики, що, значно обмежує їх аудиторію і можливість застосування отриманих знань.У зв'язку з цим вкрай корисною роботою є коментар до частини 1 статті 46 ЄКПЛ, даний в книзі «Конвенція про захист прав людини і основних свобод. Том II. Коментарі до статей 19-59 і додатковим протоколам під редакцією професора Леха Гарліцкого ». У даній роботі, знайшов своє відображення погляд на аналізовану проблему не тільки видатного вченого, а й фахівця, добре знайомого з практичної складової цієї проблематики - Лех Гарліцкій є унікальним дослідником, які мали досвід як судді Конституційного Суду Республіки Польща (1993-2001), так і судді ЄСПЛ. Крім того, вищевказана робота дає можливість ознайомитися з тим, як дивляться на проблему виконання рішень ЄСПЛ в східно-європейських державах, які пережили соціально-політичні зміни, подібні російським. Причому автори коментаря аналізують погляд на проблему виконання рішень ЄСПЛ, як з точки зору практики ЄСПЛ, так і з точки зору польського законодавства і національних судових органів.