This thesis consists of three chapters, each derived from an individual paper. Although each of these chapters deals with a unique research question, there are similarities that are strong between Chapters 1 and 2 and weak regarding the third. First, all chapters raise questions in the field of microeconomics and touch on the Swiss system of Vocational Education and Training (VET). Second, all chapters apply quantitative methods widely used in the field. And finally, all chapters are embedded in the Swiss context. Whereas this Swissness merely concerns the data in chapter three, it additionally includes the outcome of interest and the fundamentals of the empirical methodology in chapter one and two. Both Chapters 1 and 2 investigate firms' engagement in the Swiss VET system. Within this system firms' voluntary participation is crucial – they help design curricula, hire apprentices, pay their wages, and are responsible for most of their training – and remarkable: Setting a world record, Switzerland's dual VET system accepts around 60% of all pupils after compulsory schooling each year. It thus seems fair to say that Swiss firms bear a large proportion of the investments needed to secure their own future skill demand. Chapter 1, which is joint work with Andreas Kuhn, investigates what happens to this voluntary engagement in the skill formation process if firms are permitted to secure their skill demand from another source: we focus on immigration. In recent years, this channel has changed substantially, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Through mutual agreements, foremost the Agreement on the Free Movement of Persons implemented in 2002, the labor markets of Switzerland and the European Union have increasingly integrated, and the non-Swiss workforce has grown by roughly 50% or 600,000 workers since 1995. Meanwhile, most immigrant workers today hold a vocational or tertiary degree, whereas in the 1990s fewer reached educational attainments higher than compulsory schooling. Overall, we hypothesize that this enlargement of skills provided by the non-native to the Swiss labor market may incentivizes firms to substitute their investments in VET by hiring immigrant workers. To examine this claim empirically, Chapter 1 focuses on crossborder workers, who work in but live outside Switzerland. Today, crossborder workers account for 6% of the total Swiss workforce and 20% of the immigrant workforce. Moreover, their numbers doubled between 1995 and 2018, an increase twice as large in relative terms as the simultaneous increase in resident immigrant workers. To understand Switzerland's particular attraction for crossborder workers, it is first worth picturing a map of Switzerland's distinct language regions. The triangle on the left pointing towards France forms the French-speaking part. The much smaller triangle hanging upside down into Italy covers the Italian-speaking, and the rest, mostly bordering Germany and Austria, the German-speaking part. One notices that all three main Swiss language regions border countries in which they are the sole official language. Evidently, language is not a major barrier at the Swiss border within the institutionally relatively well integrated European labor market, which together with the comparatively high Swiss wages makes Switzerland attractive for workers from neighboring countries. Second, Switzerland's comparatively high cost of living together with assumed personal preferences for residing in one's country of origin makes it relatively unattractive to work and live in Switzerland. Quite obviously, the resulting high numbers of crossborder workers are not evenly distributed across Switzerland. Swiss firms' opportunities to employ them is substantially constrained by their distance from the border. The empirical approach presented in Chapter 1 exploits this setting by comparing firms close to the border with large and firms far from the border with limited access to crossborder workers that are otherwise similar. Overall, we find that the increase observed in crossborder workers between 1995 and 2008 led to a decrease of about 3,500 apprenticeship positions, corresponding to roughly 2% of the total number of apprentice positions. Although the exact channel through which this substitution works remains ambiguous, policy makers designing institutions in either immigration or VET might want to pay attention to this trade-off, especially because it involves two goods that are in general positively valued by many employers. Chapter 2, which is joint work with Andreas Kuhn and Jürg Schweri, sticks with firms' investments in VET and, moreover, also investigates the spatial distribution of it across Switzerland. The focus lies on the varying proportions of firms providing apprenticeship positions across Switzerland's language regions (that you remember when recalling the map pictured above). Note first that we do not claim there is any direct link between different languages and different levels of firm engagement in VET. However, the distinct languages in Switzerland also maintain cultural differences within a small country, despite the fact that national institutions are well accepted and people increasingly mobile. It may be due to exclusive communication with same-language peers, selective media consumption, or varying exposure to Switzerland's neighboring countries with whom each Swiss language region forms a distinct supranational linguistic region: French speakers are most open to immigration and international cooperation and eat more meat than their German-speaking counterparts. German speakers have a more traditional understanding of gender roles than their French-speaking counterparts and donate the most for charity of all linguistic groups. Italian speakers use public transport the least and value leisure more than their German-speaking counterparts. In Chapter 2, we focus on a clear discontinuity that analysis of voting results reveals among the language-cultural regions constituting Switzerland: Whereas French and Italian speakers approve of strong state involvement, for example in the health insurance sector, for pension schemes, and in the VET system, German speakers prefer private engagement over the states in the same domains. From this starting point, we ask whether a favorable attitude towards private engagement expressed at the ballot box is actually accompanied by higher levels of the privately provided good apprenticeship. Chapter 2 reveals the answer to be yes: firms located in German-speaking municipalities are about 10% more likely to train apprentices than firms in very nearby French- and Italian-speaking municipalities. Altogether, we argue that norm-guided behavior is a complementary explanation for why some firms train apprentices and others do not. One can draw two policy implications from this finding. First, persistent norms might strengthen the sustainability of the Swiss VET system against potential shocks to firms' cost-benefit ratio. Second, behavior bound by norms might hinder the export of a Swiss-style VET system with its strong focus on firm engagement to other countries even if they set up the institutional framework to foster it. Chapter 3 focuses on the adult labor market, where skills acquired, e.g. in the VET system, are applied. Many economists claim that recent rapid technological change penetrating the labor market has shifted firms' skill demand and altered the nature of jobs. Given individuals' skills, these demand shifts potentially foster horizontal skill mismatches, such that someone's acquired skills do not match the skills needed in their current occupation. In line with previous mismatch literature, Chapter 3 shows that such horizontal skill mismatches are a multi-faceted phenomenon. First, whereas only about half of all individuals work in exactly the occupations that they learned formally, the degree of mismatch among the other half varies widely. Second, many individuals actually realize wage gains when becoming mismatched; this suggests that objectively identified mismatches are not bad per se. Based on these general findings and on the task-based approach, I hypothesize that horizontal skill mismatches are harmful to the wages of individuals who mostly hold skills substitutable by new technology, whereas they are not harmful in general. I account for this heterogeneity of mismatches in the empirical analysis of Chapter 3 by exploiting detailed occupational task data to measure the strength of mismatches and to focus on mismatches presumably caused by skill demand shifts due to new technology. The main result yields a wage penalty of roughly 12% for mismatched individuals with high shares of substitutable skills. Applying other methods to the same dataset suggests that objectively identified horizontal mismatches have zero wage implications on average, even after accounting for unobservable individual characteristics. From a policy perspective, it thus seems important to bear the heterogeneity of the mismatch phenomena in mind; otherwise, revealed average effects might mask negative effects on certain subgroups. In this spirit, I estimate mismatch wage penalties for different educational subgroups including VET diploma holders. And in this sense, all chapters of this thesis deal with the Swiss system of vocational education and training, a system that is recognized by many as one of the key contributors to the country's economic success. However, as this thesis shows, it is also a system that contains frictions, even contradictions at first sight, a system regularly challenged by pupils entering it and labor markets demanding its outcomes, and therefore a system that must remain agile. Thus, the recognition that the Swiss VET system receives from inside and outside the country must motivate constant reflection, adjustment, and amelioration, and should never tempt to rest on its laurels. I hope this thesis plays its modest role in fulfilling this purpose.
The Mercury February, 1908 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Maker* °f CAPS AND GOWNS To Gettysburg College. Lafayette, Lchigh. Dickinson; State College, Univ. of'Penn-sylviini , Harvard. Tale. Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contrasts a Specialty. Correct Hoods for Degrees. To The Class of '08. We have begun our college campaign for next Spriug and Buuimer. Over, 25.000 employers li-ok to Hapgoods for their men in sales, offices and technical positions in all departments. Must of these firms use college men. They arrange with us to cover the entire college world for them. We have a unique proposition of immediate interest to any college aiau who will be open fora propo-sition. Let us tell you about it. Write to-day. TIIK JVMTMOJYAi, «/.■•.'./.WX./7/O.V Oh' iiit.JM.v itiio1,1:us. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. 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PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY S. BONER, Sup't. THE MERCURY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1908 No. 8 CONTENTS ALUM X I SPIRIT .*. 2 PROF. is. j). s'i'.uii.i:v, u.n., "tl. THREE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS. Plato—Part II.11 CHARLES W. IIKATHCOTK, '05. WINTER Poem 16 BOWMAN '10. THE PERSONALITY OF THE MUSICIAN" 18 II. KI:Y WOLF, '09. THE EALNBOW HOPE • 21 Q. ARTHUR KliF.Y. SEMINARY., '08 TAX AX ACCEPTABLE SUBSTITUTE FOE PREACH-ING BE DEVISED? : 25 KiiiiiiAirr, '09. IS THE MATERIAL FOE iSTOVELS EXHAUSTLESSF.-.28 VIRGINIA BEARD, '09. EDITORIALS 31 XH E MEPOUEY. ALUMNI SPIRIT. PROF. G. I). ST.AHLKV. VI.IJ., 187T. R. CHAIRMAN, Members of the Pen and Sword So-ciety, and Students: It is pleasant to have■honors thrust upon one. I appreciate the privilege of becoming a member of the Pen and Sword Society. It has occurred to me to utilize the present occasion hy speak-ing on the subject of Alumni Spirit. A proper alumni spirit, and college prosperity go hand in hand. The alumni are ungrateful and despicable, if they do not lovingly hold in remembrance their college days, and contem-plate with gratitude their alma mater—their nourishing mother, who guided their adolescent steps through the preliminary paths of learning, and established their feet on broad and well tested avenues leading to higher culture. And on the oilier hand that college is short-sighted indeed, that does not recognize-the ne-cessity of co-operation with its alumni in carrying on its educa-tional wmk. To lightly esteem or ignore alumni opinion or in-fluence is 3 suicidal policy for any college to adopt. Alumni spirit has its foundation in college spirit «nd class spirit. It is therefore a product of the four years passed in the college community, and is not a I'rame of mind originated on .commencement day. and formally received, with the diploma, from the hands of the president. Those who have been gradu-ated from college and have frequently seen others graduated, know that commencement day is a day of subdued sadness. The emotions may be well mastered, but the undertone of regret at the breaking up of pleasant companionships certainly exisits. and if not realized by the student then, will he realized later [f the alumni spirit is not invisibly conferred with th degree, then the degree will lack a sentiment and a subtle influence, which will greatly mar its effectiveness as a symbol of eminence attained. Let as consider college spirit as a primal factor in the culti-vati I' alumni spirit. The existence of a college spirit invari-ably follows, wherever there is a college having students. It cannot be otherwise, The institution is the center of the college idea and the exponent of college traditions. The students are THE MKRCURY. there for what the college can give them—of training, incentive, •council,—and it is the rallying jjoint for all their scholastic in-terests and activities. It is their educational home, and it wordd he just'as unnatural for them to disregard their college colors, as it would be to hold in contempt their own family honor. There are various influences winch contribute to the building up of a college spirit. In these days there is no lack of college activities which have in view the betterment of the institution, from tlie student view-point. Athletics with its varied and strenuous features, the musical organizations, literary publica-tions, debating and dramatic clubs, the college Y. M. C A., fra-ternity and inter-fraternity fellowships, together with social en-gagements, present a complex of student interests, which from the amount of time and personal attention they require, often causes alarm, when we stop to consider that in addition to all these activities there is such a thing as a curriculum, \vbieh by fight should also claim a certain portion of the student's time and attention. *J?o those unaccustomed to a student's life, and ignorant of the easy adaptations which characterize college men. the problem of student efficiency, under such conditions, becomes a puzzle, and they shake their heads in emphatic disap-proval. But to those of us who are on the inside, the situation is not alarming, and the logic of our thoughts is to the effect that all these activities contribute mightily to.the building up of a vigorous college spirit. They converge and unify the varied energies of the student body, and definitely determine a rallying center about which to engage with inspiring shouts and songs. Of course there are tendencies in these activities which \wd to be regulated. I beard recently of an employer who said that so many of his workmen were only interested in "pay day and quit-ting time" So it sometimes occurs that students become more interested in these self-assumed enterprises, than in the prose-cution of their studies. But this need not be so. More than fifteen years ago one of our students asked me—"Can a man play football and yet continue to be a good student." I replied —"It can be done, but it requires a level-headed man to do it." fie did not tell me what his decision would be, but I noticed that ■he continued to play football, and during an iniporta.it season he was captain of the team and one of its crack players: when lege is not frequently in their thoughts and their interest seems dormant aft9-de'ad. Such an one I met recently, who did not know of the existence of a certain department in our college, although that department was established twelve years ago. However his heart is all right, and he expects to attend our com-mencement exercises this "summer. A genuine alumni spirit, when at its best, will not allow tin cares of this world and the deceitfulness of riches to choke it and to render it unfruitful. Those of us who are officially, or as students connected with the college, and whose interests are therefore at white heat, must not expect the alumni spirit to be always abundant, intense and persistent—but when we do find it characterized by these admirable qualities, we should be willing to accord due credit We have with us to-day an alum-nus, whose spirit of interest in his alma mater'has the qualities T have just mentioned—it is abundant, intense and persistent— I refer of course, to Dr. Gies, the founder of the Pen and Sword Society, the donor of valuable prizes to stimulate literary work in the college, and whose interest in his alma mater has neve] lessened, notwithstanding the multiplied and arduous duties imposed upon him by the professional chair he so ably fills. Alumni interest and college prosperity go hand in hand. The former is i >st valuable asset of the college, and without it. its resources are insignificant indeed. The alumni ptand, as THE MERCURY. did Aaron and Hur, in holding up the anus of Moses,—they assist mightily in securing influence and prevailing power. Many of the best men of the college boards of the land are alumni of the institutions they serve, and some of them are the official rep-resentatives of the alumni associations of their respective col-leges. The alumni on these boards, have, '"both theoretically and as a fact, the best interests of the institution at heart. II' these alumni have been actually engaged in educational work, so much the better,—and for the very forceful reason that familiarity and experience will insure wise opinions and judicious councils. Our own board did a most commendable act, when last commence-ment, they added to their number Dr. Luther P. Eisenhart of the class of '96. Professor Eisenhart secured his doctorate at Johns Eopkins University, and is now a member <.!' tht faculty al Princeton University. His experience and observations at both of these institutions will undoubtedly be of great value to us here. I do-not sympathize with the idea, sometimes express-ed, that a university trained man can be of no service in the coun-cils of a small college. The. objection made is that such an one will endeavor to introduce inapplicable university methods. I belieye this danger to lie imaginary. If Governor Stuart were to be elected Chief Burgess of Gettysburg, 1 do not imagine that he would proceed to establish a State government within the bor-ough limits, but I beli tat his knowledge of what a State government should be, would greatly aid him in building up a good borougli government. His sense of needs, and of adapta-tion, would guide him mosl admirably in giving us a most effi-cient civic administration. At the next meeting of the Board of Trustees, another oppor-tunity will be afforded ih,m. of again adding an educator to their number. As most of you know, at the meeting of our gen-eral Alumni Association during commencement week 'ast sum-mer, when it was announced that the Association had a vacancy to lill in the Board, at once the name of Dr. (lies, of the class of '93, was proposed, The marked enthusiasm which greeted his nomination as the nominee to the Board, and the hearty and unanimous election which immediately followed, was a bigh and merited endorsement by the general alumni body. In addition THE MERCURY. to this, the Pittsburg-Gettysbtfrg Club and the New York-Get-tysburg Club, have, in specific resolutions, unanimously second-ed the request of the general Association. The existence of a provision, which bars from election, an alumnus who is a member of a college faculty cannot consistently be recognized by the Board at its meeting (bis summer, since it has already, and very justly, ignored the propriety of such an objection, by the'elec-tion of Professor. Eisenhart, The qualifications of Doctor Gies ;is a counselor in educational matters are beyond question. He has been a university man for the past fifteen years. He *m.< ■' received his degree of Do-.tor of Philosophy at Yale in 1898, and that fall began to organize a department of Physiological Chemistry in Columbia University. So well did he succeed in this work that in 1904, or in eleven years after his graduation here, he became a full professor in that great university. Our college, needs (he interest of its alumni, and it needs the active counsel and assistance of those of our alumni graduates who have a practical acquaintance with the educational methods of on- dav. Alumni spirit needs the fosteiing care of recogni-tion, in order that it^iecoiiie^a power for good in advancing the interests of our beloved college We have an institution here to be proud of. E desire to utter the it-liberate judgment, based upon history, observation and fact, that Pennsylvania College has always compared favorably with any other American collegiate institution,—in respect to advantages offered, the standing of its alumni in the higher ac-tivities of life, and. in the representative character of its student body. ■ • Through veais of toil, and by reason of the devotion of its ardent trends and the labors of its instructors, Pennsylvania College has secured to itself a rich prestige of scholarly tradi-tions, and a name and fame for honest achievement, which we . -will do well to guard with jealous care. The past is secure. No profane tongue may successfully dis-credit either the work or the workers. The success of the in-stitution has been evolutionary, cumulative, progressive and we of to-day have inherited a privilege and an obligation. The de-cades of the past mark successive periods of continuous growth and development, and the obligation is insistent that future de- 10 THE MERCURY. cades shall come to their proper inheritance. The work of the present is admirably consonant with the achievements of the past. Progress is still the watchword, as is witnessed by the recent additions in instructors, new departments and new courses. All hail, then, to bur college in its continued onward strides, and all hail to thai essential alumni spirit, which if properly recognized and nourished, will do wonders for our alma mater. And all hail to our undergraduate body of students, who are now diligently cultivating college spirit and class spirit, in order that they may become efficiently equipped with an abundant alumni snirit. [Note:—This address was delivered by Dr. Stahley upon his initiation into the Pen and Sword Society at its annual public .neeting February twelfth. The members of the Society, appre-ciating its excellence, unanimously voted after its collation, to have it published in the MERCURY in order that those who were not present at the time it was delivered might have an opportu-nity of reading it.—EDITOR.] THE 3IEKCURY. 11 THREE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS. Plato—Part II. Cir.VHI.ES W. HEATHCOTE, '05. HE underlying principle in Plato's philosophy is his Theory of Ideas. The various philosophers who pre-ceded Plato prepared the way for the development of his Doctrine of Ideas. He takes the golden thread which runs through their philosophical systems and withvhis master mind weaves the network for his own system. In great part he was indebted to the Eleatics, Heracliteans and Pytha-goreans for his Doctrine of Ideas. He took the abstract matter of thought and moulded it into a "concrete form of an ideal vision." . The Idea.