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Issue 10.6 of the Review for Religious, 1951. ; A.M.D.G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER 15, 195.1 After Ten Years . The Editors Spirituality of Teresian Carmel . Fr. Thomas, O.C;.D. Peace of C;hrist . Thomas A. O'C;onnor Secular Institutes . Francis N. Korth Way of Simple Love . ,James Lockeff Current Spiritual Writing . . . . Augustine KJaas The Race Problem . ~ . . . Gerald Kelly Questions and Answers Index for 19S I Book ,Reviews VOLUME X NUMBER 6 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME X NOVEMBER, 1951 NU~BER 6 CONTENTS AFTER TEN YEARS--'~he Editors . 281 THE SPIRITUALITY OF THE TERESIAN CARMEL-- Father Thomas, O.C.D . 283 THE PEACE OF CHRIST-~Thomas A. O'Connor, S.3 . 289 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 295 SECULAR INSTITUTES--Francis N. Korth, S.J~ . 296 THE WAY OF SIMPLE L~)VE-~dames Lockett, S.J . 301 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING--Augustine Klaas, S.J.-- International Convention on Religious Life . 303 Reports on Renewal and. Adaptation . 305 Religious and Lay Helpers . 311 Prudence vs Credulity . . .~ ¯ . 313 HOW TO THINK AND ACT ABOUT THE RACE PROBLEM-- Gerald Kelly, S.J . 316 QUESTIONS AND~ ANSWERS--° 27. On Ackn~,w, ledging Gifts . 324 28. Succe~sso.r for Deceased Councilor . 32q 29. Slight°Deferment of First Profession . . . . . . . . 325 30. Can Shperior's Three-Year Term be Shortened? . 326 31. Can ~slstant Novice Master be Councilor? . 326 32. Pa~siontide Covering of Statues . 326 33. Admissioh of Deaf Applicant . 326 34. Must Altar Candles be Blessed? . 327 BOOK REVIEWS-- Officium Divinum Parvum; St. Clare of Assisi; Devotedly Yours 327 ¯ BOOK NOTICES . 329 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . . 330 TEN-YEAR INDEX-~SECOND CALL . 332 NO MORE REPRINTS . 332 ANNUAL INDEX FOR 1951 . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1951. Vol. X, No. ~. Published bi-monthly: danuary, March, May, duly, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter danuary 15, 1942. at the Post Office, Topeka. Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.d., G. Augustine Ellard, S.d., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: derome Breunig, S. d. Copyright, 1951, by Adam C. Ellis, S.d. ~Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before writincj to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. At:t:er Ten Years WrlTH this number we complete our first ten years of publica-tion. It seems an appropriate time to give.subscribers some facts about our history and some insight into our future. History Our first number (January, 1942) was already in the press when the war started. This number was mailed to" about 1300 subscribers; the last issue of that year w~s mailed to about 3200. Since that time our subscription list has increased gradually until now it is approxi-mately 8500. We began by publishing a 72-page magazine with large type and heavy paper. War and post-war restrictions on paper, as well as the rising "cost of everything pertaining to the printing business, forced us to cut on the quality oF paper, ~ the size of the type, and the num-ber of' pages. However, our present issue of 56 pages contains as much material as was printed in the first numbers. For more than nine years we held to our origigai price of two dollars per year. Only within this past year did we yield to pressure of rising costs; for, despite all the reductions regarding paper, type, and number of pages, our expense.s were much greater than they were in the early years of publication. Hence, in May, 195:11, we had to raise the subscription price to three dollars per year. We, did this with considerable regret, becaus~ we were conscious of the fact that most of our subscribers are small religious houses whose revenue is seldom more than meager. Our ambition has always been to publish a high-quality ecclesi-astical review, of special value to religious, whether clerical or lay. We have by no means reached the ideal; but we think we ~an say that we have published some valuable articles 'and series of articles. In our Question-and-Answer department, our policy has been to stress points that have some particular bearing on the religious life. We try to follow the same policy regarding bbok reviews. One of our special desires has been to keep a good Communica-tions department in which religious might help one another by dis-cussing some of the pract.ical problems of the religious life. We began this department with an excellent series of communications on spiritual direction. Unfortunately, we have never since been able to 281 THE EDITORS rise tO the standard set by that initial endeavor. Regarding unsolicited manuscripts, we have had only one "abso-lute" in our policy: we never accept poetry. Except for this, we have carefully considered every manuscript submitted to us. The Future In the past our subscription list has grown gradually and with a certain spontaneity, that is, without much special pushing. But there is a limit to suc,h growth, and perhaps we have reached it. We could use the special help of interested subscribers. For instance, there are still large numbers of religious communities that do not subscribe; and it seems that in many cases the sole reason for not subscribing is thai they have never heard of the REVIEW. Perhaps some of our readers would have occasion to g!ve them the information. Also, it seems to us that we should have more subscribers among diocesan priests who are directors and confessors of religious. Would it seem mercenary to suggest that a gift-subscription to the REVIEW would be just as good a Christmas present to such priests as a rabat or a box of cigars ? We must retain our new ~rice ($3.00), and we hope it will not make any substantial difference in the number of subscribers. As for articles, we still" have several in theI series on the spiritual-ity of' different institutes. These include "Salesian Spirituality," "St. Augustine and His Rule," and "Jesuit Spirituality." We have another article on secular institutes, and we shall publish more on that subject as our information grows. Also, we have a commentary. on the address on the states of perfection given by Pope Pius XII to the members of the First Congress of Religious; and we hope to pub-lish soon an English translation of the very importa.nt apostolic let-ter to religious, Uniqenitus Dei Filius, issued by Pius XI, in 1924. We would appreciate receiving good communications on practical problems, as well as suggestions concerning possible communications or articles. We close with a word of thanks to contributors and subscribers, and with a prayer of thanks to God, who has blessed us in many ways. THE EDITORS. 282 The Spirit:ualit:y !:he Teresian Carmel Father Thomas, O.c.D. THE CONCEPT of perfection which is the basis of all that has .| been written on the spirit of Carmel is that the objective of the Carmelite is a state of union in which the soul is transformed by love in God. "The state of this divine union consists in the soul's total transformation, according.to the will, in such a manner that there may be naught in the soul that is contrary to the will of God, but that in all and through all, its movements may be those of the will of God alone." (Ascent of Mt. Carmel, Bk.I, ch. 11, n.2.) This ideal set before his fellow religious by St. John of the Cross is carried over from the ancient spiritual tradition of Carmel as found in the work called the Institution of the First Monks (towards the end of the 12th century, or certainly before the middle of the 13th). The tradition of Carmel is twofold. "Firstly it consists in offering to God a holy heart, freefrom every stain of actual sin; we can reach that by our labor, our efforts with the help of grace; we have reached it when we are perfected in charity . The other end of this life is a purely gratuitous gift of God: it ¢0nsists in tasting, not only after death but even in this mortal life, the power of the divine presence and the sweetness of heavenly glories." (Institutio Primorum Monachorum, ch.2.) These two elements are not separate and unrelated. "By means of purity of heart and perfection of charity one arrives at the second end, that is, experimental knowledge of divine strength and celestial glory. " (Ibid.) . While this experimental knowIedge is a gift of God, it is not for that reason out of our reach or devoid of merit. Both St. John of the Cross and St. Teresa of Jesus speak of a double union with God. The first consists in perfect conformity of the human will with the will of God, which union of conformity is crowned quite normally with the mystical union in which the soul divestedof self-love is penetrated with the divine life and realizes tha.t God lives or dwells within. (Cf. Ascent, Bk.II, ch.5; Interior Castle, Mans. 6, Ch. Ill, n.3.) If few souls reach this high state, it is not because God wishes that it be the lot of a few, but because He finds few disposed for such union. (Livin~l Flame, A, St. 2, n.23) . 283 FATHER THOMAS Reoiew for Religious Carmel has always been the implacable enemy of mediocrity and half measures. St. Teresa warns the world that God "refuses to force our will, He takes what we give Him but does not give Himself wholly, until He sees that we are giving ourselves wholly to Him." (Wag of perfection, Ch.28, n.12.) And St. John of the Cross gives expression to the same thought by saying, "God communicates Him-self most to that soul that has progressed farthest in love; namely, that has its will in closest conformity with the will of God." (Ascent, Bk. II, Ch. 5, n.4) Total love postulates total sel'f-denial. Souls of the Teresian Carmel are called to a totalitg of looe. Asceticism of Carmel If the ideal of perfection is thus clearly set forth, the development of this ideal is no less evident in the writings of the Order. For the Carmelite, sanctity is to be reached by means of two practices: detach-ment and recollection, or, mortification and prayer. All the precepts of the Primitive Rule may be reduced to these. The central precept of the Rule: "Let each one remain in his celt; or hear it, meditating dag and nigh( on the law of the Lord, and watching in prager, unless otherwise jUStlg occupied, together with the prescribed recitation of the Divine Office and daily assistance at Mass, insure the primacy of prayer; while the precepts of poverty, fasting, abstinence, manual labor, silence, and humility form the background of mortification. Detachment is the negative element in the Carmelite program, ofwhich the Christian world today is perhaps overconscious. Too many spiritual men of our day have taken their impression of Carmel from the nothing, nothing, nothing of St. John of the Cross's map of perfection, forgetting th.at this nothing of detachment is dictated by the ALL of union with God. The saint who said to one of his peni-tents, "'Nothing, nothing, nothing, even to leaving our very skin and all else for Christ," (St. John of the Cross, Ft. Bruno, O.C.D., Ch.16.) was human and practical enough to realize that "unless the soul is enkindled with other and greater yearnings for that which is spiritual, it will be unable to throw off the yoke of nature or enter this night of sense, neither will it have the courage to remain in dark-ness as to all things.". (Ascent, Bk.I, Cb. X[V, n.2.) Austerity of life must be measured according to the strength of love. When love is strong, it will want to give much; when it is perfect, it will want to give all. (St: Teresa, Wag of Perfection, Cb. 32.) St. John of the Cross disavows any intention of trying to create a vacuum in the 284 November, 1951 TERESIAN CARMEL soul. As the soul is emptied of desire for creature satisfactions it is filled with desire for Christ. In fact, the saint recommends the culti-vation of an habitual desire for Christ before all else. "First, let him have an habitual desire to imitate Christ in everything that he does, conforming himself to His life." (Ascent,.Bk.I, Ch. 13, n.2) Father Gabriel finds it necessary to stress the order and discretion of St. John's treatment of this matter of detachment. "We think it. well to emphasize this advice of the Saint, for it shows how mistaken is the accusation which stigmatizes his doctrine as absolute and rigid. The principle of the necessity of complete detachment is absolute, but in its application the individual must take account of human weakness and needs. The man who would banish from his life every allevia-tion" and recreation would soon fall into a physical and moral weari-ness which would be detrimental to the spiritual life itself. Moreover, the pleasures of sense are' not always evil; there are pleasures which are perfectly innocent; but it is a question of not letting ourselves be-come attached to them. Otherwise we shall seek them in order to satisfy our own self-love, instead of using them for the benefit of our spiritual life and for the glory of God."~ (St. John of the Cross, Doctor of Divine Love and Contemplatign, p. 30, note.) Therefore, detachment is never made an end in itself. It is always looked upon as the instrument or means by which souls arrive at union with God in prayer. The most. important point of originality in the Teresian Reform was the intensification of mental prayer. St. Teresa herself introduced the two hours of mental prayer that are part of thd Car-melite day, and St. John of the Cross adopted the practice for the Fathers of the Reform. This interior prayer is the life of the vocal prayer and liturgy" of the Order, and is prolonged during the day in the.practice of the presence of God. Carmel does not view contemplation as an extraordinary grace, a quasi-miraculous favor reserved by God for a few privileged souls. "All who wear this holy habit of Carmel," proclaims St. Teresa, "are called to prayer and contemplation." (Interior Castle, Mans. V., -Ch.I, n.2.) In souls athirst for union with God, contemplation flourishes and becomes an instrument of progress on the way to per-fection and the crown of its perfect fulfillment. It is not to be confused with visions and revelations which Carmel; with St. John of the Cross, sees as extraordinary accompaniments of prayer and not in any way required in order to arrive at union with God. It is 285 FATHER THOMAS Ret~iew for Religious the teaching of the Teresian school of spirituality that contempla-tion is the normal development of the soul and postulates nothing more than the theological virtues and gifts of the Holy Spirit, ele-ments of the supernatural organism of the soul, the activation of which may be called connatural. This is not the place for a defense of the doctrine of acquired contemplation. Suffice it to say that in the Teresian school specula-tion upon contemplation has arisen from" a living contact with mystical facts and is directed immediately to the utility and guidance of contemplative souls. A contemplation which we can obtain by our human manner of working by means of the ordinary light of Faith and the ordinarg aids of grace (Quiroga, Don que tuao, Ch.I, p. 511.) has met with disfavor iri some circles, but a conciliatory spirit will find that the differences of various schools in this regard are little more than variations of terminology. (Cf. Gabriel, op. cir., p. 178, sqq.) Realization of Ideal Carmel's insistence upon prayer is made practical in the culti-vation of a personal love for Christ. Prayer is conceived as a friend-ship, and since the cultivation of friendship follows the laws of habit formation, each meditation is looked upon as a contact with Christ which, upon being repeated, soon results in deep esteem and strong love. This friendship inspired the Reform. "All I cared for then, as I do now, was that, as the enemies of God are so many and His friends so few, these latter might at least be devoted friends of Jesus Christ." (St. Teresa, Way .oF PerFection, Ch.I, n.2.) The Merciful Love of God manifested in the great mystery of the Incar-nation is the spiritual center of Carmel's spirituality. St. John of the Cross' insistence upon having an habitual desire to imitate Christ has been mentioned. This desire inspires a per-sistent search for God. Creatures cannot satisfy, for they are but traces of the divine. (St. John,, Spiritual Canticle, St. VII.) Con-tact with' Christ by way of faith in prayer brings the soul to the object of its search (Ibid. St. XII.), and then through suffering and the cross it penetrates and finds fruition in the "deep mysteries in the wisdom of God which are in Christ." (Ibid. St. XXXVI, n.2.) The progress of the soul through creatures to Christ, and through Christ to union with the Divinity is wonderfully traced by the Mystical Doctor. And we have only to .read his poem beginning, "How well I know the fount that freely flows, although 'tis night!" 286 Nooember, 1951 ¯ TERESIAN CARMEL to realize his tremendous appreciation for the Incarnation, and especially the real presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist. It is in the Blessed Sacrament that the Carmelite finds the daily companion-ship that inspires divinefriendship. The tenderness and simplicity of this love shows itself in Carmel's devotion to the Infancy of Our Lord. St. Therese of the Child Jesu~ is a delightful reproduction in our day of all the deep strength of the Spanish Mystics. Witness her oblation to the Merciful Love of God and the power of her thought when describing, it. (Autobiography, Cb. VIII, p. 148.) The ambition of every worthy Carmelite is to be what St. Teresa of Avila termed a deooted friend of Christ. Another practical manifestation of Carmelite spirituality is a tender love for Mary. Carmel' glories in the title of Order of Our Lady, but thisis not a mere empty honor; it is given substance in a Marian life that is marked by three traditional characteristics: imi-tation, intimacy, and consecration. The Order looks upon Mary as "More Mother than Queen" (St. Therese, Autobiographg, Ch. XII.), models' it prayer life upon her simplicity and recollection, and considers every vocation a speciMly established relationship with the Mother of God. Furthermore, far from considering its Marian life as a hindrance to union with God, Carmel's teaching is that intimacy with Mary lends greater unction to the highest mysti?al union. (Cf. Michael of St. Augustine, The Mariform Life and Marian Life in Mar~t and for MaGt, Chs. XIII, XIV.) " Carmel has for seven centuries enjoyed the special protection of Our Lady through the Brown Scapular, and considers this garment a sign of its consecration to Mary. Total dedication of the Order to the Blessed Mother is indicated by its traditional motto: Totus Mari-anus est Carmelus. Apostolate This paper on the Spirituality of Carmel seems to demar~d a final word regarding the apostolate.' After passing from the Orient and the eremitical life of its cradle in Palestine, the Order became mendicant in the West and espoused in its vocation the apostolic life, preserving at all times a leaning towards contemplation and solitude. So completely has the contemplative dominated the active in "Car-mel, that the Order has always looked upon its prayer life as its first apostolate. The life of the Carmelite Nun is founded on the principle that prayer has an apostolic value. St. Teresa placed before her nuns the 287 FATHER THOMAS very militant function of aiding God's priests by their prayer and penance. "I think," she writes, "He prizes one soul which by His mercy, and through our diligence and prayer, we may have gained for Him, more than all the other services we can render Him." (Four~datiorls, Ch. I, n.7.) T.he Church has always considered con-templatives as the apostles of the apostles. Plus XI, writing about the work of the contemplatives, says, "It is easy to understand how they who assiduously fulfill the duty ot~ prayer and penance con-tribute more to the increase of the Church and the' welfare of man-kind than those who labor in the tilling of the Master's field. For unless the former drew down from heaven a shower of divine graces to water the field that is being tilled, the evangelical laborers would indeed reap from their toil a more scanty crop." (A. A. S., Oct. 25, 192.4.) The friends of Christ, therefore, obtain the greatest victories in the conquest of the world for Him. St. Thomas gives the theologi-cal reason for this in these words, ",lust as the man who lives in grace fulfills the will of God, it is fitting (cor~grttttro est). in this relation of friendship that God should fulfill the will of man by saving others.'" (Summa Tl~eol. Ia IIae, q. 114, a.6.) And St. ~lohn of the Cross puts it this way. "A little of this pure love is more fruitful for the Church than all external works." (SloiriutaI Canticle, B. St. 29, n.2.) Since priests of the Order exercise an exterior apostolate also, they must necessarily show the influence of- the ideal of divine intimacy fostered in Carmel. Carmelite priests have the particular mission of helping souls to lead a life of interior union with God. They must find themselves at home with the problems of spiritual direction. This does not mean that the priestly ministry of a Carmelite limits itself to interior souls, since the priest of God owes his generous and zealous efforts to the whol~ Chu}ch, not excluding sinners and infidels. But when St. ,lohn of the Cross converted a sinner, he did not rest content with bringing about a return to the state of grace., He tried to lead this soul to a fervent life. One saint can do more than a thousand mediocre souls, and the great Carmel-ite Salmanticenses call attention to the great joy that is given to the Heart of Christ by leading souls to higher sanctity. (Curstts Theol. Tract. XIX De Caritate, disp. V, n. 93.) 288 The Peace ot: Christ: Thomas A. O'Connor, S.J. WHAT is the peace of Christ? What is this peace which Christ comes to give? Immediately there flashes on the screen of our minds the scene of that first Christmas. "While all things were in quiet silence and the night was in the midst of her course, Thy Almighty Word leaped down from Heaven from Thy Royal Throne" (Wisdom 18: 14). We see the shepherds on the hillside guarding their flocks. "Suddenly the glory of God shone round about them . and an angel said to them, '. behold I bring you good news of great joy which shall be to all the people; for there has been born to you today in the town of David a Savior, who is Christ the Lord. And this shall be a sign to you; you will find an infant wrapped in swaddling clothes and lying in a manger.' And suddenly there was with" the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God and saying, 'Glory to God in the highest and peace on earth among men of good will.' " . With haste we go with the shepherds, and we find Mary and Joseph, and the Infant lying in the manger. "A Child is born to us, and a Son is given to us and the government is upon His shoulder: and His Name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, God the. Mighty, the Father of the World to coine, the Prince of Peace" (Is. 9:6). God is the God of Peace (I Cot. 14:13), and His Son, the Prince of Peace. As He in prospect looked forward from His crib to the days of His earthly life, so we in retrospect look back to His thirty-three years amongst us. He has come, Zachary prophesied, "to guide our-feet in the way of peace" (Luke 1:79). Time and again His sacred lips would speak those most consoling words, "Go in peace." His first greeting to His assembled disciples after His resurrection was "'Peace be to you!" As Peter later testifies (Acts 10:36) "God sent his word to the children of Isgael, preaching peace through Jesus Christ." At the Last Supper, as the shadows of His earthly life were deepening, He revealed to His closest followers the secrets of His Sacred Heart, "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give to you; not 289 THOMAS A. O'CONNOR Review/or Religious as the world gives, do ! give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, nor let it be afraid." And at the conclusion of that beautiful dis-course He summed up the purpose He had in mind in the many thoughts He had communicated to them, "These things I have spoken to you that in me you may have peace." What is the peace of Christ? This peace which He comes to give? God is the God of peace because He is Love Itself, and He wishes to make all partakers of His love. "For I know the thoughts that I think towards you," saith the Lord, "thoughts of peace and not of affliction" (Jer. 29:11). St. Paul says, "For God is a God of. peace, not of disorder" (I Cot. 14:33). Again, ". beat peace, and the God. of peace and love be with you" (I Cor. 13:11). "May the Lord of peace himself give you everlasting peace in every .place" (II Thess. 3:16). The peace of Christ can be considered in a three-fold way: 1. Christ is our peace in bringing us peace wi~h God; 2. Christ is our peace in giving us the means to be at peace with our fello;ccman ; 3. Christ is our peace in teaching us how to have peace within our own hearts. Peace, says St. Augustine, is the tranquillity of order. It is.that serenity and quiet calm that is of 'the very nature of perfect order. I. Peace with God Christ is our peace in' restoring the right order between sinful man and his Creator, by reconciling the sinner with his offended God. As our Redeemer, He, "the second Adam, atoned for the original sin of the head of the human race. "When we were enemies we were reconciled to God by the death of His Son" (Rom. 5:10). He is th'e atoning Victim for our sins. "He is a propitiation for our sins, not for ours only but also for those of the whole world" (I John 2:2). The sinner cannot be at peace because his soul is at war with God. Mortal sin, we remember, is .the worst evil in the world, bu( let us not forget that the second greatest evil in the "world is venial sin. Christ is our peace in taking away our sins and the sins of the world. We are His peacemakers when by our prayers and sacrifices we help in bringing to the sinner the peace of Christ. As we gaze lovingly on the Infant Christ lying in His manger, let us recall the-words of St. Paul to the Colossians (1:15-21): "He is the image of the invisible God, the first born of every creature. 29O November, 1951 THE PEACE OF CHRIST ¯ For in him were created all things in the heavens and on the earth, things visible and things invisible., he is before all creatures, and in him all things subsist. For it has pleased God the Father that in him all his fullness should dwell, and that through, him he should reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in the heavens, making peace through his blood, shed on the cross." II. Peace with Our Fellow Man" Christ is our peace in re-establishing the proper order among men. This second kind of peace Christ left to the world by including men in the Mystical Body of Christ, and this in a two-fold way: First, Christ removed all barriers between nations and made them one. "You the Gentiles, says St. Paul (Eph: 2:12), "were at the time without Christ, excluded as aliens from the community of Israel. but now in Christ Jesus you, who were once 'afar off, have been brought near through the blood of Christ. For He Himself. is our peace, he it is who hath made both one, and has broken down the intervening wall. Therefore you are now no longer strangers and foreigners, but you are., members of the house-hold of God." Hence the peace of Christ does away with all barriers of race or nation or class of society. All have.been made one. "For He is our peace and has broken down the inter:;cening wall." Secondly, Christ is our peace in establishin, g right order among all men, because we have all been called into one.~.body-v-the Body of Christ. "For in one Spirit we are all baptized into one body. Now you are the Body of Christ, member for member" (I Cot. 12:12). "For just as in one body we have many members., so we, the many, are 6ne body in Christ. If it be possible, as far as in you lies, be at peace with all men" (Rom. 12:4). "Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of Our Lord Jesus Christ, that there be no dissention among you, but that you be perfectly united in one mind and in one judgment" (I Cot. 1:10)~. "Put on, there-fore, as God's chosen ones . a heart of mercy, kindness, humility, meekness, patience. Bear with one another and forgive one another ¯ . . but above all have charity, which is the bond of perfection. And may the peace of Christ reign in your hearts; unto that peace indeed you were called in one body" (Col. 3:12-15). III. Peace Within Our Own Hearts The third kind of peace which Christ brings us is peace within our own hearts. He offers to set up there a tranquillity of order over 291 THOMAS A. O'CONNOR Re~iew [or Religious the conflicting emotions and disturbing affections of our heart. This is the peace which He stresses in His discourse at the 'Last Supper. "Peace I leave with you, my peace I give to you; not as the world giveth to you, do I give unto you. Let not your heart be troubled nor let it be afraid." Christ wishes to instil in the Apostles a calmness and courage for their coming trims. He wanted to impart to them some of His own peace of mind and strength of soul with which He was approaching His passion. This same serenity of mind, this unruffled calmness of .soul, this fearlessness in the face of physical suffering were to be needed by many a martyr. His words were for all His heroes who were to suffer and to die for Him down to the end of time. They were for a Mindzenty, for a Stepinac, ~or a Beran, and for the count-less unknown priests and religious languishing in prison today. "If they have persecuted me, they will persecute you also" (John 15: 20). i'These things I have spoken to you that in me you may have peace. In the world you will have affliction. But take courage, I have overcome the world" (John 16:33). What is this peace of Christ? "This peace of Christ," says St. Augustine, "is serenity of spirit, tranquillity of soul, simplicity of heart, the bond of love, the consummation of charity." This peace of Christ is like a radiant star in the heavens, flashing to us its bright rays of inspiration and guidance. It is a multipointed star, brilliantly beckoning us to a full possession of the peace of Christ. For in the first place the peace which Christ would set up in our hearts comes from a perfect conformit~l to the u~ill of God. He the '.'Way, the Truth and the Life" has shown us the perfect way. "Thou hast fitted a body to me," He said, "behold I come to do thy will, O God" (Heb. 10:7). "For I bare come down from heaven, not to do my own will, but the will of him who sent me" (John 6:38). In the agony in the garden He pleaded with His Father to remove the cup of suffering but added: "yet not my will but thine be done" (Luke 22:42). Thus shall you pray: ". thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." (Matt. 6:10). The will of God is the highroad to happiness: His commands the blueprints of peace. "He who does the will of God abides forever" (I John 2: 17). As religious, we possess Christ's peace in our obedience. By obedience we put off our own wills to put on the will of God as declared to us by our superiors., to be possessed and governed by His Divine Providence by means of our superiors. "And if peace and 292 November, 1951 THE PEACE OI:: CHRIST tranquillity of mind is desired," adds St. Ignatius, "he certainly never shall arrive unto it, who has within himself the. cause of his disquiet and trouble, namely, the disagreeing of his own judgment from the law of Obedience." (Epistle on Obedience.) Secondly, Christ's peace comes to us from an unwavering trust in God's Divine Providence. For God's Divine Providence rules every-thing. Everything that takes place, happens not by chance but in accordance with the absolute or permissive will of God; and out of the circumstances of our lives, God draws, if we allow Him, an even greater good. For "not a sparrow will fall to the ground" without our heavenly Father's leave (Mr. 10:29). And "as for you" Christ says, "the very hairs of your head are numbered. Therefore do not be afraid" (Mr. 10:31). Again Our Lord says, "Therefore I .say to you,do not be anxious for your life., nor yet for your body. Your Father knows" what you need. "Seek first the kingdom of God and His justice, and all these things will be given you besides. Therefore do not be anxious about tomorrow" (Mt. 6:34). It is as if He were saying, live in the present;, love and serve God today; don't worry about the future; leave all that in the hands of your heavenly Father. St. Peter says: "Cast all your anxiety upon Him, because He cares for you" (5:7). St. Robert Bellarmine in an exhortation on the Providence of God says that this realization of God's Divine Providence will put us at complete rest. For we shall realize that God, knowing everything, is aware of what is both helpful and what is harmful to us. Conscious of God's power and His tender Fatherl~ love, we know that He will arrange everything for our good. With the Psalmist we can confidently say, "Even though I walk in the valley of death, I shall not fear" (Ps. 22). Thirdly, Christ's.peace comes to us from imitating His meekness and humility. "Learn of me," He says, "Who am meek and humble of heart and you shall find rest for your souls" (Mr. 11:29). Rest for our souls: peace, quiet of mind, tranquiIlity of heart. St. Am-brose, commenting on the causes of this lack of peace, compares this restlessness of heart to a fever which tosses us about, denying us all rest, burning within us. "This fever that afflicts us," he says, "is our selfishness; this fever is our lust; this fever is our ambition; this fever is our anger" (Com. on L. ch.4). Christ.promises us, if we imitate Him, pehce, rest for our souls. "Learn of Me who am meek": meekness controls th~ surges of anger, 293 THOMAS A. O'CONNOR Review for Religious bringing a tranquillity of order to our raging emotions. Learn of Me who am humble: humility establishes right order in thinking of ourselves. "God resists the proud, but gives grace to the humble" (Prov. 3:34). "If anyone thinks himself to be something, whereas he is nothing, he deceives himself" (Gal. 6:3). "He who humbles himself as this little child, he is the grefitest in the kingdom of heaven" (Mt. 18:4). "Unless you become like little children, you shall n. ot enter the kingdom of heaven." (Ibid.) "I therefore exhort you to walk in a manner worthy of the calling with which you were called, with all humility and meekness, with patience, bearing with one another in love, careful to preserve the unity of the Spiri't in the bond of peace" (Eph. 4:4). "Do nothing out of con-tentiousness or out of vainglory, but in humility let each one regard the others as his superiors, each one looking not to his own interests but to thdse of others. Have this mind in you which was also in Christ Jesus, who though, he was by nature God, did not consider being equal to God a thing to be clung to, but emptied himself, taking the nature of a slave, and being made like unto men" (Phil. 2:3-7). Fourthly, the peace of Christ is increased in our hearts as we become more and more unselfish, more and more Christlike. Un-selfishness cuts at the very tap'root of a thousand anxieties and frus-trations which are the bitter fruits of a life of self-seeking. We must put off our old selves to put on Christ. All selfishness must go. "Charity," says St. Paul, "is not self-seeking" (I Cor: 13:5). "For Christ did not please himself" (Rom. 15:3). Christ sought not himself in anything. "He must increase, but I must decrease" (John 3:30) must be our motto until each of us can say with St. Paul (Gal. 2:20), "It is no longer I that live, but Christ lives in me." Christ said, "My peace I give to you." In proportion, then as we are like Christ, in that same proportion we possess His peace. Fifthly, the peace of Christ floods our souls, in proportion as our hearts are filled with the love of. God and our neighbor. Christ said, "I am the vine, you the branches. As the'Father loved me, I also have loved you. Abide in my love" (John 15:10). "Do not love the world," says St. John, "or the things in the world" (I John 2:13). Again in the same Epistle, "He who does not love, does not know God; for God is love" (4:8). "No one has ever seen God. If we love one another, God abides in us and his love is perfected in us" (4:12). "And this commandment we have from him, that he who 294 November, 195 l THE PEACE OF CHRIST loves God should love his brother also" (4:21). "Jesus said, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul and with thy whole mind.' This is the greatest and the first commandment. And the second is like it, 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself' " (Mr. 22:37). As we gaze in loving adoration at the scene in the cave of Beth-lehem, we see primarily and above all a scene of peace. It is the peace of Christ, the peace which the Prince of Peace came to give, the peace which the world cann6t give. We see that peace reflected in the kindly face of the strong, self-possessed, mild-mannered Joseph. XT~re see that peace resplendent in the radiantly pure features of Mary Immaculate. That peace was theirs when at Nazareth they heard the disap- .pointing news that a census was to be taken, that all must register, each in his own town. That peace was theirs during the long hours of that wearisome, four or five day journey to Bethlehem, to the town of David.,That peace was theirs even when they heard the crushingly discouraging "No room" as they unsuccessfully sought for shelter. That peace was still theirs when, abruptly awakened at a midnight hour by a fear-inspiring message, they hurried away to a foreign land to save the life of the Child from those who sought to destroy Him. That peace was theirs because their wills were .al.ways perfectly conformed to the Will of God, Sbedient to His every wish. 'That peace was theirs because they trusted unreservedly in the guidance of God's loving Providence. That peace was theirs because, being truly meek and humble of heart, they had found rest for their souls. That peace was theirs because they were utterly finselfish. That peace was theirs because they loved God with their whole heart and their neighbor for the love of God. "So may the peace ot: God, which surpasses all our thinking, watch over your hearts and minds in Christ Jesus" (Phil. 4:7). OUR CONTRIBUTORS ~ FATHER THOMAS, O.C.D., is novice master in the Carmelite novitiate, Brook-line, Massachusetts. THOMAS A. O'CONNOR is president of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, and FRANCIS N. KORTH, AUGUSTINE KLAAS, and GERALD KELLY are on the faculty of the same theologate. JAMES LOCKETT is studying philosophy at Springhill College, Mobile, Alabama. 295 Secular Inst:il:ut:es Francis N. Korth, S.J. ON FEBRUARY 2, 1947, Pope Plus XII issued an Apostolic Constitution Provida Mater Ecclesia which crystallized a movement that had been developing in the Church for more than fifty years. By his action the Holy Father gave official recogni-tion to a new juridical state of perfection, namely secular it~stitutes.I In a separate article the juridical nature of these institutes will be considered. For the present let us take a brief look at the history of secular institutes. During the past century it became more and more evident that there were certain types of apostolate which could not be carried on easily by religious because of their distii~ctive garb and cloistered life. For this reason the Daughters of the Heart of Mary, an institute without common life and a di.stinctive habit, was founded in Paris about 1790. It received the decree of praise from Rome on April 29, 1853, and definitive approbation four years later on April 24. It~ constitutions were temporarily approved for ten years on May 30, 1870, with final approbation being given on June 8, 1890 (at which time the institute numbered over two thousand members). An insert in the constitutions mentioned that the institute's vows were neither public nor simply private vows of devotion. A similar organization of men, the Work of Youth, was estab-lished at Marseilles on June 24, 1821, by Father Joseph Allemand. Some of its members lived in their own homes' and engaged in vari-ous occupations in the world. There existed also other groups of a like character, such as the Virgins of Jesus and Mary (founded in 1844), the Daughters of Mount Calvary (1866), and the Sister Servants of Jesus in the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist (1867). On August 11, 1889, the Sacred .Congregation of Bishops and Regulars in its decree Ecclesia CathoIica stated that societies which did not'conform to the traditional common life and characteristic garb would not be recognized as religious congregations or 9rders, but only as pious sodalities. Such a step was taken because of the 1There are three such recognized states of perfection at present, namely religious in-stitutes, societies of common life, and secular institutes. These constitute a threefold category of the juridical state of perfection to-be-acquired. This latter is not to be confused with the juridical state of perfection acquired, of which the episcopate is the example. 296 November, 1951 SECULAR INSTITUTES increasing number of "unorthodox" institutes. However, even after this decree, approval as religious was granted to the Lady Catechists (Novem~ber 21, .1907) who dress" as laywomen, and to the extern Sisters of the Congregation of the Handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Venerable Catherine Volpicelli (3uly 5, 1911) who live in the world. Similarly or~ December 1, 1916, the Sisters of Our Lady of Labor received the nihil obstat to canonical establishment. Mean: while, .in 1911 the constitutions of the Sbciety of the Daughters of Saint Francis de Sales were approved, in which it was stated that the Society was not to be considered as a religious congregation. During the first decade and a half of our present century, while the work on the compilation of the Code of Canon Law was in progress, consideration was given to this new type of institute whose members live in the world, but the time was not yet'ripe for an offi-cial pronouncement; hence the Code made no mention of them. These associations, however, were multiplying. They numbered clerics and lay persons, men and women; the lay element was pre-dominant. As the problem became more urgent, a deeper study of the ques- .tion was made. During the International 3uridical'.Co.ngress held in Rome in 1934, a change of policy was indicated "by Cardinal La Puma, at that time Secretary of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. As a result, approval of their constitutions and recognition as true religious was granted to the Work of Youth, of Marseilles (April, 1933) and to the School Missionaries of Saint Catherine of Siena (April, 1934). At that same International Juridical Congress, Father Servus Goyenecbe, C.M.F., made a fervent plea for the devel-opment and recognition of the new type of institute (Acta Congres-sus Iuridici lnternationali's (1934) IV, Rome, 1937, page 315). In accordance with a request of the Holy Father, Plus XI, the Sacred Congregation of the Council was maki.ng a special study of the problem. Under its auspices a meeting was held in 1938 at Saint Gall, Switzgrland, with Father Augustine Gemelli,' O.F.M., pre-siding. At least twenty-five associations, mostly of a lay character, took part. About the same time a detailed examination of the entire question was being made by Father Arcadius Larraona, C.M.F. (now Secretary of the Sacred Congregation of Religious) in conner-ton with the application for papal approval of the constitutions the Sisters of Our Lady of Labor. Both the Holy Office and the Sacred Congregation for Religious 297 FRANCIS N. KORTH were interested in the study of this matter. Favorable progress was reported. A special Commission for a final review was set up. The result of all these protracted labors was the above-mentioned0Consti-tution Provida Mater Ecclesia. What about the present condition of these new institutes? How many have been approved? In what countries? From various sources I have been ableto gather the following details. I believe they are quite reliable, but I cannot vouch for their perfect accuracy. Up to March, 1950, the number of applications received in Rome both for permission to establish diocesan secular institutes as well as for the decree of praise for an institute already established totaled ninety-eight. Three-fourths of the applications came from institutes of women. Of the institutes of men, tWO-fifths were clerical. Dioc-esan secular institutes already established numbered twenty-two. Of ninety-seven applications for the years 1948-1949, the breakdown as to countries was as follows: Austria 4, Belgium 4, Canada 1, Colombia 3, France 12, Germany 9, Holland 2, Hungary 1, Italy 45, Mexico 4, Poland 1, Rumania 1, Spain 8, Switzerland. 1, Uru-guay 1. Definitive pontifical approvhl has been granted to five secular in-stitutes: the Opus Dei (Madrid), the Missionaries of the Kingship of Christ (Milan), the Institute of Qur Lady of Labor (Paris), the Company of Saint Paul (Milan), and the Daughters of the Queen of the Apostles. I shall say a little more about the first four. of these institutes. In the United States a branch of the Opus Dei has been estab-lished in Chicago. Canada has at least two secular institutes: the Society of Missionary Nurses (women), founded at Montreal in 1942 by Monsignor Edgar Larochelle; ,and the Society of Lay Apostles of the Missions (24 McDougall, Ottawa, Ontario). Some other organizations reported as secular institutes include the follow-ing: Carmelites of Our Lady of Life (Avignon, France), Compan-ions of Saint Therese of the Child Jesus (Lugano, Switzerland), the Company of the Child God (Antioquia, Colombia), Disciples of the Lord (Monterrey, Mexico), Dominican Institute of Jesus Cruci-fied (Orleans, France), the Institute of Our Lady of the Way (Vi-enna, Austria), Secular Institute of Our Lady of Mount Carmel (Kent, England), the Society of Parish School Teachers (Saho, Uruguay), Teaching and Nursing Society (Lucknow, India). So much for the general picture. Now a word more about those 298 Nouember, 1~ 1 SECULAR INSTITUTES ¯ first four Secular institutes that received pontifical status. 1. Opus De[. The institute was founded in Madrid on October 2, 1928,. by Monsignor dos~ Maria Escriv~i d~ Balaguer. Its full name is Sacerdotal Society of the Holy Cross and'Opus Dei. The Sacerdotal Society is clerical, while the Opus Dei is composed of lay-men. The Opus Dei has two sections, one for men and the other for women (thi~ latter was started in 1930). The two sections are absolutely separated, so that they are really two completely different institutes, each with its own government. The Opus Dei was the first secular institute to obtain papal approval. It received the decree of praise on February 24, 1947, and on dune 16 of the past Holy Year (1950) the decree of final approbation. (To avoid confusion it might be welI to state that according to the current practice of the Sacred Congregation the steps ofapproba-tion are the following: (1) decree of praise of the institute (not merely a quasi or partial decree of praise), (2) approbation of the institute, (3) provisional approval of the constitutions, (4) possible renewal of temporary approval, and (5) final approbation of the in-stitute and of the constitutions. But probably more than one of these steps will be taken at one and the same time. In any case, with the decree of praise the institute becomes papal.) Opus Dei has as its general purpose the sanctification of its mem-bers by the practice of the three evangelical counsels and the observ-ance of its constitutions. One of its specific works is to spread the faith and encourage a life of evangelical p~rfection among all social classes or grades of society, ~nd especially among intellectuals. Members of Opus Dei are not religious, have no community life (for the most part they live in their own homes, though sometimes a number have a house in common), take no public vows, and do not wear a distinctive garb. (These are general characteristics of any secular institute.) The members live and act as other faithful in the world do. They dress as others in their own profession or grade of society. Their numbers include nobles, peasants, lawyers, business-men, doctors, professors, students, politicians, members of parliament, and cabinet officials. The. institute allows its members perfect free-dom in their professional work, financial activities, social or political doctrines, and in similar matters, provided of course that they act in conformity with Catholic faith and morals. Charity plays an im-portant role in the spirit of this institute. The members are to live in the world without being of the world. Hence they carry on the 299 FRANCIS N. KORTH Ret~iew for Religious apostolate also in quarters which are banned to priests and religious. The Spanish Opus Dei was built around a core of university stu-dents. Groups of one hundred were formed. Some lived in their own homes, going daily to their office or professional work. The Spanish Opus Dei has received permission to work in all parts of the world. It spread to Ireland, Italy, Mexico, and South America, and has a branch in Chicago. 2. Missionaries of the Kingship of Christ (Milan). This or-ganization was. founded on November 19, 1919, by a grgup of ¯ twelve young women who were Franciscan tertiaries. Directed by Father Augustine Gemelli, O.F.M.~ the society under the above title spread throughout Italy as if merely a branch of Franciscan tertiaries. In 1945 papal approval as a canonical pious association was received and the statutes were approved for five years. Having developed ac-cording to the pattern required for secular institutes, the new institute received papal approval (decree of praise and a15proval of its new constitutions for three years) on July 12, 1948. That made it the second secular institute so approved. It numbers about two thou-sand. In its ranks can be found doctors, nurses, government emr ployees, and members of the I'talian.Chamber of Deputies. The two principal purposes of the institute are the sanctification of the members through striving after evangelical perfection, and zeal. in starting new apostolic works or promoting established ones. In particular and in conformity with the internal disciplne of the insti-tute and of the other works in which they are engaged, the members should be active in Catholic Action, assist pontifical and diocesan apostolic works under the direction of tl'ieir superiors, and take part in other apostolic works. The Franciscan spirit is the guiding light of the institute. 3. Institute of Our Lady of Labor. This French secular insti-tute was ~he third to receive papal approval. It was founded as the Sisters of Our Lady of Labor in 1904 at Lyons, France, by Miss Rochebillard under the direction of Father Anthony Eymieu, S.J. It had received the nibil obstat to canonical establishment as a religious congregation on December 1, 1916. The actual establishment was made by the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Amette, on October 31, 1917. The organization had two sections: one leading a common life in houses of the institute, and the other living in their own homes in the world. The present secular institute has a motherhouse in Paris. 4. Company of Saint Paul. This institute was founded on No- 300 THE WAY OF SIMPLE LOVE vember 17, 1920. Its purpose is the social apostolate. On June 30, 1950, the decree of praise was bestoWed. So much for the numerical data. As to the types of apostolic work in which secular institutes are engaged, there is great variety. Catholic Action, social work, helping pastors, carrying on the apos-tolate in various professions and jobs are some general categories. The constitutions of each institute would have to be consulted for its specific works. A concluding word. To avoid inopportune restrictions on the development of secular institutes, the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious has refrained from issuing complete and definitive norms for these new institutes. Aside from the essentials, therefore, the matter is still in .the process of settling down and jelling. There are prob-ably a good numbgr of'organizations which are gradually adapting themselves to the broad outlines given for secular institutes in the Provida Mater Ecclesia. The 'N X/'ay of. Simple Love James Lockett, S.J: WE MUST NOT be disturbed at what goes on beyond bur wills outside the inner recess of Our hearts. At times our lower nature will be disturbed by anger, at other times pride, at other tim~s carnal love, at other times sickness, at other times vain-glory, at other times love of our opinion; at times combinations of these at once; and at times the lower nature will be at peace. But we do not have to wait for these respites to love God. Amidst all these things the one who loves God should joyously and peacefully live with God in his heart. These things--they come and go, boil up and die away, but our life need not be one of turmoil. It should be hidden with Christ in God. And it would seem to me that the way to fight all these things is essentially the same, namely, the way of simp.le love. Let them come and go! What difference does it make? We should glory in our infirmities, for when we feel weak, then we should be strongekt of all, because then we may all the more confi-dently and easily place all our strength where it belongs, in Gbd who is our All. By the why "~'f simple lov~ in fighting alltemptations I do not 301 JAMES LOCKETT mean to say that those spiritual writers are completely wrong when they say we should fight temptations against purity by a course oppo-site to that which we use against pride, because the courses of action they advise seem all right in both cases. But I say that they are wrong in saying that they are opposite courses, thus needlessly and harmfully complicating oub lives; really the methods they give are essentially the same" course in either case. Are we tempted to im-purity? Go away from it to the infinite Good. There we shall begin to see the greater value of the true Good and after a while the storm shall pass and the One Good shall draw us away from the other "good." Are we tempted to pride? Go away from it to the infinite Good! There we shall see the truth and the beauty and the wondrousness of humility and how b~r loving our nothingness we possess infinity. And after a while the storm shall pass and the One Good will draw us from the other "good." Are we tempted to love our opinion inordinately, are we tempted to desire not to feel bad? Whatever we are tempted to, we can go away from it to the Truth, to the infinite Good. We must put our life there, hidden with Christ in God. See how simple our life should be! It is the way. of simple love. All these complications do not represent the Spirit of our Master, flowing from the gospel. I do not mean when I say "go away to the infinite Good" that we can feel Him whenever we wish. Rather I mean in simple little peace we must unite our wills to Him, Whd "dwells in our hearts, and in simple little faith look toward Him, and He will do the rest. Perhaps soon He will make the storm stop, per-haps He will let it last a while. It doesn't matter. Storm or no storm, we will be pleasing Him and making Him smile, and we will be protected in His arms. So you see, life should not be complicated but simple. It~ is not our Lord's will that we go through the pilgrimage without the devil and our lower nature acting up. How else could we merit so that we may be eternally near Him and possess Him? But let us, in little simple love, glory in our infirmities and while using what legitimate natural means we can to shu~ the devil's mouth, trustingly go away to Jesus and Mary, living away from all these things in the interior of our hearts, where the inmost will which we can always control lies. Then the devil and our lower nature will never hurt us no matter how hard they tug at our wills, but we will increase in sanctifying grace and in our power against them along the simple road of peace. 302 Current Spiri!:u l Writing Augustine Klaas, S.3. ¯ From La Vie des Communaut~s Retigieuses-- THIS Franciscan pubIication devotes its February 1951 number to a practical summary of the first International Convention of Studies.on the States of Perfection. It was held in Rome, from November 27 to December 7, 1950, and was attended by a large number of eminent priests and religious from all over the world. After Pope Pius XII's introductory letter of approbation and direction, and the last part of Cardinal Micara's opening discourse on the ,exigencies of modern times and how religious institutes are to meet them by reforms and adaptations, VCR gi4es an outline descrip-tion of the various sessions of the convention. The general division of the topics on the .program was threefold: (1) the renewal and adaptation of life and discipline in the various states of perfection; (2) the renewal and adaptation of the states of perfection with reference to the instruction and training of members; (3) the renewal -and adaptation of the states of perfection in their ordinary and extra-ordinary apostolates. As was to be expected, the speakers and ~ctive participants on the program were mainly members of religious insti-tutes, but there were also quit~ a few diocesan priests and some lay-men. No nuns were on the speakers' list. VCR then prints a section ot: the final aIlocution of Cardinal Micara, the closing discourse of Pius XII on the concept of the reli-gious life, and lastly the Apostolic Constitution Sponsa Christi. I confine myself here to expressing the concluding remarks spoken by Most Reverend Arcadius Larraona, C.M.F., secretary for the Sacred Congregation for Religious, and the resolutions of the convention, ¯ formulated by the Capuchin, Father Agatangelo da Langasco, secre-tary of the convention. This information in VCR I supplement from L'Osservatore Romano for December 9 and I 0, 1950. Father Larraona states that one of the objectives of the conven-tion was to neglect no facet of the subject, thus giving the convention a note of universality. This objective was achieved. Certain results he says, have already been attained. The proceedings of the conven- 303 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Reoieto for Reliqious tion, which are to be published later, will give an account of many other good results. Of the greatest value was the' attachment of reli-gious to and union of mind and heart with the Sovereign Pontiff, the highest superior ot? religious, who grants the status of public law to each religious institute (Canon 499, no. I). Also in evidence was the union of thought, affection, and intention of religious with the local bishops in activities of a local naturg; and finally, the under-standing, union, and mutual collaboration of religious with the dioc-esan clergy. The autonomy of every religious family is necessary for its development, its discipline, and its usefulness, but exemption with regard to external things may be interpreted more or less strictly, depending on the nature of the work being done. Catholic Action must be aided and supported, but within the limits of religious discipline. Religious must engage in Catholic Ac-tion according to the general and special directives of the Holy See. Using these directive.s they must also animate their own particular associations. The adaptation proposed by the convention must rest on a solid foundation, namely, on the primacy of doctrinal and ascetical values in the ideal religious life. This primacy has two basi~ pivots: the toows, about, which revolves the whole of religious asceticism; and common life in both its material and formal senses. Also, the internal forum has the primacy over the external. Superiors must understand that confidence in them is not imposed from without but inspired from within. There is another primacy, the primacy of the specific purpose of each religious family, with its consequent fidelity to what is essential and adaptability in what is only accidental, This specific purpose must be re-thought and re-lived according to modern times. The .adaptation of the apostolate necessarily implies co-ordination with the diocesan clergy and with local organizations. The resolutions of the convention, read by Father Agatangelo, are as follows: 1) that an effective c~usade be organized to. preach the 3ubilee now extended to the whole world; 2) that afterwards there be established in Rome a bureau of co-ordination between the diocesan and religious clergy; 3) that a center for the training of spiritual directors and spir-itual masters (such as masters and mistresses of novices, etc.) be set up; 4) that a center of literary studies be founded to train teachers 304 ~Novernber, 1951 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING for the schools of r~ligious; 5) that, for the purpose of, putting into practice the resolutions and adaptations of the convention; there be more frequent and regu-lar contact between religious superiors and the Sacred Congregation for Rel~gious, and that conventions within the various religious fami-lies be encouraged; 6) that, to preserve union and fraternity, there be instituted a liturgical Feast"of all the Holy Founders; 7) that there be a greater exchange among religious of certain elements of particular law, such as administrative experiences, law practices, and the like; 8) that there be published additional volumes of the Collectanea $. C. de Relioiosis and that pontifical documents on the subject of adaptation be collected; 9) that a s~udy institute of prac6cal administration be inaug-urated under the auspices of the Sacred Congregation for Religious; 1.0) that in all humility the Sovereign Pontiff be asked to issue a solemn document condemning the errors which are being spread con-cerning the state of perfection and giving clear and precise directives for the desired adaptations. From SuppHment de La V~ie Spirit~telle-- The S~ppl~ment for February 15, 1951 gives the content of three interesting reports to the Convention of Religious in Rome, men-tioned above. These reports will be reprinted later on inthe Acta of the convention. They contain practical examples and suggestions for the renewal of the state of perfection and its adaptation to mod-ern times. While the authors have in mind primarily the religious of France, perhaps also thos~ of Europe, yet many of their observations have a much wider if not universal application. At any rate, these rep.orts give a good idea of some of the things discussed at this all-" important assembly of religious, convoked under the auspices of the Sacred Congregation for Religious at the bidding of the Pope. I~t should be noted that these are merely samples of many reports made to the convention, and digesting them here we are not necessarily ex-pressing approval of all the suggestions. The first report is by Father A. PlY, O.P., co-editor of La Vie Sloirit~elie, and has for its subject renewal and adaptation with spe-cial reference to government of religious and the observance of the,. 305 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Rev[eto for Religfou~ vows. Before presenting his suggestions f.or adaptation, Father PI4 lays .down three important principles which he thinks should be guides in this delicate matter: 1) The main objective sought is a renewal of "spirit, or rather a re-vivifying of the letter of the law by the spirit. Changes of" consti-tutions and rules are something entirely secondary, and should be confined to points of secondary importance. 2) Old established orders and congregations are not to be replaced by certain new forms of the religious state which have appeared in recent years, or by secular institutes. However, some elements of these new types of religious life can be beneficial, if adopted and ap-plied prudently by the older orders and congregations. 3) Adaptation and renewal refer only to means, not to ends. Mod-ern times and conditions require the use of certain specific means and not of others, which may have been more practical in other times and circumstances no longer obtaining. Suggestions Affecting Gooernment Wth these three general principles in mind, Father PI~ makes five suggestions of adaptation and }enewal affecting government a'nd the laws of religious institutes. 1) Cloister. Contemplatives should retain their cloister essen-tially just as i~ is. On the other hand, institutes that have the active apostolate for their purpose, particularly of women (e. g. teachers, nurses, catechists), would profit greatly by the removal or modifica- ' tion of what is called "semi-cloister," and thus be able to accomplish more efficiently the apostolate for which they. were founded. In this connection may be mentioned the religious habit, which separates the religious from the world. There is no thought of suppressing this distinctive reIigious gar.b, but some habits, especially of nuns, could be simplified, in order to put them more in accord with poverty and with present circumstances, notably in mission countries, and also "better adapted to local conditions and climate. Furthermore, visits with the family are today looked upon with less severity than for-merly, as opportunities of parents to visit their children in religion become more frequent and the parents themselves became a part, as it were, of the religious community of their children. Also visits to parents are more readily granted, so that religious may fulfill their filial duties. These trends seem to be in the right direction. 2) Fraternal Charitg and Common Life. There is a greater de-mand today among religious for fraternal charity and common life, 306 November, 1951 "CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING manifested by sharing responsibilities, apostolic work and those unsougl~t-after tasks done for the common good, and more particu-larly by rediscovering the fruits of common fraternal charity in the conventual Mass and Office in choir. 3) Coadjutor Brothers and Sisters. The dearth of vocations to be coadjutors of various kinds has focused attention on the two "classes" of religious. Some congregations have abolished their co-adjutor group outright, while more try to reduce to a minimum the" differences between the two classes, on the points of religious habit,. prayer, training, and even work. 4) Government and Formation ot: Religious. Religious are being trained more and more for positions of responsibility and gov-ernment. In certain places local superiors, summoned to the mother-house, are instructed for a month in the duties of their new office. Masters and mistresses of novices are taking special courses designed to help them solve the problems of their office. Likewise, religious subjects are being educated and formed more and more by means of special classes, conventions, and institutes for religious. Also a fine spirit of collaboration on common projects is being shown by the various religious orders and congregations. 5) Physical and Mental Hygiene. Cleanliness has been im-proved, the means to it better provided for, and pe[mission to use the means is now granted more liberally than in former times. Present-day city life and various social upheavals seem to have serious reper-cussions on nervous balance and stability. More sleep is required and adjustments are being made along this line by religious. The hour of rising and retiring is aIso being set more in accord with modern customs. Contemplatives and the novices of active institutes are being granted occasions for relaxing the nerves. Physical exercise every day, as well as more strenuous games during recreation, are being intro-duced, as also periods of manual work, and entire days of relaxation. Vacations for strenuous workers have been found helpful. To be praised is the heroism of some superiors in refusing to accept new missions, new fields of labor, etc., when their subjects are already overl~urdened and taxed to the limit. Such over-worked .religious cannot do their tasks well and, what is mbre serious, suffer spiritually because ,they cannot do the prayer and spiritual exercises prescribed by their constitutions, thus failing victims of an unwise "activism." Regarding the Wows Father PI~ then takes up the three vows, after first saying a word 307 !~UGUSTINE KLAAS Reaieu~ for Religious about religious discipline. Young people ~oday have a high regard for sincerity. Empty conformity and routine, external action that is not .the spontaneous expression of a deep, personal, religious life,. seem odious to them. Hence, when the material practice of a minor rule becomes a serious breach of its spirit and of charity, generous youth is shocked. Although this desire in the young for "truth". must be purified, still it does have its origin in the Gospels. Hence, some novice-masters are training their charges by showing how each rule and observance is really linked up with the Gospels. This is something very opportune today. Also, it is a sign of a deep under-standing of, the rule that some communities no longer consider it necessarily a sacrilege to suggest a change or modification of their constitutions. Certai'nly wisdom and holiness are required to make such changes but it is not wisdom and holiness to refuse a priori any change whatever. This is more in evidence still when there is ques-tion ¯ of the custom book. Some recent religious congregations" of women, for fear of becoming frozen to their custom book, ,have stipulated in their constitutions that they will have none at all. Many others are seriously revising and adapting their custom books to present circumstances. 1) Vow of Pouertq. The most serious problems of adaptation today concern the vow of poverty. Economic conditions in the world have so changed and developed that poverty itself and the con- ~cept of poverty are not the same any more as they were in former cen-turies. Poverty is essentially a liberation and an imitation of the poor Christ, but it must also conform to poverty as it is really prac-ticed by the poor. H~nce there are trends towards sharing the inse-curity of tl~e poor, towards living in smaller communities and thus avoiding large buildings, which give the impression of wealth, towards doing as the poor of the vicinity do, for example, by sending the sick to the hospital and even to the common wards in the hos-pital. Contemplatives in particular are facing acute financial diffi-ties at present and they are solving them b'y doing work for which they are paid. These problems of poverty are being carefully studied. 2) Vow of Obedience. The reproach is sometimes made that the vow of obedience promotes childishnes and, immaturity, that it does not allow for a proper "development of personality." However that may be, it is true that obedience must be solidly grounded dog-matically, the judgment must be rightly formed, and the virtue of prudence must be exercised. Obedience should be a school of ma- 3O8 November, 1951 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING turity. Obedience is a holocaust, but not less a human act. 3) Vow of Chastity. There is scarcely anything that could be changed here. Considerable !mprovement has been made in giving young religious before their vows the necessary information on this subject, psychological more than anatomical. This instruction is not complete unless there is filso given young religious sonde idea of the Christian beauty of chastity and its exceptional value as a means to perfection. Of Spfritual Means In the second report Father Reginald Omez, O.P., makes some pertinent suggestions on adaptation and renewal in the realm of spir-itual means. 1) Vocal and Mental Prayer. In recent years the faithful have come more and more to understand and appreciate the liturgy. They are gradually centering their devotion on the Mass and Office. Often they actively participate in the Mass. Religious must not obstruct but rather co-operate and join in this return to the great traditional devotion of the past, and hence they should adapt their customs accordingly. Making use of the vernacular: shortening the long vocal prayers, choosing prayers of significance,--these are the things they must do, rather than continue monotonous, endless repetition ° of litanies, Paters, and Aves. ¯ The Office of the Blessed Virgin or the Rosary with its.mysteries is a good substitute for long, vocal prayers whose content belongs perhaps to another age. Mental prayer must always' be emphasized, but it should be given a more doctrinal con-tent. There is a happy return to the Holy Scriptures and the liturgi-cal books for mental prayer. " Su'rely improvements can be made on the questionable practice of reading aloud'the points, of meditation from a book, a relatively recent practice among religious. 2) Examination of Conscience. Today there is some opposi-tion to the examination of conscience among young religious, who consider self-examination something morbid, egocentric, and harm-ful. They dislike certain outmoded formulas Of examination; they detest casuistry and moralizing. They like to follow the inspiration of the moment; they say it is the intention and the charity perme-ating the act that really count and all the rest is of little importance. The examination of conscience must be retained, but the manner of doing it can be brought more up-to-date and improved by making use of the light of modern psychology and customs and by employing the better understanding we have today of modesty, humility, obedi- 309 AUGUSTINE KLAAS for Religious ence, and other virtues. 3) Mortification and Penance. Penance and mortification will always be necessary means for holiness and for the apostolate. They cannot be entirely replaced by the apostolate. However, certain types of corporal penances, seem to be no longer adapted to piesent-day temperaments or living conditions. Physically the young today are capable of great effort and fatigue when urged on by various motives, such as war. It is on the mental and nervous side that the modern tempo of life takes its toll. For this reason, more sleep is needed. Penances, therefore, that would impair mental hygiene or harm the nerves should be avoided. Also, some forms of penance are consid-ered more or less silly by the young today or at least hard to {~nder-stand. For these, others should be substituted that are more in con-formity with the generous spirit of the youth of today: for example, the giving up of certain bourgeois comforts among religious, com-forts which were suitable to another age. Furthermore, young men, used to army life, are sometimes surprised and scandalized by the soft 'comforts and conveniences found in religious houses, things that they had long ago given up. It seems that modern penance sb, ould be in the direction of work for others, manual labor, especially the menial tasks of doing the dishes, etc., where there is little risk of the sort of pride that often goes with spectacular and attention-draWing penances. 4) Retreats. Retreats are very much needed today, as well as days of recollection. .It seems that they should not be overburdened with too many exercises, but that there should be more time for the personal task of reflection and contemplation. 5) Recreation. Recreation must relax the nerves. Religiotis given to a sedentary life must be allowed suitable athletic games to exercise their muscles. Many dit~iculties of health, morality, and sp'irituality arise from the lack of normal physical development. Modern inven-tions, such as movies, radio, and television, can be used prudently for recreation, instruction, and information. Of course, the religious spirit must not suffer from these things; hence, superiors must be vigilant to correct abuses. A Year of Transition The third report is made by Father Daniel Albers, O.M.I., who suggests for all active apostolic orders and congregations a year of transition from the quiet life of the seminary to the busy ministry. This year would be the equivalent of the tertianship of the Society of. 31o November, 195 l CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING Jesus and. of similar practices, in some other religious institutes. The objective of such a transition.period of time would be a deepening of the spiritual life and, under experienced direction, a gradual intro-duction to the life of the apostolate. It is applying to religious com-munities what Pope Plus XII has recently suggested for the diocesan priesthood in the Encyclical Menti Nostrae and has himself put into practice by founding' the seminary of St. Eugene in Rome. Another desideratum is that after four or five years of the ministry the young priests be brought together once more to reflect on their spiritual and apostolic life in.order to balance and deepen both. These first years of the active ministry are extremely important ,and often set the pat-tern for the rest of life. From Reoue des Communautds Religieuses-- In the June-August (1949) number of this Belgian magazine for religious there is an opportune article by a superior general of a congregation of women on'the relations that should obtain between religious and the lay women who share their works of charity and education. An insufficient number of vocation's and tile multiplication and expansion of religious works make the present elnploying of layfolk a necessity. These lay helpers are not a necessary evil, nor persons to be merely tolerated, since they can make a real dontribution, sup-plementing the work of the religious themselves. Rather the hiring of lay help is somethng good and in accord with the Holy Father's call to Catholic Action. Religious are giving lay women an oppor-tunity to heed that call. How bring about a close collaboration between religious and lay women employees? First of all the latter must not be too numerous, since the work must retain its exterior and interior character as an institution conducted by rehglous, Lay helpers must also be carefully chosen. They must be competent, something not always indicated by the adademic degrees they may have. Their morals must be above suspicion, their practice of the Catholic religion active. They must have or learn to ,have a sense of responsibility, be supernaturally zealous and self-'sacrificing in their .work, humble, submissive to the regime of the institution, and prudently .a.postoli.c. The religious making the selection, must never, through a mistaken sense of charity, sacrifice the common good to. the particular. 311 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Review ~o~ Religto,,s What are the duties of religious towards the lay helpers who share their work? Lay helpers are not underlings, but ~olleagues. They are not under the Sisters but at their side. Therefore, they should be treated with every regard that religious would wish for themselves--with politeness, friendliness, charity, tact, etc. Reli-gious should see tO it that their associates receive from others the respect, obedience, and good will due them-. Their quarters, dining-room, and the like, should be clean, have at least a minimum of com-fort, and even a little beauty. They should give lay helpers material assistance. The author is not speaking here of obligations in justice--that is taken for granted --but over and above this religious should exercise a spirit of sisterly charity, especially in little things and in the manner in which they deal with them. If they show this charity, their helpers will spon-taneously and generously offer themselves f6r extra work: for ex-ample, as substitutes for religious, impeded from thei~ tasks for one reason or another. ' Religious owe lay helpers intellectual assistance. Teachers meetings, personnel meetings, discussions, etc., must be well organized and directed, so that they may benefit all by practical, definite con-clusion~. Suitable books, magazines, newspapers should be put at the disposal of lay helpers. Their opinions and ideas should be re-spected and humbly adopted if they are good and apropos. There should be no narrow-mindedness amorig religious as t'o whose influ-ence should predominate in the school or hospital. Neither should compete for influence, but both groups should work together in a great spirit of active Cfiristian,charity. Religious owe lay helpers moral and spiritual assistance. This is done mainly by the charitable way they do a service, for instan'ce, give a book, or some information, or a word of encouragement. They should visit a lay helper who is ill and also her sorrowing fam-ily. Much good can be done by a smile, a word here and there, a bit of advice given opportunely. They must never be too busy to give a friendly welcome .to lay helpers, even though it distracts from work and causes them to lo~e the trend of thought for a moment. A cer-tain holy religious used to say to every knock at the door: "The ,Be-loved is never disturbed." Another way to assist lay help morall!y is to furnish them an opportunity for a retreat. Conclusion: there should be union in charity, team-work in humility, joy in sacrifice, and forgetfulness of self. This is the pro-gram of the Master, a sure pledge of success. 312 November, 1951 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING From L'Osservatore Rornano~ In the February 4, 1951 number of L'Osservatore Romano ap-peared an important article entitled "Christians, be more prudent!" Written by Monsignor Alfredo Ottaviani, the Assessor of the Holy Office, it is a plea for greater prudence in judging favorably certain extraordinary religious phenomena seemingly widespread today. It is a message of particular significance for religious, whose guidance in these matters is often sought by the faithfql. No Catholic, he says, denies that miracles are possible and do take place. They have a purpose, have been in the Churdh from-the beginning, and do actually occur today. But they must be strictly authenticated, or they will discredit true miracles. Christ himself warned: "False christs and false prophets" ~¢ill arise who "will show great signs and wonders, so as to lead ast'ray, if possible, even the elect" (Matthew 24:24). Hence, it is the right and duty of the Church to pass judgment on the truth and riature of events and reve-lations which are claimed to be due to a special intervention of God. True children of.the Church will submit to this .judgment. Fifty years ago'the Church had to warn against scientism and positivism, which scoffed at these so-called superstitions of the dark ages. Today, the tendency is in the other direction: people are too credulous and uncritical in their judgmen't of extraordinary hap-penings. They hanker for and run after these things even though they may not at the same time be practising Catholics. Sometimes persons ignorant of the Creed pose as ardent apostles of this sort of religiosity. They even criticize and condemn the ecclesiastical au-thorities for not enthusiastically running along with the crowd. The obedience of Catholics in this matter too often leaves much to be desired. Monsig.nor Ottaviani cites some recent deplorable instances of credulousness in Italy, France, Belgium, Germany, and the U. S. A. (Necedah). These errors and aberrations are not surprising if we remember that religious sentiment has also felt the effects of original sin. There-fore, religious sentiment, to be sound and useful to man, must be guided by reason, nourished by grace, and controlled by the Church. I quote the following important passages from the London Tablet's (February 24, 1951) translation of this document: "The period through which we are passing stands between one of two excesses: open, inhuman irreligion or unbounded, blind re- 313 AUGUSTINE KLAAS Reuieto /: or Religious ligiosity. Persecuted by the supporters of the first and compromised by those who uphold the second, the Church does nothing more than repeat her maternal warning. But her words remain unheard amidst denial on the one hand and exaltation on the other. There is no doubt that the Church does not wish to cast the wonders which God works into the shadow. She merely wants to keep the faithful watchful concerning what comes from God and what does not come from God, and Which can come from His and our adversary. The Church is the enemy of the false miracle. "A good Catholic knows from his catechism that th~ true reli-gion rests in the true Faith, in Revelation, which ended with the death of the last Apostle and has been entrusted to the Church, its interpreter and custodian. Nothing else necessary to our salvation can be revealed to us. There is nothing more for which we must look. We have everything, if we wish to make use of it. Even the most accredited visions can furnish us with new motives for fervor but not with new elements of life or doctrne. True religion abides essentially, apart from in the conscience, in the love of God ~ind the consequent love of our neighbor. And, more than in acts of wor-ship and rite, the love of God consists in doing the will of God, obeying His commandments. This is true religion. "A good Catholic knows that in the saints themselves the nature of sanctity is not composed of the preternatural gifts of visions, prophecies, and wonders, but in the heroic exercise of virtue. That God should in some way authenticate holiness by miracles is one thing, but that holiness consists in performi.ng miracles is another. We must not confound holiness with what can be and is, as a rule, an unmistakable sign of holiness, but not always sufficiently clear so as not to need the necessary supervision of religious authorities. "On this point the teaching of the Church has" never been equivo-cal. The man who turns back to events of dubious interpretation rather than accept the word of God loves the world more than God. Even when the Church authoritatively canonizes a saint, she does not by this act guarantee the preternatural character of all the extra-ordinary facts connected with his life. Still less does she approve all his personal opinions. By the same token she gives even less guaran-tee to all that is written, often with unpardonable levity, by biogra-phers with more imagination than judgment. "We repeat that in order to be religious, it is necessary to be so in proper fashion and as a matter.of duty. In order to be good Cath- 314 November, 1951 CURRENT SPIRITUAL WRITING olics and devout people we must act with all the attention" with which we act when applying ourselves to the most serious things of life. Incredulity 'is just as harmful to the sincere believer as credulity. True, it is not everyone wh6 can form his own opinion on every point. But what are the Bishops and the Pope for? "It is a strange thing: no novice would dare to buid a house by himself, tailor his own clothes, make himself a pair of shoes, or cure himself of a sickness. Yet when it is a question of religious life, people reject all authority, refuse to place any trust in it, even distrust and disobey it (vith impunity.'. "For the last ten ~ears, while the religious authorities have re-mained hesitant, the people have acted hastily and busied themselves with wonders which, to say the least, have not been verified. Speaking honestly, we must admit that such events may be expressions of natural religious enthusiasm. But they'are not Christian events, and they give a frightful pretext to those who are out to discover at all costs the infiltrations and survivals of paganism and superstition in Christianity, especially Catholicism. Just as wrongdoing may in-sinuate itself in our daily lives, so may error insinuate itself into one or the other individual Catholic, a thing which causes no wonder to those who understand what man is. But just as sin must be recog-nized as sin if we would free ourselves from it, so too, in the case of error, we must recognize it as such. Just as the Church has the power to forgive sins, so has it also been commanded by God to redeem us from error. "Let Catholics hear the word of God which the Church, and the Church alone, preserves and repeats whole and incorrupt. Let them not run like sheep without a shepherd after other voices seeking to drown the voice of God when it is true that they oppose the voice of the Church. We have Holy Scripture, we have Tradition, we have the Chief Shepherd and a hundred other shepherds next door to our homes. Why should we offer the spectacle of fatuousness or un-healthy exaltation before those who oppose and despise us? 'Chris-tians, be more prudent,' wrote Dante in his day. 'Do not be like feathers that bend tb any wind.' The great poet urged the very same reasons that we give today: 'You have the Oldand the New Testa-ment, and the Shepherd of the Church to guide you.' Dante's con-clusion, too, is the same as ours: 'This is sufficient for your salva-tion' (Canto V, vv. 73-77)." 315 I-low !:o Think and Ac : about the Race Problem Gerald Kelly, S.J. THE title of this article was suggested by the simultaneous recep-tion of two pamphlets: How to Think about Race, by Louis J. Twomey, S.J.; and Fi:tg Wags to Improue Race Relations, by Frank A. Riley: The word "problem" 'is not in either pamphlet title, but the fact of a problem is very much in both author's minds; they wrote their pamphlets to help solve a problem. Both pamphlets refer explicitl~) to the Negro problem, but their content applies equally to the problem of discrimination against other minorities, such as the Mexicans, the Japanese, the Chinese, and so forth. My remarks will also be directed to the Negro problem, but they too can be applied to the other problems. The Problem In thinking about the race problem, the first thing to do is to recognize that there is a problem. Some people believe--or would like to believe that there is no problem. When you mention the Negro problem to them, they look puzzled, raise their eyebrows a bit, and ask icily, "'Is there a Negro problem?" Others admit the prob-lem, but explain it very simply by saying: "There would be no prob-lem if the Negro would keep his place." (These, incidentally, do not say "Negro.") No unbiassed and even moderately well-informed person can fail to see that we have a race problem--or, to be more specific, a Negro problem. And it consists not in the fact that the Negro will not keep his place but rather in the fact that white people will not let him have his place. The two-volume work, An American Dilemma, by Gunnar Myrdal, is a scholarly, factual proof of the ex.istence of the problem. And hundreds of books, pamphlets, and articles that have appeared within the last decade or two give further evidence, not only of the existence, but of the magnitude of the problem. To see that we have a Negro problem, one has but to consider what ought to be and what is the status of the Negro in the United 1B0th pamphlets are published by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Boule-vard, St. Louis 18, Missouri. 316 THE RACE PROBLEM States. There is always a problem when the is falls below the ought to be. There is a problem in our personal spiri,tual lives when our conduct fails short of our standards; there is a problem in our social order when the income of the working man is not what it should be; and there is a problem in millions of personal lives and in the social order of the nation when an entire race is daily accordei5 a treatment that is contrary to the laws of God and of the nation. What ought to be the status of the Negro? Like other men, he has a human nature and he is destined, through the providence of God, for heaven. This common nature and comm6n destiny should unite men. By reason of their' common nature and common destiny they are one family. This unity is expressed through love in the natural order, and in the supernatural order through charity. And love (charity) expresses itself through kindly thoughts, prayers for one another, words of courtesy, mutual co-operation, helping one another in need, and so forth. This bond of love joins all men; the commandment of love knows no distinction of race. Like other men, the Negro is a human person, a distinct indi-vidual; and by reason of his human personality he is the subject, not only of duties, but of inviolable rights. He has the same right as other men to say "mine," and to have what is his respected .by other men. He has the same right as others to worship God. He has a right to life and liberty as long as he is not proved guilty of crime. He has a right to equality of opportunity to make a decent living, to develop his talents, to marry and provide for his family, to enjoy recreational facilities, to have his share of honor, and so_forth. These rights, conferred by God, are confirmed by the law of the nation when it makes the Negro an American cil~izen. And to these rights, the nation either adds civil rights or guarantees equality of opportunity in ob-tai~ aing civil righti. What is the status of the Negro in the United States? He is segregated--forced to live apart from the white man--and thus the law of union is violated; he is discriminated'against--treated as an inferior--and thus the law of equality is violated. His life is les.~ secure than the white man's; he has less opportunity to obtain the 'necessities and comforts of life. He is more readily arrested and more easily convicted. On one streetcar he finds a sign, "This space re-served for our colored patrons"; on another, where no printed sign is displa~'ed, he finds "unwelcome" written on white faces. While traveling he has difficulty getting proper acco{nmodations and even 317 GERALD KELLY Reoiew for Religious getting food. .He must say "sir" to the white man, but he is called, "Johnny," "Doc," or "uncle." His house is a menace to his physi-cal well-being, and his congested surroundings are a greater menace to his soul's welfare. When he tries to move to another neighbor-hood, he is repelled by violence, thwarted by restrictive covenants, or humiliated by the exodus of prospective white neighbors who flee him as 'they would a contagion: He sees his children denied educa-tional opportunities, his wife and mother denied the courtesies ex-tended to other women. Even in his worship, he must have a "spe-cial" church or a "special" place in the white man's church. These and scores of other insults, humiliations, frustrations, are the daily fare of the American Negro. Not that all the abuses are practised eveiywhere and by everyone; but the general pattern is so common, even in the North, that some.unprejudiced scholars do not hesitate to call it our greatest national scandal. It is not an acci-dental pattern; it is a calculated system of oppression and contempt. Perhaps the scholars just referred to were not conscious of the theological meaning of "scandal," but Catholics should be definitely° conscious of this. Theologically, scandal is an occasion of spiritual harm to the neighbor. Scandal is very seriously involved when white Catholics practice racial segregation and discrimination; because their conduct makes it very difficult for Negro Catholics to preserve the faith and well-nigh impossible to convert Negroes to the faith. There can scarcely be greater scandal than this. From what I have written (which is just a brief repetition of what has been said and written often and more forcefully by others) it should be evident that we have a problem. Despite. the fact that recent years have witnessed a strong trend against discrimination and some improvement in the status of the Negro, his condition is still not what it ought to be. He is still l~he victim of a policy which was described in a report issued by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith as a "grave derogation to the Christian concept of the individual's inherent dignity.''2 This policy involves contempt, hatred, and scandal. And the responsibility lies not with the Negro victim, but with the white people who either willingly perpetuate the policy or negligently refuse to do what they can to stop it. 2The report is printed in pamphlet form under the title The Catholic Church and Neproes in the United States. It can be obtained from the Catholic Interracial Coun-cil of Chicago, 21 West Superior Street, Chicago 10, Illinois. Five cents for single copies; four cents each for 100 or more: special rates on orders for 1000 or more. 318 Not~ernber, 1951 THE RACE PROBLEM How to think about the Negro problem? I said tl~at the first thing to do is to recognize the problem. A second thing'is suggested by another statement in the ~eport of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. The report says that the "thought of a wide, general conversion of the Negroes to the Catholic Church is an illusion until and unless the attitude of American Catholics-~clergy and laity--is cornpletelg purified of approval of the segregation pol-icg or of the many deprivations of educational opportunity, of fair employment, and of decent housing that arise as a result of it." The words I have italicized indicate the second step in thinking cor.rectly about the Negro problem: we must disapprove of the segregation pol-icy, which is, in fact, a colossal violation of, justice and charity. Such disapproval, incidentally, is not a counsel of perfection; it is a strict duty, and a serious one. What to Do An evil is not removed merely by recognizing its existence. Something constructive has to be done. "But," an individual will say, "I am so small, and this evil is so great and so widespread.How can I do anything about it?" Actually, there is much that any in-dividual white person of good will can do regarding the Negro prob-lem; and it is my purpose, taking a cue from Mr. Riley's pamphlet, to indicate some of these things here. It may be noted that much that I say seems to have no special pertinence to religious. Yet it does pertain to religious, as well as to other people, and in one sense at least it has a special application ~o religious, because religious by rea-son of their position in the Church have an influence for good or bad that is definitely special. A constructive solution to the Negro problem must work "from the inside out." I mean that it must begin with correct attitudes, with an inner spirit that will be the soul of external action. Vast numbers of people do not have this inner spirit. As Francois Mauriac states forcefully in his Life of Jesus, at the conclusion of the chapter on the Samaritan woman: "He tarried for two days in the midst of the outcast Samaritans, thus giving his followers an example which was to be transmitted in vain to the rest of the world. For if there is a part of the Christian message which men have refused and rejected with invincible Obsti-nacy, it is faith in the equal value of all souls, of all races, before the Father who is in heavem" The indictment is dreadfully true, but it does not make our case 31'9 GERALD KELLY " " Review ?or Religious hopeless. Even the devil of racial hatred must yield to prayer and self-sacrifice., That is why Fifty Ways of Improving Race Relations insists much on the need of prayer, of prayer "that light may shine in the dark areas of white men's minds, that the race heresy may be put down." Any one of us has this power of prayer, and we can use it to beg for ourselves and others a vital appreciation of the truths of reason and faith that are the foundation of racial amity and justice. Many white people, it is said, are. not malicious; tl~ey simply have such an aversion for the Negro that they abhor the very thought of living with him on equal terms. I admit the existence of this psy- ¯ chologicaI problem. Yet it seems to me that it can be and is overrated.: It is not substantially different from the problem of aversion as it is sometimes experienced by one white person towards another, even .by one religious towards another. Morally speaking, the aversion itself is merely a feeling, and as such it is not culpable. Neverthless, since the fostering of this feeling can be the source of great' harm, it must be disciplined like other dangerous emotions, and proper means must be taken to eliminate or to temper it. And here again a first remedy is prayer. It should not be too much for anyone to ask sincerely for the grace to act according to Christian principles, despite'a feeling of antipathy. After all, we do this regularly when we pray for the grace, to preserve.chastity, despite strong contrary feelings. Many students of the rac~ problem say that aversion to the Negro springs from ignorance and that it disappears or.subsides when one gets to know the Negro. Some white people who have lived near Ne-groes for many years might answer this by saying that no one knows the Negro better than they, yet their knowledge has not affected their aversion. I think that one might legitimately question whether such people really know the Negro.' Real knowledge of a person im-plies something more than just being near him. Real knowledge comes in friendship, from getting under the surface into a man's heart and his feelings. The system of segregation and discrimination is itself a block to such knowledge; and it perpetuates a vicious circle by which aversion fosters segregation and segregation fosters aversion. More than twenty years ago Father Francis J. Gilligan wrote in The Morality of the Color Line:s 3This book is out of print. It is a real pioneer study--and a very capable one-~- of race relations in the light of Christian moral principles. Father Gilligan is pro-fessor of moral theology at the St. Paul Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota. He has for many years been Chairman of the Governor's Interracial Commission of Min-nesota, a commission that has done very constructive work in the.matter of race re-lations and that has published some splendid leaflets and booklets. 320 No~ember, 1951 THE RACE PROBLEM "To be forced always to seek a restaurant on th~ rear street, to be placed'always at a table in some alcove, to be compelled always to accept a se~at in the gallery of a .thea.tre, to be denied access to every respectable and standard hotel, to be driven constantly to tax one's ingenuity to secure a reservation in a Pullman, are conditions Which would occasion in every man, and the Negro is no exception, anger and despair. A white person probably can never fully realize the anxiety and hesitancy which the Negro experiences almost daily in trying to satisfy conventional needs." Father Gilligan is undoubtedly correct when he says that prob-ably a white man can never [ull~t appreciate what the Negro experi-ences. Nevertheless, any white man with good will and a good imagination can learn much by using what psychologists call "em-pathy"-- namely, by putting himself in the Negro's place, by trying to feel what the Negro feels in the various frustrating circumstances that make up the pattern of discrimination. "Psychologically, this cultivation of a strong "fellow-feeling" is perhaps the best antidote for aversion, because one powerful emotion tends to neutralize the "other. Also, deep feeling for the Negro stimulates constructive action in his behalf. Some of the greatest strides towards interracial justice have been made by ~¢hite men who had the power of sharing the hurt feelings of the Negro.' .To stimulate this "fellow-feeling," it helps to read a good auto-biography, like Dar~ $~mpl~on~, by Elizabeth Adams. For the same purpose--but to'a lesser ~legree, because the personal element is wanting--it is useful to-get a complete picture of the wrongs "done the Negro by reading An American Dilemma, or at least the con-densation of this work, entitled The Negro in America, by Arnold Rose, one of Myrdal's collaborators. I would not recommend these two works, however, without adding the caution that their other-wise. scientific and morally wholesome tone is marred, by the section that recommends artificial birth-control as a means of solving the problem ot: "Negro overpopulation." (See Myrdal, I, 175-181; Rose, 60-61.) (Before I leave the subject of aversion, I should like to add that the white man has no monopoly on it. The Negro too has an aver-sion for the white man--and understandably so, in view of what he has suffered. But, like the white man, he must be willing to put aside or temper this aversion in order to establish a Christian system of race relations. I am not stressing this here because my main con- 321 GERALD KELLY Reoiew for Reliqious cern is with indicating things that white people can and should do as regards the Negro.) From the inside to the outside--that is, from thoughts and feelings to words and actions. ~ prime rule of speech is to avoid what reasonably offends, other people. On the basis of this rule, a Negro should not be called a "nigger," and a Negro woman should not be referred to as a "negress." Both words are offensive to Negroes, as are many others that need not be mentioned here. The best way for anyone to keep this rule is to abstain entirely from using the words, because if white people use them among themselves when speaking about the Negro, they very readily use them when speaking, to the Negro. Another basic rule of speech is to be extremely careful about repeating unverified and disparaging rumors about the Negro. "Seldom in the history of mankind," wrote Father Gilligan, "has any group been more widely misrepresented, misunderstood, and handicapped by popular rumors than the American colored group." Accepting such unfounded rumors is rash jiadgment; passing them on to others is calumny. As regards both speech and conduct, I should like to stress one. point that is of particular interest to the moral theologian. In our theological treatises on the virtue of charity we make much of what are called the common signs of good will and courtesy. (Cf. "On the Duty of Loving the Neighbor, Especially Enemies," in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, VII, 299-312.) These are various little gesture~ and words that are due to all fellow-citizens, fellow-workers, neighbors, and so forth, and not merely to one's'special friends. I think it is very important that every individual white person be conscious of this duty when he is dealing with Negroes. If he says "sir" to a white man, he should say "sir" to a Negro; if he tips his hat to a white woman, he should also tip his ha~ to a Negro woman; if he says "good morning" to white neighbors, he should say "good morning" to his Negro neighbors; if he shakes hands with a white person to whom he is introduced, he should shake hands with a Negro under the same circumstances. In themselves these are small things; and any individual with good will can do them. Yet, failure to use them can cause deep hurt and humiliation, whereas their use can cause genuine elation to those who have been constantly denied them. Moreover, they manifest just what is needed to improve race relations:, good will and respect. The foregoing are ways in which any white individual can help to improve race relations, even though others do not co-operate with 322 o November, 1951 THE RACE PROBLEM him. But for any grand-scale reformation of the social order, there must be group action, as our recent Popes have stated so often. Fiftg Ways to Improue Race Relations contains many suggestions for par-ticipation in group action: for example, by be!ping'such organiza-tions as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored, People, the Urban League, various interracial councils; by .voting for good social legislation, by joining with others to urge Congressmen to promote such legisla~tion, by signing petitions to have Negroes admitted to schools that make a policy of excluding them, by joining in protests to owners of stores, restaurants, and hotels, that discrim-inate against Negroes; 'and so forth. By these and various other ways the apparent insignificance of the individual can become a very sig-nificant force in establishing a Christian social order in our race rela-tions. Specigl for Religious In themselves these points, as I mentioned previously, have no special pertinence to us as religious. Ye.t, since they pertain to all persons of good will, they certainly pertain to us, too; and we can and should carry them out in our personal lives. Moreover, they have a verst special pertinence to us because of our position of leader-ship among Catholics; we are expected to teach Catholic doctrine by word and example--and one might say, particularly by example. The best argument against segregated schools is to have our own schools unsegregated; the best way to denounce segregation in wor-ship is to have no color line in our own churches and chapels; and the best way to condemn discrimination in professions is to have our own convents and seminaries wide open to all qualified appli-cants, irrespective of race. And certainly the best--if not the only--" way to inspire youth to practice justice and charity is to be gracious exemplars of these virtues in our own daily lives. The effects, good or bad, of even our smallest public actions are tremendous. The Priest for May, 1951, published an article entitled "Black Priest," which contains the reflections of a Negro convert studying for the priesthood. Two incidents recounted in the article indicate the effects of even our small actions. On one occasion, when the author had returned to his home in the South for the funeral of an aunt, two white women, one of them a nun, came to visit him. 'On another occasion, while he was driving with some of his colored friends, he stopped to visit a monastery, . and the superior insisted °that he bring his friends in and treated them with true monastic hos- 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Reoiew for Religious pitality. These courtesies had a profoundly salutary .effect on his friends, helping them to see that the Catholic Church is not "a white man's church." "These incidents," reflects the author, "may seem like little things, but what if that good Sister and other lady had not come to ~ee me? ~Yc~hat if we had been turned away from'the door of the mon-. astery? For one thing, I probably would have kept the promise I made to myself never to go South ~again. But the most serious result would have been that more souls would have been pushed farther and farther away from the Church. Those were two times when I was really proud 9f my fellow Catholics. May God bless them!" Ques ions and Answers --27~ I was the priest-advlser of a girl who entered the convent four months ago. A week after her entrance I sent her a Missal, which she had said she needed. I have not heard from her. Would you please print what my re~ action should be? The reaction might include a little pain,, but it need not include surprise. Gratitude is becoming a rare virtue, even among religious. The nunqber of those who take,time out to acknowledge favors re-ceived seems to be very small. In the present instance, the girl may have failed to acknowledge the Missal because of restrictions on letter-writing in the postulancy. Restrictions are certainly necessary, but they should not be allowed to defeat the greater purpose of giving the young religious a well-balanced training in all the virtues. Superiors should see that the postulants and novices acknowledge gifts and favors or they should make some other provisions for such acknowledgements. All through our religious life much of our support is provided by benefactors. If young religious are not trained to express gratitude for small things they will not be properly grateful to benefactors When they hold positions of authority. m28-- One of our general councilors died recently. Our constitutions do not provide for the succession in place of a deceased councilor. What shall we do?' 324 November, 1951 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Canon 20 tells us to follow the style and practice of the Roman Curia when the law does not provide for a contingency. In this mat-ter of finding a successor for a deceased member of the general coun-cil, we have an indication of the style and practice of the Sacred Con-gregation of Religious in article 271 of the Normae of 1901 which reads as follows: "The councilors of the superior gerieral have a de-cisive vote in matters of greater moment. Such matters are especially the following: . . . 12° the substitution of another Sister until the next general chapter in place of a general councilor who has died, or was deposed, or is perpetually impeded." This article has been written into very many constitutions of lay religious (Brothers and Sisters), both before and after the ~romul-gation of the Code of Canon Law in 1917. Hence it offers a safe norm of action when the constitutions are silent in the matter. Frequently enough an article is added in modern constitutions to the effect that the substitute general councilor thus chosen by a ma-jority vote of the council takes the last place among the c6uncilors, not that of the deceased councilor; that place is taken by the coun-cilor next in order of election in general chapter. The other coun-cilors move up accordingly. ¯ m29-- We would like ÷o know whether, according to canon law,. it could be permitted for a good reasor~ to have the first profession of temporaryvows one year and two, three, or four days after [nvestlture? Canon 571, § 2 states that "the novitiate completed, the novice shall be admitted to profession if he be judged suitable, otherwise he shall be sent away." Commentators on the law, however, are agreed that a few days' deferment of the investiture for a good reason would not be a violation of the law. Such good'reasons would be, among others, the desire to have the investiture for all on the same day; or the desire to have both investiture and profession of vows on the same day; or because the retreat master was unavoidably delayed for two or three days. If the constitutions of a religious institute state that the superior is ap-pointed for a term of three years and that he may be reappointed for a further term in the same housemdoes this imply that the said appointed period of three years b~nds the superiors not to remove him from that posi-tion during the said time, either tooplace him in charge of another house 325 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ,Review [or Religious or to remove him altogether from authorifi/? Canon 505 does not necessarily require that a local superior be appointed for a period of three years, but merely forbids that he be appointed for a lo.nger period. The constitutions will determine the length of time a local superior is to hold office. Usually this is a period of three years, and, under normal circumstances, he should not be removed from that office. The common good, however, may re-quire his transfer to another house before the expiration of three years because his special abilities are needed there. Again, it happens occasionally that a religious is appointed local superior and, because of his incompetency, is a cause of serious harm to the community. Common sense dictates that such a person should be removed from office and not be allowed to complete a three-year term. Is it permissible for a religious appointed assistant to the master of novices to be one of the councilors to the superior in the house where pro-fessed religious llve? The assistant has very little contact with the professed religious since his duties confine him to the work of the novitiate. There are no regulations in the Code of Canon Law as to the persons who are appointed councilors to a local'superior. The con- ,stitutions may restrict this office, but unless they do; any professed member of the community may. be appointed to the local council. During passlontide is it ever permitted to remove the violet coverincj from the statue of the Blessed Virgin for one of her feasts? Or from the statue of St. Joseph when his feast occurs during that time? Or from any other statue at this season? During Passiontide it is not permitted to uncover the statues if the feast of the Titular, or of the Dedication of the Church, or of St. Joseph occur (S.R.C. decree 3396). However, if out of devo-tion to St. Joseph, the statue of the saint is exposed off the altar (extra altare) during the month of March, it may be left uncovered dhring Passiontide (S.R.C. decree 3448 ad 1 I). 33 A week ago a young woman called at the rectory and asked whether I could find some rellcj[ous community that would take her as a candidate, as she feels that she has a vocation. This may seem strange,, but the girl is deaf, a~d I know of no community in the United States that will take her 326 Nooember, 1951 BOOK REVIEWS with this handicap. Hence I'm writing you to see whether you can help me find some order or congregation of women that will take this girl. We await an answer from our readers. 34 Do the candles used at Holy Mass and at Benediction have to be blessed.'/ There is no obligation to bless altar candies (to ~e used at Holy Mass and Benediction) but it is fitting to do so. They may be blessed either on Candlemas Day (February 2) or at any other time. On Candlemas Day the form given in the Missal under that date should be used. At other times the form to be used is that given in the Roman Ritual (VI!I, 3). Book Reviews OFFICIUM DIVINUM PARVUM. German-Latln text. Fulda Conference. Herder-Pusfef, 1951. Pp. 569. Price not given. The press recently carried a not~ to the effect that the bishops of Holland have secured permission to edit a vernacular Office for all Dutch Sisters not ofili~ed by Rule to the recitation of the Divine Office. The notice has special 'relevance to the book here, noticed, inasmuch as the Fulda Conference of Germany secured such permis-sion and has published a shortened breviary for the optional use of all German Sisters not obliged to recite the Divine Office. This O~cium Pacou/o (I was informed) has be~n adopted by some eighty-thousand Sisters in a short time. One can easily see why. This handy edition has a Latin text of the "New" Psalms on the left-side, a German one on the right; the Psalms are in the transla-tion worked out by Romano Guardini. The entire arrangement strikes a good balance between the variety of the Divine Office and the brevity of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin. The bishops' endorsement recommends the book for public Sunday Vespers or Compline.--GERALD ELLARD, S.3". ST. CLARE OF ASSISI. By Nesta de Robeck. Pp. vii q- 242. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, 19SI. $3.S0. This is perhaps as authentic a biography of St. Clare as can be written from the meager reliable sources that are available. The Life contains only 139 pages, but it is well written and interesting and 327 BOOK REVIEWS Reuiew for Religious documents are frequently quoted. The first chapter is the history of Assi~i from Before Christ to the thirteenth century. The second covers her childhood and youth up till the time she adopted the way of life of her fellow-townsman, St. Francis. The third shows how she formed her life along the lines of that of Francis and what a deep impress his last years and death made upon Clare and the Poor Ladies who followed her. Chapter four speaks of her personal sanctity and dealings with the pope. Chapter five describes how her influence and holii~ess irradiated out to the numerous new members and houses.of the Second Order ot: St. Francis, who all looked to her as their mother. The final chapter presents her in the full maturity of ber sanctity, her last years, death, and glory. Five Appendi~es make up the last half of the book: the Office of the Passion, the Rule of St. Clare, the Testament of St. Clare, the Cause of Canonization, the Bull of Canonization of the Virgin, St. Clare. There is a three-p~ige bibliography, a two-page index, and eight excellent plates. The sp!rit .of gqntleness and charity in the service of Lady Poverty. was the spirit St. Francis passed on to St. Clare and her Poor Ladies. That spirit lives today in St. Francis' sons and daughters all over the world. Those who have any contact with them catch something of it. So will those who read this book.--C. A. HERBST, S.J. DEVOTEDLY YOURS. By Sister Berfrande. Pp. 400. Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 19SI. $3.7S. Sister Bertrande, the author of The Education of Sisters (re-viewed at length by William J. McGucken, S.J., in the first issue of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January, 1942) and director of Maril-lac House of Chicago, the large social center of the Daughters of Charity, may not be the greatest letter-writer in history, but she has left in Devotedly Yours, a very'interesting batch of letters. Intended originally "for Sisters only," her letters tell her com-munity in Chicago about all there is to tell of her extended and cir-cuitous Holy Year Pilgrimage that included the far-flung houses of Charity in France, North Africa, the Holy Land, Italy, England, and Ireland. The letters reveal zest for life, a sense of humor, abil-ity to recount anecdote and describe vividly, and devotedness and gratitude to her religious congregation. The author's wish should be fulfilled. "May these letters influence others as the journey influ-enced me: The Holy Lanai made of me a better Christian, Rome 328 November, 1951 BOOK NOTICES made of me a better Catholic, Paris made of me a better Daughter of Charity."--J. E. BREUNIG, S.J. BOOK NOTICES As a child, Helen Caldwell Day knew the sting of poverty and discrimination in her home in the South. Full of ambition she went North to enter nurses' training. Through realities on duty and trivialities off duty, she learned both the fulness and the emptiness of this life. She became a Catholic. She was married, saw her hus-band arrested and taken to prison, and after months of loneliness became a mother. She learned--what she had not known as a child --that there are white people with whom a Negro can live on terms of equality and genuine friendship. She tells about these and many other things in COLOR, EBONY. (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1951. Pp. viii + 182. $2.25.) THE CONVENT MIRROR, by Very Rev. Frederick T. Hoeger, C.8p.S., is a series of conferences for religious. It is the fruit of thirty years of retreats to priests, Brothers, and Sisters. They were written to help religious love their vocation ever more and more. The author himself notes in the preface that "He is inclined to go to extremes to keep from religious life the least ill-repute." (New York: Frederick PustetCo., 1951. Pp. 246. $3.00.) The fact that Emmanuel Doronzo, O.M.I., would take the trouble to translate the DICTIONARY OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY is in itself a guarantee that the book is worth while. A generous sampling of the volume's contents confirms this judgment. The book thor-oughly covers dogmatic theology, as well. as providing much matter from associated branches of philosophy and theology. There are a good general bibliography, a concise synthesis of dogma, an outline of the history of dogmatic theology, helpful bibIiographies under in-dividual topics, and a complete index of entries. The present trans-lation, the first in English, is made from the second Italian edition. The authors are Msgrs. Pietro parente, Antonio Piolante, and 8alva-tore Garofalo. The translator has kept faithfully to the original text, but has r~vised the bibliographies in order to make them more useful to English readers. The format leaves nothing to be desired. (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing'Company, 1951. Pp. xxvi q- 310. $4.50.) 329 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Reuiew [or Religious In LETTERS TO THE MARTYRS Helen Walker Homan gives dear illustrations of the abundantly verified statement that ours is an age of martyrs. She compares, the lives of early martyrs like Saints Stephen, Agnes, Ignatius, Sebastian, Lawrence, and others with heroes of our "day like Arhhbishop Stepinac, St. Maria Goretti, Car-dinal Mindzenty, and others. The epistolary cast of the book, as a series of letters to martyrs, may seem artificial to some and detract from the inspirational value of the book. (New York: David McKay Co. Inc., 1951. Pp. xii -]- 236. $3.00.) ONE AND HOLY, contains three lectures by Karl Adam to mem-bers of the Una Sancta movement in Germany who are making real efforts to build a bridge between Lutherans and Catholics: "The Roots of the Reformatign," "How Luther Left the Church: the Pos-sibility of Reunion," and "How is Reunion to be Achieved." The author shows how polemic has sharpened the differences and suggests that the basis of reunion may be found in a sympathetic investiga-tion of the conditions that gave rise to Luther. His viewpoint and practical proposals are worth thinking about. Cecily Hastings trans-lated the book. (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1951. Pp.' vii ÷ 130. $2.00.) In view of the Holy Father's recent Encyclical, "Heralds of the Gospel" (June 2, 195 I), touching again and with supreme author-ity on native cultures, native clergy, social prosperity, medical aid, lay missionaries, there is special timeliness in the translating of Father Danielou's books, The Salvation of the Nqtions (1949), and the present volume ADVENT, or the preparation for Christ and his saving message among all the i~amilie

