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Textual analysis of 14,270 NBER Working Papers published during 1999–2016 is done to assess the effects of the 2008 crisis on the economics literature. The volume of crisis-related WPs is counter-cyclical, lagging the financial-instability-index. WPs by the Monetary-Economics, Asset-Pricing, and Corporate-Finance program members, hardly refer to "crisis/crises" in the pre-crisis period. As the crisis develops, however, their study-efforts of crisis-related issues increase rapidly. In contrast, WPs in macroeconomics-related programs refer quite extensively in the pre-crisis period to "crisis/crises" and to crises-related topics. Overall, our findings are consistent with the claim that economists were not engaged sufficiently in crises studies before the 2008 crisis. However, counter to the popular image, as soon as the crisis began to unravel, the NBER affiliated economists responded dramatically by switching their focus and efforts to studying and understanding the crisis, its causes and its consequences.

Rosa Ricci Summary of the PHD Dissertation: Religious Nonconformity and cultural Dynamics: The Case of the Dutch Collegiants There is ample reason to engage in research around the Collegiants, a minority religious movement in the Netherlands of the 17th century. An exploration of this topic can be interesting not only for a contribution to the history of Religion but also to understand the development of some central concept in the early modernity. Prominent, in this research, is the question that initially stirred my personal interest in the Collegiantism; i.e. to define and understand the religious and cultural background that represents the practical field of confrontation of Baruch Spinoza\''s philosophy. This historiographical question had the purpose of highlighting the relationship between Spinoza and the religious movements of his time in order to fully understand the public to whom he addressed his texts. Collegiants, however, constitute an interesting field of research not only for the study of Spinoza, but widely to understand the cultural and social dynamic of the Dutch Golden Age, a backdrop against which emerged a new idea of religion. This dissertation is not exploring a curiosity or an inconsistent exception in the history of the 17th century, but rather the centrality of a group that was influenced by and largely influenced its Dutch social, political and religious context. One of the major problems in capturing the significance of the Collegiants arises from the difficulty in defining this movement, which chose never to formulate a confession of faith and consciously refused to be classified within a specific Church, sect, or congregation. The name, Collegiants, was not the consequence of an active choice but a label that arose, together with that of Rijnsburgers, in the polemic pamphlets of the epoch. The difficulties to define such elusive religious group make, however, the Collegiants a fascinating field of research. In this dissertation the Collegaints are termed a "movement" in order to emphasize their explicit lacks of norms or model and to highlight the continual change and redefinition of their religious identity. This process can be properly defined using Deleuze\''s concept of becoming minorities: Les minorités et les majorités ne se distinguent pas par le nombre. Une minorité peut être plus nombreuse qu\''une majorité. Ce qui définit la majorité, c\''est un modèle auquel il faut être conforme [.] Tandis qu\''une minorité n\''a pas de modèle, c\''est un devenir, un processus [.] Quand une minorité se crée des modèles, c\''est parce qu\''elle veut devenir majoritaire, et c\''est sans doute inévitable pour sa survie ou son salut. This definition can help us to see both the positive and the productive side of the Collegiant movement, even thought it defined itself negatively in order to protest against the institutional Church and normative religion. The Collegiants were involved in this process of "devenir minoritaire" in a highly conscious way. They decided willfully to avoid strict affiliation to Churches or congregations and criticized explicitly the necessity of an identitarian definition. It can hardly be denied, indeed, that the religious reflection of the Collegiants was characterized by the conscientious refusal to construct a model or a norm to which they could refer. In this dissertation the term "minority" will therefore be used, always in reference to this concept, without drawing too much stress to the effective number of the Collegiants\'' members. This question appear, indeed, misleading because it does not take into account the position that Collegiants\'' member occupied in the economic, political and intellectual life of the United Provinces. It is the case of a group which, indeed, demonstrated in several occasions its deep influence in the Dutch religious life. Collegiants\'' continuous efforts towards de-institutionalization and their aspiration to an egalitarian and democratic religious life have to be conceived as an invitation to their coeval confessions, to undertake the way of evolving minorities renouncing whichever exclusivity and authority. The articulation of the Collegiants\'' proposal can be appreciated by studying the different lines of thought that emerged clearly from their texts. Most of Collegiants\'' publications were polemical or written to answer specific accusations. Within the enormous number of sources that can be included in Collegiants\'' works emerge a limited number of arguments. The question of religious organization, tolerance, freedom of speech and the epistemological approach in reading the Scriptures; these arguments can be taken as guidelines to understanding and defining the nature of the movement. These sources present arguments and concepts that we can take to be the Collegiants\'' stance on religious life and belief. Some arguments, however, emerged with particularly force because of the sanction of the Church orthodoxy. Tolerance, free-prophecy and egalitarian and anti-authoritarian tendencies were sensitive points to which the Church or Congregations reacted with particularly vehemence, sensing a threat to their institutional power. The Chapter 5 of this dissertation are dedicated to the enumeration of these arguments. Each chapter presents a specific theoretical core and question. However the chapters are not self-conclusive because the various problematics encountered in the study of Collegiants overlap each other in continuous cross-reference and this gives rise to a kaleidoscopic effect. The concepts debated in this dissertation can be