- ( iBei ) stand as archetypes of Being. They are the conceived essence of true existence. Plato gave to the Ideas a separate existence. Their home is in the Universal Mind or God. There is a gradual rise from the lower ideas to the high-est. The highest is the idea of the Good which Plato seems to identify with God and which he construes to be the source of knowledge. Plato was in harmony, in part, at least with the current view of his age, in recognizing the existence of certain minor dieties, but he purified this thought with the true spirit of his philoso-phy. He asserts again and again that the Ideas are divine. In recognizing one Supreme Idea, he held that this Idea was the Highest or God: As a manifestation of this goodness, God cre-ated the world. Or as Zeller well says: "In thus determining the highest Being as the Good, and as Season assigning an end, Plato apprehends it as the creative principle, revealing itself in the Phenomenon; because God is good, He formed the world." In forming the world, Plato firmly held in mind that God had created it perfect. It was not controlled and governed by Blind Force. Law and order prevailed everywhere as the rul-ing factors. Thus mind and intelligence formed the basis of all this creative power. As Plato conceived of God's intelligence being so clearly marked in its perfect form of creation, he also developed the idea of the World-soul. .That is Plato believed 12 THE MERCURY. that intelligence could not exist apart from the soul life. Con-sequently, he believed that God placed the world's intelligence into a true soul-life known as the World-soul. Plato divided this World-soul into two parts, known as the outer and inner. These •parts conceived of as being spherical in form make up the world-system. The outer circle is the system of fixed stars and the inner "the seven spheres of the planets." Thus the soul on ac-count of it; very nature is governed by true law and as it moves continuously it gives the proper place, position and motion of all the heavenly orbs. To tine"World-soul, because of its self-mo-tive power, he ascribes it the faculty of generating knowledge. Plato in writing of the power of the World-soul was using figurative language. It is true that he literally ascribed a sou] to the world yet.the meaning of the word as he uses it embraces too much in its broad conception. With respect to the soul of man Plato carefully reasons that God formed it out of the same elements as the World-soul, but less pure. When the Creator made the souls of men, he made as many souls as there were fixed stars and each soul had one of these stars as its true and eternal habitation. When'man was created, one of these souls would be implanted in his body. To-the soul that would be victorious over wickedness and evil it would be released from its bodily home and be restored to the realms of immortality. But the individual who would fail to-conquer the temptations of his lower nature, his soul would be condemned to dwell among the fierce beasts. But since the soul has pre-existed without bodily form, in the end it will be freed from its sinful bodily home and will fly to those realms where it can grow in power and strength and attain perfection. Plato-did not think that any one did wrong willfully, but Virtue and Good were overruled by a weak and disordered body. This was due to the improper use of the body and the lack of careful Ju-dicious exercise. Thus, parents should live nobly in order that their children would be spiritually strong, in order that the soul might be pure and reach that ideal state of perfection. He firmly believed that man was placed at the head of crea-tion and because of this grand heritage he should continually strive to live the Higher Life. Plants and animals were cre-ated for man's use and to serve his purpose. Animals were THE MERCURY. 13 formed not only as food for him, but also as the dwelling place of man's soul that had proved itself unworthy for the realms of immortal life. "Plants too are living beings, but their so\rl is of the lowest kind, capable neither of reason nor opinion, but only of desire and sensation; a soul only moved from without, to which has been denied the motion that proceeds from and re-turns into itself—self-consciousness, therefore, plants can never change their place." (Zeller page 432.) Socrates had taught that the attainment of the Good by each individual should be each one's best and noblest endeavor. Plato imbibed this golden truth from his great master and inculcated the principle that the individual should so live day by day that his soul would attain the Ideal—the Highest Good. This was to be the ultimate aim of each soul, both for the at-tainment of it in the individual life and for the interests of the State. Plato was so deeply impressed with the reality of evil in the world that the soul was never free from it. As long as the soul resided in the body it was fettered there as in a prison or a dungeon. It was unable to flee away to the Higher Life. However the soul, at. the first opportunity, he realizes, must escape from this corporeal existence and seek its home with God in order to be happy. However, true philosophy serves a pur-pose which is helpful in part, at least, that by its very essence, it has the power of purification. The soid, the center of the intelligence' desires'this philosophy not per se as a pleasure re-sulting from contemplation, but as a power and a help to purify it foi* the Higher Life that is to come. On the other hand, Plato well observes that a soul that does not feel the sting of pain, suffering and anguish could not truly appreciate the Higher Life. Though the soul may be surround-ed by wickedness in its darkest form, nevertheless, there are times when the soul is able to be glad and joyful for the rays of goodness that it is able to receive from the Eternal Light. Pleasure in a certain degree may be considered as a part of the Good. The soul in its present prison, Plato rightly believes, is able to enjoy certain pleasures that are in harmony with natural law and careful living. Those joys that require the im-proper use of the faculties are impure and destructive in their participation. The first and supreme pleasure should be the 14 TIIH JIERCUKY. contemplation of the Idea Good in the present soul Kfe and the striving to realize or actualize the Good in the present life as far as possible. This plan will make the soul truly crave Virtue. In this thought Plato truly reiterates the sublime principle of Socrates. For he emphasizes the idea that morality is based'upon a clear conception of virtuous living. The soul fills itself with the Divine Goodness through contemplation. It is the true philoso-phy of life Then the soul becomes strong and even here on earth can treak down many of the bars of evil and wickedness which summoned it. Through this power it can copy more clearly the archetype conception of Goodness, for the very thought becomes indelibly impressed upon the soul. ' It has been shown that Virtue was the great Ideal for the in-dividual to attain, so this same principle was to be the foundation of the State and Platonic Society. The Greeks held the true organization of the State to be of the utmost importance. They were taught to give true allegi-ance to th.T State. Although Plato strongly believed that moral integrity and good government were necessary for the well being of the State, but he looked upon ihe participation in its affairs not as an absolute but only a relative duty. He thinks the life of the philosopher as he contemplates, in a quiet and undisturb-ed way, on the Higher Problems of life is fulfilling the true end of living. Since it is impossible for all men to live thus, philo-sophically speaking, the State is a moral necessity in order by education to inculcate virtue in the minds of its citizens. The philosophers can only give the inhabitants of the community a true conception of Virtue and they should be the ruling class and Philosophy though united with political ideals, should oc-cupy the first place and all trouble and discontent would be avoided. Or as Uberweg says: "The State is the individual on a large scale. The highest mission of the State is the training of the citizens to virtue. In the Ideal State each of the three principal functions and corresponding virtues of the soul is represented by a particular class of citizens. These are (1) the rulers, whose virtue is wisdom; (2) the guardians or warriors, whose virtue is valor; and (3) the manual laborers and trades-men, whose virtue is self-restraint'and willing obedience. The THE MEKCURY. 13 rulers and warriors are to labor only for the realization of the true and the good: all individual interests whatsoever are for-biddui them, and they are all required to form in the strictest sense one family, without marriage and without private prop-erty." It has been observed that Plato believed in the existence of •God. He clearly shows throughout his philosophical system that lie is a Theist. He repudiates all the stories of the various gods ;is myths and false. Plato was unable to describe God fully as one who is Love, although he catches glimpses of this great fact, but it remained for the Gospel to give the conception of God to the world. In his conception, of the State he inculcates the grand truth that God must be sought after in order that virtue mav be the crowning possession of the soul. Plato also ascribes nnchangeableness and perfection to God. According to Plato in the Laws every citizen who holds public office should fear God and remember his duty to God and the soul that God gave him is higher than the body. Thus every citizen should be faithful .and honest in the discharge of his duties. It is true that the philosophical and governmental teachings of Plato were ideal in their conception, but he was nevertheless truly conscious of his surrounding conditions. He tried by his teachings to help the Athenians in a practical way toward attain-ing better governments and living. Plato more than any other philosopher made Athens the philosophical center of the world, that remained years after she lost her political supremacy. A large number of students from all parts of the world were at-tendant upon his lectures at the Academy. The influence of Plato was widely felt and as time has gone on his thought has affected philosophy and theology. After Plato's death his nephew, Spensippus, succeeded to the headship of the Academy. He was followed by Xenocrates a philosopher.of considerable ability and power. Many of the philosophers of the Platonic school departed from the original teachings of their master. They developed a phi-losophy known as Neo-Platonism which was not pure. Greek philosophy hut was a combination of Hellenic, Helraic and other Oriental speculative thought. However, true constructive historical criticism has resulted in 16 THE MERCURY. giving to the philosophical world purer Platonism and his spirit is not lost in the meshes of Neo-Platonic thought. His thought and philosophy have so deeply permeated oiu own language that gain and again in discussing various philosophical problems we will speak of Platonic conceptions unconsciously. Or as Milton n II Peneseroso has said: "Or let my lamp at midnight hour Be seen from some high lonely tower, Where 1 may oft outwatch the Bear With thrice great Hermes, or unsphere The spirit of Plato, to unfold The immortal mind that hath forsook Her mansion in this fleshy nook; And of those/lemons that are found In fire, air, flood, or under ground, Whose power hath a true consent With planet or with element." WINTER. no W.MAX. '10. The cycle of a year is closed. The seasons one by one have passed: Spring's rising beauty, summer's ioy And autumn's gold are gone at last, And now o'er every field and wood, And brook and stream in all the land There sways the scepter, firm and strong. Of old Kino- Winter's icy hand. CHE MEKCURY. 17 That 'monarch rales with will supreme; By his decree' the brooklet's voice, To summer woods, the croaning charm No more shall make the soul rejoice; For fetters, strong as hands of steel And cold as touch of gruesome Death Have bound the stream from shore to shore, Forged by King Winter's icy breath. O'er his domain a curtain white- Is falling thick and fast, The trees are bending with the load The gloomy shy upon them cast, And o'er the hill and meadow cold The icy wind and snowflakes drive, And here and there before the storm In quest of shelter snowbirds dive. Though all without is cruel, cold. Yet by the hearth there's sunshine, love; For by the fire young and old Enjoy the blessings from above; They hear the sire talk of yore, They drink to one another's health. Forgetful of the cold and snow, Enjoying all the farmer's wealth.' Though Winter rules with cruel hand, Ami cold and gloomy seemeth all; Though nature's beauties all seem gone And hopelessly thy spirits fall, Remember Winter has its joys And love and sunshine may reside Within thy heart, if thou but wilt Look on the bright and happy side. IS THE MERCURY. THE PERSONALITY OF THE MUSICIAN. II. RET WOLF.-'09. OMB one has said thai personality is individuality ex-isting in itself, with nature as a ground. Another says thai personality in a broad sense is a silent but powerful coercer of liunian minds.- 1 would not at-tempt to give a definition of it, but it seems to be a vital princi-ple of life. It is a mystery and seems to defy solution. We know to a certain extent from our own experience what perso-nality is. We see its manifestations from day to day in human ■experiences but we can not detect or define it as something thoroughly comprehended. I think we will not be over estimating when we say that one's success in life depends very greatly on one's personality. It seems that in some person; a strong individuality is a natural gift, while in others it must be acquired. A teacher's personality is a very important factor in his work. His influence over the pupil is something marvelous. His movements are watched, bis every action is carefully obseived and even his moral and mental attitude toward va-ious problems is noted. He is taken as an example; hence the importance of a strong personality. The teacher must have personality, the minister, whom we may class also as a teacher, ought to be able to command respect, the orator's influence depends upon it. the business man's success is measured largely by bis individuality and it is only the politician having some such personal magnetism, who can sway the multi-tudes. Lyinan .). Gage, formerly Secretary of the tJ. S. Treas-ury. in speaking' recently of personality, says, that deep within the man often unconscious to himself, lie the forces, the aptitudes, the desires, the anticipations, the tastes, the proclivities, the temperamental qualities which find outward expression indepen-dent of bis will. Further in the article he states that a change in our personality in the direction of improvement, whatever the cause, must come from within. The mental faculties can be strengthened by exercise an*: the emotional nature nourished by pure ideals. It is our duty to develop these useful inward forces and powers which really constitute one's personality. It is this personal factor tbat-lifts one into prominence and power, and- THE JCEItCURY. 19 gives him that strength of leadership which nothing else can do. Thus, we see of what importance individuality is in the different vocations of life. I deem a strong personality in the fine arts to be the highest kind of personality. It is really difficult to find language prop-erly to express just what is meant. While all culture has a re-lining infhiaice, continually nourishing our minds with the very best of noble ideals and aspirations, yet some arts seem to give more culture than others. Among such arts we would place music as one of the first. It would be impossible for one to de-scribe the numerous emotions and sundry expressions of feeling that musi"; reveals. Every selection of music is to represent some emotion or feeling Since we class music as such a distinguished art, the question now arises as to how a musician's personality is shown. We can safely say that this is revealed in his work as a composer or in his interpretation of the thoughts of others, as they are repre-sented in music. Harmony and teehnic must of course be mast-ered, but after a thorough knowledge of teehnic is acquired, there is boundless opportunity for expression and style. Teeh-nic. must always be a mechanical art, and as such, it has no real musical feeling in it. Fere is the opportunity to show indi-viduality. Scarcely two persons will place the same interpreta-tion upon a selection of music, thus showing the difference of human powers in interpretation. There is just as much differ-ence in the merits of musical compositions as there is in the merits of powers. Some are strictly true to nature and to life, while others are of mediocre merit. Of course, this is entirely a matter of individuality again, showing, on the other hand, a keen and perceptive mind, tnd on the other, a lack of keen in-terpretation. What we call genius is really nothing but the highest manifestation of personality. We sometimes speak of persons playing music by eae. This shows musical talent and is nothing but the crude and untrained personality seeking an out-let. It seems that the appreciation of really good music conies only through education, however broadly that term may be appli-ed. By culture we are brought to the appreciation of classical music, just as we are brought to the appreciation and preference of Shakespeare to the common, ordinary literature. 20 THE AU'JHCCJKY. It is only through persistent study that this musical person-ality can be attained. We may read numberless musical maga-zines, we may attend all tha high-grade concerts ttyat it is possi-ble for us to attend, but it is oniy by personal efforts that any-thing in this direction can be accomplished. We must take some selection, study the composer, know his nature, study the title of the composition, find out, if possible, under what circumstances lie composed that special selection, then study the music measure by measure, and endeavor to catch the spirit and feeling of the composer by placing yourself in his mental attitude. This may seem to be a rather crude method of procedure, but personally I have found it of inestimable value in interpreting a composer. Having studied a composition carefully, the next step is its proper execution. Music, if it is worthy to be called music, must appeal to our higher instincts. We must think and follow its meaning just as if we were paying attention to some one talking. This is true art at its greatest. The musician also shows his personality in the selections that he plays. Unfortunately, classical music is rather unpopular. The, popular music is light, catchy and gay and to many means simply to dance or an accompaniment. Harmony is an import-ant element in music and any selection that is harmonious is re-ceived with applause. Classical music may often seem unharmo-nious, especially to the untrained hearer. This is one reason why it is spurned. This idea of harmony in our nature rests on a psychological fact and music only serves as an excellent proof of it. There is nothing more simple and at the same time more beau-tiful than some of Mendelssohn's songs, Schumann's "Frau-merer" or Chopin's nocturnes. Such selections as these are worth mastering. Webber's "Storm" and Gottschalk's "Last Hope" are very popular. A careful study of such selections can not help but create within us noble ideals and wonderfully broaden our ethical natures. Of course we would not entirely ignore the popular music of the day, it .has its qualities and therefore has its place, but it ought to be strictly held to its place. It is well, however, whenever the opportunity comes to dem-onstrate the superior qualities of good music. Thus we can be-come acquainted with a person to a certain extent, by the kind THE MERCURY. 8] of music that he or she plays. We generally play the kind of music that we admire, because it expresses our sentiments- and feelings. We therefore embody in music, and through it, ex-press our ideals. Can there be anv higher manifestation of personality? Tqp RAINBOW HOPE. C. AliTIiri! FliY, SrEMlXARY, '08. EARLY four thousand years ago one of the spiritual giants of antiquity propounded the weighty question: "Ir a man die shall lie live again ?"—a ques-tion which lie himself answered. Probably the most thonght-of, the most talked-about, the most writ-ten- upon subject of all times has been that of immor-tality. Problems in science, art, philosophy, government, etc., all live their little day, in the arena of thought and disappear, but the human race has never outlived this question of Job's. It is still a burning thought in the hearts of the cul-tured, scientific twentieth century as it has been to all the conn-tries since the dawn of time Scholars in all branches of learn-ing are still brooding and writing upon it, and the common peo-ple are asking and re-asking this gVeat question, and will con-tinue to do so until time shall be no more. It is the one great universal problem which has maintained itself in every age and clime and has never lost its interest and power in the thought of mankind. No race or tribe of men have ever been known who were destitute of the thought of immortality. And why is it thus? Surely it must be more than "the riddle of the uni-verse." Men are not haunt.d with riddles. It's an intuition of; the human mind, an appetence of the human heart, wrought into, the whole fibre of the race that cannot be dismissed without1: some sort of solution, any more than the appetence of li.iui.u"<-i - that gnaws in the stomach and demands satisfaction. 22 THE MEHUURY. "It must be so Plato, thou reasoneth well! Else whende this pleasing hope, tbis fond desire. This longing after immortality? Or whence this secret dread and inward horror Of falling into naught? Why shrinks the soul Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us; Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, And intimates eternity to man." Listen to the testimony of Eobert G. Ingersoll, the prince of modern agnostics, in the last words he wrote: "Immortality with its countless hopes and fears beating against the shores of time, was not born of any book nor of any creed, nor of any religion. It was born of human affection, and will continue to ebb and pow beneath the mists and clouds of at. doubt and darkness as long as love kisses the lips of death. It is the rainbow of hope, shining on the tears of grief " What strange words from one who shrouded that "rainbow of hope" in wreathing clouds of doubt and fear and darkness, to whose thought "the golden bridge of life from gloom emerges and on shadow rests, and the secret of the future has ne'er been told." However, men may reject God's revelation in His Son, or deny the future life, yet they cannot utterly silence the voice of God speaking in their hearts. Yes, there are some who say,—and their number is so infmi-tessimally small that we may rightfully call them mental curios, yes mental freaks, if you please—that "death ends all." What a horrible thought! The Gnod, the True, the Pure, shall at least become the brother of the Base, the False, the Vile in death. Tendencies and qualities that in life are far.as the poles asunder, and can never be rconciled, shall at least become a unit in deat'i If that be true, then virtue has no lasting rewards, then unde-tected wrong-doing will forever go unpunished, and the wrongs inflicted upon innocence will never be made right. If death ends all then life has no meaning, no purpose, no inspiration., "and the human race with all its grand achievements, with it-continuous onward and upward march will finally reach the THE MERCURY. 