This thesis consists of five essays in the field of political economy. The first part of the thesis includes three essays covering various aspects of the political economy of globalization and economic reforms, which are linked in several ways. The second part of the thesis includes two essays on the political economy of development in India. The aim of this introductory section is to give a brief and non-technical overview of the essays, as well as to explain the links between them. The discussion of the contribution of the research to the existing literature will be carried out separately in each essay. Globalization and economic reforms are two important concepts in the international political economy field. Explaining the social effects of both has been at the center of the international political economy literature for an extensive period of time. Much has been written about the effects of globalization on social outcomes (Dreher, Gaston, and Martens 2008, Schneider, Barbieri, and Gleditsch 2003) and there are at least two distinct trains of thought in academia and the public discourse. One view is that the structural changes towards more liberal economic policy can positively transform the economy and polity, increasing economic growth and welfare, as well as bringing much required modernization (Bhagwati 2004, Wolf 2004, Friedman 1999). On the other hand, more pessimistic voices, which include mainstream economists such as Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz, and Marxist critical theorists, believe that globalization can simultaneously promote a 'race to the bottom' in social standards that degrades communitarian bases of social stability and welfare (Rodrik 1997, Stiglitz and Charlton 2006). In fact, the global financial crisis of 2008, where people took to the streets in both developing and developed countries, has made the issue of whether or not globalization and economic reforms create socially undesirable consequences, ever more crucial. The first part of the thesis sheds new light on various aspects of the social effects of globalization and economic reforms, reviewing findings in the literature to date and extending existing theories. A major contribution of the thesis is the rigorous and thorough empirical evaluation of the human rights effects of economic reforms, and to what extent globalization has induced a race to the bottom in labour standards, while also contributing new empirical findings to extend the research surrounding the side effects of participating in IMF programs. The thesis is structured as follows. In chapter 1, we focus on the impact of economic reforms and economic freedom on human rights. It is argued that economic policy reforms will benefit most people in terms of better access to goods, lower inflation, and better economic opportunities (Murphy et al. 1991). However, critics of market reforms see the majority as losers from such reforms, expecting resistance that would lead to political repression (Przeworski 1991). Using the change in the Index of Economic Freedom as a measure of market liberalization reforms, employing data from a panel of 117 countries for the 1981–2006 period, the results show a strong positive association between reforms towards more free markets and governments' respect for human rights, controlling for a host of relevant factors, including the possibility of endogeneity. These results lend support to those who argue that freer markets generate better economic conditions and higher levels of social harmony. In fact, halfhearted measures at implementing reforms could be dangerous to human rights. After exploring the impact of economic reforms on human rights, we continue by linking economic liberalization policies prescribed by international organizations such as the IMF to the outbreak of civil war in chapter 2. As the global economic downturn has heightened concerns over intervention by international financial institutions, as well as political stability, a prominently published work by Hartzell, Hoddie and Bauer (2010) purports to show that signing on to an IMF Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) increased the risk of civil war during the 1970–1999 period. They claim that the IMF's SAPs push economic liberalization to the point where some people are so negatively affected as to foment civil war. We advance this debate by critically examining their theoretical and empirical evidence, particularly questioning their crucial assumptions about the impact of IMF programs on the economic environment in terms of the actual winners and losers from economic liberalization, and who might be in a position to rebel. Separating the effects of crises from IMF interventions is crucial since crises also generate losers in their own right. With only minor adjustments to their study, we find the exact opposite of what they conclude. We show that their measure of signing on to an IMF program remains consistently insignificant in explaining the outbreak of civil war, using the threshold of 25 battle deaths when defining the onset of a civil war. These results suggest that their operationalization of the IMF variable, as well as the utilization of large-scale civil wars (1000 deaths and above), captures the effect of ongoing war rather than the effects of liberalization. After extending the time period under study from 1970–1999 to 1970–2008, as well as making some minor changes to operationalization, again we find that IMF involvement is at worst a poor predictor of conflict, and at best, an alleviator of the risk. The next chapter turns to a topic which is currently the focus of both politicians and the labour unions in general. We analyze whether inter-country competition for investment has adverse effects on labour standards. Among the many concerns over globalization is that as nations compete for international firms, they will relax labour standards as a method of lowering costs and attracting investment. Using spatial econometric estimation on panel data for 148 developing countries over 18 years, we find that the labour standards in one country are indeed positively correlated with labour standards elsewhere (i.e., a reduction in the labour standards of other countries reduces the labour standards of the country in question). This interdependence is more evident in labour practices (i.e., enforcement) than in labour laws. Furthermore, competition is most fierce in those countries which already have low standards. Since there has been a decline in the labour practices and laws across all three groups, this is possible evidence of a race to the bottom as nations compete for investment. The second part of the thesis focuses on essays on the political economy of development in India. India is often hailed as one of the success stories of globalization (Basu 2008). Indeed, after the inception of market economic reforms in 1991, economic growth has been both sustained and impressively robust in terms of national economic indicators (Basu 2008). However, despite rapid economic growth during the post-1990 period, the benefits of economic growth are unevenly distributed, and some areas and groups of people have seen their living standards decline (Banerjee 2010). One could argue that this is somewhat surprising given the rapid surge in economic growth in recent years (Bardhan 2010). In connection with this, two critical issues have attracted a lot of attention, both within and outside India. First is the issue of corruption which is seen as a hindrance to prosperity and development, and the second is the emergence of India as one of the major donors of development aid. In chapter 4, we focus particularly on the influence of the timing of elections on controlling corruption. Firstly, we develop a conceptual framework that extends theories of political budget cycles to corruption, where an incumbent government considers controlling corruption based purely on political considerations. More specifically, we investigate whether the timing of elections affects the responsiveness of the incumbent government to control corruption. Secondly, we empirically test the predictions of the conceptual framework using 30 Indian states during the 1988–2009 period. Consistent with the conceptual framework developed, i.e., an incumbent politician might exert greater effort in an election year to control corruption, the findings show that scheduled elections (and not unscheduled elections) are associated with an increase in the number of corruption cases registered. In addition, we find that corruption cases registered tend to increase as a scheduled election year draws closer. Furthermore, the effects are found to be stronger in 'swing states' (where the margin of victory of the incumbent in the previous election was 5% or less), and in state scheduled election years which coincide with national elections. On the other hand, there is no effect of scheduled elections on corruption cases being investigated by anti-corruption agencies. The following chapter examines a puzzling question about India. Here, we analyze what determines Indian development aid. It is indeed puzzling to note that India, which has a large domestic population suffering from underdevelopment, chronic poverty and mal-governance, is emerging as an important aid donor. With the intension of learning why poor countries provide foreign aid, this is the first work to econometrically analyze India's aid allocation decisions. We utilize cross-sectional data on aid commitments to 128 developing countries by the Ministry of External Affairs and the Export-Import Bank of India, obtained in US dollars from AidData for the 2008-2009 period. We then compare India's bilateral aid allocation with that of other donors to examine if India is any different regarding the motivation behind its allocation decisions. The findings show that India's aid allocation decisions are largely driven by commercial and political self-interest. While recipient need does not seem to be a key determinant, neighboring countries receive considerable attention.