fully understood only in relation to each other, as they emerge to construct a semantic constellation useful to their contextualization. Each chapter, furthermore, comes to focus on one or more texts that are considered exemplary or representative of a particular tendency in the Collegiants´history. This methodology wants to underline how the constant redefinition of the Collegiants\'' identity is always a matter of personal as well as collective choice, of internal debate and external polemic. An emphasis on the intentionality of Collegiants\'' behaviour is particularly important in understanding which specific choice they made to contrast the authoritarian and exclusive vision of the religious life. These choices are well reflected in the use of a specific vocabulary and in the emergence of specific concepts that can be considered as key guideline to identifying some stable points in the shifting nature of the Collegiants. The first chapter of this dissertation delineates an initial general history of the movement together with the ground on which the Collegiants built their vision of belief: the question about Church organization. The chapter refers directly to the practical organization of the Collegiant movement, an egalitarian and anti-charismatic religious life which involved considerations of power and identity. This specific position, with its high level of nonexclusivity and anticharismatic consciousness, makes Collegiants movement an exception in the pluralist world of 17th century Holland and marked their difference to the constellation of Dutch reformation. Although some Collegiants\'' demeanor mirrored the progressive individualization of cults and beliefs, they accorded central importance to the community, the context in which their religious ideal of confrontation and discussion was realized. The first attempt to write an exhaustive history of the rise and development of the Rijnsburgers was made by a Remonstrant preacher, Paschier de Fijne. He was the first opponent of the Collegiants; his book, Kort, waerachtigh, en getrouw Varhael van het eerste Begin en Opkomen van de Nieuwe Sekte der Propheten ofte Rynsburgers in het dorp Warmont anno 1619 en 1620 (Brief, truthful, and faithful history of the beginning and origin of the new sect of the Prophet of Rijnsburg in the village of Warmont), published anonymously in 1671 by his son, expresses his critical position vis à vis the Rijnsburgers. Besides representing the first opposition to the Collegiants, this work constitutes an important source because the author attended the first Collegiant\'' assembly (the Rijnsburgers\'' vergadering). In particular it describes the way in which this first meeting took place. For the first complete history of the Collegiant movement, however, we have to wait until 1775 when the Histoire der Rijnburgsche Vergadering (History of Rijnsburg\''s assembly), written by the Collegiant Elias van Nijmegen, appeared in Rotterdam. Both these sources are key instruments for reconstructing and understanding how Collegiants organized their assemblies, and how they achieved an acharismatic meeting, through debate and free-exegesis. These testimonies, which embrace a whole century, have, however, the demerit of representing the Collegiant\'' vergadering (assembly) as an eccentric but defined ritual. What emerges, on the other hand, from Collegiants internal debate is that the conduct of the meeting supper, the organization of religious life, the definition of free-exegesis and the limitation of free speech were all subject to constant argument and discussion inside the movement. These concerns emerge in a fragmentary way in the manifold sources that discuss the nature of free-prophecy, tolerance and ecclesiology. In the polemic with Bredenburg, the Bredenburgse twisten, the debate about tolerance involved the discussion of women's role in the vergadering and the reflections on free-prophecy indirectly interrogate the charismatic nature of the organization. Another important characteristic of the Collegiant\'' movement, delineate in the first chapter, is the autonomous and independent development of the single collegia. City autonomy and the different religious and social contexts in which the Rijnsburger vergadering took root led to large-scale differentiation. The capacity of Collegiants to survive for more than a century with their refusal of normativity and authoritarian organization was substantially due to the penetration of the Collegiants\'' arguments into the different confessions. This deep influence, in particular in the Mennonite and Remonstrant communities, defined the nature of the Collegiants, especially in some cities, as a stream inside institutionalized Churches. Because the collegia were open to all Christians, without limitation, even including Socinians and Catholics, most of the participants were also members of structured Churches, congregations or sects. In Amsterdam this phenomenon was particularly evident and the penetration of Collegiants\'' argument in the Flemish community through Galenus Abrahamsz led to one of the most important schisms in the Mennonite history in the United Provinces. In other cities such as Leiden or Haarlem, the existence of cultural circles and other forms of nonreligious association constituted the basis for the spread of Collegiantism. It was only in Rijnsburg, the village in which the movement first emerged, that a common house was built, after 1640, to host the twice yearly Collegiant national vergadering. The practical organization of the Collegiants, as has been stated, represents the foundation on which noncharismatic ecclesiology and anticonfessional ideals were constructed. With the historical background of the first chapter it is then possible to discuss the main religious and political tendencies inside the movement. The second chapter of this dissertation, following the issue of religious organization discussed in the first chapter, deals with the principles of free-prophecy, Biblical exegesis, and Collegiants ecclesiology. The central concept examined in this chapter is nonconformity analysed in its historical development of England and the Netherlands. This chapter suggests that nonconformity as religious phenomenon was an elaboration and transformation of the anti-confessional and anti-clerical thought that emerged in the 16th century with the radical Reformation. The inception of nonconformity in the Netherlands is indicated by the transformation of the debate about Nicodemism, following Coornhert\''s defense of religious dissimulation and indifferentism. Nicodemism was indeed considered, in the early 16th century, as necessary