23 zenith of perpetual night, beyond which shines no resurrection morn The light in the sun and stars shall be extinguished, the human race with all that it has done and hoped, shall become a nonentity, and the universe will go into everlasting darkness. Standing at the grave of sieve loved one how much comfort does that theory give:" How much light does it throw upon the dark avenues of human life? How much strength does it impart for the bearing of life's burdens? What inspiration to high en-deavor and noble living does it kindle? None! To affirm the negative of being is to rob hope, faith, patience, love, forbear-ance and kindred graces that enrich life and make character beautiful, of their meaning, and make them well nigh valueless. The noblest aspirations of the heart and the loftiest Teasoning of the mind all revolt when confronted with the postulate of eternal non-existence. Not only within ourselves do we find the intimations of a higher life, but all nature round about us seems to voice the truthfulness of our intimations. The natural world teem? with analogies which suggest the eternal life of the spirit. Take for example the migrations of birds, and especially the ndy-thmated humming bird, the only humming bird known around here. When the leaves begin to fall and the flowers fade he wends his way toward the South American home and spends the winter in his warmer native climes beyond the Amazon. But when it's, early spring here, he becomes restless and yields him-self to the migratory instincts working in his being. If you were, to ask him where or how far he is going, he couldn't tell you, for he doesn't know. All he knows is that his instincts tell him to fly and they point out to him The direction in which he shall go. So he starts out for the far north lands thousands of miles away, feeding by day, flying by night over mountains and plains and seas until he arrives here in these temperate zones of the North, where the dimly implanted instinct of migration which he has obeyed, finds its fullest satisfaction: God never cheats the little bird. So every human being is endowed with the instinct of immortality. Constantly within us we feel the movements of the higher life. There's an inward impulse that tells of a higher world order and bids us seek it, and with our superior intelligence and the light of God's Word we follow this dimly-implanted impulse, we too shall be satisfied, for the God 2<± THE MERCURT. who does not deceive the little humming bird will not deceive man. "He who, from zone to zone, (inides through the boundless sky the certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone Will lead my steps aright." Nature literally abounds witb bints on immortality, and as men of large vision, like Bacon. Newton and Fiske. uncover her secrets they find nothing that would contradict our best hopes, yea. many of these men acquainted with nature's workings have built their arguments for immortality on this very knowledge. For the Christian believer, however, this problem is no longer on debateable ground. His Lord and Master lias spoken the final word and revealed for human life, a destiny so glorious, a purpose so exalted, that it makes life well worth the living, ting-ing it with rainbows of joyous hopes and golden promises, not ending in "zero and a wall of blackness," but sweeping up through the clouds, and beyond the stars, to the walls of jasper, the gates of pearl, the streets of gold, and "the river of the water of life clear as crystal proceeding out of the throne of God." To such the question of immortality is not a nightmare of thought, nor is the future wreathed in mists and fogs so dense that we cannot know what lies beyond, but rather is bright and radiant :as the noonday sun. Jesus Christ is the one all-convincing an-swer to this problem of the ages. He alone is the all-satisfying response to the cry of the human spirit for God and the life be-yond, and in Him the native intuition and longing for immor-tality is transformed into one of the abiding, unshakeable cer-tainties of existence, so that with him who "heard the voice from heaven as the sound of many waters and saw the holy city, the New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven" we can say, "Xow are we the sons of God and it doth not yet appear what we shall be, but we know that when He shall appear, we shall be like Him for we shall see Him as He is." THE MEROBBTSJ 25 CAW AN ACCEPTABLE SUBSTITUTE FOR PREACHING BE DEVISED? f E-IEHAKT '09. X this tiny and generation when men arc prone to look with disdain upon the "Old Things" and are con-tinually striving to produce something now, original, and up-to-date; when men are much inure attracted, by worldly things than their own soul's salvation; when the mere fact that the preaching of the Gospel is able to claim its true origin from Christ and therefore to be classed among the prac-tices of the ancients, we often cast about us and seek a substi-tute for the preaching of the Gospel from the pulpit. Can there ever be found a substitute for the active, earnest, consecrated minister, whom everyone must recognize and to "whom so much of our scanty praise is due? . Without a doubt there would be or perhaps have been suggest-ed ways and means whereby a substitute for preaching could be obtained, but when we get down to the very essence of things it is clearly apparent to a man of ordinary common sense that it would be impossible to do so without very dire results following. • The very nature of man demands it, it seems. .Man must have some ideal, perfect and spotless, kind yet omnipotent, to look to, to worship, and to whom his mind may turn for help in time of trouble,—for to many, trouble alone will cause God to come into their thoughts. The natural mind demands this. We see it among all nations and classes, from our own class of people down to the lowest forms of human kind. If the heathen in his superstition, fol-lowing the inclination of his mind and. fearful of things un-known to him worships so reverently in his blind way. and is so diligent in doing what has been laid down to him as precepts. how much more ought we who are certain and assured in our faith and have reason to believe ours to be a real and ever pres-ent God, one to whom we owe much and to whom our poor thanks and praises are ever due? How much greater should be our reason to guard ourselves and strive to abide by what has so often been impressed upon us both by word and t\w<]! The natural man is open and susceptible to suggestion to a. 26 THE MERCURY. very marked degree, being ever ready to yield to and turn aside whenever am rldly plJ«easun obsta the h "/on,. regardless of the consequences. In his weakness, he must have some outside agent to offset these, evil influences that sur-round him and by counter suggestion or example turn his mind toward the true way to happiness, away from the gaudy "fool's gold" of the world. I hear the question, "Cannot man by studying his Bible thor-oughly, the concordance of the Scriptures, and books of such a nature, if he is earnest so hold, guide and guard himself as to he above and beyond these evil influences as well as he who goes to church front Sunday to Sunday and listens to sermons direct from the same sources?" Ai first thought this would no doubt seem good logic and peiv haps in theory would be beneficial, but let us consider:— Take it for granted,—although we all know such would not be the case,—that each church-goer and church member would study his Bible lesson thoroughly, think it out for himself, weigh it carefully and eventually apply it to himself as it seems best to him. would he derive as much bench! ami see the same pre-cepts embodied in the subject as he who has listened to a well prepared sermon by an eloquent minister, whose business it is to make a careful research along such lines and then goes home to ponder and reflect? As a powerful analogous example take our own colleges: they stand out squarely against any such principle. They recognize that men cannot attain to any degree of perfection of knowledge through dry text books alone. We ourselves know that more real knowledge comes to us through the lectures than any mere study of the text could warrant. The living voice is the prime factor in all education, shown only loo clearly in the Mu<\y of languages, including our own. The Christians as well as the students cannot possibly get in a few hours' study what their ministers or teachers get who have spent many years or even a lifetime doing only such work. Xo matter how diligently and faithfully Christians would work and study their Bibles, ours.would soon be a divided reli-gion, falling far short of its original purpose, a subject for con-troversy, doomed to Sorrow and despair, because of the manv THE MEKCURY. 27 different and even false interpretations which would of neces-sity be put upon the Scriptures, whether through sincerity on the part of the Christians or by the unscrupulous. We need not even take into consideration the natural back-sliders or the lower and less'educated classes of people for their condition speaks out strongly for itself against any course such as would be proposed. They of a certainty cannot do without the willing shepherd's care and attention. In order that the Word of God may become popular and stand out against and hold its own with the other attractive literature of to-day, it must be preached, spoken from the pulpit and its beauty and powerful truths shown as well as to have light thrown upon it. What has made Roosevelt and his policies so popular? The MTV fact that he is able to preach (speak) his theories and then by example prove their value. I dare say his policies are reeog-. nized all over the world and only because he does not hesitate to speak them and then practice what he preaches. The lawless forces in our country attack, and yet fear him and his disciples, striving to bring about their downfall as strongly as does Satan and his mighty host to bring to naught the works of righteous-no.- and God's worshippers throughout the world. Can we see any advantages arising in view of such conditions, if we should substitute? But examine and consider the doctrines and teachings of the great, noble, men in the church of the past and we see that they too. whose authority and precepts we must accept on account of their value alone, have not overlooked this very thing and that they realize fully that the existence or non-existence of our church rests alone in the preaching of God's Word. Paul in 1 Cor. 1:1
This Technical Note was prepared in the context of a joint World Bank-IMF Financial Sector Assessment Program mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina during October-November 2014. Bosnia and Herzegovina has substantially aligned its accounting and auditing laws with the EU acquis communautaire and will need to implement the new Directives on Accounting and Auditing in 2016.
GIES PRIZE ESSAY NUMBER. YOL. XII NO. 5 OCTOBER, 1903 The ' Gettysburg CQercury GETTYSBURG COLLEGE i GETTYSBURG, PA. BARBfMINN ft LITTLE, LTD., aKTTYBBUftO O'SUR® e,; w M PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Publishers ot THE GETTYSBURG NEWS 142 Carlisle St., Gettysburg, Pa. BARBEHENH«LITTLE, LTD. AMOS ECKERT Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty. WALK-OVER SHOE AMOS ECKERT Prices always right The Lutheran puMigfjing jlouge. No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H. S. BONER, Supt. WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. The Pleased Customer is not a stranger in our estab-lishment— lie's right at home, you'll see him when you call. 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AxTe always Ha^e the sea-sons novelties, besides a complete line of staples at prices to tearxipt you. SPECIAL CARE TAKEN TO MAKE WORK STYLISH AND EXACTLY TO YOUR ORDER. (Hill fll. Seligman, Taiio*. 7 ChambcPsbafg St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. D. J. Swartz Country Produce in Groceries Cigars and Tobacco GETTYSBURG. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. Allen K. Walton, Pre9. and Treas. Root. J. Walton, Superintendent. Hummelstown FO wi) Stone jjompanjj, QTT.A.:R,:e,-E-2!v£:E:LT and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING, and TILE, WALTOPILLE DAUPHIN COUNTY, PENNA. Contractors for all kinds of cut stone work. Telegraph and Express Address, BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station, on the P. & R. R.R. THE GETTYSBURG JIERGIIRY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College Voi,. XII. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1903 No. 5 CONTENTS SUNRISE . . • 144 LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. ARE THE OXFORD SCHOLARSHIPS OF CECIL RHODES LIKELY TO BENEFIT AMERICA? . . . ,. 148 ABDEI, R. WENTZ, '04. * WHY SHOULD THE AMERICAN COLLEGE GRADUATE ENTER THE TEACHING PROFESSION ? . . . 153 WIWAM W. BARKXEY, '04. HOW SHALL WE PREVENT PENNSYLVANIA COAL STRIKES? 157 FRANK LAYMAN, '04. SHALL WE REPEAL THE FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT ? . 163 C. EDWIN BUTI,ER, '05. VITAL FORCE IN LITERATURE . . . . 166 EDITORIALS 169 EXCHANGES 172 144 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. SUNRISE. (First Gies Prize Essay.) LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. IT is dark. The stars are shining. Yonder is the dipper and above its bowl is the ever-constant north star. The con-stellations are in their various places. There towards the east is Venus now reigning as star of the morning. The other planets discernible move slowly on in their alloted places in the silent majesty of their governing law. Even now they are seemingly somewhat darkened by the dazzling brilliancy of their sister planet. The whole firmament is resplendent with the grandeur of ten thousand suns studded in the canopy of heaven. The treasures of creation seem to have been sown broadcast in the limitless area of the sky. The beauty of the scene is consummate ; its apprehension is sublime ; its begin-ning and end is God. How irregular and yet how perfect the arrangement! How unreal and yet how systematic the con-trolling force ! How infinite the wisdom of the creator in the perfect harmony of the vast plan of the universe ! " One sun by day, by night ten thousand shine, And light us deep into the Deity ; How boundless in magnificence and might! O what a confluence of the real fires, From urns unnumbered down the steep of heaven, Streams to a point, and centres in my sight!" Even as.we surmise the very air seems pregnant with the over- > flowing beauty of the skies. Everything is silent. A touch of the supernatural seems to have fallen over the land. In the ether above is the silent twinkle, twinkle of the star; in the valley beneath is the sleeping village. The rolling undulations of the land and its rising hills, as dimly seen in the starlight, portend the shadowy forms of reclining giants. The whole valley lies before us as a visionary dreamland. The dormant powers and energies of man have not yet been awakened. It is a time when all things seems to conspire in the formation of a singular and strange existence. Everything seems saturated THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 145 with this all pervading influence, even the night itself unex-cepted, for "it is darkest before dawn." But while the grandeur of a perfect night is upon us it fades. The stars are going to sleep. Behold that streak of gray in the east! Surely it betokens not some disastrous fire ! It in-creases slowly. Now its import turns to significance. It is the herald of the king of day signalizing his advent. Aurora has hastened in her ever faithful office as precursor of her brother, Phoebus, who with his fiery steads and brazen chariot follows closely in her wake, and she now foretells his coming by her own inspiring presence. Slowly the streak of gray lengthens, widens, aye, it changes. The "flaky darkness" breaks within the east. The black of night is melting. Enveloped in its shroud the frowning night yields slowly to the smiling day. " Look, the gentle day, Before the wheels of Phoebus round about Dapples the drowsy east with spots of gray." The streaks of gray have now become a sheet of pale yellow. The change and increase is slow, but constant and sure. Every moment signifies an addition to the growing brilliancy. Again the light has strengthened so as to contrast the whiteness of the horizon with the azure blue of the zenith. While the con-trast is marked, the blending is harmonious and unbroken. Straggling clouds in the western sky further enhance the glory of the occasion. The dark blue of their irregular arrangment suggests a variety to the natural splendor, ever modifying as each moment flits by. The silent music of the universe is sounding fourth its note on the interminable waves of the ether, and to the beat of each minute dawn progresses. But now behold the base line of earth and sky and the pre-tentious masses piled thereon in one unbroken stretch. The illusion is complete. Imagination is confused, but acts. Has some hostile foe invaded the land under the cover of darkness and is that long extent of apparent earthwork a mountain or the embattlement of an enemy ? Has nature sought to alter the form of the earth as wrought by the ages ? The deception is apparent. Reason conquers and prevails. The banks of clouds present their rugged outlines sharply defined against 146 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the growing light of the eastern sky. The dim dividing line is quite obscure. " Rosy fingered Dawn " has already painted her delicate hue on the portals of the east, and the whole canopy of the sky seems tinted with the reflection. The vast field of red is mottled here and there with small patches of cloud which float silently in their gradual dissolution. The lower mass of accumulated clouds begin to fade and are checkered by the piercing shafts of morning light. The golden glow is already on this mass of bold relief. The diffusing light of the sun even ■ presages his coming by now slowly dissolving these barriers, which as agents of night, seem to obstruct his appearance. But now the village. Slowly it is awakening from the repose of night. White smoke from numerous chimneys is already curling into the still atmosphere above. Yonder to the right arises a steady column of blacker hue suggestive of the princi-pal industry. The attendant noises of the morning declare that activity has begun. To the left and farther up the valley the shrill shriek of a locomotive rends the peaceful air of morn-ing. The consoling note of the bird on the near-by tree sounds pure and clear as if in echoing response. Here and there goes the habitant to his toil, indicative of that irrevocable decree upon man, "Thou shalt work." The sharp spires of the two churches stand as silhouettes against the bright glow in the east. Every dwelling seems to demand a place in the picture below. The whole town lies huddled at the base of the eminence in the rear. Over the rolling landscape as it were, may be seen the farmer's house serving as a pleasing relief to the otherwise somewhat monoto-nous scene. Gradually creeping by the town and widening away through the land is the solitary river like unto a silver cord in the distance, until it is finally obscured in the recesses of the distant ridges. It seems to reflect the strengthening light of morning and even so appears as a molten stream of silver with its white metallic lustre. Directly below its clear ripple seems to designate the fact of its Alteration from every impurity by the darkness of night. All is idealistic in the spec-tacle before us. Nature seems united in one supreme effort to please in her elevating influence. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 147 Sunrise is an ever-changing sight. At no two minutes is the scene the same. Already with what seems accelerated speed the day-star has almost completed his preliminary course and his appearance is at hand. The sky before us is one sheet of burning gold. Everything is radiant with the effulgent light. The fragmentary clouds now skirting the horizon gleam as they absorb the light and beauty of the morning. Long shafts of light, fan-like, present the ultimate variation and the orb of day is manifest. One long ray of shimmering light shot across the intervening country is the signal gun of his appearance, They increase, multiply and remultiply and the whole earth is drowned in the flood of vital light. Night has abdicated and day has mounted the throne. "Night candles are burnt out" and sunrise is complete. " 'Tis mom. Behold the Kingly Day now leaps The eastern wall of earth with sword in hand, Clad in a flowing robe of mellow light, Like to a king that has regained his throne, He warms his drooping subjects into joy, That rise rejoiced to do him fealty, And rules with pomp the universal world." I48 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ARE THE OXFORD SCHOLARSHIPS OF CECIL RHODES LIKELY TO BENEFIT AMERICA? {Second Cies Prise Essay.) ABDEI. R. WENTZ, '04. AFTER the death of Cecil Rhodes, the South African multi-millionaire and the Empire Builder, which occur-' red on March 26th last, it was announced to the world that his will provided for a $ro,ooo,ooo bequest to Oxford University, England. And this is nothing very remarkable. It is but natural that a man who in his life had such a wide outlook upon the world's affairs should donate a portion at least of his immense fortune to the furtherance of education. And that this donation should be made to Oxford University is exactly what might be expected in view of the fact that the donor was graduated at that institution. But the point of special interest and the one which most concerns us as Americans is the nature of the conditions which the bequeather attaches to his bequest. The famous will which has aroused so much comment, both favorable and unfavorable, provides that the $10,000,000 shall be applied to scholarships apportioned as follows: two to each of the self-governing colonies of the British Empire, five to Germany, and two to each state or territory of United States. The scholarships are each to amount to $1500 per year for a term of three years. The method of choosing the students is provided for in the will and it is quite a novel one. In the examination of the competitors, reference must be had to the following four points :(i) his literary and scholastic ability; (2) his love of outdoor sports ; (3) his manliness ; (4) his moral character and his qualification for leadership. Marks for the several qualifications are to be awarded in the proportion of four-tenths for the first, one-tenth for the second, three-tenths for the third, and two-tenths for the fourth. Mr. Rhodes' pur-pose in making such a donation was to bring about Anglo- Saxon amity by having the leading men in the three countries educated together at the same institution and thus to secure the "peace of the world." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 149 It is not our purpose in this paper to examine whether the "peace of the world" will likely be secured by these scholar-ships, nor yet whether Cecil Rhodes' motive in establishing them was a good one. The question that we do propose to attempt to answer is whether America is likely to be benefitted by the scholarships or not. Of course, the future alone will positively and absolutely reveal the answer to this question, but by considering the present-day conditions and the most probable effects we can with at least some degree of certitude arrive at a conclusion upon the subject. While it must be ad-mitted that there are some arguments which would seem to favor an affirmative decision upon the question, nevertheless there are various' and weighty considerations which force us into the belief that the Oxford scholarships will probably not benefit America. In the first place, we can not but feel that for young men of the United States to leave their country and go across the sea to England, there to receive their education, will bring undesirable results for our country. The men who would take advantage of the scholarships would in the vast majority of cases be the brightest and manliest young men of their respective states. And for these men to be drained out of our own institutions and out of our country to be sent to England to patronize and bring honor to Oxford University would be deplorable, to say the least. Moreover the scholarships will be procurable by the average Sophomore of our colleges. This is the most forma-tive period in a man's life and that the best young men of our country, and those who are expected sometime to become im-portant factors in our national affairs, should leave their native land and spend their formative under-graduate period in a foreign country would be anything but desirable. There they will be brought entirely under English influences; they will be instilled with English principles and English ideas, in many cases so very different from American principles and ideas; they will be virtually denationalized. If the course at Oxford could be pursued as a post-graduate course by those who hold degrees from American institutions the result might not be so ISO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. bad ; but if those who are to become leaders in our govern-mental affairs are to have their ideas fashioned according to British moulds, it must be dangerous to the principles of this American republic. The plan seems to be one-sided in this respect: that England is to do all the moulding of character and ideas, while Germany and the United States are to do none. For while we feel sure that our fellow-citizens who shall go to Oxford will be "up and doing" and will be fair representatives of our dear country, yet it seems equally certain that the hundred students who shall go from the United States, despite their American "hustle," will exert absolutely no influence over the 13,000 undergrad-uates with whom they associate. That these scholarships were established with a view to benefitting England rather than the United States or Germany seems almost certain from a remark made by Mr. Rhodes while he was forming his plans for estab-lishing them. The suggestion having been made by a friend that the recipients of the scholarships be permitted if they choose to study at Harvard or any other American institution, Mr. Rhodes is said to have replied thus: "The Americans can, if they like, endow scholarships for their own universities; my scholars must all come to my old university." It might be said on the other side of the question that America will be benefitted by the scholarships because they are to secure the "peace of the world." But would she? Even if we should go so far as to grant that this little educational scheme of one man will secure world-wide peace, can we assert that America would be benefitted by it? It seems quite cer-tain that with our twentieth-century civilization there will be no more really great wars, no wars between the great powers of the world. In the arbitration of international difficulties the United States is never forced to make any very important con-cessions. Great Britain and Germany would reap far more benefit from the proposed world wide peace than the United States would. And even if war should come, is not the United States government, backed by her patriotic and liberty-loving sons, able to hold her own against any other nation in the 1 Rupp B-u.ild.ing* YORK, PENN'A. Watch for his Representative when he visits the Collleeggee | PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTIZERS. Geo. E. Sparkler, PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL MERCHANDISE Music Rooms, - York St. Telephone 181 GETTYSBIJEG C. B. KITZMILLER, DEALER IN Hats, Caps, Roots, and ^ ■ifcn -Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, FJPL. k M. AIAEMAN, Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, faints and Quensware Gettysburg, Pa. 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This guide accompanies the following article: The Animal Rights Movement in Theory and Practice: A Review of the Sociological Literature, Compass 6/2 (2012): pp. 166–181, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00440.xAuthor's introductionThe animal rights movement has been described as one of the most neglected and misunderstood social movements of our era. However, social movement scholars are beginning to realise the political and moral significance of the world wide animal protection movement at a time when nature itself has been included in the specialist field of environmental sociology. Just as people are beginning to see that nature matters and is not separate from society, nonhuman animals (hereafter animals) too are increasingly perceived as worthy of our respect and consideration. The long‐running animal protection movement which began in England in the 18th century is today better known as the animal rights movement. It is the men and women of this movement who, atypically for a social movement, are campaigning for a species that is not their own. The movement's theories and practices are important for what they do for animals and also because of what the animal rights controversy reveals about human beings.Author recommendsGarner, Robert. 1998. Political Animals: Animal Protection Policies in Britain and the United States. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.The book describes the progress made by the animal protection movement in the two countries where animal rights protests have been most prominent. The author presents a comprehensive examination of animal welfare policies in Britain and the US thus providing an informative comparative study of the movement's relationship with the state in these two countries. Garner's focus on policy networks corresponds to the sociologist's concept of social movement organizations. More than fifty such organizations balanced evenly between animal protectionists and animal‐user industries are discussed in the book. Political Animals provides an excellent introduction to the politics of animal rights, although missing in the accounts are the voices of the animal activists and their opponents. In the final analysis, it is the meaning activists attribute to their cause that drives the movement, a fact which Garner tacitly acknowledges.Imhoff, Daniel (ed) 2010. The CAFO Reader: The Tragedy of Industrial Animal Factories. Published by the Foundation for Deep Ecology with Watershed Media, Berkeley, LA: University of California Press.The Reader's subject – concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO) – covers most of the topics relevant to factory farmed animals and is divided into seven parts: (1) The pathological mindset of the CAFO; (2) Myths of the CAFO; (3) Inside the CAFO; (4) The loss of diversity; (5) Hidden costs of CAFO; (6) Technological takeover; (7) Putting the CAFO out to pasture. The acronym CAFO suggests a bland, mundane practice and is therefore a name which the editor believes should be replaced by the more accurate label "animal concentration camps". The chapter titles indicate what is in store for the reader but the content is perhaps less confronting than the book's companion photo‐format volume of the same name. The reader is a very comprehensive survey of how living creatures are subjected to inhumane practices for their body parts by "corporate food purveyors" and is essential reading for anyone who cares about the future survival of all of the earth's species.Kean, Hilda. 1998. Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800. London: Reaktion Books Ltd.In this attractive book, the historian Hilda Kean provides one of the most comprehensive and interesting surveys of the early animal protection movement in England, the birthplace of animal rights. Kean tells a compelling story of how and why people's attitudes and practices involving animals changed over the past two centuries. She attributes these changes largely to the seemingly simple idea of "sight", or how people were influenced by seeing for themselves how animals such as horses and dogs were ill treated in public spaces such as in streets and markets. Animals "out of sight" in vivisection laboratories and in abattoirs also came to the attention of the early animal protectionists, most of whom were women. The sight and spectacle of animal abuse turned hearts and stomachs once a light was shone on these everyday cruelties by the pioneers of animal rights in England. Kean's book is nicely illustrated in keeping with the theme of seeing animals in their various relationships with humans.Munro, Lyle. 2005. Confronting Cruelty: Moral Orthodoxy and the Challenge of the Animal Rights Movement. Leiden & Boston: Brill.For most people animal cruelty is understood as unspeakable acts perpetrated by warped individuals mostly against dogs, cats, birds and sometimes horses. The animal rights movement seeks to broaden the issue of animal cruelty to include the vast numbers of animals that suffer and die in "the animal industrial complex" of intensive farming, recreational hunting and animal research and experimentation. The book draws on social movement theory to explain how and why an increasing number of people in the UK, US and Australia have taken up the cause of animals in campaigning against the exploitative practices of the animal‐user industries. Essentially, the thesis is that animal abuse is constructed by the animal rights movement as a social problem (speciesism) on a par with sexism and racism. This is the first book in the Human and Animal Studies Series which currently lists about a dozen monographs published by Brill under the editorship of Kenneth Shapiro of the Society & Animals Institute in the US.Noske, Barbara. 1989. Humans and Other Animals: Beyond the Boundaries of Anthropology. London: Pluto Press.As an anthropologist, Noske brings a different perspective to our relationship with nature, especially in the long process of animal domestication. Her chapter on "the animal industrial complex" shows how both human and nonhuman animals suffer within this structure of domination; for example, slaughterhouse work takes a heavy toll on the meat workers while the animals experience atrocious pain and misery on the assembly line of mass execution. Noske's book is valuable for its broad treatment of animal‐human relations in which she describes cultural, historical, structural and sociological aspects of these relations particularly in America and Australia.Wilkie, Rhoda and Inglis David (eds.) 2007. The Social Scientific Study of Nonhuman Animals: A Five‐volume Collection–Animals and Society: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences. (Vols 1–5), London: Routledge.This is a collection of 90 previously published articles and book chapters in approximately 2,000 pages on the social‐scientific study of animals. The papers range from the earliest in 1928 on "the culture of canines" to the latest in 2006 on "religion and animals." Three quarters of the papers were published in the last two decades and are derived from anthropology, sociology, psychology, geography, philosophy and feminist studies.Because Animals and Society is based mostly on work derived from more than 12 different specialist journals, it has a claim to comprehensiveness; however, the editors mention topics that are not covered in the collection: Ethical issues; Animal welfare; The characteristics of animal protectionists; "Wilderness"; The role of animals in the lives of children; and The animal rights movement. The main topics included in the collection provide a hint of its value to researchers:Vol I. Representing the animal (Introduction and critical concepts in the social sciences)Vol II. Social science perspectives on human‐animal interactions (I): Anthropology. Geography. Feminist studies. Vol III. Social science perspectives on human‐animal interactions (II): Sociology. Psychology. Vol IV. Forms of human‐animal relations and animal death – the dynamics of domestication: Human‐pet relationships. Human‐livestock relations. Animal abuse and animal death. Vol V. Boundaries and quandaries in human‐animal relations: Border troubles: are humans unique and what is an animal? The legal, ethical and moral status of animals. "The Frankenstein syndrome": animals, genetic engineering, and ethical dilemmas. NB. The above is a shorter version of my review in Society & Animals, 16. 91–93, 2008. I thank the journal for publishing the original review and for permission to include the above version in Sociology Compass.Online materialshttp://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2007/s2159904.htmThis is the story of a protest against the live animal export trade from Australia to the Middle East. The 7.30 Report of 11 February 2008, was one of several media stories on the cruelty involved in the transport and slaughter of cattle, goats and sheep which outraged thousands of Australians when they witnessed footage shot by animal activists. The four minute video recording provides commentary and images that explain why the live animal export trade is a "hot cognition" issue in Australia and the UK. More recently, in June 2012, the callous treatment of cattle in a number of Indonesian abattoirs became a major media story that prompted public outrage and calls for an immediate and permanent ban on the trade.http://www.sharkwater.com/For many people, sharks are the most feared of all creatures and also the most misunderstood. They have been called "the mother of otherness" and as a result when they are hunted and killed there is very little concern for their welfare. This groundbreaking film explains the importance of sharks to the ocean and seeks to dispel the main stereotype of the shark as the creature from hell. The film is the work of Rob Stewart whose lifelong fascination with sharks was the catalyst for his mission to save the great predator from extinction.http://www.wspa‐international.org/Regular internet users will probably have come across the advertisements from the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), particularly its campaign against the cruelty involved in bear dancing. The WSPA, as an international animal welfare organization, is one of a very select few animal and environmental organizations recognized by the United Nations. Another campaign which is featured on their website is "The Red Collar Campaign", the motto for which is "Collars not Cruelty". Viewers are warned that the two and a half minute video clip contains some confronting images of cruelty to dogs suspected of being infected by rabies. WSPA's objective is to end the brutality inflicted unnecessarily on thousands of dogs perceived as a human health and safety risk; its solution to the problem of rabies is simple, cheap and effective.http://www.awionline.orgThe Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) is one of the most effective animal protection societies in the US. Its founder, the late Christine Stevens, worked most of her life as an advocate and lobbyist for animals. The AWI's attractive website provides many useful features such as the AWI Quarterly and details of its seminal campaigns which include research animals, companion animals, farm animals, marine animals and wildlife. Since it was established in 1951, the AWI has had access to the US Congress and in gaining the attention of powerbrokers, the organization has succeeded in securing animal welfare improvements that are legislated in law, which owes much to the work of Christine Stevens.http://www.league.org.ukHunting is a controversial issue in England which has developed into what is actually a class war between the aristocratic class and the "great unwashed". Founded in 1924, the League is virtually a household name in England. Its website contains some revealing film clips about the cruelty involved in the hunting of foxes, deer, rabbits and other animals in the English countryside. There is a great deal of information contained in the blogs and its FAQs as well as elsewhere on its website. Mention is also made of one of the latest hunting fads, "trophy hunting" which is apparently gaining popularity in some parts of the USA.Topics for lectures & discussionPart I: introduction and overviewWhat is the animal rights movement? Why do people campaign on behalf of a species that is not their own? How do individuals and social movements make their claims on behalf of nonhuman animals? These are some of the questions that would traditionally be posed in introducing the animal rights movement.ReadingMunro, Lyle. 2012. 'The Animal Rights Movement in Theory and Practice: A Review of the Sociological Literature'. Sociology Compass6(2): 166–81.Waldau's recent book is a good introduction to what the movement is all about:Waldau, Paul. 2011. Animal Rights: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press.There are three main discourses on animal rights which provide insights into our constructions of "the animal": (1) Animals in this discourse are constructed as social problems (see Irvine, 2003 below for an example); (2) in this second discourse, animal defenders are demonised with labels ranging from "sentimental animal lovers" to "extremists" and even "terrorists" (see Munro, 1999 below for an example); (3) finally, the animal rights movement constructs our cruel treatment of animals as morally wrong and therefore deserving of the strongest condemnation (see Shapiro, 1994 below for an example). How and why people campaign against the exploitation of animals are issues explored in the following papers:Irvine, Leslie. 2003. 'The Problem of Unwanted Pets; A Case Study in How Institutions 'Think' About Clients' Needs'. Social Problems50: 550–66.Munro, Lyle. 1999. 'Contesting Moral Capital in Campaigns Against Animal Liberation'. Society & Animals7: 35–53.Shapiro, Kenneth. 1994. 'The Caring Sleuth: Portrait of an Animal Rights Activist'. Society & Animals2: 145–65.Part II: animal crueltyThis section includes some important contributions to explaining cruelty to animals.Agnew, Robert. 1998. 'The Causes of Animal Abuse: A Social‐psychological Analysis'. Theoretical Criminology2: 177–209.Munro, Lyle. 1997. 'Framing Cruelty: The Construction of Duck‐Shooting as a Social Problem'. Society & Animals5: 137–54.D'Silva, Joyce and John Webster. 2010. The Meat Crisis: Developing More Sustainable Production and Consumption. London and Washington: Earthscan.Merz‐Perez, Linda and Kathleen Heide. 2004. Animal Cruelty: Pathway to Violence Against People. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Ltd.Ascione, Frank. 2008. 'Children Who Are Cruel to Animals: A Survey of Research and Implications for Developmental Psychology.' Pp. 171–89 in Social Creatures: A Human‐Animals Studies Reader, edited by Clifton, Flynn. New York: Lantern Books.Winders, Bill and David Nibert. 2009. 'Expanding "Meat" Consumption and Animal Oppression.' Pp. 183–9 in Between the Species: Readings in Human‐Animal Relations, edited by Arnold, Arluke and Clinton Sanders. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.Part III: social movement theory and animalsThere is a large literature on social movement theory with relatively little that refers to nonhuman animals. Some of those which do take up the issue are included below along with the following books that provide a general introduction to the study of social movements.Lowe, Brian and Caryn Ginsberg. 2002. 'Animal Rights as a Post‐Citizenship Movement'. Society & Animals10: 203–15.Jasper, James. 2007. 'The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions in and around Social Movements.' Volume 4 Pp. 585–612 in Social Movements: Critical Concepts in Sociology Volumes 1–4, edited by Jeff, Goodwin and James Jasper. London and New York: Routledge.Buechler, Steven. 2011. Understanding Social Movements: Theories from the Classical Era to the Present. Boulder and London: Paradigm Publishers.Cochrane, Alasdair. 2010. Chapter 6 'Marxism and Animals.' Pp. 93–114 in An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory, edited by Cochrane's. Basingstoke Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Einwohner, Rachel. 2002. 'Bringing the Outsiders in: Opponents' Claims and the Construction of Animal Rights Activists' Identity'. Mobilization7: 253–68.Part IV: animal advocacy and activism: strategy and tacticsThe above readings reveal to some extent at least why people campaign against animal cruelty. In this section's readings, the focus is on how animal activists run their campaigns in the streets (grassroots activism) and in the suites (organizational advocacy).Carrie Freeman Packwood. 2010. 'Framing Animal Rights in the "Go Veg" Campaigns of US Animal Rights Organizations'. Society & Animals18: 163–82.Paul, Elizabeth. 1995. 'Scientists' and Animal Rights Campaigners' Views of the Animal Experimentation Debate'. Society & Animals3: 1–21.Upton, Andrew. 2010. 'Contingent Communication in a Hybrid Multi‐Media World: Analysing the Campaigning Strategies of SHAC'. New Media & Society13: 96–113.Munro, Lyle. 2001. Compassionate Beasts: The Quest for Animal Rights. Westport, CT: Praeger.Munro, Lyle. 2002. 'The Animal Activism of Henry Spira (1927–1998).'Society & Animals10: 173–91.Munro, Lyle. 2005. 'Strategies, Action Repertoires and DIY Activism in the Animal Rights Movement.'Social Movement Studies4: 75–94.Jasper, James. 1997. The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography and Creativity in Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Singer, Peter. 1998. Ethics into Action: Henry Spira and the Animal Rights Movement. Lanham MD: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers Inc.Part V: academic/activist collaborationShould academic teachers collaborate with activists in their campaigns? Like the church/state relations debate this is a controversial question since there are arguments both for and against academic involvement in political and social movements. Most of the readings in the original Compass article and below tend to see more benefits than costs to collaboration; however, higher education administrators don't like dissent and it is hard to imagine an academic holding down his or her job if they were seen to be working with animal activists on a particularly controversial campaign. It might be seen as acceptable if the collaboration was with the SPCA in the US or the RSPCA in Britain but not if the activists were affiliated with members of a radical animal liberation group. Furthermore, an academic‐animal activist who campaigned say against the practice of animal experimentation at his or her university would surely be dismissed or at least threatened with dismissal unless they cut their ties with outside activists.Burnett, Cathleen. 2003. 'Passion through the Profession: Being Both Activist and Academic.'Social Justice30: 135–50.Kleidman, Robert. 1994. 'Volunteer Activism and Professionalism in Social Movement Organizations.'Social Problems41: 257–76.Focus questions Is the animal rights movement a genuine social movement when nonhuman animals are widely understood not to belong to society as it is generally understood? How would you respond to the claim that cruelty to animals is our worst vice. From your experience of seeing animal rights protests either on television or as the real thing, what do you think are the dominant emotions exhibited by the campaigners and their opponents? From what you've read or heard or seen of social movement protests, do you believe the most effective strategy is non‐violence or violence; and which of these two strategies do you think is more acceptable for the animal protection movement to follow and why? Should academics who lecture on social movements practice what they preach? What are some of the main benefits and problems associated with academic analysts of social movements collaborating with grassroots activists? The animal rights movement has been described as one of the fastest‐growing social movements in the West – and one of the most controversial. What evidence is there for these claims? Seminar/project ideaPlease suggest an exercise to help bring the subject to life, appropriate either for undergraduate or graduate students, e.g. an assessment, a presentation, or other practical assignment.Project idea or presentation Compare and contrast the website of an animal welfare organization and an animal rights group in relation to (a) their objectives; (b) their most important campaign; and (c) their preferred overall strategies and tactics. Which of these organizations has the most potential in attracting new supporters and why? What advice would you give to these two organizations on how they might enhance their communicative effectiveness with the general public? (see Munro's Compass article for some clues). Do an oral presentation on a radical animal liberation group such as the Animal Liberation Front or SHAC in which you describe its stated objectives, its seminal campaigns, its preferred tactics and its communication strategy as indicated by the group's website. Explain how effective the group is in terms of improving the lives of animals and how the activists justify the use of violence in their campaigns.