In early 2021, Secretary of State Antony Blinken removed the Houthis from the State Department's lists of foreign terror groups, reversing a last-minute Trump administration move.
"This decision is a recognition of the dire humanitarian situation in Yemen," Blinken said at the time. "We have listened to warnings from the United Nations, humanitarian groups, and bipartisan members of Congress, among others, that the designations could have a devastating impact on Yemenis' access to basic commodities like food and fuel."
Three years later, the situation in Yemen remains precarious, but the Biden administration has changed its calculus. Amid a Houthi campaign of attacks on ships headed toward Israel, Blinken announced that the U.S. will redesignate the organization as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist group (SDGT) next month. (The Houthis say their attacks would stop if Israel ends its assault on Gaza.)
This designation, though less stringent than the one imposed by the Trump administration, will likely complicate the distribution of aid in Yemen, according to Ashleigh Subramanian-Montgomery, the associate director of the Charity and Security Network. In practice, U.S. and UK airstrikes have already forced some aid groups to cut back operations in the country.
RS spoke with Subramanian-Montgomery to get her take on how the designation and the broader escalation will affect average Yemenis, as well as how political calculations influence national security decision making. The following conversation has been edited for length and clarity.
RS: How are humanitarian groups responding to this decision?
Subramanian-Montgomery: Likely many humanitarian groups and aid groups are responding how they always do when either an SDGT designation or other designations happen, which is to review all of the authorizations that Office of Foreign Assets Control has put out. OFAC put out five general licenses and an FAQ. Organizations are looking into those and understanding what's allowable and what's not allowable then trying to act accordingly. Likely all humanitarian organizations will be forced to have conversations with their banks because any type of designation makes banks very, very hesitant and scared to continue transactions, even when things are authorized and allowed. There are certain places in the world where banks are more hesitant to transact to, and Yemen is definitely one of those places.
RS: Do you have a sense of how the designation might affect the ability of NGOs to distribute aid?
Subramanian-Montgomery: Where we have a little bit of the advantage is that it's not going into place until Feb. 16. So I think there can be some mobilizing around that that's kind of unique. You don't usually get any heads up that that designation will happen.
There are potentials for humanitarian aid organizations to be able to sort of figure out things a little bit ahead of time and find any workarounds that they need to do there. But the big challenge they'll face is the de-risking by banks, which will then make them not be able to do their aid delivery in the places that are going to need it the most, or potentially at all.
RS: Can you tell me more about the history of the relationship between NGOs and their banking partners in the Middle East?
Subramanian-Montgomery: Certain countries are always flagged. Banks will sometimes reject transactions just because of a certain name, like Syria, for instance, or Palestine, even before Oct. 7. Some organizations, if they have that in their name, or they're saying the transaction is going to this country, the transaction will be stopped or delayed. Delayed is the best case scenario, but that's not a good scenario if you need humanitarian aid immediately. Sometimes they'll be stopped altogether, or a bank will drop the relationship completely. Unfortunately, the relationships between humanitarian aid organizations in the region and banks can be really difficult. It's a fraught, challenging relationship. And it comes to be hard for aid organizations to know where in the pipeline the delay or the stopping of the transaction happened. Was it where the funds originated? Was it a bank along the way? That can be really, really challenging.
RS: Can you tell me more about the distinction between the SDGT designation and the FTO designation? My understanding is that they were both put in place by Trump, both reversed by Biden, and now just the SDGT put in place by Biden.
Subramanian-Montgomery: That's exactly right. I will say that it's very, very positive that the FTO designation was not reinstated, and it was just the SDGT. FTO designations are the prohibition on material support to terrorists. When an FTO designation goes into effect, most types of engagement with an FTO are then prohibited. And anybody running afoul of this, any individual organization running afoul of this can face really hefty fines and can face really dire criminal penalties, including up to 10 years of jail time. So it's pretty severe, and they cause a big chilling impact and effect on humanitarian aid. Since you can't really engage with anyone that's designated as an FTO, they also prevent you from then being able to go and negotiate with the Houthis to get humanitarian aid through. So that designation is particularly challenging, and also, as you can imagine, prevents any type of peacebuilding.
SDGT designations can be authorized either by the Department of Treasury or of State, which makes it both a counterterrorism designation, since State can issue can authorize this designation and those CT designations fall under State's purview, and because it has the financial and asset-freezing part of it that's under Treasury's purview. Basically, it means that all property and interests in property in the U.S. or even that later can come within the U.S. are blocked.
RS: We've already seen some impact from this escalation on the ability of aid groups to do their jobs on the ground. Some organizations have said that the bombings from the U.S. and the UK have prevented them from continuing operations normally. What effect would a renewal of hostilities have on the country's humanitarian sector?
Subramanian-Montgomery: A renewal of hostilities would be completely devastating given how dire the humanitarian situation already is in Yemen. It's almost hard to imagine that the situation could be exacerbated further given how bad it is and that it's one of the world's absolute worst humanitarian crises. It would block basic access to infrastructure, impact where and how aid could be delivered, how aid could get into the country, who aid could reach. All of these things will be impacted, and unfortunately, the Houthis are not going to be who suffer most. It's going to be the people of Yemen who are going to suffer the most with any kind of hostilities starting up again and everything that's going to follow on from that with the SDGT designation and whatever else it is to follow.
RS: What's the administration's justification for this decision? Do you see this as a politicization of the terrorist designation system?
Subramanian-Montgomery: Absolutely. Look, when the Biden administration removed the Houthi designation, both the FTO and SDGT designations in Feb. 2021, Blinken said it was "a recognition of the dire humanitarian situation in Yemen." As I talked about before, that dire situation still exists today. If the priority for lifting it then in February 2021 was recognizing how bad the humanitarian situation is, and we know that it hasn't really gotten better to date, then how can you say that we're going to reinstate one of the designations that was lifted? It just feels really, really hypocritical. The Biden administration is making choices on political whims rather than realities and needs on the ground, which is unfortunate.
But it's the way these designations work. An example I always give is the Taliban. They've been designated as an SDGT since 2001, and the reason that they continue to be designated as an SDGT rather than as an FTO is because the administration would basically, if they made them an FTO, designate themselves out of being able to engage the Taliban. So the Doha talks in 2016 and 2019 couldn't really have happened because nobody could have engaged with the Taliban as they were an FTO. It's just an example that shows how political these designations are, and that, administration to administration, regardless of who's in power in the U.S., the decisions are always very political. They're very tactical and strategic. I don't mean that in a good way. They're making these very calculated decisions on terrorism designations based on a number of factors that they think will benefit their own self interest.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT) are among the deadliest known toxins, are relatively easy to produce and have been incorporated into military weapons. Therefore they have been ranked as an agent with highest priority concerning threats of bioterrorism. In addition to the potential deliberate misuse of BoNT, natural outbreaks in farming and food manufacturing also constitute a typical point-of-care (POC) scenario for BoNT detection. In such a scenario fast (< 1 h), portable and automated, on-site detection of unknown BoNT types and forms is required. Existing POC systems for BoNT detection are suitable in specific fields of applications but are of limited use in such a scenario for several reasons. Possible disadvantages include: (i) the assay format does not allow for detection of a broad range of BoNT type and forms; (ii) the stage of developments are proof of concepts rather than thoroughly developed platforms; (iii) they are non-automated or (iv) have been developed on immobile laboratory devices; (v) important engineering aspects such as the reagent pre-storage or fabrication methods are neglected. In this thesis all these limitations are addressed, starting with the long-term storage and fabrication method: Reagent storage presents a major challenge, not only for BoNT detection but for POC detection in general. On-chip pre-storage and automated release of reagents would circumvent on-site pipetting steps which are otherwise necessary. This challenge is first addressed in this thesis with an ultrasonic welding parameter-study that allows for sealing reagents in aluminium / polyethylene (PE) composite film. These seals can be designed to open at defined burst pressures to release the reagents. The sealing time, pressure and amplitude were varied within the range of 100 – 400 ms, 50 – 250 kPa, and 12 – 24 µm, respectively. T-peel tests and electron micrographs revealed four different peel regimes, depending on the parameter combination: (I) Interlaminar peeling at low peel strength with uniform peeling along a weakly bonded PE lamination layer; (II) transition tearing at intermediate peel strength showing areas of interlaminar peeling and translaminar tearing; (III) translaminar tearing at high peel strength showing tears through the entire film; and, (IV) undefined tearing at varying tear strength occurring when vibration effects during welding lead to insufficient contact of the films or high pressures lead to a displacement of PE. This study allows the systematic adjustment of ultrasonic welding parameters for PE films. The parameter study was subsequently applied to tubular-shaped foil pouches called stick-packs. Stick-packaging has become a popular technology for food and drug packaging. In this study this technology has been miniaturized for use in lab-on-a-chip (LOAC) systems to pre-store and release liquid and dry reagents on-demand in a volume range of 80 – 500 µl. An integrated frangible seal enables the pressure-controlled release of reagents and simplifies the layout of LOAC systems, thereby making the package a functional microfluidic release unit. The frangible seal is adjusted to defined burst pressures ranging from 20 to 140 kPa. The applied ultrasonic welding process allows the packaging of temperature sensitive reagents. Stick-packs have been successfully tested applying recovery tests (where 99 % (STDV = 1 %) of 250 µl pre-stored liquid is released), long-term storage tests (where there is loss of < 0.5 % for simulated 2 years) and air transport simulation tests. The developed technology also enables the storage of a combination of liquid and dry reagents. It is a scalable technology suitable for rapid prototyping and low-cost mass production. In the final development a POC platform is presented that detects BoNT type A and E and all their subtypes and forms. A highly sensitive luciferase reporter assay has been automated by the centrifugal microfluidic LabDisk platform. The assay is based on the detection of BoNT's proteolytic activity and generation of a bioluminescent signal. This signal is caused by the release of luciferase which is pre-bound to microbeads via a peptide linker cleaved by BoNT. It detected purified BoNT holotoxin, BoNT in complex with neurotoxin associated proteins, and the recombinant enzymatic BoNT light chain in buffer and whole milk in the concentration range of 8 pM – 6 nM with a limit of detection of 6 – 14 pM. The intra-disk, intra-day and inter-day variability were in the range of 1 – 13 %, 1 – 7 % and 10 – 13 %, respectively. The developed LabDisk assay correlated well with the conventional microwell plate assay. It is superior to the conventional BoNT assays in terms of portability, lesser sample requirement, lesser number of working steps and detection of broad spectrum of BoNT types and forms. It takes only 30 minutes for 7 tests in parallel, which is ideal for POC detection of BoNT in case of security threats and food monitoring. The developed microfluidic chip has further potential to perform more tests in parallel or even to incorporate additional sample pre-treatment. With the cleavable linker that is sensitive to serotypes A, E and all their subtypes and forms, the LabDisk already detects a broad range of the most common types causing human botulism. An additional cleavable linker for further serotypes could enable the detection of the entire BoNT spectrum. This would not require changing the fluidic design or handling of the LabDisk. Furthermore the platform developed in this study is not only a proof of concept but has been validated under conditions that reflect real POC requirements. ; Botulinum Neurotoxine (BoNT) gehören zu den stärksten bekannten Toxinen, sind relativ einfach herstellbar und wurden bereits in militärischen Waffen integriert. Daher finden sich BoNT in der Kategorie von Toxinen, von denen die größte Bedrohung durch Bioterrorismus ausgeht. Neben der möglichen vorsätzlichen Freisetzung von BoNT treten auch natürliche Ausbrüche in der Tierhaltung und Lebensmittelherstellung auf, in denen Vor-Ort-Analysen benötigt werden. In solchen Szenarien werden schnelle (< 1 Stunde), tragbare und automatisierte Analysen von unbekannten BoNT-Typen und -Formen verlangt. Bereits entwickelte Vor-Ort-Systeme für die BoNT-Detektion haben zwar ihre Berechtigung in spezifischen Anwendungsgebieten, sie sind aber in einem der beschriebenen Notfallszenarien nur bedingt brauchbar: (I) Entweder erlaubt der Assay nicht die Detektion eines breiten BoNT-Spektrums, (II) das System wurde lediglich als Konzeptstudie beschrieben und liegt nicht als umfänglich entwickelte Plattform vor, (III) es sind nicht automatisierte Systeme, (IV) sie basieren auf stationären Laborgeräten oder (V) wichtige technische Aspekte, wie die Reagenzienvorlagerung und Fabrikationsprozesse wurden nicht berücksichtigt. Im praktischen Teil dieser Arbeit werden diese erwähnten Beschränkungen ausgearbeitet, beginnend mit der Reaganzienvorlagerung: Eine große Herausforderung in der Entwicklung von Vor-Ort-Analysen ist die langzeitstabile Vorlagerung von Reagenzien und deren automatisierte Freisetzung in Lab-on-a-Chip (LOAC) Systemen. Eine in dieser Arbeit durchgeführte Parameterstudie für das Ultraschallschweißen erlaubt die Verpackung von Reagenzien in Aluminium/Polyethylen-Verbundfolie. Die Siegelnähte der verschweißten Verpackung können so ausgelegt werden, dass sie bei einem definierten Druck delaminieren und die Reagenzien freisetzen. Die Siegezeit, der Schweißdruck und die Ultraschall-Amplitude wurden im Bereich 100 – 400 ms, 50 – 250 kPa und 12 – 24 µm variiert und deren Einfluss auf die Siegelstärke untersucht. Mit T-Peeltests und elektronenmikroskopischen Aufnahmen konnten vier Delaminationsbereiche in Abhängigkeit der Siegelparameter identifiziert werden: (I) Interlaminares Delaminieren bei tiefer Peelstärke mit einheitlicher Rissfläche entlang der Polyethylen-Schichten; (II) der Übergangsbereich mit mittlerer Peelstärke, in dem teilweise interlaminares und translaminares Delaminieren auftritt; (III) translaminares Delaminieren bei hoher Peelstärke, wobei sich die Risse nicht mehr entlang der beiden Folienschichten, sondern durch das ganze Polyethylen ausbreiten; (IV) undefiniertes Delaminieren wenn Vibrationseffekte während des Schweißvorganges zu ungenügendem Kontakt der Folien führen oder zu hohe Drücke das Polyethylen während des Schweißvorganges verdrängen, was zu unterschiedlichen Peelstäken führt. Die durchgeführte Studie erlaubt eine systematische Anpassung der Ultraschall-Parameter für Polyethylen-Folien, um definierte Peelstärken zu erhalten. Die Parameterstudie fand ihre Anwendung im Verschweißen von Folienbeuteln, sogenannten Stickpacks, in denen Reagenzien vorgelagert werden. Die Stickpack-Technologie wird bereits im Bereich der Lebensmittelverpackung und der Pharmazie vielseitig eingesetzt. In dieser Studie wurde die Verpackungstechnologie für den Einsatz in LOAC Systemen miniaturisiert. Dies erlaubt die Vorlagerung und definierte Freisetzung von Flüssig- und Trockenreagenzien in einem Volumenbereich von 80 – 500 µl. Die integrierte peelbare Siegelnaht ermöglicht eine druckgesteuerte Freisetzung der Reagenzien. Somit ist in die eigentliche Verpackung ein zusätzlicher Freisetz-Mechanismus integriert. Der geringe Wärmeeintrag des Ultraschall-Prozesses erlaubt dazu, auch temperaturempfindliche Reagenzien zu verpacken. Die Siegelnaht wurde für Delaminationsdrücke im Bereich 20 – 140 kPa eingestellt und untersucht. Die Stickpacks entleeren sich nahezu vollständig (99 % ± 1 % STDV bei 250 µl), besitzen eine hohe Barriereeigenschaft (Verlust < 0.5 % bei simulierter 2-jähriger Lagerung) und widerstehen standardisierte Flugtransport-Tests. Die Verpackung erlaubt zudem auch die kombinierte Vorlagerung von Flüssig- und Trockenreagenzien. Die Technologie wurde bereits auf einer industriellen Verpackungsanlage entwickelt, was einen direkten und kostengünstigen Transfer in die Massenproduktion erlaubt. Abschließend wurde eine Vor-Ort-Plattform entwickelt, die alle Subtypen und Formen von BoNT/A und E detektiert. Ein hochsensitiver Luciferase Reporter Assay wurde in einen mikrofluidischen Chip integriert und mit einem zentrifugalen System, der LabDisk Plattform, automatisiert. Der Assay detektierte die enzymatische Aktivität von BoNT über ein an Mikrobeads gebundenes spaltbares Polypeptid, welches Luciferase freisetzt und ein Biolumineszenzsignal generiert. Der Assay reagierte auf das isolierte BoNT Holotoxin, die mit assoziierten Proteinen komplexierte Form (BoNT complex) und die rekombinante enzymatische leichte Kette von BoNT (BoNT-LC) im Konzentrationsbereich von 8 pM – 6 nM mit einer Nachweisgrenze von 6 – 14 pM. Die Intra-Disk-, Intra- und Inter-Tages-Variabilitäten lagen im Bereich 1 – 13 %, 1 – 7 % und 10 – 13 %. Der entwickelte LabDisk Assay liefert vergleichbare Daten zu dem laborbasierten Mikrotiterplatten-Assay und übertrifft konventionelle Systeme für BoNT hinsichtlich Portabilität, kleinerer Probenmenge, geringere Anzahl an Arbeitsschritte und der Detektion eines breiten Spektrums an BoNT Subtypen und Formen. Eine LabDisk prozessiert sieben individuelle Tests parallel in 30 Minuten. Diese Leistungsdaten machen die LabDisk Plattform ideal für die Vor-Ort-Detektion im Sicherheitsbereich oder in der Lebensmittelüberwachung. Die mikrofluidische LabDisk bietet weiteres Potenzial, noch mehr Tests parallel zu integrieren oder eine zusätzliche Probenaufarbeitung vorzuschalten. Mit dem spaltbaren Polypeptid, welches auf die Serotypen A, E und alle entsprechenden Subtypen und Formen reagiert, detektiert die LabDisk bereits ein breites Spektrum der meist verbreiteten Typen, die den humanen Botulismus verursachen. Mit einem zusätzlichen Peptid, welches auf weitere Serotypen reagiert, kann die Detektion des gesamten BoNT Spektrums ermöglicht werden. Diese Änderung hätte jedoch keinen Einfluss auf die bereits entwickelte Fluidik der LabDisk oder deren Handhabung. Eine solche LabDisk kann direkt angewandt werden, da das entwickelte System keinesfalls eine bloße Machbarkeitsstudie darstellt sondern bereits unter Bedingungen validiert wurde, die den Anforderungen einer Vor-Ort-Detektion entsprechen.