El estudio de las prácticas políticas transnacionales de los migrantes ha tenido diversos niveles de participación en el amplio campo de las migraciones internacionales, y ha sido una preocupación relativamente reciente en Europa y América Latina, donde está menos desarrollado que en Estados Unidos. En consecuencia, son escasos los trabajos que abordan el transnacionalismo político de colombianos, lo cual contrasta con el número de investigaciones que abordan el desplazamiento forzado y la migración colombiana.De los trabajos existentes, en Estados Unidos, resaltan especialmente las investigaciones comparativas entre grupos de inmigrantes, desde metodologías cuantitativas y bajo el enfoque analítico de las redes sociales; mientras que, en Europa, se destaca el estudio de casos específicos, que articulan la teoría de la acción colectiva y la teoría de los factores push-pull, bajo metodologías cualitativas. En todos los casos, las investigaciones que se preguntan por las prácticas políticas de los colombianos con respecto al contexto de salida, homeland politics, son aquellas que mayor atención han tenido a nivel general.El transnacionalismo político es un campo de estudios relativamente nuevo, y conviene resaltar su importancia en tanto que busca atender a la dimensión política de la migración, en este caso de colombianos, no solo como causa —pues al respecto existe un patrimonio importante de investigaciones—, sino como práctica política de participación de estos migrantes en otras latitudes.En este orden de ideas, el objetivo de esta investigación no es hacer teoría de las migraciones internacionales, sino aproximarme a describir las diferentes perspectivas desde las cuales ha sido abordado el transnacionalismo político de los colombianos. Para esto, trabajé desde el paradigma histórico hermenéutico, que me permitió hacer un rastreo comprensivo del fenómeno social a través del estado del arte; dicho paradigma se entiende como investigación de la investigación, en tanto que busca establecer un panorama del patrimonio investigativo existente sobre un tema, para derivar en nuevas reflexiones, preguntas y abordajes sobre este. Dicho esto mi objetivo en este trabajo no es hacer teoría de las migraciones internacionales, sino aproximarme a describir las diferentes perspectivas analíticas desde las que ha sido abordado el trasnacionalismo político de los colombianos, reconociendo que es un campo relativamente nuevo dentro de los estudios migratorios. En este sentido, organizaré la presentación así: primero, presentaré el abordaje metodológico que sustenta el estado de la cuestión; segundo daré cuenta de las investigaciones enfocadas a las prácticas de los inmigrantes con respecto al país de origen; tercero presentaré los trabajos que enfatizan en las prácticas políticas en el contexto de recepción con respecto a su situación de inmigrantes; cuarto presentaré los trabajos que triangulan "Inmigrant politics" y "homeland politics"; y quinto, daré mis conclusiones frente al campo de estudios y el panorama del transnacionalismo político de los colombianos.Para efectos de esta investigación trabajé desde el paradigma histórico hermenéutico, puesto que me permite hacer un rastreo comprensivo del fenómeno social bajo la perspectiva del estado del arte. Los estados del arte son entendidos como "investigación de la investigación". en tanto buscan establecer un panorama del patrimonio investigativo existente sobre un tema, para derivar en nuevas reflexiones, preguntas y abordajes del mismo.Palabras claves: transnacionalismo político, migración, colombianos, organizaciones sociales, participación política. ; The study of the transnational political practices of migrants has featured different levels of participation in the broad field of international migrations, and it is a relatively recent concern in Europe and Latin America, where it is less developed than in the United States. Consequently, there are few works that address the transnationalism of Colombians, a fact that contrasts with the number of research studies that address forced displacement and Colombian migration. The works that stand out in the United States are comparative studies of immigrant groups, using quantitative methodologies and social networks as an analytical approach. In Europe, on the other hand, those that stand out are study of specific cases, articulating the theory of collective action and that of push-pull factors and using qualitative methodologies. In all cases, the issue that has received the most attention in general is that of homeland politics, or the political practices of Colombians in their context of origin.Political transnationalism is a relatively new field of study, whose importance deserves to be highlighted since it deals with the political aspect of migration, in this case of Colombians, not merely as a cause —since there is abundant research in that respect—, but as a political practice of participation of the migrants in other geographies.In this order of ideas, the objective of this research is not to develop a theory of international migrations, but to describe the different perspectives from which the political transnationalism of Colombians has been addressed. To that effect, I based my work on the hermeneutic historical paradigm, which allowed me to comprehensively track that social phenomenon in the state of the art. This paradigm is understood as research of research, insofar as it seeks to provide an overview of the existing repertoire of research regarding a particular topic, in order to lay the ground for new reflections, questions, and approaches on the matter. Having said that, my objective in this work is not to make international migrations theory, but to approach to describe the different analytical perspectives from which the political transnationalism of Colombians has been addressed, recognizing that it is a relatively new field within the migratory studies. In this sense, I will organize the presentation as follows: first, I will present the methodological approach that supports the state of the question; second, I will give an account of the research focused on the practices of immigrants with respect to the country of origin; third, I will present the papers that emphasize the political practices in the context of reception with respect to their situation as immigrants; fourth I will present the works that triangulate "Inmigrant politics" and "homeland politics"; and fifth, I will give my conclusions in front of the field of studies and the panorama of the political transnationalism of the Colombians.For the purposes of this research, I worked from the historical hermeneutical paradigm, since it allows me to make a comprehensive tracking of the social phenomenon from the perspective of the state of the art. The states of art are understood as "research of the investigation". while they seek to establish a panorama of the existing research heritage on a topic, to derive new reflections, questions and approaches from it. ; O estudo das práticas políticas transnacionais dos migrantes vem tendo diversos níveis de participação no amplo campo das migrações internacionais, sendo uma preocupação relativamente recente na Europa e na América Latina, onde está menos desenvolvido do que nos Estados Unidos. Por consequência, são escassos os trabalhos que abordam o transnacionalismo político de colombianos, o que contrasta com o número de pesquisas que abordam o deslocamento forçado e a migração colombiana. Dos trabalhos existentes, nos Estados Unidos, ressaltam especialmente as pesquisas comparativas entre grupos de imigrantes, a partir de metodologias quantitativas e sob a abordagem analítica das redes sociais; enquanto, na Europa, é destacado o estudo de casos específicos que articulam a teoria da ação coletiva e a teoria dos fatores push-pull, com base em metodologias qualitativas. Em todos os casos, as pesquisas sobre as práticas políticas dos colombianos a respeito do contexto de saída, homeland politics, são as que mais atenção têm recebido em geral. O transnacionalismo político é um campo de estudos relativamente novo e convém ressaltar sua importância não somente como causa — visto que, a respeito, existe um patrimônio importante de pesquisas —, mas sim como prática política de participação desses migrantes em outras latitudes. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desta pesquisa não é fazer teoria das migrações internacionais, mas sim se aproximar da descrição das diferentes perspectivas a partir das quais o transnacionalismo político dos colombianos vem sendo abordado. Para isso, trabalhei sob o paradigma histórico-hermenêutico, que me permitiu fazer um rastreamento compreensivo do fenômeno social por meio do estado da arte; esse paradigma é entendido como pesquisa da pesquisa, pois busca estabelecer um panorama do patrimônio de pesquisa existente sobre um tema para derivar em novas reflexões, perguntas e abordagens. Tendo dito que o meu objetivo neste papel não é teoria da migração internacional, mas para aproximar descrever as diferentes perspectivas de análise a partir do qual foi abordada transnacionalismo político dos colombianos, reconhecendo que é um campo relativamente novo nos estudos de migração. Nesse sentido, organizarei a apresentação da seguinte maneira: primeiro, apresentarei a abordagem metodológica que sustenta o estado da questão; em segundo lugar, apresentarei um relato da pesquisa centrada nas práticas dos imigrantes em relação ao país de origem; terceiro, apresentarei os artigos que enfatizam as práticas políticas no contexto da recepção com relação à sua situação como imigrantes; quarta, apresentarei as obras que triangulam "política imigrante" e "política interna"; e quinto, vou dar minhas conclusões diante do campo de estudos e do panorama do transnacionalismo político dos colombianos.Para os propósitos desta pesquisa, trabalhei a partir do paradigma hermenêutico histórico, uma vez que me permite fazer um acompanhamento abrangente do fenômeno social a partir da perspectiva do estado da arte. Os estados de arte são entendidos como "pesquisa da investigação". enquanto eles buscam estabelecer um panorama do patrimônio de pesquisa existente sobre um tópico, para derivar novas reflexões, questões e abordagens a partir dele.Palavras-chave: transnacionalismo político, migração, colombianos, organizações sociais, participação política.
La investigación aborda desde un enfoque de derechos humanos y de género, el proceso de liderazgo seguido por las mujeres en la organización social. Analiza su precaria incorporación a la Población Económicamente Activa (PEA) y su posterior integración al movimiento sindical más representativo del país como es la Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (CGTP). El trabajo analiza 16 años de vida orgánica de la CGTP, visibilizando la flexibilización laboral de los años 90, que provoca despidos masivos de trabajadores y trabajadoras, donde las mujeres se incorporan como nuevas actoras en el campo del trabajo. Pero que no resuelve la desigualdad laboral entre las mujeres y los hombres sino que la acrecienta convirtiendo a las mujeres en mano de obra barata, confinándola a condiciones laborales precarias, en un contexto donde la demanda fundamental como es la estabilidad laboral es puesta en peligro. La investigación observa como la reforma laboral del gobierno de Alberto Fujimori marca el retroceso de un Estado que abdica de su papel regulador y fiscalizador y que más bien despoja a los trabajadores de sus derechos laborales fundamentales. Señalando como un hito trágico el asesinato de Pedro Huilca Tecse por el grupo Colina el 18 de diciembre de 1992, a nueve meses de haber sido elegido secretario general de la CGTP. Situación y hechos que considera influyen en el debilitamiento de la confederación, reflejada en la disminución de sus afiliados, que en la década previa a los años noventa era de 21.9 % y que entre 1995 y 2006 disminuye a 8 % y 5 %. La tesis toma en cuenta que en el 2003 bajo la dirección de Juan José Gorriti, siendo responsable Susan Portocarrero de la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, se registran hechos importantes con relación a la participación cualitativa y cuantitativa de las mujeres. Proceso que es fortalecido por la reestructuración orgánica de la central, donde las secretarías se transforman en departamentos sindicales y en el que también se implementa la afiliación sindical directa. En este contexto, la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, elabora su Manual de Organización y Funciones y la I Plataforma Laboral de Género y los presenta al XII Congreso Nacional de la CGTP en noviembre de 2006. Donde siete mujeres son incorporadas al consejo directivo nacional. Y que elige después de 78 años de vida orgánica a Carmela Sifuentes Inostroza como la primera presidenta mujer de su historia y a Gloria Pérez Saavedra como secretaria de la mujer. Durante el análisis se resalta que con una CGTP reconstituida y con un nuevo discurso centrado en la recuperación de la democracia y los derechos perdidos, el trabajo de la mujer adquiere mayor presencia a través del acciones del reestructurado departamento de la mujer, que consigue incorporar a más mujeres en sus comisiones de trabajo, elabora los sustentos teóricos y políticos de la estrategia de transversalización del enfoque de género, que logra más mujeres con un discurso argumentado, que disponen de herramientas como la escuela sindical para mujeres y también mixtas para hombres y mujeres con este enfoque, donde se visibiliza la importancia de una afiliación sindical con esta visión. Logrando que sus derechos y los de otras mujeres de los sectores más precarios del ámbito laboral, se incluyan como temas específicos en los pliegos y convenios colectivos a través de la Agenda Laboral de las Mujeres Trabajadoras, lo que dinamiza la participación de más mujeres en todas las instancias de la CGTP, particularmente en sus asambleas nacionales. La investigación valora como factores decisivos que contribuyen a la inclusión de la Agenda de Género dentro de la CGTP, las acciones realizadas por las mujeres del consejo nacional, por las del departamento de la mujer y por sus comisiones de trabajo, así como por el apoyo recibido de parte del secretariado ejecutivo. Todo lo cual permite que en noviembre de 2011 presenten al XIII Congreso Nacional Ordinario la moción de Cuota de Género sustentada por la responsable del departamento. La misma que pese a requerir la reforma de los estatutos, se aprueba en la Comisión No.4: Situación Orgánica y Fortalecimiento de la CGTP, ratificada por la plenaria y que está pendiente de ser revalidada por un congreso estatutario. La investigación concluye en que estos 16 años de la CGTP marcan la promoción, negociación y aprobación de acciones afirmativas inspiradas en el modelo sindical europeo13, adaptadas al modelo peruano y a los intereses colectivos de las mujeres trabajadoras. Y que a partir de 2011 comienza una nueva historia para el movimiento sindical de la CGTP sobre este tema. ; --- The Women's Leadership in organizations such as the Trade Union's, is analyzed from the perspective of human rights and gender in the present investigation. Since its intervention in the workplace: the precarious action and its subsequent integration into the most representative trade union movement in the country, such as the General Confederation of Workers of Peru - CGTP. We traveled through 16 years of the organic life of the CGTP, making visible the labor reform of the 90's that marks the start of labor flexibility, causing massive layoffs of workers and secondly incorporating more strongly to new actors to the world Labour: Women. This addition does not respond to public policy to equip participation and working conditions of women and men in this area and therefore bridge the gaps that support discrimination; This situation reflects the demand for cheap labor in poor working conditions, backed by labor unrest, thus losing the main feature of unionized workers or workers / as: "Job Stability." The labor reform of A. Fujimori government marks the beginning of the retreat of the state not only in its role as regulator, but also to oversight of compliance with labor standards as part of the same government specifically the December 18, 1992, nine months into the General Secretariat, Peter Huilca was killed by the Colina group, both heavy blows to the unions originate the weakening of the most visible of the Country confederation, this is reflected in the declining share of national affiliation in the decade before the nineties was approximately 21.9% and between 1995 and 2006% the percentage fluctuated between 8% and 5%. In 2003, under the direction of Juan José Gorriti, important findings were made in relation to the qualitative and quantitative participation of women, the responsibility of the Ministry of Women and Child Worker fell on Susan Portocarrero. In that same year, the organizational restructuring process starts, from Secretaries to Departments and Trade also implementing direct affiliation. The Ministry of Women and Child Workers, adopted its Manual of Organization and Functions and the First Labour Platform Gender, which was taken to the XII Congress of the CGTP in November 2006, where 7 women join the National Executive Council, and after 78 years of organic life, the first female president is elected in its history; it also chooses Gloria Perez Saavedra as the new Secretary for women, and it is from this year that the CGTP reconstituted and a new discourse centered on the struggle for restoration of democracy and rights lost, becomes more incident now called the women's Department of the CGTP, calling women on the commission structure work. Begin the theoretical and political underpinnings for developing strategy mainstreaming gender in CGTP, which translates into: women with a speech argued; tools such as union school for women and mixed for men and women develop the gender issue; visible the importance of union membership with gender; building proposals for collective bargaining rights for women in the specifications and detailed collective agreements on a work schedule of working women; promoting the participation of more women in the functional activities organized by the CGTP as National Assemblies; promoting the union agenda includes those most precarious sectors of the workplace, which are mostly made up of women. The development of planned and promoted by the women of the CN of the CGTP and the department including its working committees, had the political backing of the national leadership represented by the executive secretariat actions, so that in November 2011, arriving at XIII National Ordinary Congress proposing as its core proposal "gender quota" involving the reform of its statutes, this proposal was presented as a motion supported by the head of department and approved by the Commission number four: "Organic status and Strengthening CGTP "and later in the plenary, being willing to be ratified in the Statutory Congress. They were 16 years leading the most representative trade union confederation in the country, focusing on promotion, negotiation and approval of affirmative action that inspired the European union model applied to the Peruvian model. In these periods the collective interests of many working women is one of the main reasons for the trade union movement there were more important. From the year 2011 begins a new story written for the motion of the CGTP union on this issue. ; Tesis
La investigación aborda desde un enfoque de derechos humanos y de género, el proceso de liderazgo seguido por las mujeres en la organización social. Analiza su precaria incorporación a la Población Económicamente Activa (PEA) y su posterior integración al movimiento sindical más representativo del país como es la Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (CGTP). El trabajo analiza 16 años de vida orgánica de la CGTP, visibilizando la flexibilización laboral de los años 90, que provoca despidos masivos de trabajadores y trabajadoras, donde las mujeres se incorporan como nuevas actoras en el campo del trabajo. Pero que no resuelve la desigualdad laboral entre las mujeres y los hombres sino que la acrecienta convirtiendo a las mujeres en mano de obra barata, confinándola a condiciones laborales precarias, en un contexto donde la demanda fundamental como es la estabilidad laboral es puesta en peligro. La investigación observa como la reforma laboral del gobierno de Alberto Fujimori marca el retroceso de un Estado que abdica de su papel regulador y fiscalizador y que más bien despoja a los trabajadores de sus derechos laborales fundamentales. Señalando como un hito trágico el asesinato de Pedro Huilca Tecse por el grupo Colina el 18 de diciembre de 1992, a nueve meses de haber sido elegido secretario general de la CGTP. Situación y hechos que considera influyen en el debilitamiento de la confederación, reflejada en la disminución de sus afiliados, que en la década previa a los años noventa era de 21.9 % y que entre 1995 y 2006 disminuye a 8 % y 5 %. La tesis toma en cuenta que en el 2003 bajo la dirección de Juan José Gorriti, siendo responsable Susan Portocarrero de la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, se registran hechos importantes con relación a la participación cualitativa y cuantitativa de las mujeres. Proceso que es fortalecido por la reestructuración orgánica de la central, donde las secretarías se transforman en departamentos sindicales y en el que también se implementa la afiliación sindical directa. En este contexto, la secretaría de la mujer y defensa del niño trabajador, elabora su Manual de Organización y Funciones y la I Plataforma Laboral de Género y los presenta al XII Congreso Nacional de la CGTP en noviembre de 2006. Donde siete mujeres son incorporadas al consejo directivo nacional. Y que elige después de 78 años de vida orgánica a Carmela Sifuentes Inostroza como la primera presidenta mujer de su historia y a Gloria Pérez Saavedra como secretaria de la mujer. Durante el análisis se resalta que con una CGTP reconstituida y con un nuevo discurso centrado en la recuperación de la democracia y los derechos perdidos, el trabajo de la mujer adquiere mayor presencia a través del acciones del reestructurado departamento de la mujer, que consigue incorporar a más mujeres en sus comisiones de trabajo, elabora los sustentos teóricos y políticos de la estrategia de transversalización del enfoque de género, que logra más mujeres con un discurso argumentado, que disponen de herramientas como la escuela sindical para mujeres y también mixtas para hombres y mujeres con este enfoque, donde se visibiliza la importancia de una afiliación sindical con esta visión. Logrando que sus derechos y los de otras mujeres de los sectores más precarios del ámbito laboral, se incluyan como temas específicos en los pliegos y convenios colectivos a través de la Agenda Laboral de las Mujeres Trabajadoras, lo que dinamiza la participación de más mujeres en todas las instancias de la CGTP, particularmente en sus asambleas nacionales. La investigación valora como factores decisivos que contribuyen a la inclusión de la Agenda de Género dentro de la CGTP, las acciones realizadas por las mujeres del consejo nacional, por las del departamento de la mujer y por sus comisiones de trabajo, así como por el apoyo recibido de parte del secretariado ejecutivo. Todo lo cual permite que en noviembre de 2011 presenten al XIII Congreso Nacional Ordinario la moción de Cuota de Género sustentada por la responsable del departamento. La misma que pese a requerir la reforma de los estatutos, se aprueba en la Comisión No.4: Situación Orgánica y Fortalecimiento de la CGTP, ratificada por la plenaria y que está pendiente de ser revalidada por un congreso estatutario. La investigación concluye en que estos 16 años de la CGTP marcan la promoción, negociación y aprobación de acciones afirmativas inspiradas en el modelo sindical europeo13, adaptadas al modelo peruano y a los intereses colectivos de las mujeres trabajadoras. Y que a partir de 2011 comienza una nueva historia para el movimiento sindical de la CGTP sobre este tema. ; --- The Women's Leadership in organizations such as the Trade Union's, is analyzed from the perspective of human rights and gender in