Cyanide (CN) is used in the gold mining industry to dissolve gold from free milling, complex and refractory gold containing ores. Processing sulphide containing refractory ores using biooxidation as a pre-treatment has become increasingly important due to the depletion of free milling ores. The reaction of CN with reduced sulphur species during the cyanidation process results in the formation of thiocyanate (SCN), often at relatively high concentrations (> 5 000 mg/L). The SCN and residual free CN are deported with the tailings as components of the liquid fraction. The concentration of SCN often exceeds the legislated discharge specification, necessitating on-site treatment, while water would also require treatment before on-site recycling and reuse. Biological degradation of CN and particularly SCN in these effluents provides an alternative to the more traditional processes such as SO2 treatment or UV destruction. The traditional destruction processes focus on breaking the chemical bonds, through physical or chemical means, thereby converting the toxic CN and SCN species to less toxic compounds. These processes generally suffer from high reagent cost, incomplete removal of CN and particularly SCN species and the generation of by-products which require further treatment. A number of microorganisms are capable of utilising CN and SCN as a source of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, as well as generating energy from their oxidation. Additional removal of metal-CN complexes may be achieved by adsorption to the cell surface or extracellular polymeric substances secreted by the cells. The activated sludge tailings effluent remediation (ASTERTM) process was developed for the biological treatment of especially SCN, but also free CN and metal-cyanide complexes, such as CuCN and Zn(CN)2. The basic ASTERTM technology consists of an aerated reactor, in which SCN and CN species are oxidised and a settler to facilitate the recovery of water and potentially biomass. The desire to expand the commercial application of the technology necessitated a more complete, fundamental understanding of the ASTERTM process and required focused, in-depth research. This research aimed to define the viable operating window for SCN destruction, as well as optimising practical SCN and CN destruction process conditions. The ASTERTM process relies on a complex microbial community, so understanding the community structure and metabolic potential for SCN and CN destruction, further enhanced the fundamental and mechanistic understanding of this bioprocess. The research contributed to the fundamental understanding of this technology and enhanced the commercial application thereof. The first step in defining the operating window was to investigate the effect of feed SCN concentration on the SCN destruction ability of the mixed microbial community. Experiments were conducted at feed SCN concentrations ranging from 60- 1 800 mg/L. Complete SCN destruction was achieved across the range at ambient temperature. The maximum SCN destruction rate was 15.7 mg/L.h at an initial SCN concentration of 1 400 mg/L. Temperature was investigated in the range of 10-45°C with an initial SCN concentration range of 60-180 mg/L. A maximum SCN destruction rate of 17.4 mg/L.h was measured at 35°C, with an initial SCN concentration of 180 mg/L. A wide pH range (pH 5.0-10.0) was tolerated, with optimal performance recorded at pH 7.0. This evaluation identified not only the optimum operating pH, but also highlighted the negative impact of a sudden pH change on the efficiency of SCN destruction. Residual SCN concentrations below 1 mg/L were achieved in all cases, which would allow for discharge or recycling of treated water. Floc (sludge) formation was observed in experiments with high initial SCN concentrations and indicated a possible stress response during these batch experiments. Floc (sludge) formation were taken as microbial cells imbedded within extracellular polymeric substances and not only an aggregate of cells. Evaluating the maximum potential for SCN destruction and optimising the operating conditions and system configuration was investigated using continuous reactor experiments. A maximum SCN destruction rate of 87.4 mg/L.h (2 098 mg/L.d) was achieved at a feed SCN concentration of 1 000 mg/L and eight hour hydraulic retention time (HRT) during these experiments. The formation of substantial amounts of sludge was observed, with attachment to the reactor surfaces. The maximum feed SCN concentration, where substantial destruction was measured, was at 2 500 mg/L, achieving a practical SCN destruction rate of 972 mg/L.d. Significant inhibition of microbial inactivity was observed beyond this feed SCN concentration. The microbial community was able recover performance, within six days, after an extended period (54 days) of inactivity when the feed concentration was reduced from 3 500 mg/L SCN to 1 000 mg/L. The nature of the accumulated biofilm did not appear to change during the period of limited SCN destruction activity. Calculation of specific SCN destruction rates was not possible due to the nature of the sludge and heterogeneous dispersion of microbial members. Biomass (cells embedded in the EPS sludge) loading experiments showed SCN destruction rates increased with an increase in biomass loading, but this relationship was not proportional. A 25-fold increased biomass concentration resulted in only a 2-fold increase in destruction rate, suggesting a mass transfer limitation. The sludge most likely offers protection against unfavourable conditions, such as high residual SCN concentrations, by presenting a mass transfer barrier, resulting in an SCN concentration gradient across the sludge matrix. This enhances the robustness of the process and would facilitate rapid recovery in the case of a system upset at commercial scale. This research is the first to demonstrate the effective removal of SCN in the presence of suspended tailing solids, under conditions well suited for commercial application. The maximum SCN destruction rate achieved was 57 mg/L.h in the presence of 5.5% (m/v) solids. Sludge formation was not observed in the reactors containing solids, despite substantial sludge formation under similar operating conditions in the absence of solids, most likely due to shear-related effects. Fluctuations in pH, due to the nature of the solid material, were identified to negatively impact reactor performance and pH control was required. Moreover, the type of solid particle was found to influence the SCN destruction rate showing a need for adaptation not only to the presence of solids but also to various types of solids that are to be treated. Treatment of residual CN in solution is critical to ensure safe disposal or recycling of water. Treatment of SCN and CN was successfully demonstrated at feed concentrations up to 2 000 and 50 mg/L, respectively. The presence of residual CN (0.5 mg/L) prevented complete destruction of SCN, while complete SCN destruction was measured in the absence of CN under identical conditions. A range of reactor configurations were investigated and the optimum system required biomass retention, by means of attached biomass and complete destruction of any residual CN prior to SCN destruction. Conversion of SCN-S to SO4-S was stoichiometrically proportional in solution, while the majority of the liberated nitrogen appeared to be assimilated. Pre-colonisation of the reactor with attached biomass is beneficial and removed the need for a solid-liquid separation unit, reducing the potential footprint of the process. Additional treatment capacity could be created by operation of reactors in series. The diversity of the microbial community responsible for destruction of especially SCN were shown to be far more extensive than initially expected. Initial molecular characterisation of the microbial community selected for 185 representatives of bacterial 16S rRNA genes, of which 106 non-identical genotypes were sequenced. In contrast, for the reactor containing solids, only 48 representatives were selected and 30 genotypes were sequenced. Bacteria implicated in SCN destruction in the reactor containing suspended solids were members from the genera Bosea, Microbacterium and Thiobacillus. In the absence of solids, members capable of SCN destruction were identified from genera including Thiobacillus and Fusarium. High-throughput genome sequencing, followed by sequence assembly confirmed the dominance of Thiobacillus spp. Metabolic predictions indicated the autotrophs, gaining energy from the oxidation of reduced sulphur intermediates produced during SCN destruction were the dominant community members. The potential for ammonium oxidation and denitrification within the microbial community was identified during analysis of the metabolic potential, based on the metagenomic sequence data. These would be required for complete remediation of wastewater. The data generated during the research led to the development of a conceptual model to describe the evolution of system performance. Following inoculation with planktonic culture the SCN destruction is performed by the planktonic microbial community. An increased residual SCN concentration results in floc formation and the colonisation of reactor surfaces by attached biofilm. A concomitant decrease in planktonic cell concentration was observed, while SCN destruction rates increased. The extracellular material provided a matrix for biomass retention, resulting in high cell concentrations, and provided some protection against high SCN concentrations by providing a barrier to mass transfer. The attached biofilm developed to the point where overall SCN degradation rates may become limited by reduced oxygen penetration. The research presented in this thesis has been used to inform the design and operation of the ASTERTM process at commercial scale, specifically with respect to the benefits of attached biomass and the demonstration that the process can be used in the presence of suspended solids. The latter has been particularly important in applications where the available footprint is constrained.

The field of 'trans' studies, which incorporates transsexual, transgender, and cross‐dressing among its experiences and theorizing, has undergone tremendous changes within the century or so in which it has been developing. Initially, the scope of transsexual studies spans for almost a century, across social institutions and within a rigid model of proving a person's 'true transsexuality'. On the other hand, the reach and depth of transgender studies, emergent only less than 20 years ago, moves across disciplines, incorporates first and third person accounts, and it is less invested in reifying 'true' transgender identity and expression (although there are emergent movements attempting to solidify transgender as a multiple gender response to the gender binary, often by elite or privileged citizens). In summary, the field of transgender and transsexual studies is in constant development and change, and there are significantly some tensions that could offer much newer theorizing (e.g. between the categories of transsexuality and transgender as an umbrella term).Sociology's continued influence within the transsexual and transgender studies/fields require our attention to interdisciplinarity, while at the same time a serious grounding on the sociological literatures concerning the topic. Sex, gender, and sexuality are analytical concepts of much importance in order to study 'trans' populations and issues, as are questions of social location based on ethno‐racial, class, and other positionalities. These recommended readings, films and exercises form a foundation to implement critical views on the topic of 'trans' studies, and its intersections with other topics such as gender identity, homosexuality, gender presentation, and some historical accounts of the formation and solidification of the transgender category.Author recommendsStryker, Susan, and Stephen Whittle (eds) 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.A compilation of a number of old articles, and recent contributions by emergent scholars from many areas (including sexology, psychiatry, queer theory, feminist scholars, and transgender men and women), this reader is a critical reference to those interested in trans studies. Susan Stryker, herself one of the originators of transgender studies, poses a critical look at the resistance to acknowledge transgender (and transsexual) embodiment and identity. Stephen Whittle, a European scholar, also bridges the field in his beginning remarks. The chapters are a varied contribution to the scholarship of transgender studies, broadly defined. Its first part is a compilation of previously published work on transsexuality, but the majority of the text uncovers a series of issues newly developed (such as intersectionality, embodiment, and identities and communities).Valentine, David 2007. Imagining Transgender: An ethnography of a Category. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.This book is empirically based on fieldwork among three groups of transgender populations in New York City. Ranging from the staff and volunteers of the Gender Identity Project at the Gay and Lesbian Community Center, sex workers in the area of the 'meat packing district' (a district in the lower part of Manhattan) and at 'House Balls' (events of dance and competitions among queer youth of color), Valentine draws from all of these experiences to formulate the solidification of the 'transgender' category. A compilation of previously published articles and new material, this book is award winning within its field – anthropology. One of its main contributions is the use of 'transgender' as a term that evokes current debates and political struggles to solidify distinctions between gender and sexuality, and in many instances, the transgender category as relational to homosexuality.Bryant, Karl 2006. 'Making Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood: Historical Lessons for Contemporary Debates.'Sexuality Research and Social Policy 3 (3): 23–39.This article is a social history of the diagnostic category of 'gender identity disorder' and, in particular, how it was applied to children (mostly boys) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders from the American Psychiatric Association. The discourses surrounding the psychiatric diagnosis are traced from the beginning of related studies and the inception of the term (from the 1960s on) and into the present. Bryant gives a significant review of past debates in order to inform the contemporary ones taking place through his analysis of archival data, interviews with key mental health and psychiatry providers, and published reports on the development of this diagnosis. Among the aspects he looks at are the controversies as to whether atypical gender behaved boys will grow up to be homosexual, transsexual, or transvestite, and how current advocates for or against this diagnosis may be reproducing similar assumptions, or producing normative results, in their critiques of this diagnosis.Halberstam, Judith 2005. In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York, NY: New York University Press.This book is a significant development from a humanities‐based cultural studies angle that takes a close look at artistic and media portrayals of transgender experience. Halberstam argues for a complex relationship (much closer than otherwise portrayed) between transgender and transsexual identities by looking at various individuals and their experiences – most notably Brandon Teena, who was killed in Nebraska by acquaintances, when it was 'discovered' that Brandon was a female‐bodied person who 'passed' as male. Halberstam's introduction to the book is a great challenge to the privileging of analysis of space in contemporary social theorizing (drawing on criticisms of works such as David Harvey's) and centering a newer analysis of queer uses of time as a challenge to normative assumptions about family and the nation. In a Queer Time and Place seriously engages the relationship between embodiment and representation, and the urban and rural contrasts in trans theorizing.Meyerowitz, Joanne 2002. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA, and London, UK: Harvard University Press. How Sex Changed is an elaborate historical examination of the ways sex, gender, and sexuality are tied together in early sexual science studies through the authority of medical and scientific 'experts'. Meyerowitz offers a broad historical and geographic discussion on transsexuality, ranging from the 19th century to the 1980s United States, and at times draws excellent comparisons between the US and European nations in their (often imprecise) dealings with transsexuality. A significant feature of Meyerowitz's work is the tracing of medical and scientific authority over access to technologies that would allow transsexuals to 'change sex'; transsexual narratives countered this authority with their accounts of self. The book illustrates the complex negotiation between what doctors considered to be the reasons and symptoms of transsexuality and the kinds of stories put forth by transsexuals seeking their help.Rubin, Henry 2003. Self‐Made Men: Identity and Embodiment among Transsexual Men. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Self Made Men is a sociological study of the experiences of 22 transsexual men from various US cities. Rubin answers questions about the body and identity for his research subjects by weaving two discussions: of genealogy and phenomenology; the former a more discursive argument, the latter, a more grounded one. In this way, Rubin attempts to engage in structure versus agency theorizing in the narratives shared by the female‐to‐male transsexuals he interviewed. Rubin's book has a significant overlap to Meyerowitz, where he discusses the 1970s division between female‐bodied transsexual and lesbian identifications – worth taking a close look at as well. But Rubin's contributions also attest to the embodied experiences of the transmen he interviewed, by weaving experiences of betrayal and misrecognition, identities in progress, and some of the historical determinants for the development of a male transgender identity.Irvine, Janice 1990. Disorders of Desire: Sex and Gender in Modern American Sexology. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.This book gives a comprehensive look at the sexological field in the 20th century. As a sociologist, Irvine produces a compelling set of critiques of the ways in which a normative set of perspectives – about what takes place in one's sexual lives, about seeking help for sexual health, and about homosexuality and gender variant men and women – is dissected by the fields of psychiatry, psychology, and medicine. The text gives a comprehensive sense of the professionalization of sexology as a field – discussing Alfred Kinsey's work, the visibility and political mobilization of feminists and gay/lesbian groups, and later sexological scholarship on the physiological reactions to sex, erotic sensations, and pleasure. An award‐winning book, this is a great text to combine with readings on the social construction of sex, gender, and sexuality in contemporary USA.Kessler, Suzanne, and Wendy McKenna 2000. 'Who Put the "Trans" in Transgender? Gender Theory and Everyday life.'International Journal of Transgenderism, 4 (3): July–September. http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/kessler.htm.This very brief online essay offers a set of reflections on the uses and claims of 'trans' as a prefix that means different things to various populations (including academics and transgender people). The authors link their current reflections to their early work (Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach) in order to politicize the various possible social change results that can come out of radical uses of trans. Their discussion is a refreshing approach that combines sociological and feminist analyses of gender identity in transgender people. Moving through the meanings of trans, and the history of the study of transsexuality and transgender identity nowadays, they evoke a social constructionist perspective to how gender develops, but as well, to how the biological is also a social construction.Mason‐Schrock, Douglas 1996. 'Transsexuals' Narrative Construction of the True Self.'Social Psychology Quarterly, 59 (3): 176–92.This article shows the development of interactive strategies to solidify an identity construction among several identities and experiences expressed in a support group for transsexual, cross‐dresser, transvestites and other gender variant men and women. Through naming, 'modeling', guiding each other through their past histories, and ignoring certain 'facts' about each other's past, the participants in these support groups foregrounded a transsexual narrative, to the detriment of other expressions. The work Mason‐Schrock developed here is an exploration of identity negotiation at its core, and one that merits attention by scholars on gender and sexuality, as well as transgender studies. Centro: Journal of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies. Special Issue: 'Puerto Rican Queer Sexualities', Volume XIX, Number 1 (Spring 2007) (Guest Edited by Luis Aponte‐Parés, Jossianna Arroyo, Elizabeth Crespo‐Kebler, Lawrence La Fountain‐Stokes, and Frances Negrón Muntaner).This special issue of the Centro Journal has an introduction that frames the place of Puerto Rican sexualities in social scientific knowledge. I recommend this issue in particular due to several articles that illustrate the lives of an important Puerto Rican transgender woman (Sylvia Rivera, key figure in the Stonewall riots), as well as José Arria, another key Latino individual whose visibility in the gay/trans communities has often been overlooked. The special issue also reproduced the talk that Sylvia Rivera gave at the Latino Gay Men of New York (the largest Latino gay male group in New York City) in 2000, a few years before her death, as well as an interview with Antonio Pantojas – a long‐time female impersonator in Puerto Rico. For the reader interested in literature, the special issue also includes some discussion and analysis of Caribbean fiction that gave visibility to transgender people.Films and documentaries Screaming Queens: The Riot at Compton's Cafeteria (Victor Silverman, Susan Stryker, writers, directors, producers, 2005). Info at: http://www.screamingqueensmovie.com/.This documentary illustrates a challenge to the notion that a queer revolution started in 1969 in New York City, but instead, was initiated in the Tederloin, a marginalized San Francisco neighborhood. The historical accounts of transwomen that experienced life in the neighborhood where the Compton's cafeteria was located at the time of the riot are presented through interviews and archival documentation. You Don't Know Dick: Courageous Hearts of Transsexual Men (Bestor Cram, Candace Schermerhorn, producers, 1997. Info at: http://www.berkeleymedia.com/catalog/berkeleymedia/films/womens_studies_gender_studies/gay_lesbian_transgender_issues/you_dont_know_dickAlthough old, this documentary shows the stories of several female‐to‐male transsexual men whose lives, their sexual experiences, and their gender negotiations are made evident. A very heartfelt documentary to show students the range of histories of transsexuality in an often ignored group – transgender men.Online materials