the present investigation. Since its intervention in the workplace: the precarious action and its subsequent integration into the most representative trade union movement in the country, such as the General Confederation of Workers of Peru - CGTP. We traveled through 16 years of the organic life of the CGTP, making visible the labor reform of the 90's that marks the start of labor flexibility, causing massive layoffs of workers and secondly incorporating more strongly to new actors to the world Labour: Women. This addition does not respond to public policy to equip participation and working conditions of women and men in this area and therefore bridge the gaps that support discrimination; This situation reflects the demand for cheap labor in poor working conditions, backed by labor unrest, thus losing the main feature of unionized workers or workers / as: "Job Stability." The labor reform of A. Fujimori government marks the beginning of the retreat of the state not only in its role as regulator, but also to oversight of compliance with labor standards as part of the same government specifically the December 18, 1992, nine months into the General Secretariat, Peter Huilca was killed by the Colina group, both heavy blows to the unions originate the weakening of the most visible of the Country confederation, this is reflected in the declining share of national affiliation in the decade before the nineties was approximately 21.9% and between 1995 and 2006% the percentage fluctuated between 8% and 5%. In 2003, under the direction of Juan José Gorriti, important findings were made in relation to the qualitative and quantitative participation of women, the responsibility of the Ministry of Women and Child Worker fell on Susan Portocarrero. In that same year, the organizational restructuring process starts, from Secretaries to Departments and Trade also implementing direct affiliation. The Ministry of Women and Child Workers, adopted its Manual of Organization and Functions and the First Labour Platform Gender, which was taken to the XII Congress of the CGTP in November 2006, where 7 women join the National Executive Council, and after 78 years of organic life, the first female president is elected in its history; it also chooses Gloria Perez Saavedra as the new Secretary for women, and it is from this year that the CGTP reconstituted and a new discourse centered on the struggle for restoration of democracy and rights lost, becomes more incident now called the women's Department of the CGTP, calling women on the commission structure work. Begin the theoretical and political underpinnings for developing strategy mainstreaming gender in CGTP, which translates into: women with a speech argued; tools such as union school for women and mixed for men and women develop the gender issue; visible the importance of union membership with gender; building proposals for collective bargaining rights for women in the specifications and detailed collective agreements on a work schedule of working women; promoting the participation of more women in the functional activities organized by the CGTP as National Assemblies; promoting the union agenda includes those most precarious sectors of the workplace, which are mostly made up of women. The development of planned and promoted by the women of the CN of the CGTP and the department including its working committees, had the political backing of the national leadership represented by the executive secretariat actions, so that in November 2011, arriving at XIII National Ordinary Congress proposing as its core proposal "gender quota" involving the reform of its statutes, this proposal was presented as a motion supported by the head of department and approved by the Commission number four: "Organic status and Strengthening CGTP "and later in the plenary, being willing to be ratified in the Statutory Congress. They were 16 years leading the most representative trade union confederation in the country, focusing on promotion, negotiation and approval of affirmative action that inspired the European union model applied to the Peruvian model. In these periods the collective interests of many working women is one of the main reasons for the trade union movement there were more important. From the year 2011 begins a new story written for the motion of the CGTP union on this issue. ; Tesis
During the last decades in Brazil there has been a significant increase in hydrosocial conflicts due to the construction of large hydroelectric complexes, which involve qualitative and quantitative changes regarding access and ownership of water. It has opened a new period of accumulation and transformation of production relations through the commodification of this important resource. This extension of large projects of an extractivist nature in the Amazon region, especially from the end of the eighties from the last century, after the settlement of the so-called Washington consensus. This phenomenon led to a whole series of transformations in productive, reproductive and social relations, in order to provide mechanisms for regional and national integration, as well as for overcoming accumulation crises which came from the global scale. In the Brazilian case, these reforms undertaken in recent decades in the political, social, environmental, economic and legislative realms, have not meant a major change in the productive level of the world-economy scale, since the peripheral role in the country, initiated during the colonial period, continues to be maintained. But they have deepened their dependence through the extractivist development model, highlighting among other practices (such as the advance of the agricultural frontier, large soybean crops, the deployment of fracking to increase rents derived from the hydrocarbons, etc…) the large hydroelectric complexes located throughout the country's vast hydrographic basin. The main goal of this kind of new structures is to produce higher levels of energy, largely dedicated to the processing of aluminum, whose demand has increased exponentially in recent years in states such as China, among other BRICS. From all these hydroelectric structures, due to their importance and expansion over time, probably the one that stands out the most is the Belo Monte dam on the Xingú river, near to the city of Altamira. A multiplicity of actors are involved in this one (indigenous communities, fishing farmers, the State, Eletrobras, non-governmental organizations, indigenous confederations, construction companies, supranational institutions, etc.) whose dispute over access to water resources implies a modification of the configuration of the power relations that take place in the territory. Although it is true that its planning began in 1975, within the framework of the search for a better use of the country's hydroelectric potential, to boost economic development and energy sovereignty; the advances and setbacks in the settlement of the operation of the infrastructure have been delayed until today and probably will continue in the near future. This paper not only aims to analyze the spatio-temporal path of this controversial conflict. Furthermore, it proposes two additional objectives. On the one hand, the elaboration of a theoretical framework that combines the perspectives of the production of nature, the production of space and the construction of scale, which could be applied to the analysis of other environmental conflicts that take place in the global south. On the other hand, and consequently, through its use in the study of this particular case, it seeks to determine the strengths and weaknesses that it shows for its use in future similar works. Hitherto the most part of the works and papers related with this case study are focused in the contentious politics of social movements and communities to stop the development of the project. As well as a significant number of them mainly analyze the contradictions of PT through the Brazilian state regarding to the different social impacts of the dam. This article aims to go beyond and provide tools and categories to explain the practices, relations and structures which are involved this process. In view of this, a methodology based on bibliographic review and the use of both primary and secondary sources is proposed. Through this method, it is possible to obtain the set of practices, representations and relationships that shape the conflict itself. In turn, to achieve this end, the article is divided into four main parts. In the first one, it is exposed the articulation approach between the different categories and aspects of the theoretical gazes for their uses in the case study. In relation with the perspective of the production of nature, originally developed by Neil Smith, the categories of use value and exchange value are fundamental. These ones, through their dialectic within the production relations, modify through the pass of time the metabolism that takes place between nature and society itself, generating conflicts where these changes imply a clash between two modes of production. With this fact different values prevail over the environmental resources, whose access is sought to continue the process of social reproduction. In addition to this, the proposed framework take in count the categories of spatial practices, representations of space and spaces of representation, formulated by Henri Lefebvre, in order to explain how changes in power relations involve changes in the space in which they are inserted and vice versa. Furthermore, with the interscalar perspective proposed by several scholars that are mentioned, the possibility of explaining how phenomena and actors from different scales influence the local one during the long development of the conflict. Subsequently, in the second section of the paper, the analysis of the spatio-temporal development of the conflict is carried out, from the beginning of project planning, through the modifications carried out by the different governments, the changes in the positions of the actors, the different law resolutions, the granting of licenses and so on, until today. Thirdly, the role of hegemonic actors in advancing the construction of the hydroelectric complex is explained and detailed, for which it is not only important to analyze the different representations and narratives carried out by different governments with respect to the project of Belo Monte, but also how state hydroelectric companies (Eletrobras and Eletronorte) are affected by the entrance of foreign capital, changing over time the spatial practices that are carried out, as well as the different positions of the institution responsible for the granting of environmental licenses to allow the dam activity (IBAMA). At the end, in the last part, the same operation is made but with the subordinate actors involved, which basically would be the local and foreign non-governmental organizations, as well as the communities of indigenous, peasant and fishermen of the locality. For them, the river fundamentally supposes a use value insofar as it is used as a source of resources and transportation to maintain pre-capitalist production relations on which they are sustained. Obviously, these activities have a low exchange value produced through its limited technology to harvesting and fishing, that finally are destined for local trade. The main results which can be highlighted are related with how this dam in particular, and the different hydroelectric projects in general along the region, allow to extend spatially an economic integration through the deployment of new relations of production and mechanisms for accumulation. These ones suppose an appearance of new use values, exchange values and values that clash against the previous ones thus producing the social struggle in the local scale around the dam. Furthermore, the frameworks of the scale and the production of social space show as useful theories for its application to future cases of environmental conflicts, meanwhile the production of nature framework shows some difficulties in order to use some of its categories for the case study. ; Durante las últimas décadas en Brasil se ha producido un incremento significativo de los conflictos hidrosociales a causa de la construcción de grandes complejos hidroeléctricos. Esta extensión de grandes proyectos de carácter extractivista en la región amazónica, sobre todo a partir de finales de la década de los años ochenta del siglo pasado, han conllevado todo un conjunto de transformaciones en las relaciones sociales, productivas y reproductivas, de cara avanzar en mecanismos para la integración regional y nacional, así como para la superación de crisis de acumulación propias de la escala global. Entre todos, por su trascendencia y dilatación en el tiempo, probablemente el que más destaca es el de la represa de Belo Monte en el río Xingú, próximo a la ciudad de Altamira. En él se ven involucrados una multiplicidad de actores (comunidades indígenas, campesinos, pescadores, el estado, Eletrobras, constructoras, instituciones supranacionales, etc) cuya disputa por el acceso a los recursos hídricos supone una modificación de la configuración de las relaciones de poder que se dan en el territorio. Este artículo, además de analizar el recorrido espacio-temporal de dicho conflicto, se propone dos objetivos adicionales. Por un lado la elaboración de un marco teórico, que conjugue las perspectivas de la producción de la naturaleza, la producción del espacio y la construcción de la escala, que pueda ser aplicado al análisis de conflictos ambientales que tienen lugar en el Sur Global. Por otro lado, y en consecuencia, a través de su empleo en el estudio de este caso particular, determinar las fortalezas y debilidades que presenta para su uso en futuros trabajos similares. De cara a ello se plantea una metodología basada en la revisión bibliográfica y el uso tanto de fuentes primarias como secundarias, mediante las cuales se puedan extraer y analizar el conjunto de prácticas, representaciones y relaciones que dan forma al conflicto en sí mismo. A su vez, el artículo se divide en cuatro partes principales: el planteamiento de articulación entre las distintas categorías y aspectos de los planteamientos teóricos para su uso en el estudio de caso; el análisis del desarrollo espacio-temporal del conflicto, desde el inicio de la planificación del proyecto hasta día de hoy; en tercer lugar se explica y detalla el papel de los actores hegemónicos en el avance de la construcción del complejo hidroeléctrico; y en última instancia se lleva a cabo la misma operación pero con los actores subalternos implicados. De entre los resultados obtenidos, destaca cómo este proyecto a nivel particular, y los macroproyectos hidroeléctricos en general en la región, han sido fundamentales para la integración económica en el marco de la extensión de las relaciones de producción capitalistas y los mecanismos para la acumulación a través de la realización del plusvalor, derivando resistencias ante este proceso de extracción. Así mismo, la perspectiva interescalar y la de la producción del espacio muestran potencialidades como marco para el estudio de conflictos ambientales, mientras que el de la producción de la naturaleza lo hace de manera parcial.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosur microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 723 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 59 per cent is covered by soil, 150cm) soils. About 6 per cent sandy (loamy sand), 41 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 12 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 20 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 58 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) and 1 per cent is gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 10 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 49 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 2 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 9 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 19 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 12 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 13 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 3 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 33 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 35 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 23 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available potassium is low (20 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 26 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 32 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available copper is deficient (0.2 ppm) in 55 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 12(2) 217(30) Sapota 6(1) 73(10) Maize 12(2) 216(30) Pomegranate 6(1) 98(14) Bajra 12(2) 264(37) Musambi 6(1) 98(14) Groundnut 6(1) 276(38) Lime 6(1) 98(14) Sunflower 6(1) 54(8) Amla 12(2) 310(43) Redgram 6(1) 54(8) Cashew 5(1) 53(7) Bengal gram 20(3) 212(30) Jackfruit 6(1) 73(10) Cotton - 228(32) Jamun - 75(11) Chilli 12(2) 191(26) Custard apple 12(2) 311(43) Tomato 12(2) 191(26) Tamarind - 31(5) Brinjal 5(1) 173(24) Mulberry 6(1) 144(20) Onion - 173(24) Marigold 12(2) 217(30) Bhendi - 178(25) Chrysanthemum 12(2) 217(30) Drumstick 6(1) 91(13) Jasmine 12(2) 191(26) Mango - 11(2) Crossandra 12(2) 191(26) Guava 6(1) 73(10) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Hosur is located at North latitude 150 31' 35.957" and 150 29' 45.815" and East longitude 760 16' 52.3 and 760 15' 11.834" covering an area of about 722.87 ha coming under Hosur, Arishinakeri and Methagala Villages of Koppal taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Hosur micro watersheds of Ganganal sub-watershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 37 total respondents, 5 (13.51 %) were marginal, 13 (35.14%) were small, 11 (29.73 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.41 %) were medium farmers. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 102 (56.67%) men and 78 (43.33 %) were women. The average number of landless was 3.83, marginal farmers were 5, small farmers were 5.07, semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 5.5. Majority of the respondents (48.89%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 28.33 per cent illiterates, 0.56 percent were functional literates, 8.89 per cent pre university education and 1.11 per cent attained graduation. About, 43.24 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 48.65 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 25.56 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 83.78 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.41 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 54.05 per cent possess TV, 45.95 per cent possess mixer grinder, 83.78 per cent possess mobile phones and 45.95 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 13.51 per cent of the households possess plough, 8.11 per cent possess tractor, 8.11 per cent possess bullock cart and 8.11 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 10.81 per cent possess local cow and 5.41 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 33.67, women available in the micro watershed was 3.80, hired labour (men) available was 6.80 and hired labour (women) available was 34.83. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 73.36 per cent (50.49 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 24.64 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 9.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 24.32 per cent of the households. 2 The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Paddy and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 92.01 per cent. Per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Paddy and Groundnut was Rs.28998.76 , 44022.53, 114810.33, and 76535.70 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.40, 1: 0.60, 1: 0.90 and 1: 1.00 respectively. Further, 27.03 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 32.43 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 70581.08 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 64108.11 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 496 horticulture trees and 114 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2432.43 for land development. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 29.73 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 83.78 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.70 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 86.49 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (29.73%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 67.57 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire wood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.30 per cent of the households and 2.70 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 86.49 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (91.89%), pulses (89.19%) and oilseeds (2.70%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (70.27%) wild animal menace on farm field (16.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (59.46%), inadequacy of irrigation water (13.51%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (78.38%), high rate of interest on credit (51.35%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.16%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (45.95%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (2.70%) and Less rainfall (10.81%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Die Situation, die zur Herausbildung der TVT im Jahr 1985 führte, war dadurch gekennzeichnet, daß die Bevölkerung tierärztliches Engagement zum Schutz der Tiere erwartete. Das Bemühen um Verantwortung für unsere Mitgeschöpfe ging jedoch zu jener Zeit hauptsächlich von Tierschutzverbänden aus. Bei etablierten veterinärmedizinischen Organisationen standen andere Aufgaben im Vordergrund und der Stellenwert des Tierschutzes wurde nicht gebührend beachtet oder nicht umfassend berücksichtigt. Die Dissertation soll dazu beitragen, den Einfluß, den die TVT seither auf den Tierschutz in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland genommen hat, zu analysieren. Dazu wurden die Protokolle, Mitschriften, Stellungnahmen, Informationsblätter, Verlautbarungen, Resolutionen, Gutachten, sowie der Schriftverkehr der Organisation seit ihrer Gründung eingesehen und ausgewertet. Das spezielle Informationsmaterial, die Merkblätter, Checklisten und die Empfehlungen der Arbeitskreise zu bestimmten Gebieten des Tierschutzes gaben Aufschlüsse über die von der Vereinigung untersuchten Problemstellungen. Die unter der Rubrik Tierschutz in der Zeitschrift "Amtstierärztlicher Dienst und Lebensmittelkontrolle" bzw. in den "TVT-Nachrichten" veröffentlichten Berichte von Autoren der Vereinigung, seit der Herausgabe dieser Publikationen, wurden kurz beschrieben und Artikel über die TVT in anderen Fachzeitschriften ausgewertet. Die Aufnahme der Aussagen von 22 Zeitzeugen vermittelte einen aufschlußreichen Einblick in die Vereinsarbeit und half, Zusammenhänge herzustellen. Die Tierschutzgesetzgebung wurde einbezogen, da sie die Grundlage für das Engagement des Vereins bildet. Die TVT ist der Tierschutzverein der Veterinärmediziner, ein Zusammenschluß von Tierärzten, die ihr Fachwissen als Sachverständige zur Verfügung stellen und den Leitspruch wählten: "In dubio pro animale". Die Vereinigung setzt sich dafür ein, Diskussionen über Tierschutz sachlich zu führen, Anforderungen zu formulieren, um auf wissenschaftlicher Grundlage gewonnene Erkenntnisse sowohl für die Legislative und die Exekutive zur Verfügung zu stellen als auch andere Interessierte in allen Tierschutzfragen zu beraten. Die Initiative zur Konstitution der Tierschutzorganisation der Veterinärmediziner entwickelten in den Jahren 1982-1985 zum überwiegenden Teil praktizierende Tierärzte. Sie wollten ihrem standespolitischen Anspruch, "Anwalt der Tiere" zu sein, gerecht werden und mit ihrem Fachwissen sowie ihrer Praxiserfahrung zur Umsetzung des Tierschutzgesetzes beitragen. Gegenwärtig gehören lediglich etwa 25% der Mitglieder der TVT dieser Berufsgruppe an. Den größten Anteil bilden inzwischen amtliche Tierärzte. Die TVT ist keine Massenorganisation, sondern als ein Zusammenschluß von Fachkundigen konzipiert. Tierärzte und Personen mit Spezialkenntnissen (Fördermitglieder) bearbeiten bestimmte Schwerpunkte des Tierschutzes. Zur Gründung, am 30.11.1985, gehörten der Vereinigung ca. 150 Tierärzte an. Heute gibt es etwa 800 Mitglieder, von denen 270 aktiv tätig sind, darunter 27 Berater. Die Vereinigung hat elf Arbeitskreise, die relativ selbständig wirken und nach Fachgebieten oder bestimmten Schwerpunkten gegliedert wurden. Die Spezialisten der TVT befassen sich, in der Reihenfolge der Arbeitskreise genannt, mit folgenden Themen: Nutztierhaltung, Kleintiere, Betäubung und Schlachtung, Tierversuche, Handel und Transport, Jagd und Fischerei, Zirkus und Zoo, Zoofachhandel, Tierschutzethik, Tierzucht und Pferde. Damit umfaßt ihr Tätigkeitsfeld das gesamte Spektrum des Tierschutzes für Wirbeltiere. Im Gegensatz zur TVT beschäftigen sich andere Organisationen, die sich für Tiere einsetzen, mit einzelnen Bereichen. Bis zum Ende des Jahres 2000 hat die TVT 81 Informationsblätter für die praktische Tierschutzarbeit angefertigt und herausgegeben. In Merkblättern erfolgt eine umfassende Erläuterung der Themen. Checklisten enthalten wesentliche Belange als Übersicht, die bei der amtstierärztlichen Überprüfung Beachtung finden. Aus dem umfangreichen Bereich der Leistungen der TVT können hier inhaltlich nur wenige aufgeführt werden. Für die weitere Entwicklung der Vereinigung war im Jahre 1988 die "Grundsatzerklärung der TVT" von entscheidender Bedeutung. Eine der wichtigsten Schriften der TVT ist der "Codex veterinarius", eine Analogie zum Hippokratischen Eid der Humanmediziner. Er liegt auch in englischer Fassung vor und soll in die italienische Sprache übersetzt werden. Schwerpunkte waren weiterhin: Forderungen nach Lehrstühlen für Tierschutz, Protest gegen Massentötungen gesunder Schweine im Rahmen der Schweinepestbekämpfung, Forderung einer Genehmigungspflicht für Haltungssysteme bei landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieren, Stellungnahme bei der Anhörung im Deutschen Bundestag zu Qualzüchtungen landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere, Eintreten für tierschutzgerechten Ablauf von Trabrennen, Richtlinien für Tierbörsen, Informationsschriften zum Ersatz bzw. zur schonenden Durchführung von Tierversuchen, zur Haltung von Zirkustieren und Tieren im Zoofachhandel, Engagement für Tierschutz beim Transport, Schlachtung und Tötung von Tieren sowie Tierschutzproblematik bei Wild. Ferner wurden folgende Ziele erreicht: Das Bewußtsein für die standespolitische Bedeutung des Tierschutzes bei Tiermedizinern wurde geweckt, die Frontstellung zwischen den Tierärzten und dem organisierten Tierschutz ist zumindest auf der Leitungsebene der Vereine bzw. Verbände beendet, die TVT wird in wichtigen Ausschüssen der Bundesregierung bei Tierschutzfragen angehört und ist in der Standesorganisation vertreten. Im Sinne des Tierschutzes gab es Ansätze der Zusammenarbeit mit dem Vieh- und Fleischhandelsverband, dem Zentralverband Zoologischer Fachbetriebe Deutschlands e.V. und der Vereinigung der Tierlehrer. Als zukünftige Aufgaben, Entwicklung und Perspektiven der TVT sind zu nennen: Koordination mit anderen im Tierschutz engagierten Verbänden der Tierärzte und Hilfe bei der Gründung sowie für den Aufbau von Schwesterorganisationen in europäischen Ländern. Die Organisation ist gegenwärtig im Einklang mit anderen Tierschutzverbänden bemüht, den Tierschutz im Grundgesetz zu verankern, votiert gegen Qualzüchtungen, engagiert sich für artgerechte Tierhaltung und befaßt sich mit Problemen gefährlicher Hunde. Die Leistungen der TVT sind anhand der großen Nachfrage an Publikationen der Vereinigung (Informationsblätter, Arbeitsmaterialien für Ausbildung und Prüfung bestimmter Berufsgruppen), der Vielzahl von Veröffentlichungen ihrer Mitglieder, bei Vorträgen, Meinungsäußerungen auf Tagungen, Seminaren sowie bei Anhörungen im Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten oder Deutschen Bundestag erkennbar. Bei der Bevölkerung hat sich das Ansehen des Berufsstandes in Hinblick auf die Frage, ob Tierärzte "Anwälte der Tiere" sind, durch die TVT entscheidend verbessert. Zuschriften zu aktuellen Problemen des Tierschutzes zeigen, daß Rat von der Organisation eingeholt wird. Die Effektivität des Vereins spiegelt sich in der Tatsache wider, daß lediglich etwa 1% der Tierärzte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in dieser Organisation für jegliche Belange des Tierschutzes tätig sind. Die TVT ist als Tierschutzverein der Veterinärmediziner anerkannt, nimmt auf den Tierschutz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland großen Einfluß und kann ihn durch Präsenz im Internet und Aktivität an den tierärztlichen Ausbildungsstätten erweitern. ; The situation which led to the establishment of TVT in 1985 was characterized by the fact that the population expected commitment of veterinarians for the welfare of animals. But the efforts for responsibility for our fellow creatures at that time mainly came from societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals. In established veterinary-medical organizations other tasks were in the foreground and the role of animal welfare was not duly observed or not comprehensively taken into account. The dissertation shall contribute to the analyzation of the influence TVT has had since then on animal welfare in the Federal Republic of Germany. For that purpose, protocols, notes, comments, information sheets, announcements, resolutions, expert opinions, and the correspondence of the organization since its establishment were analyzed and evaluated. The special information material, the leaflets, check lists and the recommendations of the study groups regarding certain areas of animal welfare provided explanations on the problems investigated by the association. Since these publications started, the reports by authors from within the association which were published under the rubric animal welfare in the magazine"Official Veterinarian Service and Foodstuff Control" and/or in the "TVT-News" were briefly described and articles on TVT in other technical magazines were evaluated. The inclusion of statements of 22 eye-witnesses provided informative insight into the associations' work and helped to establish connections. Animal welfare legislation was included since it forms the basis for the associaton's commitment. TVT is the animal welfare association of the veterinarians, an association of veterinarians who contribute their specialized knowledge as experts and chose the motto: "In dubio pro animale". The association supports the objective conduct of discussions on animal welfare, formulates requirements in order to place at disposal recognitions won on a scientific basis for both, the legislative and the executive, and all who are interested in issues concerning animal welfare. The initiative for the constitution of the animal welfare association of the veterinarians was mainly developed by practising veterinarians during the years 1982-1985. They wanted to do justice to their ethical claim to represent the interests of animals and contribute with their technical know-how and practical experience to the implementation of the Animal Welfare Act. At present only about 25% of TVT members belong to this professional group. The largest portion are veterinarians who are, in the meantime, in the civil service. TVT is no mass organization, it was conceived as an association of competent veterinarians and persons with special knowledge (promotional members) who deal with certain main points of animal welfare. About 150 veterinarians belonged to the association on the date of its establishment on November 30, 1985. Today it has about 800 members of which 270 are active, among whom 27 are consultants. The association has eleven study groups which act relatively independent and were divided in accordance with special fields or certain points of main emphasis. TVT specialists deal with the following subjects whereby they are listed in the sequence of the study groups: Livestock farming, small animals; stunning and slaughter, animal experiments, trade and transport, hunting and fishing, circus and zoo, the pet supply trade, animal welfare ethics, animal breeding, and horses. Their field of activity thereby composes the whole spectrum of animal welfare for vertebrates. In contrary to TVT, other organizations which support animals, deal with individual areas. Until the end of 2000, TVT prepared and published 81 information sheets for practical animal welfare work. A comprehensive explanation of the subjects is publicized in leaflets. Checklists contain essential concerns as overviews which attract attention at the official veterinary review. As regards content, only a few can be cited here from the comprehensive area of TVT's services. For the further development of the association, the "Policy Statement of TVT" in 1988 was of decisive importance. One of the most important papers of TVT is the "Codex veterinarius", an analogy to the Hippocratic oath of medical doctors. It is also available in English and will be translated into Italian. Points of main empasis were in addition: Requests for chairs for animal welfare, protest against mass slaughter of healthy pigs to combat outbreaks of swine fever, requests for official approvals concerning agricultural livestock systems, commenting at hearings in the lower house of the German Parliament on arbitrary breeding of agricultural livestock, support for the conduct of trotting races in a manner which does justice to animal welfare, guidelines for animal exchange, information papers on the replacement and/or the conduct of tests at animals in a caring manner, the maintenance of circus animals, and animals in the the pet supply trade, commitment for animal welfare during transports, slaughter and killing of animals as well as animal welfare problems with regard to game. Furthermore, the following goals were achieved: Awareness for the ethical meaning of animal welfare in veterinarians was awoken, the confrontation between veterinarians and organized animal welfare was at least ended on the management level of associations and/or societies, TVT is heard at important committees of the Federal Government on animal welfare issues and it is also represented in the ethical professional organization. In the sense of animal welfare, the beginnings of co-operation with the Livestock and Meat Trade Association, the Zentralverband Zoologischer Fachbetriebe Deutschlands e.V. (central association of specialized zoo companies) and the association of animal trainers began to show. As future tasks development and perspectives of TVT have to be cited: Co-ordination with other associations of veterinarians who are committed to animal welfare and provide help for the establishment and setup of sister-organizations in European countries. Presently, the organization, in line with other societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals, endeavours to anchor animal welfare in the constitutional law, it votes against breedings which are a crime against nature, commits itself to livestock farming methods which are appropriate for each species and deals with the problems of dangerous dogs. The achievements of TVT are recognizable because of the great demand for publications of the association (information sheets, work materials for education and examination of certain professional groups), the large number of publications of its members, at lectures, the expression of opinions at meetings, seminars and hearings in the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forests or in the lower house of the German Parliament. Because of TVT, the reputation of the profession has considerably improved with regard to the question whether veterinarians are representing animals' interests. Comments on actual problems of animal welfare show that advice is obtained from the organization. The efficiency of the society is reflected by the fact that only about 1% of veterinarians in the Federal Republic of Germany are active in this organization for any and all concerns of animal welfare. TVT is recognized as society of veterinarians for the prevention of cruelty to animals, it exerts much influence on animal welfare in the Federal Republic of Germany and can expand its influence by presence in the internet and actitivies in veterinarian educational establishments.
In 1928, Utah Construction Company completed its first project outside of the United States with the 110 mile railroad for Southern Pacific of Mexico. Over the next 30 years, UCC continued to work on projects in Mexico including dams, roads, mining, and canals. The collection contains several booklets and correspondence along with approximately 500 photographs. ; 8.5 x 11 in. paper ; 96) Return to Harry McNev Mexico- Copper & Exploration ABSTRACT CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT MINING EXPLORATION AND MINING PRODUCTION IN MEXICO Private mining industry is experiencing difficult times in many countries that are or have been large mineral producers. Would Mexico offer opportunities for exploration and production? Mexico is a mineral rich country. For the exploration en-gineer this is the most vital point. If the exploration groups are professionally adept, they will find mineralization. A broad review of metallogenetic provinces and of past and present production in Mexico can be used as a guide to explora-tion. Although Mexico is well endowed with minerals, there are many factors that must be considered before a determination can be made that the mineral discovered is ore; (a) restrictive factors in-cluca governmental policy such as taxes, Mexicanization, commodity prices and certain laws; (b) favorable factors include a stable government, strong and freely-convertible peso, and relatively low direct-production costs. -The Mexican mining industry offers an opportunity to those willing to study the problems, accept the law, and invest in the social -as well as financial- future of Mexico. CONDITIONS THAT AffECT MINING EXPLORATION AND MINING PRODUCTION IN MEXICO I. INTRODUCTION. The potential foreign investor in Mexico's Mining In-dustry must carefully consider many facets of the industry and of the country. On the positive side, a stable govern-ment, a healthy monetary position and. above all, a mineral-iy rich country can be found. However, no investments should be made until the potential investor has investigated the min-ing law with its Mexicanization requirements, the mining taxes, the technical manpower regulations and the power of the ex-ecutive branch to set commodity prices. The official mining policy during the period 1930 to 1954, did not encourage investments in the mining industry. However, the future looks much brighter, for now Mexicanization has been accomplished for over 90% of the industry and the gov-ernment realizes that mine products provide a base for Mexico's currency and bring in foreign exchange, that mining provides an important source of government revenue and is an important con-sumer of power, supplies, and transportation services. Also, and of great future importance, Mexico's expanding industry will be in need of more raw materials to supply its demand and its increasing export of manufactured goods. II. HISTORY. The Spanish conquistadores were obsessed by the riches found in Mexico - particularly gold and silver. Thus began the systematic plundering of the new colony and the beginning of mining as the basis of Mexico's economy, Mexico became known as the ""mine and mint of Spain"". Major mining districts such as Taxco, Zacatecas, Santa Brbara and Guanajuato were discovered and brought into pro-duction between 1520 and 1550. It is interesting to note that these selected districts are ail still in production. From 1810, which saw the start, of independence from Spain to 1910 when the Mexican Revolution broke out, mining continued to play a leading role in the national economy. It probably would be fair to say that it sustained the economy. From 1875 to 1900, for example, mining accounted for 70% of the value of Mexico's exports. During the period of the 1910-1917 Revolution mineral pro-duction sharply declined. Silver, lead, and zinc, however, hit their peaks in the late 1920's nut then the general depression followed by governmental restrictions and high taxes reduced exploration which then was followed by reduced production and to date the peaks of production of the late 1920's have not been reached. Under the progressive regime of President Diaz Ordaz, which started in 1964, governmental stimulation to the mining industry has led to greater exploration which is now showing up in increased production. Today Mexico ranks as the leading producer of silver and is the fourth largest producer of lead, fifth of zinc and fourteenth of copper. Mexico also produces major amounts of mercury, bismuth, sulphur, antimony and is the leading producer of fluorite. The entire mineral industry accounts for over 20 percent of the country's foreign exchange earnings although this amounts to less than 2% of the Gross National Product. III. CONDITIONS IN THE MINING INDUSTRY OF MEXICO THAT AFFECT IN-VESTMENT. A. Mexicanization. The term Mexicanization has often been misinterpreted as nationalization. Mexicanization only implies the control of a company in Mexican hands. The transfer of control from foreign to Mexican hands proceeds on a private level by negotiations between local and foreign businessman. Although foreign capital is welcomed, the investor should not expect more favorable treatment than that accorded domestic investors. In Mexicanization it is implicit that as a country progres-ses and matures it must create a body of national capital. For if the profit earned leaves the country (although it created jobs, paid taxes, etc.) the servicing of loans and repatriation of capital would likely endanger the balance of payments leading to an unsound economy. Instead, by retaining within the country at least 51% of the profit, a national capital can be created which is so necessary for further economic expansion and industrialization. - 3 - In 1961 a mining law was passed providing that new mining concessions can be granted only to Mexican nationals, and companies in which a minimum of 51 percent of their capital stock (or 66 per-cent in some instances) is owned by Mexican nationals. This same law, however, granted tax privileges to Mexicanized companies. B. Immigration Restrictions. To protect their skilled and unskilled labor, the Mexican Government has regulated the immigration of foreign technicians in-to Mexico. However, if for the good of the country it is felt that a foreign expert is vitally needed, he can be permitted to enter generally with the stipulation that he train his replacement. Mexican universities are training mining engineers, metal lurgists and geologists but their training is principally academic and an industrial training period is necessary to make these en-gineers capable of filling normal production positions, C. The mining law of Mexico was completely redrafted in 1961, This is an extensive law and only a few of the points will be discussed, 1. Only Mexicans or Mexicanized companies have the right to obtain concessions. 2. A concession shall have a maximum surface area of 500 hectares l hr = 10,000 sq. meters). The sides of the con-cession are limited by vertical planes, 3. The total maximum concession area for a company or an individual is limited depending on the substance. However, three times this maximum can be held for a five-year exploration period. As an example for gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc, a maximum of 9000 hectares can be held for the first five years. After this five year period, a maximum of only 3000 hectares can be held. 4. Mining concessions are issued for 25 years but may be extended on proof of effective exploitation. 5. Assessment work is required. D. Taxes. Taxes paid by mining companies include: 4 1. Income Tax. This tax is modarate and has a maximum of 42%. 2. Production and Export Tax. These taxes are based on price set monthly by the Treasury Department. This official value is arbitrary and can change but generally reflects world prices. These taxes are levied whether the Company is making an operating profit or not. 3. Surface Tax. This tax is a rental on mineral concession of $1.20 dollars per hectare per year. 4. Capital Gains. Capital gains are included in gross income but at a reduced percentage depending on the length of time that assets have been held. 5. Depletion. There is no deduction allowed for depletion. 6. Amortization and Depreciation. It can be stated that deductions allowed are those that the tax authorities regard as normal and necessary for conduct of business. 7. Reduction in Taxes for New Mines. A directive calls for a five year reduction of up to 40% income tax and up to 100% of the federal portion of the production and export taxes, and accelerated depreciation and amortization for certain investment in new operations. 8. Other Taxes. Other taxes such as social security payments and distribution of a portion of annual profits to employees are required. E. Metal Prices. Metal prices for sale in Mexico are set by a govern- - 5 - merit agency. These prices are lower than world prices and act to subsidize Mexico's metal-using industries at the expense of the mining industry. F. Favorable Conditions. 1. Stable Government. The Mexican Government is stable and this stability will be entrenched each passing year with the development of a larger middle class and the strong emphasis on education. 2. Financial Stability. Exchange restrictions have never been imposed and funds are freely convertible and transferable to and from Mexico. The exchange rate has remained at 12.50 pesos per U.S. dollar since 1954. An exchange stabilisation agreement exists between Mexico and the International Monetary Fund which permits Mexico to draw on foreign currencies to maintain the parity of the peso. However, Mexico has maintained a favorable balance of payments for numerous years. 