Sexuality Research and Social Policy e‐journal. Many articles published in this electronic journal showing the range of trans experiences (see in particular special issues December 2007 and March 2008, co‐edited by Dean Spade and Paisley Currah).
Trans‐academics.org. An excellent website with many resources for scholars.

Suggested syllabiInstead of providing a single (and perhaps, narrower) view of 'trans' studies and issues through a sample syllabus, I urge the reader to go to Trans‐academics.org. There are several syllabi addressing the various perspectives in teaching trans issues (and from various disciplines). The page can be accessed here: http://trans‐academics.org/trans_studies_syllabiProject ideas and suggested exercises1. This exercise explores various issues foundational to discussions of trans experiences by looking at self‐representations, or other representations, as well as potential sociological analyses.Take a look at recent films, documentaries, research articles and books, and first person testimonials from transgender people. Divide the classroom into groups of 4–5, and assign each of them a different cultural text/document to look at. After exploring general reactions in each of the groups, assign each of the groups a collective response to some or all of the following questions:

What are the representations of transsexuality or transgender identity or experience in your assigned text?
What is the relationship between sex and gender as evidenced in the films/videos/documentaries/articles/research reviewed? What, if any, are the discussions of gender and sexuality in the text?
How are first person narratives authorized? What are the underpinnings – the history, the encounters with regulating social institutions, and the community formation as expressed in these texts?
How does your group see sociology and sociological analyses in these texts? (This is important to assess whether the source you are reflecting upon is sociological or not.)

2. This assignment may lead students to think critically about the separation of gender and sexuality as analytical constructs. The document utilized also makes students reflect on migratory experiences and whether (and to what extent) they influence one's own knowledge and perceptions about transgender and transsexual experiences.Look at the Sexilio document (a comic‐book style autobiography) in the AIDS Project Los Angeles website (apla.org). Sexilio (Sexile) is a life history of a male‐to‐female transsexual who was born and raised in Cuba, and migrated with the Marielitos, the massive 1980 migration from Cuba to Miami, Florida. It is but one example of a first person illustration of transgender issues that complicates the relationship between gender identity and sexual orientation, adding migration experiences as yet another layer of analysis. Specific links: http://apla.org/publications/sexile/Sexile_web.pdf (English) http://apla.org/espanol/sexilio/Sexilio_web.pdf (Español)3. This assignment is intended to make students aware of the differences between first person representations, and media representations, of trans experiences.Have students research blogs, newspaper articles, films/documentaries, made‐for‐TV movies, other media coverage, and interviews (when available) of trans people that have been recently on the public eye, such as Calpernia Adams, Gwen Araujo, Tyra Hunter, Fred Martinez, and Brandon Teena. Then, have students explore:

What are trans people saying about themselves? (In the cases in which they have said anything about themselves – there are cases where they became well known after death.)
What are the various media outlets saying about trans people? Trans experience? (And here, pay special attention to the various media outlets and the regional, cultural, and religious differences, as well as other potential differences, in their reporting.)
Are the messages about transsexual and transgender expression/identity clearly separated in these illustrations?
Which (re)presentations link homosexuality to transsexuality? Which separate it? Under what arguments are these fusions and distinctions being made?

4. This is an exercise for smaller classrooms, where there can be significantly more discussion about one's own personal experience.Have students evaluate their own gender presentation and the ways in which others attribute their gender identity. For such a discussion, refer to the reflections on Lucal (1999). Then have the students discuss the different meanings of trans as discussed by Kessler and McKenna (2000), or the gender insignia as discussed by West and Zimmerman (1987).Kessler, Suzanne, and Wendy McKenna 2000. 'Who Put the "Trans" in transgender? Gender Theory and Everyday Life.'International Journal of Transgenderism 4 (3): July–September. http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/kessler.htm.Lucal, Betsy 1999. 'What It Means to Be Gendered Me: Life on the Boundaries of a Dichotomous Gender System.'Gender & Society 13 (6): 781–97.West, Candace; Don H. Zimmerman 1987. 'Doing Gender.'Gender & Society, 1 (2): 125–51.5. This assignment aims to break away from the transgender versus transsexual discussion, by incorporating cross‐dressing and drag performances.Discuss the meanings of 'trans' beyond the transgender and transsexual as explored in the article. Focus on cross‐dressing and drag queen/king discussions, by taking a comparative approach to cross‐dressing among some of the following scholars:Schacht, Steven P. (ed.) 2004. The Drag Queen Anthology: The Absolutely Fabulous but Customary World of Female Impersonators. New York, NY: Haworth Press.Schacht, Steven P. 2002. 'Four renditions of doing female drag: feminine appearing conceptual variations of a masculine theme.' Pp. 157–80 in Gendered Sexualities (Advances in Gender Research, Volume 6), edited by Patricia Gagne and Richard Tewksbury. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Press.Shapiro, Eve. 2007. 'Research Report: Drag Kinging and the Transformation of Gender Identities.'Gender & Society 21 (2): 250–71.Taylor, Verta, and Leila J. Rupp. 2006. 'Learning from Drag Queens.'Contexts, 5 (3): 12–17.Taylor, Verta, and Leila J. Rupp. 2003. Drag Queens at the 801 Cabaret. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Discuss: What are some of the assumptions about gender that those 'doing drag' engage in? Likewise, what are some of the ways in which the researchers apply those assumptions themselves? Is there a difference between cross‐dressing and drag? Have the students exhaust the potential differences, and name what they perceive to be the similarities between the two.If possible, further the conversation by incorporating drag and cross dressing as part of the transgender umbrella term. What are some of the historical implications of drag and cross‐dressing? Where do they see cross‐dressing in relation to sex, gender, and sexuality? And doing drag? Do they see a distinction between doing drag for female‐bodied and male‐bodied individuals? If yes, how so? If no, why not?6. This assignment is intended for a theory or sociology of gender class where theoretical discussions are expected – ideally, an upper‐level sociology course.Discuss the ways in which ethnomethodology, phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, cultural studies, queer theory, and discourse analysis all frame transgender and transsexual experience. Use any of the sociology references in the 'Transgender and Transsexual Studies' article.

Machine on Black Ground is a 16mm film that fuses archival and original footage, combining images from early 1960s industrial documentaries, a concert by Tangerine Dream at Coventry Cathedral and original abstract material of modernist stained glass architecture (shot in the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche, Berlin; Coventry Cathedral; and The Meeting House, Sussex University). In doing so, the film suggests a utopian architectural project viewed from an imagined subterranean space or vantage point. At the same time the film proposes two simultaneous formal analogies between modernist sacred architecture and cinema; i.e stained glass as filmstrip and the modernist cathedral as a projector of light. In one sense Machine on Black Ground addresses the question of how to make a film of a building by positioning itself as a continuation and extension of three previous and very different films (about one of the most significant post-war buildings in Britain; Coventry Cathedral) of disparate genres and dating from 1958 to 1976 - a BFI funded film essay, an industrial documentary and TV coverage of a rock concert. This combined with original footage shot in the Kiaser Wilhelm Memorial Church, Berlin; Coventry Cathedral; and The Meeting House, Sussex University. In another sense Machine on Black Ground emphasises the potential of the modernist church space as a vast light modulator, by imagining stained glass windows as an optical printer, or film projector, and in so doing revealing the overlaps between the formal qualities of modernist church design and those of abstract film and how filmmakers have intuited this relationship. Archive material and original footage is combined in a film which is largely abstract, and is principally concerned, with the way film can register or produce architectural space. In this case; post-war Modernist sacred space, the aspirations of reconciliation and renewal, and science fiction narratives of escape and utopia. Machine on Black Ground suggests both the construction of a utopian building and the world viewed from some kind of subterranean space or vantage point. The film switches from the poetic style of the late post-war architectural documentary (the films used are Dudley Shaw Ashton's BFI Experimental Documentary Coventry Cathedral of 1958 and The John Laing Film Unit Coventry Cathedral of 1962), to live video effects material taken from Tony Palmer's BBC2 outside broadcast of German progressive rock band Tangerine Dream playing in Coventry Cathedral in 1976, to extended sequences of immersive expanses of abstract coloured glass that suggest a sequence from a science fiction film in which a camera sweeps around and across a vast structure or space. Even the documentary elements begin to suggest science fiction narratives and it is entirely unclear exactly what is being built. In the same way the Tangerine Dream footage, which consists of early live video vision mixing becomes ambiguous and the musicians appear to be at the controls of something. Recurring sections suggest an abstract colour field film, entirely shot through full frame blocks of stained glass. They create the illusion of looking out at a world from a contained space that might be deep underground or deep under water – as if, in this context, the viewer is looking out of the subterranean space through some kind of viewing device or occluded window. These sections also produce an immersive spectacle of their own as they flood the viewing space with colour. At the same time the film undercuts this spectacle by developing a formal relationship between modernist stained glass and the film strip in which the stained glass cell becomes an analogue for the film frame suggesting that the viewer has taken up a position inside a projector or an optical printer. In this way the film blurs the distinction between the projected light from the fenestration within the church, and the projected light through the film frame within the viewing space. The film's title, Machine on Black Ground, is taken from the title of a Graham Sutherland painting from 1962 in which a large organic machine like object seems to float in deep space. As with our previous recent films Machine on Black Ground explores the interrelationships between architecture and cinema, and the capacities of visual spectacle and structure, point of view, and parallax; common to both. The work's premise is that both architectural design and our experience of built space each play into and are understood through the conventions and formal characteristics of film. It is of importance to the work that such ideas find a resonance in intimately linked buildings, both charged with enormous historical significance. --- Coventry Cathedral was badly damaged and reduced to ruins during Luftwaffe bombing on the night of 14 November 1940. The building of a new Cathedral, the first to be built in England since the Reformation, represented a hugely significant symbolic act. The decision was apparently made the day after its destruction and defined not as an act of defiance, but as a "sign of faith, trust and hope for the future of the world". The Cathedral characterises itself as a centre for reconciliation, and the design of the building, and its use of art – most notable Sutherland's alter piece and Epstein's St. Michael and The Devil, play a large part in this. The consecration on May 25 1962 heard the first performance of Benjamin Britten's War Requiem composed for the occasion. On the same day in Berlin the consecration of the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church took place. The history of the new church in Berlin runs in almost exact parallel with that of Coventry's. RAF bombing in 1943 destroyed the original church and like in Coventry, the new church stands alongside the remains of the old. As in Coventry, its modernist design caused much discussion, but on opening to the public it rapidly became a hugely popular symbol of reconciliation in post-war Britain. On the altar in Coventry is a cross made from nails from the roof trusses of the old Cathedral. Another cross of nails was made and donated to the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church. In December 1974 Tangerine Dream were invited to play in the grand setting of Rheims Cathedral, a move seen at the time as groundbreaking. Subsequently they were invited to perform in the cathedrals of York, Liverpool and Coventry. The tour attracted the media's attention, especially their performance at Coventry Cathedral, Tangerine Dream being first a rock band, but crucially, also German. As with the previous exchanges and collaborations, this event can be seen as part of the series of gestures between the two countries, through these churches, where the acts, embedded in the buildings, serve to perform a process of renewal. Combining the impetus of the liturgical movement, developments in new materials, and the desire to integrate new art and architecture into a more democratic participatory sacred space, church building across Europe became an unlikely site for avant-garde architectural activity. In Germany the need for a new departure in religious architecture was most keenly felt as the new churches that emerged out of the devastated landscape embodied the principles of a new democratic nation. Dudley Shaw Ashton's 1958 film Coventry Cathedral was produced by the BFI Experimental Film Fund and the British Council, describes the processes of designing the building and the works of art commissioned for it's interior. Notably the film features none of the on site building process – the corner stone was only laid in 1956 – but instead uses numerous shots of a large model of the Cathedral. At times the camera tracks through and around the model, which is not presented as such, and is in fact reasonably convincing as a simulation of the real building. A reciprocal relationship between architecture and film is of central importance to Machine on Black Ground and is suggested in Shaw Ashton's film and reinforced in the BFI's catalogue notes: "Coventry Cathedral was probably the first film to show in detail how a building, not then in existence, would appear when completed. It was a measure of the film's success that architect Basil Spence made substantial modifications to the design after he had seen the first rough cut". The John Laing Film Unit's 1962 film Coventry Cathedral exists as a substantial and at times beautifully shot documentary of the building and consecration of the new Cathedral. Made by the building company themselves, it appears never to have been broadcast, and stands as what seems to be form of commemoration in itself and an extended message of thanks to all those involved and the ambitions of the project. Outstanding moments include the lowering of the Cathedral's unconventional spire onto the flat roof, by RAF helicopter. The BBC2 Outside Broadcast Units live coverage of Tangerine Dream's performance in Coventry Cathedral. Is remarkable in a number of ways. Firstly, it was broadcast without introduction or contextual 'explanation'. Instead we are immediately presented with the band, surrounded by both enormous banks of early electronic music equipment, and dozens of candles, as they perform Ricochet. Secondly the coverage of the performance, in itself not dynamic visually, is married, at times through the use of video effects, with abstract images of architectural details of the interior of the building – the complex forms of the timber vaults of the ceiling or the stained glass.

I can be a harsh critic of myself... I have marked the anniversary of this blog a few times before, but, jeez, 15 years is a big number.  Much longer than I have resided anywhere although Ottawa will match that in a few years.  I started blogging in a different world--in the middle of an economic crisis, with a rising far right (remember the Tea Party?), and multiple wars.  Now, we have a housing crisis, my kid is unemployed, and the far right is rising in Canada but is already in solid control of the US courts.  So, yeah, it has been a ride.It is very appropriate that this anniversary falls while I am on a trip.  Much of my blogging bursts of late have been travel reports, as visiting new places has given me new material.  As I have noted before, I slowed down in part because a lot of what I want to say here, I have said before.  I haven't written as much about Gaza and the politics back home as I could because it is just so depressing and angering.  I hate that universities aror the traps that the far right have set, I hate that people think that universities are full of anti-semites who deserve to be suspended and evicted without due process.  I have yet to see any stories that justify bringing cops onto campuses to repress protests.  Snipers?  We don't need another Kent State to see how awful this is, but, yes, each day, each place this happens, we risk students (and profs) getting killed.  I will write more about this in the coming days, but I'd rather spend this Spew-niversary thinking about the highlights of the past 15 years of this place.  I still have no regrets about starting the blog or its name, as it has been a great place to play with half-baked ideas. So, the aforementioned highlights:Writing so much about Canada's experience in Afghanistan here at the Spew made it so easy to write Adapting in the Dust--I didn't cut and paste from the blog, but I did refer to it along the way to find old links and ideas.  Having blogged extensively about this topic made it so easy for the ideas to move from my head to each chapter I wrote.Writing about the logic of the NATO book applied to the Avengers movie at the Duck of Minerva, as blogging here led to the Duck and other outposts.  Writing about poli sci theory applied to Marvel too ultimately led to a publication.Posting the song list for the NATO book--coming up with that was fun.Realizing I am, dare I say it, an influencer.  LtGen (retired) Maisonneuve's speech did not get picked up by the media since it was partly aimed at them, so it only got out and widely discussed after my post about it.  This eventually led to an op-ed where I wrote that he ought not be platformed and then the supposedly cancelled general wrote an op-ed aimed directly at me, a career first!  When people say they have read my blog, I stammer and blush less than I used to.  I still apologize whenever anyone says they follow me on twitter or bluesky, as the stuff there is even more reactive and less baked than the stuff I write here.Before that, blogging made me an activist, which I had never expected (I am not the activist Hollwyood Spew is), but when I saw that the ISA developed a dumb policy on blogging, I wrote about it and then organized an official caucus within the ISA--the Online Media Caucus--to defend/protect/educate/advocate re social media.  Recently, the OMC disbanded, as our mission within the ISA has succeeded as online media stuff is very mainstream, including blogging, even as we have had to move from a very popular but now broken/far right platform to alternatives.Fave? Maybe not but often repeated, re-linked, that rejection is inherent in the enterprise.  Damn near all of my publication efforts have been bumpy roads except the NATO book (one reason it is my fave book).  The CDSN was rejected a few times before we got funded.  Oh, and that whole job search thing.  A recurring theme here has been discussion of sexism in poli sci.  Have things gotten better for women in the profession?  Damned if I know, ask a women who has been doing it for thirty years or so.  I have also addressed racism in poli sci, but not as much.  Why not?  It has not been as obvious to me, I guess, in mostly white departments and with the racists being a bit less overt than the sexists?  When it comes to sexism, I find it easier to engage for whatever reason.  Some folks have called me a good ally, but that has always made me a bit uncomfortable for a few reasons.Doing the right thing should just be the right thing.Calling oneself an ally is usually a hint that one is not, so I have not referred to this label much.  I like to sometimes be subversive is only slightly subtle ways (as I am not a subtle person), like with this post about the best books in the biz.  I thought about this post for a long time before writing it.  It could be read as a rationalization for my media stuff, but I honestly believe the stuff I said about relative value of different folks who appear in the media.  I know I am not the best, but I have seen the worst and it ain't me 😃.When I saw a survey about xenophobia, I had to put on my old hat as ethnic conflict scholar, and that piece (and its sequels) got picked up by Max Fisher then of WP and made a dent.Oh and some stats from 15 years:6250 posts3384 comments, which shows that this has mostly been me talking to myself except ...3,648,197 views.  That can't just all be me and my family.When I look back, I find several trends in what I wrote about with the most fun, zest, anger, or expertise.  First, I do like to write about the academic profession, even if it is not always professionally wise to do so (such as here).  Second, I love taking ideas and playing with them, often taking concepts from my academic work and applying to pop culture, or applying stuff from one realm to another.  One of the best (worst?) parts of blogging is that I don't have to please reviewers or editors, so I don't have to downplay the playfulness. Third, I write mad a fair amount about the state of US politics, the state of Canadian politics, and the state of the world.  There is much to be angry about, so this is a good place to vent.  Fourth, I do love the fun stuff--pop culture, skiing, ultimate (well, sigh), beer, and other topics.    I started out with no discipline here, and that has continued--I write about whatever I want, whether it is in my lane or not.  I have exhausted a bit of my imagination.  So, if you have ideas for stuff to write about, let me know.  Thanks for reading!

Doctorado en Biomedicina y Biotecnología. ; [EN]: With the explosion of genome sequencing technologies, mechanisms such as aneuploidy, polyploidy, and hybridization are emerging as being more frequent and relevant in genomes evolution than what was considered earlier. An interesting model to study such mechanisms are Saccharomyces yeasts as much data is available on its genome structure and evolution and they are easily manipulated in laboratory. Yeast from this genus have small and compact genomes that make them an interesting model for genomics studies on eukaryotic organisms. Moreover, hybrids between the different species of the genus are known and relevant for industrial processes. In this doctoral thesis, we aimed to investigate different aspects of the adaptive value of aneuploidy and interspecific hybridization in Saccharomyces. In the first chapter, we were interested in studying what genomic differences were underlying the different ethanol tolerance observed in S. cerevisiae strains. The most interesting genomic change we observed was a shared polysomy of chromosome III in the highest ethanol tolerant strains. We could determine that this correlation between ethanol tolerance and chromosome III copy number also appeared in different background and we confirmed it was an adaptive mechanism on ethanol stress. In the second chapter of this work, we asked how S. cerevisiae x S. kudriavzevii hybrids mate and how this mechanism would influence the genomic and adaptability outcome of these hybrids. We found that rare-mating was the most frequent but not the only mechanism use. As most of the hybrid were triploid and had a diploid heterozygous contribution of S. cerevisiae, this mating mechanism was the most probable. However, two hybrids were tetraploid. One had an extreme reduction of the S. kudriavzevii subgenome and heterozygous S. cerevisiae. This structure seemed more compatible with the outcome of artificial crossing in strain improvement programs. The last strain had a diploid homozygous contribution of each subgenome what indicates a spore to spore mating followed by whole-genome duplication. An interesting point of the ploidy outcome is that it influenced the phenotype of the strain and its evolvability. In chapter 3, we studied in detail the genome of the hybrid VIN7 and showed that its genome was unstable. The instability influenced the stress resistance of the strain suggesting that genomic instability, probably triggered by hybridization, is an important factor of phenotypic variability, and therefore to adaptability. We aimed to investigate the factors that influenced polysomy frequency for each chromosome and found that the least interacting chromosomes and the smallest were the most frequent polysomic ones. The fourth chapter of this work deals with short-term evolution of artificial hybrids between S. cerevisiae and S. kudriavzevii. We wanted to know how the genome content changed in conditions in which the species that form the hybrid had different phenotypes: ethanol, were S. cerevisiae is better fit, and cold temperature, where the best species is S. kudriavzevii. We showed that recombination between subgenome was less frequent than between the two copies of the S. cerevisiae subgenome. This suggests that the distance between the genome sequence influences the recombination rate in hybrid cells. We found that ploidy was strongly influencing transcription and the evolution mechanisms available for the hybrids. The hybrids evolved at cold temperature showed an aneuploidy on chromosome XII. At the transcriptomic level, these were the only ones showing a modification of the global transcriptome after the evolution process. We determined also that the selection on transcriptional rewiring during the evolution occurred at process level instead of genes or subgenomes. ; [ES]: Las levaduras del género Saccharomyces son de reconocida importancia tanto por ser un modelo genético básico como por su uso biotecnológico. Tienen un genoma muy compacto. En sus aproximadas 12Mb tienen codificados 6000 genes. Además, muy pocos de estos genes contienen intrones. Esto convierte a estos organismos en unos modelos simples para el estudio genético y genómico. El género tiene 9 especies. La divergencia nucleotídica entre especies es interesante ya que puede cubrir la divergencia entre humanos y aves (S. cerevisiae vs S. kudriavzevii) como entre humanos y primates (S. cerevisiae vs S. paradoxus). De estas especies, S. cerevisiae es la más estudiada y usada biotecnológicamente. Sin embargo las otras especies tienen distintas propiedades fenotípicas que están levantando interés para la industria. Una de ellas es la capacidad de crecimiento a bajas temperaturas que se observa en Saccharomyces no cerevisiae. Estas diferencias fenotípicas y la divergencia entre especie convierten al género en un buen modelo para estudios genéticos y evolutivos. Los mecanismos que generan diversidad genómica son muy diversos. Si un genoma es heterocigoto tiene distintos alelos en el genoma y puede usar mecanismos como la pérdida de heterocigosidad para fijar uno u otro alelo en respuesta a estreses. Con el avance de las tecnologías de secuenciación del ADN y la explosión de estudios genómicos, la importancia de mecanismos de diversificación genómica como las aneuploidías, las polyploidías y la hibridación está quedando más clara. En Saccharomyces múltiples estudios están encontrando que variar el número de copias de ciertos cromosomas es un mecanismo muy frecuente en ambientes variables como son los ambientes industriales. Un hecho interesante es que en estos ambientes también se encontraron distintos híbridos interespecíficos del género. El ejemplo más famosos es el híbrido entre S. cerevisiae y S. eubayanus que es el responsable de la fermentación de cervezas de tipo lager. Pero se aislaron híbridos entre otras especies también como entre S. cerevisiae y S. kudriavzevii que se aislaron de fermentaciones de vino, cerveza o sidra. La hibridación entre estas especies se piensa que es el producto de la selección de cepas con alta capacidad fermentativa (que heredaría de S. cerevisiae) pero que además sean capaces de fermentar a temperaturas más bajas (capacidad que heredarían de la otra especie). Esto supondría que la hibridación es otro mecanismo de adaptación a ambientes cambiantes. Teniendo en cuenta todo lo expuesto, en esta tesis nos propusimos hacer uso de las nuevas tecnologías de secuenciación para estudiar los mecanismos involucrados en la adaptación de las levaduras a ambientes industriales. Los mecanismos a los que prestamos más relevancia son las aneuploidías y la hibridación ya que son mecanismos de creciente interés que, gracias al avance de la secuenciación masiva, ahora son posibles de estudiar en profundidad. Por ello, los objetivos de esta tesis son: 1) Analizar las diferencias genómicas entre cepas de S. cerevisiae que muestran distinta tolerancia al etanol para determinar la contribución de la variación en número de copias de los cromosomas en su diferencia fisiológica. 2) Realizar un análisis de genómica comparativa de híbridos naturales entre S. cerevisiae y S. kudriavzevii para averiguar el mecanismo de conjugación que usaron para hibridar y cómo la hibridación influye en sus características fisiológicas. 3) Analizar los factores que influyen en la inestabilidad genómica de híbridos entre S. cerevisiae y S. kudriavzevii. 4) El estudio de la evolución temprana de híbridos artificiales entre S. cerevisiae y S. kudriavzevii para entender su respuesta, tanto a nivel genómico como transcriptómico, a presiones selectivas presentes en ambientes fermentativos, la baja temperatura y el estrés por etanol. ; This PhD Thesis work was funded by a predoctoral grant from the Consellería de Educación, Investigación, Cultura y Deportes from the Generalitat Valenciana, reference ACIF/2015/194. I also was awarded a research stay grant by the same entity to realize a three months stay at the Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research at the Utrecht University, reference BEFPI/2018/014. The work was funded by grants AGL2015-67504-C3-R and RTI2018-093744-B-C32 from the Spanish Government and European Union ERDF-FEDER. ; Peer reviewed

The article is dedicated to weapons and horse equipment discovered at the monuments of the Saltovo-Mayaki culture located in the middle stream of the Seversky Donets river. In the upstream (within the forest-steppe zone) these items are generally found in the burials of catacomb and cremation necropolises. In the steppe, they are less frequently discovered, which accounts for the versions concerning the poor familiarization of the local population with military art. An analysis of the materials discovered in the middle stream of the Seversky Donets demonstrates the inconsistency of these viewpoints. Weapons and horse equipment items are rather often found at the monuments located in this area. Thus, in a large settlement near Mayaki village of Slavyansky District, the number of items from this category is about 20% of the total number of the discovered metal items. This conclusion is quite consistent with the concept of the presence of a group of fortifi ed settlements (Donetsk fortifi ed settlements) in the region, which could be defended without a signifi cant military contingent. It is rather logical that the majority of discovered weapon items are concentrated at these monuments. ; Статья посвящена находкам предметов вооружения и конского снаряжения, выявленным на памятниках салтово-маяцкой культуры, расположенных в среднем течении р. Северский Донец. В верхнем ее течении (в пределах лесостепной зоны) эти предметы являются частой находкой и встречаются в основном в захоронениях катакомбных и кремационных некрополей. В степи они попадаются реже, что вызвало появление версий о слабом знакомстве проживавшего здесь населенияс военным делом. Анализ материалов, выявленных в среднем течении Северского Донца, показывает несостоятельность указанных точек зрения. На расположенных здесь памятниках предметы вооружения и конского снаряжения встречаются достаточно часто. Так, на крупном поселении у с. Маяки Славянского р-на количество предметов этой категории составляет около 20% от общего количества находок металлических изделий. Данный вывод вполне согласуется с наличием в рассматриваемом регионе группы укрепленных поселений (Донецких городищ), оборонять которые без значительного воинского контингента не представляется возможным. Вполне логично, что большая часть находок предметов вооружения сконцентрирована именно на этих памятниках. Библиографические ссылки Аксенов В.С. Комплексы конского снаряжения салтовского времени с начельниками (по материалам Верхнесалтовского катакомбного могильника) // Степи Европы в эпоху средневековья. Т 4. Хазарское время / Гл.ред. А.В. Евглевский. Донецк: ДонНУ, 2005. С. 245−260. Аксенов В.С. 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This dissertation investigates the governance of seventeenth-century Damascus by examining claims upon the productive capacity of land, and the collection and redistribution of agricultural taxes. The early modern Ottoman Empire--of which Damascus was a province--was a large agrarian empire wherein the interests of numerous groups and individuals converged around the land and its produce. In light of its centrality to both the subjects and the state, the management of land as a resource has much to tell us about what governance was expected to be in this period, at a time before religious, economic, political or social authority had been disembedded from one another. In this, Damascus is not much different from any other provincial town lying within the early modern empires of Asia and Europe; the issues raised here are not pertinent to the history of the Middle East alone but are relevant to other early modern states. The inquiry into what the state governs and how it does so starts with the observation that Ottoman political literature conceives of a unified political body wherein different groups of people play different roles in allowing the state to function. Through the lens of tax assessment and collection, the first chapter examines the role within the Ottoman state body that is played by the peasant cultivators in the villages surrounding Damascus. The first half of the chapter explores how the prerogatives comparable to other fiscal military states shaped Ottoman taxation policy in the seventeenth century. The importance of obtaining cash led not only to the imposition of new taxes and updated tax registers at the Istanbul finance bureau, but to a new responsibility of the villagers for tax collection. The chapter argues that where compliance with taxation was concerned, the most important governing authority in the village was the villagers themselves. Examining the interactions between villagers, judges, muftis and tax farmers, the chapter examines how individuals and groups that are not state agents strictly speaking, become authorized to exercise state power. The chapter concludes that peasant cultivators do not merely maintain a relationship with the Ottoman government, rather, in some sense they are the government and form an integral part of its machinery.The question of how the governing authority of the state intersects with the authority of Islamic law has long been a question in the historiography of the Ottoman Empire and Islamic societies in general. However, the question of shifts in the configuration of religious and temporal authority in the seventeenth century is not an issue whose importance is confined to the history of the Islamic regions of the world. Rather, the question of expanding state power and the proper role of `religion' in the body politic is a widespread concern of the early modern period. With this question in mind, the second and third chapters explore the changing legal powers of the sultan and his agents to control productive land and peasant labor. Chapter two notes a change in the meaning and scope of sultan's authority to legislate peasant access to the land in the seventeenth century. This expansion in the sultan's legislative role is absorbed into the jurisprudence of the empire's jurist-scholars, and creating a specifically `Ottoman' practice of Islamic scholarship. Starting in the sixteenth century, the sultan's enacted laws--known as `qanun'--regulate with far greater detail the rights and obligations of peasants and soldier-tax collectors. What emerges is a right of usufruct for the peasantry that is controlled by the dynasty's statutes rather than the interests of local military administrators or local custom. The fact that this concept of the usufruct right eventually comes to prevail in Damascene villages suggests that usufruct was an increasingly standardized right across the empire's rural communities. This is despite the fact that the Damascenes had their own local and juridical traditions that ran counter to the concept of usufruct being promulgated by the sultan. What we find in juristic discussion of usufruct is a very slowly changing idea of the boundaries of imperial authority and its legal consequences. While the second chapter demonstrates a growing consensus that the sultan had wider authority to legislate in matters pertaining to the lands of the state treasury, the legality of some land tenure practices sanctioned by the sultan remained controversial. The third chapter examines the limits of state power to pursue its need to fill the coffers, and how it was expected to treat the village taxpayers. There was no debate among Ottoman subjects that a solvent treasury was a necessity. Without exception, we find that keeping fertile land productive and distributing the revenues in appropriate ways are shared priorities. The common reference point defining the limits of the sultan's authority over production and taxation was the shari'ah, yet there was great disagreement on what the shari'ah enjoined, and in some sense, what the shari'ah was. When it came to what means of extraction the shari'ah permitted or the extent to which the state could coerce the villagers to produce, disagreement was rampant. It was not always the ulema (religious scholars) that opposed state actions on the grounds that such actions violated the shari'ah--as this chapter shows, the views of the ulema were sometimes more cooperative with the dynasty's decisions than those held by its temporal administrators. Both chapters address the question of the shifting configuration of state and religious authority in the early modern world, and examine its consequences on the lives and livelihoods of Damascene cultivators. The fourth and fifth chapters investigate two groups in Damascus who were frequent beneficiaries of the revenues produced in the villages, the ulema and the soldiers based in the city. The right of these groups to receive the tax moneys of the peasant cultivators was premised on the services that each provided for the political body as a whole. There did not appear to be much dispute about the nature of the services that each was to perform, but differences did spring up when the question arose of how or whether such services had been performed in specific instances. The chapter maintains that it is these conflicting interpretations of service, status, privilege and vocational responsibility that most clearly reveal how the provincial elites did or did not take part in the exercise of Ottoman authority in Damascus. The ulema earned their access to the revenue sources through their scholarship and teaching and the general duty of providing moral guidance to other Muslims. Part of this duty was to denounce oppression, and to protect the strong from abusing the weak. An argument arose among the ulema of how much honor or revenue one could seek from the state without compromising oneself in the process. Could one covet the sultan's largess and still be adequately critical if he or his agents overstepped their authority? Other ulema found that the dignity of their profession was an asset when their management of cultivators and taxes was called into question. They deflected the accusations of greed and fraud by invoking their dedication to pious works and scholarship. In all cases, the self conception of the ulema as a group with a particular function in the political body was critical to the way they responded to opportunities for gaining wealth and power. For the soldiers stationed in Damascus as well as the great military families of the countryside, access to rural revenues was contingent upon obedient military service. Increasingly, the entirety of the fiscal and military resources of the province of Damascus was oriented towards financing the pilgrimage to Mecca. The need for effective, reliable and obedient military leadership of the pilgrimage began to assume a higher priority for the Ottoman government. From 1660 to 1690, the Damascene janissaries dominated the office of pilgrimage leader, as they had a number of qualities to recommend them for the position: not only did know the routes from accompanying the caravan, but their capacity to create trouble as well as their expectation of reward was modest in comparison with the great military families of the countryside. Through investigation of their economic activities, it is clear that the question of which soldiers were considered `local' to Damascus had more to do with their involvement in the city's commerce rather than their origins or ethnicity. In turn, when the dynasty finally moved to destroy their leadership and punish them for insubordination, the question of how their `local' sympathies had affronted imperial prerogatives played out differently than might be imagined. While the issue of what constituted obedience might be read differently in Damascus than in Istanbul, it was clear that the Damascenes shared the belief that military men, even local military men, must be obedient to the sultan. This dissertation argues that Damascenes from all backgrounds play an important role in Ottoman governance of the province, and one that is comparable to that of other early modern subjects. It shows people trying to locate their place within the political body as a whole, while the limits of their duties and powers associated with different groups underwent great flux and were vigorously debated. It is this uneasy integration of these various groups into the body of state which best demonstrates the relations between the subjects and the state in the early modern Middle East.