3. Low cost labor. Although there is a notable lack of qualified mining and exploration personnel of the highly technical and supervisory calibre, there is plentiful mining labor in the mining regions. In general, the mining labor is efficient and the costs are reason-able. Recent wage raises have been higher than increased productivity and management must work for higher productivity. In recent years strikes of over 15 days duration have been exceptional and peaceful labor relations are the rule. 4. High mineral potential. We can start with the premise that Mexico is a country extremely well endowed with minerals and many ore bodies await to be discovered. The fact that there has not been more than possibly three major metallic mineral discoveries in the last two decades is not that the bodies do not exist but that fiscal conditions have been such that no search has been made - 6 - for them. Now methods and philosophies of exploration have not been tried until very recently but in them lies the great ex-ploration potential of Mexico. There are three general geologic zones in Mexico. The nor-thern zone is separated from the southern zone by the volcanic-rift belt which runs east-west through Mexico City and Guadalaja-ra and has as its most obvious surface feature a belt of Cenozoic volcanics. Most of the mining in Mexico has taken place in the northern zone in which the more acidic intrusive rocks are found. The southern zone contains more basic rocks, and although there are numerous mineral occurrences, the mines are small in size and number. The scarcity of mines in this zone is undoubt-edly due, in great part, to the lack of exploration which is made difficult due to lack of roads and facilities and to the heavy vegetation covering the outcrops. The volcanic-rift belt exhibits difficult exploration con-ditions; the principal ones being the great amount of volcanic cover and the intense faulting. As in the southern zone this area has not received intensive exploration; however, the famous silver deposits of Pachuca, Taxco, El Oro and Guanajuato lie within this region or at its edge. In the northern zone a long, large northwest trending belt of middle Cenozoic volcanics is found, which constitutes the Sierra Madre Occidental. Pew large mines are known within this belt of very thick volcanics; but where the rocks below the volcanics have been exposed, they are abnormally well mineralized. Therefore, here again the scarcity of mines is due to lack of out-crops. In order to investigate the exploration possibilities in greater detail, let us evaluate the situation of various metals. a. Silver. Mexico is and has been for many years (except 1968) the world's leading producer of silver. In the past a majority of the silver came from such bonanza camps as Pachuca, Guanajuato and Tax co where the silver was found in very high-grade deposits with very minor amounts of other metals. Today. most of Mexico's silver is produced as an accessory mineral in the lead and zinc deposits. This means that with lower lead and zinc prices there has been a reduction in the production of silver although silver prices have advanced. Although the bonanza camps have been reported as ""worked out"", there are definite signs that this may not be the case. Recant high-grade discoveries in Guanajuato and Taxco indicate that if modern techniques and vigorous exploration are carried out, it is quite possible that bonanza deposits will be discovered. Silver is well distributed in many parts of Mexico and it would be difficult to pin-point exact locations favorable for exploration. Slide No.2 shows in general the major distribution of silver. Since the environments vary widely, so also would the exploration techniques. In parts of Mexico numerous silver deposits have been known but left unexploited due to lack of roads and facilities. Large, low-grade deposits probably exist but as yet company philosophies have not been such that they would explore for this type of deposit. b. Copper. Copper, like silver, appears to have a future at favor-able prices. Added to this is the great increase in demand for copper by Mexico to satisfy its rapidly expanding industry. Until this year (1970), there has been only one copper mine in Mexico that could be considered major; the Cananea mine which produces approximately 70% of Mexico's copper. The Santa Rosalia mine in Baja California could be considered a medium sized mine and the rest of the present copper production comes from very small mines or as a minor mineral from other base metal mines. Because of this limited production, Mexico is presently producing just enough copper to supply its internal demand. This picture, however, is changing rapidly. In early 1971, Asarco Mexicana, S.A. will bring into production their Inguarn mine, in the State of Michoacn, which will have a mill capacity of 2000 metric tons per day of 1.8% copper which will more than take care of Mexico's immediate industrial demands for copper. Then in the future lies the immense deposit, La Ca-ridad, of Mexicana de Cobre, which has reserves in excess of 600 million metric tons of 0.75% copper with values in molybdenum. The exact size of this deposit is as yet unknown. Work is now underway to bring this deposit into production in 1974. -8- The reason for not producing more copper in Mexico has been the lack of exploration incentive by the mining companies. The small prospector is not equipped to explore for bulk, low-grade copper deposits and only in the last year or so have major companies made an exerted effort in this field. A very favorable copper mineral province exists in the State of Sonora, Perhaps the most important structural characteristic of this area is its location (Slide #3) along the north-trending Wasatch-Jerome crustal lineament at or near its intersection with the northwest-trending Texas lineament. Correlation between these lineaments and the distribution of the bulk low-grade deposits has been remarkable. Mexico's largest copper producer at Cananea and the previously mentioned La Caridad deposit lie along the Wasatch-Jerome near the intersection with the Texas lineament. Although northern Sonora is a most favorable area in which to explore for copper, this area should not be considered as the only target area since favorable areas exist in other parts of Mexico. Molybdenum can often be expected as an accessory metal with the copper mineralization. If unfavorable conditions for mining investment in Zambia, Peru and Chile -all major copper producing countries- continue or worsen, Mexico will become a major exporter of copper within the next ten years. Even if conditions become better in those countries, Mexico will still play a major role as a copper producing country. c. Lead and Zinc. Although the long term picture for lead and zinc, with silver as an accessory metal, may not be as bright as for copper, established smelter capacity and both local and foreign markets exist and, therefore, exploration for lead and zinc can be con-sidered by both large and small companies. For many years there has been little exploration for new lead and zinc deposits and there has been no exploration with the use of modern tools for locating unexposed bodies. The greatest exploration provinces for lead and zinc are shown on Slide #5. In these areas substantial silver values associated with the lead and zinc could be expected. - 9 d. Other Metals and Minerals. Mexico is a major producer of fluorite, barite, mercury, tungsten and antimony. Exploration will continue for these ma-terials depending primarily on world prices. i IV. SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS. Prom the foregoing, we can quickly summarize the conditions that exist in Mexico that directly affect investment in the mining industry. A. Regulatory. 1. Mexicanization. The requirement of majority investment by Mexican nationals by itself is certainly not unfavorable; however, risk capital is difficult to find. 2. Immigration Restrictions. It is often difficult to obtain highly technical personnel and companies are limited to the number of foreign personnel they can hire. 3. Mining Law. The mining law has been updated and is meant to broaden the mining industry base in Mexico. However restrictions and control are an essential part of the law. 4. Taxes. Income Taxes are moderate but production and ex-port, taxes are a severance tax not based on profit. There is no reduction in taxes for depletion. 5. Metal Prices. Mexico's industry is subsidised at the expense of the mining industry through official prices set slightly lower than world prices -10- B. Favorable. l. Mexico is a mineral-rich country. 2. Mexico has a stable government. 3. Mexico has a strong-convertible currency. 4. Direct production costs for medium to large operations are low. 5. The proximity to the United States assures a large market in addition to the growing market in Mexico. Future. The most striking feature about Mexico today is the tremendous social gains. Education receives, by far, the largest share of the national budget; health facilities are readily available and are ex-panding; electricity and roads are coming to the small villages and wages are being raised in an attempt to make even the poor farmer a consumer. Mexico is expanding industrially to keep in step with the local demands and manufacturing more and more of its necessities in or-der to reduce the need to import, which makes its trade balance more favorable. Mexico yearly increases the export of manufactured goods where previously the country had only been an exporter of raw material and crafts. Politically Mexicans are, and should be, proud of their ancient past and their recant history. They are, therefore, ready and anxious to work with foreign companies if this partership will assist in the development of Mexico as a country and to the advantage of the Mexican people. The exploitation of Mexico to the advantage of other peoples is a thing of the past. Mexico is a developed country and expects to be treated as such. The Mexican mining industry offers an opportunity to those willing to study the problems accept the laws and invest in the social -as well as financial- future of Mexico. D.F. Coolbaugh Mexico, D.F. Mexico, May 1970. DFC/mfb. - 11 -
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramasamudram-2Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 660 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 410 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 175 ha by rock outcrops and 24 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 8 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 8 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm). About 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 20 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 15 per cent area is very low (0.75%) area. 38 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 32 per area is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of about 55 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 235 (36) 85 (13) Guava - 45 (7) Maize - 320 (48) Sapota - 45 (7) Bajra - 365 (55) Pomegranate - 280 (42) Groundnut - 90 (14) Musambi 214 (32) 66 (10) Sunflower 169 (26) 66 (10) Lime 214 (32) 66 (10) Redgram - 281(42) Amla 16 (10) 254 (39) Bengal gram 235 (36) 85(13) Cashew - - Cotton 235 (36) 85 (13) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 366 (55) Jamun - 280 (42) Tomato - 242 (37) Custard apple 235 (36) 85 (13) Brinjal 66 (10) 299 (45) Tamarind - 280 (42) Onion 45 (7) 151 (23) Mulberry - - Bhendi 179 (27) 186 (28) Marigold - 366 (55) Drumstick - 281 (42) Chrysanthemum - 366 (55) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Findings of the socio-economic survey The survey was conducted in Ramasamudram-2 is located at North latitude 160 48' 11.216" and 160 46' 19.928" and East longitude 770 15' 22.793'' and 770 13' 20.245" covering an area of about 660.07 ha coming under Ramasamudra and Ashinala villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 respondents, - 17 (48.57%) were marginal, 8(22.86%) were small and 3 (8.57%) were semi medium and 2 (5.71%) were medium farmers. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 97 (59.15%) men and 67 (40.85%) were women. Majority of the respondents (48.78%) were in the age group of 35-60 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 54.27 per cent illiterates and only 7.32 per cent attained graduation. About, 45.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 40 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 27.44 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 74.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 42.86 per cent possess mixer grinder and 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households possess plough and only 2.86 per cent sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households and 8.57 per cent possess buffalo respectively. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.67, women available in the micro watershed was 1.48, hired labour (men) available was 7 and hired labour (women) available was 11.68. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (33.55 ha), 78.89 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 21.11 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 8 bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 22.86 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Maize, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.27 per cent. The sample households possessed 94.29 per cent bank account and 28.57 per cent of them have savings in the account. 2 About 40 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 26.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 80 per cent from Cooperative bank. Majority of the respondents (94.44 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 77.78 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Maize, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.23072.88, 47784.26, 39614.70, 58225.91 and 35410.88 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.10, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.20, 1: 0.60 and 1:2.01 respectively. Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 76985.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 43700 comes from agriculture. The total number of horticultural trees grown (both field and backyard) by the sampled households were coconut and Mango (6) trees in the fields and forest species arwe grown 8 teak trees, 36 neem trees, 2 tamarind trees together in both field and backyard. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6171.43 for land development, Rs. 142.86 for creation of irrigation facility, Rs.3028.57 for adoption of improved crop production and Rs.200 adoption of improved livestock management. Source of funds raised from own sources for land development was 60 per cent, for irrigation facility was 2.86 per cent, for improved crop production was 48.57 per cent and for improved livestock adoption was 5.71 per cent. Regarding marketing channels, 20 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 77.14 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders. Further, 68.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (85.71 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 80 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 77.14 per cent of the households and 37.14 per cent households has LPG. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. In the study area, 60 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3 Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Cereals (85.71%), pulses (82.86%), oilseeds (48.57%) were adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (74.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (68.57%), inadequate extension services (68.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(82.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
As a normative principle, federalism describes "the method of dividing powers so that the general and regional governments are each, within a sphere, co-ordinate and independent" (Wheare 1963: 10). The federal principle thus prescribes subnational self-rule on matters of local and regional scope and shared rule of the subnational units and the federal government on matters that transcend regional capabilities and jurisdiction (Elazar 1987). To not confuse federalism with other means and ways to territorially distribute power, e.g. decentralization, the vertical division and diffusion of jurisdiction needs to be constitutionally enshrined and cannot be unilaterally altered (Hueglin 2013). The constitutional safeguard is the core of federations that are the empirical embodiments of the normative principle of subnational autonomy on the one hand and federally shared jurisdiction on the other. Hence, federations are states that possess a federal constitution, i.e. a written agreement enshrining the basic political order of a state (who does what), that necessitates the approval of all constitutive parts, i.e. the federal government and the subnational units (Watts 2008: 8–9). Since "federalism is some one or several varieties of political philosophy or ideology and […] federation […] some type of political institution" (King 1982: 75), the constitution and its political institutions are only the formal framework within which actors of different levels of government work. Thus, federalism does not only encompass structure (polities) but also processes and culture (politics). The latter describes the political actors' behavior according to the logic of compromise and accommodation but also a commitment of the people as a whole towards territorial power sharing and the aforementioned logic of "thinking federal" (Elazar 1987: 192–197; see also Duchacek 1970). Especially, processes and practices within and beyond the federal frame stand out. One procedural characteristic in multi-tiered, federal systems are intergovernmental relations (IGR) that describe "ways and means of operationalizing a system of government" (Elazar 1987: 16). In its broadest terms, IGR are formal and informal interactions of government units between and within layers of government (Poirier and Saunders 2015a). Intergovernmental agreements (IGAs) and intergovernmental councils (IGCs), the two central embodiments of IGR, come into play when self-rule or shared rule is granted but cannot be sufficiently or satisfactorily fulfilled (for a general introduction see Poirier et al. 2015; for an encompassing discussion of IGCs see Bolleyer 2009 and Behnke and Mueller 2017; for an introduction to IGAs see country specific literature). The dissertation project "Federal Reform and Intergovernmental Relations in Switzerland. An Analysis of Intercantonal Agreements and Parliamentary Scrutiny in the Wake of the NFA" starts from the conceptual dualism of federalism and IGR. It aims at answering crucial questions on the most recent developments in the Swiss federal system with respect to horizontal IGAs and the role of subnational legislatures when such IGAs are at stake. The basic and overall research question of the dissertation is directly derived from the underlying research project1 on "[t]he hidden political effects of the Swiss federal reform: The NFA and the changing power relations in the Swiss cantons": To what extent has the NFA affected the cantons and their political systems? The research strategy is twofold and so is the research question further split in two: A first preparatory part approaches the research objects at hand and a second part then aims at answering the basic research question. First, the dissertation asks for the significance of horizontal IGAs between the Swiss cantons and for the factors that explain their occurrence: (I) What is the state of intercantonal cooperation by means of IGAs and what explains the intensity of their use? While literature in the international (Parker 2015) and the Swiss context (Bochsler and Sciarini 2006) assign crucial importance to IGAs, barely anything is known about their empirical significance as well as the factors that drive it. Two exceptions stand out: the investigations by Frenkel and Blaser (1981) and Bochsler (2009) address both questions – state and explanatory factors of IGAs – within the Swiss federal system. However, research on the topic resides in the shadow. Answering research question (I) adds another point in time to the two existing ones – Frenkel and Blaser (1981) analyze IGAs as of 1980 and Bochsler (2009) as of 2005. The subsequent analysis checks whether the state of horizontal IGAs has changed and whether the explanatory factors tested are still of significance. Both is by no means certain: The most recent and encompassing federal reform, the Neugestaltung des Finanzausgleichs und der Aufgabenteilung zwischen Bund und Kantonen (NFA), took force on 1 January 2008 and, among others, strengthened intercantonal cooperation especially with reference to the conclusion of IGAs providing public goods and services that require the sharing of costs and burdens. Art. 48a para. 1 lit. a.–i. Cst prescribes the use of IGAs in certain policy areas, e.g. school and higher education, cultural infrastructure but also waste management and waste water treatment. The further institutionalization of IGAs by its strong codification in the federal constitution and the enshrined federal enforcement mechanisms were widely expected to spur intercantonal cooperation (see Bochsler and Sciarini 2006: 36). After around ten years since the NFA has taken force, the subsequent analysis investigates whether this expectation was right and whether the logic behind the conclusion of IGAs has changed or remained the same. Hence, it provides for the better understanding of state and occurrence of IGAs in general. Furthermore, it puts a special focus on such addressed by the NFA in particular. First, the descriptive analysis shows that there is no clear answer to the question on the development of IGAs: While the mere number of IGAs has not significantly changed of late but consolidated on a high level, other (fiscal) indicators point towards enhanced intercantonal cooperation. With respect to the explanatory model, applying cross-sectional regression analysis as well as the Quadratic Assignment Procedure (QAP) on dyadic data of intercantonal contracting, the subsequent analysis replicates but also expands the analysis of Bochsler (2009). One of the main findings is that intercantonal cooperation by IGAs mainly takes place within functional, geographically demarcated areas. Mobility plays a crucial role and is one of the main predictors of the intensity of horizontal contractual cooperation. To abstract from the Swiss case, a comparative analysis of the German Bundesländer and the U.S. states is conducted. The crucial question here is whether it exists a similar state and a common logic behind IGAs in other federations as well or whether country specific differences occur. The second part of the dissertation project deals with specific political effects of the NFA, namely effects on the cantonal parliaments as one of the core political institutions on the subnational level (Vatter 2002). While the first part approaches the topic by clarifying state and logic behind IGAs to assess its overall significance for the cantons, the second part directly addresses the basic research question on the political effects of the NFA on power relations within the cantons: (II) How do cantonal parliamentary rights of participation and scrutiny in intercantonal affairs have developed over time and what explains this development? Research on the Swiss cantons provides not only specific descriptive knowledge on singular cases (see Iff et al. 2010 for the canton of Berne and Schwarz et al. 2015 for the canton of Uri) but also on all cantons (Strebel 2014). However, both approaches lack a quantitative comparative and explanatory perspective. Towards answering question (II), it is hypothesized that the NFA and the accompanying public debates and executing national legislation2 triggered change in cantonal parliamentary rights of participation and scrutiny. As already pointed out, the reform heightened the expectation of more executive-driven intercantonal cooperation. Additionally, the federal government settled minimal standards for the conclusion of IGAs that lie within Art. 48a para. 1 lit. a.–i. Cst. Strebel (2014: 231ff.) discusses reforms on the cantonal level towards better parliamentary participation and scrutiny against the background of the NFA. However, a quantitative comparative analysis of the specific factors explaining institutional change stands out: Did the NFA trigger parliamentary reforms in the cantons and what role did other factors play, e.g. the institutional context and the parliaments itself as well as partisan actors within the cantonal arenas? The analysis builds on approaches testing similar effects in other contexts, e.g. the effects of increased activity of state officials on the European level on more parliamentary scrutiny of national governments 'at home' (Raunio and Hix 2000, O'Brennan and Raunio 2007, Winzen 2012, Auel et al. 2015). Methodically, the investigation in this second part makes use of time-series analysis on panel data to isolate the factors explaining institutional change. Besides, an in-depth discussion on a typical case (Lieberman 2005) gives further insights on the workings of the explanatory mechanisms. The dissertation closes by discussing the major implications that can be drawn from the analyses. While the first analysis addressed a trend within federations, i.e. increasing horizontal interactions, the second investigated a major challenge, i.e. efficiency versus democratic accountability (Poirier and Saunders 2015b). The concluding discussion links the two parts of the dissertation and hypothesizes the following: it was the very development towards enhanced parliamentary participation (second analysis) that has hampered the intensity of intercantonal contracting most recently (first analysis). Furthermore, the capability of cantonal political systems is critically discussed. 1 See the abstract of the research project The hidden political effects of the Swiss federal reform: The NFA and the changing power relations in the Swiss cantons (SNSF No. 159343; http://p3.snf.ch/Project-159343, accessed 31 March 2020). 2 i.e. the Bundesgesetz über den Finanz- und Lastenausgleich (FiLaG), in force since 1 April 2005, and the Rahmenvereinbarung über die interkantonale Zusammenarbeit mit Lastenausgleich (IRV), passed for ratification on 24 June 2005.