Injury is a major public health problem. In rich countries fall injures now kill more people than all other injury mechanisms together, because of global ageing and large-scale sustainable injury prevention programs for all other injury mechanisms but falls. Injuries from falls in the young are often trivial, but in old people falls may have devastating consequences. We used the Umeå Injury Database, 1993 – 2014, 220,014 injury events attended to by the emergency department: e.g., type of injury, localization, mechanism, activity and severity. Logistic regression was used to evaluate injury trends, Cox regression for associations between injury type, severity and recidivism. Fractures were responsible for 1⁄4 of all injuries and for 3⁄4 of trauma inpatient days. Fractures and contusions became more common with increasing age while sprains and wounds decreased with age. Injuries due to fall increased during the study period. Recurrent injuries accounted for some 40%, mostly in young men and in old women. Prior fractures and sprains were strongest predictors for recurrent serious injuries. The hip fracture incidence fell for the most important age/sex groups during the 22-year period, but the total number increased with 3,5%, due to an increasing elderly population. 40% of all hip fracture patients had sustained a previous injury. Multiple previous injuries also increase the risk of future hip fracture. No less than 12% hip fracture patients suffered a new one. With age, injury pattern changed, with more lower extremity fractures that also were more proximally located. Soft tissue injuries to the head/face also increased, also indicating that the ability to reduce and spread the impact of the kinetic energy is a key factor in geriatric trauma, in addition to tissue strength The most common, expensive and devastating injury mechanism, falls, are still outrageously neglected, especially concerning injury prevention, which has been so successful in reducing road traffic- and workplace-related deaths. Why? A common misconception is the primitive belief is that fall injuries are fated and therefore inevitable. There are also few economic and legal drivers to prevent falls, especially recurrent ones. Another reason is that GDPR has prohibited the injury database. Statistics on fall injuries are necessary for targeting preventive interventions. Without spying, no clue. On-line feedback of official statistics should be used to monitor the results. There are no technical, just legal hurdles. The Swedish parliament has since 1997 flagged a zero vision for road traffic injuries; in 2015 the government also launched a more modest goal for a 50% reduction of falls in the elderly. So far, nothing has happened. ; Skador är ett gigantiskt globalt folkhälsoproblem som enligt WHO dödar fler människor än tuberkulos, malaria och AIDS tillsammans. Skador drabbar individen med smärta/invaliditet, samhället med vårdkostnader och produktionsbortfall. Sverige har varit föregångare i trafiksäkerhetsarbetet, inom arbetslivets risker och inom barnsäkerhetsarbetet. År 2020 omkom 190 individer i trafiken, vilket är det lägsta antalet någonsin. Dödliga fall däremot, som senaste åren passerat över 1500 årligen, uppmärksammas betydligt mindre, kanske pga. att de ofta uppkommer i hemmet, drabbar äldre kvinnor och sannolikt också att de betraktas som ej möjliga att förebygga. Fallskador dödar fler än alla andra skador tillsammans och är nu det största trauma-problemet i rika länder. Vi analyserade 220 014 skadetillfällen som registrerats på akutmottagningen i Umeå 1993– 2014 i en bred översikt av skadepanoramat, med speciell inriktning på fall, den viktigaste och vanligaste skademekanismen. Vilka skadar sig flera gånger? Hur ökar tidigare skador risken för nya skador? Detta är speciellt intressant för höftfraktur. Målet är att förbättra det skadeförebyggande arbetet. Umeå hade en yngre befolkning än krans-kommunerna och närheten till akuten ökade umeåbornas akutbesök jämfört med de övriga kommunerna. Fallskador stod för nästan hälften, och hem- och fritidsskador dominerade panoramat. Efter medelåldern utgjorde fall ungefär samma procentuella andel av alla skademekanismer som den kronologiska åldern. Trafikskadorna utgjorde en femtedel, varav de cykelrelaterade utgjorde knappt hälften. Frakturer stod för en fjärdedel av alla skador, hälften hos äldre, och ansvarade för hela 75% av alla skade-relaterade vårddagarna. Men även mjukdelsskador var viktiga och utgjorde ungefär hälften av skadorna och en väsentlig del av vårddagarna på sjukhus. Upprepade skador utgjorde hos vuxna 40% av alla skador, vanligast hos unga män och äldre kvinnor. Att drabbas av en fraktur eller stukning ökade risken att ådra sig ytterligare en allvarlig skada. Hos yngre män fann vi att även hjärnskakning ökade risken för förnyad allvarlig skada. Med ökad ålder ökade risken betydligt för upprepad allvarlig skada. En 90- årig kvinna hade 10 gånger högre risk än en 20-årig. Tidigare skador gav en måttlig riskökning för höftfraktur. Även här framkommer att fraktur är den vanligaste skadetypen som föregår en höftfraktur. 40% av alla som drabbas av en höftfraktur har haft en eller flera tidigare skador och de som drabbas av höftfraktur är mer skadebenägna än de som inte drabbas av höftfraktur. Flera tidigare skador ökar också risken för framtida höftfraktur. Vi fann att 12% av alla med höftfraktur drabbas av en ytterligare höftfraktur. Förekomsten av höftfraktur ökar med en faktor på cirka 100 under livet—en exceptionell åldersfördelning, vilket troligen beror mer på falltendens och oförmåga att parera fall än enbart på benskörhet. Skadorna visar nämligen ett åldersrelaterat anatomiskt mönster där frakturerna i nedre extremiteten blir allt vanligare, och även centralt lokaliserade, närmare bålen. Även mjukdelsskador i ansikte/huvud ökar med åldern vilket också visar betydelsen av att kunna ta mot sig och dämpa rörelseenergin.iiiFör alla andra skadesituationer utom fall finns en utbyggd skadeprofylax. Antalet 80+ ökar kontinuerligt och kommer att ytterligare belasta sjukvården i framtiden. Tidigare frakturer med även andra skador och andra kända riskfaktorer som finns dokumenterade i patientjournalen borde kunna användas i ett riktat preventionsarbete. Men för att få kraftfull effekt krävs många andra åtgärder och inte minst informationskampanjer riktade till befolkningen. Att skador uppstår till följd av slump eller otur är en vanlig åsikt som är djupt rotad hos oss människor och som måste ändras. Resultaten av de massiva insatser som gjorts inom trafiken och arbetslivet har visat att det är möjligt; tiden är nu inne för att minska antalet fallskador. Regeringen har en nollvision för trafik-"olyckor" och formulerade 2015 en målsättning att halvera fallskadorna hos gamla. Men vad har hänt?

Esta investigación tiene su origen en el problema planteado frente a la crisis carcelaria y penitenciaria que se viene dando en Colombia desde que se evidenció en el año 1988. En ese año la Corte Constitucional constató la existencia del hacinamiento carcelario, cuya consecuencia es la violación masiva de derechos fundamentales. Así lo plasmó la Corte en su sentencia T. 153, con el agravante de que más del 50% de la población condenada y privada de la libertad lo está por delitos con penas menores a 8 años de prisión y sin acceso a la pena sustitutiva de prisión, como tampoco al subrogado de la suspensión de la ejecución de la pena de acuerdo a los reportes mensuales del INPEC. Lo anterior conduce a la siguiente pregunta central para esta investigación: ¿Cuáles son las posibilidades de dar apertura a las penas alternativas, sustitutivas y subrogados penales a conductas punibles de menor gravedad, a partir de la observación de postulados contemplados en la Constitución Nacional, tratados internacionales sobre derechos humanos y la ley penal sin que tenga que acudirse a la pena de prisión en Colombia? A partir de la pregunta, este trabajo se enfocó en hacer un estudio de la pena de prisión, la pena sustitutiva y subrogados penales consagrados en la Ley 599 de 2000. Se buscó complementar con las penas alternativas que no son una realidad en la ley penal ordinaria pero sí se incluyeron en la Ley 975 de 2005. Esta busca facilitar procesos de paz y reincorporación adelantados en delitos considerados como graves y que en muchas legislaciones han tenido apertura para delitos de menor gravedad dirigidos a evitar que la persona ingrese a una cárcel y sufra el contagio criminal. Igualmente, se verificó a través de los informes del INPEC a la población condenada privada de la libertad con penas menores a 8 años (que es el límite fijado en la Ley penal para acceder a la prisión domiciliaria), aclarando que las tablas registradas en los diferentes informes y estadísticas parte de grupos de poblaciones que en sus primeros dos rangos van de 0 a 5 años y la segunda hasta 10 años. Esto nos llevó, en un segundo momento, a hablar de aproximaciones por no tener una cifra fija de cuántos sentenciados con penas menores a 8 años están realmente privados de la libertad. A fin de concretar algunas causas que nos indicaran la razón del por qué, aproximadamente el 50% de la población está en los dos rangos mencionados. Se realizaron a nivel local unas entrevistas a la población condenada recluida en los centros penitenciarios y carcelarios cuya competencia está en cabeza de los jueces de ejecución de penas y medidas de seguridad del Circuito Judicial de Tunja. Igualmente se realizaron dichas entrevistas a sentenciados que disfrutan pena sustitutiva de prisión domiciliaria o algún subrogado, así como a jueces y abogados. Todo esto con el fin de poder informarse de la realidad carcelaria y concretar otras posibilidades que ayuden a obtener el fin de la pena a partir de principios humanistas. Teniendo en cuenta que Colombia es un Estado Social y Democrático de Derecho que acepta y acoge los derechos fundamentales de las personas en igualdad de condiciones, y además suscribiendo y ratificando instrumentos internacionales se planteó la siguiente hipótesis: las penas alternativas, las penas sustitutivas y los subrogados penales pueden llegar a lograr que el sentenciado alcance el respeto de sus garantías constitucionales y pueda ser visto como un ser dotado de dignidad, libertad y justicia sin que ello implique vulnerar los principios elementales de la víctima y de la misma sociedad. Se ha demostrado a través de diferentes investigaciones y en diferentes fallos de tutela que la pena de prisión como pena principal no cumple su finalidad. Esto convierte en una necesidad la búsqueda de mecanismos que conlleven a la desprisionalización, como lo hizo ver la Corte Constitucional en su sentencia T- 762 de 2015. Sobre todo, en aquellas conductas cuya naturaleza del bien jurídico y la menor lesividad de la conducta punible permiten la aplicación de otras posibilidades diferentes a la prisión que pueden llegar a garantizar la resocialización y el cumplimiento de derechos fundamentales del recluso. ; This investigation has its origin in the problem posed against the prison and penitentiary crisis that has been occurring in Colombia since it was evidenced in the year 1988. In that year the Constitutional Court found the existence of prison overcrowding, whose consequence is the massive violation of fundamental rights. This was reflected by the Court in its judgment T. 153, with the aggravating circumstance that more than 50% of the population convicted and deprived of their liberty is convicted of crimes of less than 8 years in prison and without access to the alternative sentence of imprisonment. prison, as well as the subrogate of the suspension of the execution of the sentence according to the monthly reports of the INPEC. The foregoing leads to the following central question for this investigation: What are the possibilities of opening alternative penalties, substitutes and criminal subrogations to punishable behavior of lesser gravity, based on the observation of postulates contemplated in the National Constitution, treaties international human rights and criminal law without having to resort to imprisonment in Colombia? From the question, this work focused on making a study of the prison sentence, the substitute penalty and criminal surrogates enshrined in Law 599 of 2000. It was sought to supplement the alternative penalties that are not a reality in criminal law ordinary but they were included in Law 975 of 2005. This seeks to facilitate processes of peace and reincorporación advanced in crimes considered as serious and that in many legislations have had opening for less serious crimes aimed at preventing the person from entering a prison and suffer the criminal contagion. Likewise, through the INPEC reports, the convicted population deprived of liberty with sentences of less than 8 years was verified (which is the limit established in the Criminal Law for access to residential prison), clarifying that the tables registered in the different reports and statistics from population groups that in their first two ranges go from 0 to 5 years and the second up to 10 years. This led us, in a second moment, to talk about approaches for not having a fixed number of how many sentenced with sentences under 8 years are really deprived of freedom. In order to specify some causes that indicate why, approximately 50% of the population is in the two ranges mentioned. Interviews were conducted at the local level with the convicted population held in penitentiary and prison centers whose competence is at the head of the execution judges of sentences and security measures of the Tunja Judicial Circuit. These interviews were also conducted with sentenced persons who enjoy a substitute sentence of house arrest or a surrogate, as well as judges and lawyers. All this in order to be able to be informed of the prison reality and specify other possibilities that help to obtain the end of the sentence from humanistic principles. Bearing in mind that Colombia is a Social and Democratic State of Law that accepts and welcomes the fundamental rights of people under equal conditions, and also subscribing and ratifying international instruments, the following hypothesis was put forward: alternative sanctions, alternative sanctions and criminal surrogates can achieve that the sentenced reaches the respect of their constitutional guarantees and can be seen as a being endowed with dignity, freedom and justice without implying violating the basic principles of the victim and society itself. It has been demonstrated through different investigations and in different judgments of guardianship that the prison sentence as the main penalty does not fulfill its purpose. This makes it a necessity to search for mechanisms that lead to de-professionalization, as the Constitutional Court did in its T-762 judgment of 2015. Above all, in those behaviors whose nature of the legal right and the lesser lesividad of punishable conduct they allow the application of other possibilities different from the prison that can guarantee the re-socialization and the fulfillment of the fundamental rights of the inmate

Por razones de política criminal, y de situaciones de momento se crean y modifican constantemente por el legislador quien está facultado constitucionalmente para así realizarlo, tipos penales y sanciones. Uno de los más recientes casos es la expedición de la Ley 1773 de 2016, en la que se pretende sancionar las lesiones con agentes químicos, acido y/o sustancias similares. Pero esta modificación tiene una particularidad respecto a su primer parágrafo en el que el legislador señala que en los casos en los que se cometa esta conducta por personas con calidad de inimputables y a los cuales por su misma calidad se les imponga medida de seguridad, la misma no podrá ser inferior a la pena ya prevista en el tipo penal. Es desde este punto en particular donde partimos y del cual tomamos como referente para nuestra investigación y del cual no solo puede realizarse un estudio de elementos del tipo y de las características o situaciones en las que respondería como inimputable una persona, pero más que todo en el estudio de los fundamentos constitucionales que permiten y facultan para la imposición de penas y de medidas de seguridad, al igual que los fines de esta pena en concordancia con la constitución tienen en Colombia. Sin duda las investigaciones de este tipo, en el que se hace un estudio del tipo penal, tienen un objetivo específico, el cual es fijar los lineamientos en los que el tipo penal actúa, es decir, la postura legal que salvaguarda de bienes jurídicos, sus elementos, características, en que se diferencia con otros tipos penales que protegen un mismo bien jurídico, de igual forma es de vital importancia que al tener conocimiento completo y real de un tipo penal, se dé la posibilidad para los juristas, abogados en ejercicio y las personas posiblemente involucradas en un tipo de proceso (llámese víctima o indiciado), de tener la posibilidad y la obligación de conocer de forma completa la aplicación que se va a dar del tipo penal, la integridad del mismo y su respectiva sanción. Lo anterior mencionado se puede deslumbrar mediante la utilización del método cualitativo de investigación, que no tocaremos muy a fondo dado que se da un espacio específico para el desarrollo del mismo, mas sin embargo podemos mencionar que mediante este enfoque cualitativo se realiza una recolección de datos o de información relacionada por el tema a investigar y que mediante esta recopilación de información se da el descubrimiento de las preguntas a fines a la investigación. 95 Es importante resaltar la importancia que tiene esta investigación, frente a una realidad constante en nuestra sociedad. No es mentira que el órgano legislativo en muchas ocasiones adopta leyes bajo la presión de situaciones de momento y bajo la necesidad inminente de generar cambios, pero que en muchas situaciones no se cumple con las expectativas fugaces, generando incompatibilidades o vacíos jurídicos, en los que se dejan incógnitas e inquietudes sobre la aplicación de una norma, su validez, su aplicación en la cantidad infinita de situaciones que pueden ocurrir en su entorno y que es de gran importancia tener un conocimiento integral de la misma, para la oportuna protección de derechos y bienes jurídicos. Sin embargo esta investigación no va enfocada a la comparación de tipos penales o a criticar la política criminal adoptada por el legislativo, sino a un ámbito de estudio detallado sobre la existencia de fundamentos constitucionales para la imposición de penas y sanciones y se están cumpliendo dichos pilares en la realidad material de las normas y de los tipos penales. Esperamos que mediante este espacio de investigación y estudio se dé la posibilidad de deslumbrar muchas inquietudes que han surgido a raíz de la creación de un tipo penal que primero es muy nuevo y que inmerso trae consecuencias para personas con calidad de inimputables a los cuales sin duda se les está vulnerando un derecho por la exigencia de una responsabilidad a la cual ellos no se les puede atribuir, y esto se da mediante la imposición de una sanción que excede los límites permitidos para la medida de seguridad y en remplazo se les impone una sanción con carácter de pena mas no de medida de seguridad puesto que se estipula directamente un mínimo que será la que plantee el tipo penal. ; For reasons of criminal policy, and situations at the moment, criminal types and sanctions are constantly created and modified by the legislator who is constitutionally empowered to do so. One of the most recent cases is the issuance of Law 1773 of 2016, in which it is intended to punish injuries with chemical agents, acid and / or similar substances. But this modification has a particularity with respect to its first paragraph in which the legislator indicates that in the cases in which this conduct is committed by persons with the quality of unimpeachable and to whom due to their very quality a security measure is imposed, the same It may not be less than the penalty already provided for in the criminal type. It is from this particular point where we start and from which we take as a reference for our research and from which not only can a study of elements of the type and characteristics or situations in which a person would respond as unimpeachable, but more than anything in the study of the constitutional foundations that allow and empower the imposition of penalties and security measures, as well as the purposes of this penalty in accordance with the constitution in Colombia. Undoubtedly, investigations of this type, in which a study of the criminal type is made, have a specific objective, which is to set the guidelines in which the criminal type acts, that is, the legal position that safeguards legal assets, its elements, characteristics, in that it differs from other criminal types that protect the same legal asset, in the same way it is of vital importance that having complete and real knowledge of a criminal type, the possibility is given for jurists, practicing lawyers and the people possibly involved in a type of process (call it victim or accused), to have the possibility and the obligation to fully know the application that is going to be given of the criminal type, its integrity and its respective sanction. The aforementioned can be dazzled through the use of the qualitative research method, which we will not touch very thoroughly since there is a specific space for its development, but nevertheless we can mention that through this qualitative approach a data collection is carried out or information related to the topic to be investigated and that through this collection of information the discovery of the questions is given for the purpose of the investigation. It is important to highlight the importance of this research, in the face of a constant reality in our society. It is not a lie that the legislative body on many occasions adopts laws under the pressure of current situations and under the imminent need to generate changes, but that in many situations fleeting expectations are not met, generating incompatibilities or legal gaps, in which unknowns and concerns are left about the application of a norm, its validity, its application in the infinite number of situations that may occur in its environment and that it is of great importance to have a comprehensive knowledge of it, for the timely protection of rights and legal assets. However, this research is not focused on the comparison of criminal offenses or on criticizing the criminal policy adopted by the legislature, but rather on a detailed study area on the existence of constitutional grounds for the imposition of penalties and sanctions and these pillars are being met in the material reality of the rules and criminal offenses. We hope that through this space of research and study there will be the possibility of dazzling many concerns that have arisen as a result of the creation of a criminal type that is first very new and that immersed brings consequences for people with the quality of unimpeachable to whom without a doubt A right is being violated by the requirement of a responsibility to which they cannot be attributed, and this is given through the imposition of a sanction that exceeds the limits allowed for the security measure and instead a sanction is imposed. with the character of a penalty but not a security measure since a minimum is directly stipulated that will be the one that the criminal type raises.

Article in the Arkansas Baptist about Hays' Congressional wartime visit to England and France ; Brooks Hays Reports . ARKANSAS BAPTIST OCTOBER 25. 1944 A VISIT TO THE BATTLE FRONTS "The Destruction Was Apalling [sic] " [photograph caption] When Congressman Judd and I took off in the palatial flying boat of the British airways on September 2, I hadn't been so excited since Ringling Brothers came to Russellville in 1911. We occupied the "tail cabin" which was as large as some hotel rooms I have seen. The first night we flew to a North Atlantic base, and the second lap required just 13 1/2 hours to get us into the harbor of Foynes, Ireland. The last lap of the trip was in a land plane, completely blacked out, and we landed near London in a driving rain-I had only expected fog. London covers a tremendous space-perhaps 30 miles across-and we drove through several areas where the air raids and the robot bombs had done their worst damage. The destruction was apalling [sic]. The Government recently revealed that more than a million [sic] homes had been damaged, perhaps a fifth completely destroyed, but to me the amazing thing is that so many buildings remain undamaged. As one man said, "You can see the Gerries missed more places than they hit." Getting Acquainted It was late in the afternoon when we registered at the hotel, but we did not wait to eat. We wanted to see the Parliament buildings and Westminster Abbey, so we started out without a map or guide. Suddenly we came upon an imposing building and I asked a guard what the building was "Buckingham Palace," he said disgustedly, and I resolved immediately not to ridicule again about the two ladies who stopped me in front of our own capitol in Washington to ask "What can this building be?" We had been told to carry our flashlights ("torches,' the British say) but we had not realized how badly we would need them. The London blackout is no sham. The spirit of the people of Britain is magnificent. They had suffered really beyond the power of visitors to describe, but they have an amazing ability to take it without complaint. Underneath the calm exterior, however, I think there is a feeling of righteous wrath that such barbarities should have been practiced. A few of the flying bombs came over while I was there, and I learned that they are terrifying things. It is like being in a dark room with rattlesnakes, not knowing when one will strike you and realizing that people are dying on the next block. Praise for Home Life London newspapers reported one day that 13 children had been killed by a single bomb -and speaking of children, nothing impressed me more than Britain's care of her children in wartime. It is in keeping with the tradition of Britain concerning family life. I once heard Dr. Len Broughton, the Georgia Baptist pastor, who occupied a London pulpit for many years, say that that England's greatness lies in this tremendous concern for its homes. That is something to think about, because it seems to me it was a part of our own heritage and that we have nourished the idea as the English have, and the Scots, too. One of our first visits was with the American Ambassador, Mr. Winant, the modest, but interesting Republican from New Hampshire. He had impressed me previously in America by his quiet manner and profound philosophy. One time I heard him say in conversation that a man's life should be full of intelligent and energetic action but that the chief quality of life is "devoted self sacrifice." I recommend that to anyone who might be surrendering hope that modern politicians can cultivate ideas. The British Foreign Secretary, Mr. Eden, was a guest at Mr. Winant's luncheon and we liked him. Visits Parliament We had an opportunity later to see how Parliament functions, having seats in the gallery at the opening on September 26. We had expected only short formalities and quick adjournment but found quite a lot of business to be conducted, including a personal appearance by Mr. Churchill who answered a number of questions from critical members. Our own Congress has nothing resembling the questioning of the ministers and I was convinced from observation that the practice has real merit. We saw a lot of American soldiers in London, though they told us it was nothing to compare to conditions before D-Day. The first Arkansawyer to stop me was Lt. Col. Graham Hall of Little Rock, member of the Judge Advocate's office. Later I was able to contact many more from Arkansas. Air Operations Observed One day we rode to a bomber base in North England, arriving there just before a mission of a hundred planes was to return. The general in charge took us to "the tower." When we went into the room we sensed an obvious anxiety and tension which we were told is always evident when the planes are coining in. The ambulances were at their stations and the chaplain walked back and forth in front of them to see if any men were wounded. A major identified him. "A fine lot of men," he said of the chaplains. The ground crew gazed nervously at the flecks in the sky. The officer near us counted the planes-two missing. "Maybe they're safe," he hoped aloud. He called to one of his staff, "Check with the captain"-and in a moment he was told the pilots had telephoned from France that they had made forced landings but were all right. We ate with the officers, but the fare is substantially the same for all the troops, and it is excellent. None of the men I talked with during the entire trip had any serious complaints about the food, except on the boats, and after our week on the British civilian diet it looked like Utopia to us. Orange for Dr. Rushbrooke Civilians have almost forgotten what oranges look like, and I saved two which an officer gave me to serve Dr. J. H. Rushbrooke, president of the Baptist World Alliance, at breakfast the morning I left London. It was the first he had tasted in months, he told me. I saw luscious peaches in a window in Glasgow and received the shock of my life when the clerk told me they were eight shillings apiece ($1.60). The grapes lying in the next basket were priced at $6 a pound. On the whole the English farmers have done a grand job of stepping up food production. They are quick to give credit to the United States however for the farm machinery and fertilizer without which their marvelous record would not have been possible. The Minister of Agriculture said last year's production in most of the essential crops showed an 80 percent increase over previous years. Food importations will be necessary, however, for an indefinite period, which explains the desire of British statesmen to establish satisfactory economic ties with the continental countries whose productive capacity is great. France, if provided a stable government and balanced economy, can supply some of the food requirements. Buzz-Bombed at Dover Something must be said, too, for the women's land army. It was a novelty to see the women pitching hay and gathering crops in Kent County, east of London, and we were told that the farmers could never have met the demands upon them except for these women workers. Women are serving as farm (CONTINUED ON PAGE EIGHT) Mr. Hays, a Baptist layman and Congressman from Arkansas' Fifth District, has just returned from Europe where he visited with our troops and viewed the battlefields of World War II. He also was privileged to have several conferences with leaders of the British, government. Mr. Hays was accompanied on the trip by Congressman Walter Judd, a former medical missionary to China, and was joined in London by ten other American Congressmen. In this installment, Mr. Hays tells of his trip in a manner of interest to all readers. Next week he will delve into the war's effect on religion in Europe and look toward, prospects for a Christian order after the guns cease firing. - Editor.