behavior to avoid pointless martyrdom and persecution, utilized especially by the crypto-reformed in Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain. The diffusion of this conduct among Catholics in reformed countries but, principally, the diffusion and justification of Nicodemism in the United Provinces, where inquisitorial control and confessional repression presented a relative risk after the revolt against Spain, testify of the new meaning that this behaviour took on in the late 16th century. Nicodemism, as Coornhert\''s position shows, became the justification of anticonfessionalism as conscious behaviour, with the possibility of openly criticizing rituals and ceremonies as for achieving salvation. In this chapter particular attention is paid to the consciousness and the open dimension of this behavior. The neglect of dissimulation and the necessity of making public personal religious sentiments, is one of the basic elements in the change between Nicodemism and nonconformity. The nonconformists acquired the anticonfessional and anticlerical content of Nicodemism, but added a principal characteristic: the veridiction. The veridiction represents the necessity of telling the truth about personal belief and religious conscience, but also institutes the core of reality in the conformity between internal belief and external behavior. These elements were present in both English and Dutch nonconformity, which developed, however, into different and sometimes opposite ecclesiology. In the English case, external nonconformity to the dominant Church and the necessity of openly showing belief led to a demand for exclusivity and a process of individualization rooted in the juridical meaning of nonconformity. Despite the turning of the debate around the necessity of free-conscience, the understanding of nonconformity as a refusal of secular world and the attempt of Baxter to disconnect the debate around nonconformity to a juridical question, the English debate never developed into a criticism of the Church\''s organization or in the necessity of a democratization of the religious life, which was, on the contrary, dominant among the Collegiants. The central text in the history of Collegiantism and in the Dutch definition of nonconformity is Galenus Abrahamsz and David Spruyt\''s XIX Artikelen. This text was conceived, from the very beginning, as a collective discussion about the nature and the sense of a religious community in the absence of Holy Gifts. Collegiants give to the term nonconformity a specific meaning which designates the absence of conformity to the first apostolic Church and the end of the extraordinaries gifts of the Holy Spirit. This radical statement caused a reaction among the orthodox members of the Mennonites and Quakers, which see in the absence of Holy inspiration a complete secularization of the religious community. Nonconformity assumed therefore for the Collegiants a double meaning: on one side it was an elaboration of anticonfessional criticism through the statement of the absence of holy influence on the religious life, on another side it represented a deep criticism of priestly authority conceived as a secularized power acting as constraint of consciences. The absence of Holy Gifts was, for the Collegiants, the demonstration that no Church or Congregation could pretend to be the true or original one. The reaction of Dutch orthodoxy appears, indeed, completely justified, because Collegiants\'' religious nonconformity presents itself not only as conscious antiauthoritarian criticism but also as a statement of the full secularization of the Church. Nonconformity was, for Abrahamsz and Spruyt, not only an unavoidable state, but also a necessary behavior to unmask the inauthentic religious life. This position represented the core of Collegiants\'' practice, the reason for their continuous redefinition and, on the same level, for their refusal of any type of identification. The recognition of the secularized status of common religious life arose among the Collegiants accompanied by an ample debate about free-prophecy and Bible exegesis, stressing the possibility of an individual form of salvation. A central role, in this direction, was played by reflection on the veridiction as a form of conformity between the inward conscience and the external behavior. Although there emerged from the sources a controversial statement about how to approach and read the Scriptures, through the free-prophecy the Collegiants organized a form of collective exegesis that had its principal aim to avoid charismatic and authoritarian leadership but also to realize a form of community close to the first apostolic Church. The communitarian discussion also involved a debate on salvation, which had no more to be tied to the simple membership in a confession but developed as an articulated discussion on the significance of the ethical and religious life. A good Christian had to reinterpret and bring alive the first teaching of the Gospel, which can be summarized as love for others and in the propagation of tolerance as ethical and interpersonal behavior. Collegiants\'' reflections on religious life, organization of communities, and their continuous effort to maintain equal relations in the absence of charismatic gifts in the Church institution, never turn to consideration of society or political forms. This absence was even more significant in a cultural and social context in which theological questions involved directly or indirectly political questions. In the same period, furthermore, Hobbes\'' reflections on jusnaturalism challenge for the first time the divine legitimacy of political power, establishing the basis of a new vision of the political community. Collegiants understood religious community as deprived from any form of divine inspiration and conceived it as a human association, nevertheless they never outline a political parallelism to this situation. The most evident reason of this absence is probably the lack of a strong monarchy in the 17th century United Provinces. However the relationship between secular and religious ideology did not fail and was well summarized by the situation after the Synod of Dordrecht, which created a rupture in Dutch society with the consequent convergence of the religious position with the political one. The intervention of Grotius in favor of the Arminian party testified to a clear identification between theological opposition to predestination (which meant a challenge to Calvinist orthodoxy) and antimonarchical opinion. This fracture remained invisible in Collegiants sources that debated the secularization of Churches and consider religious congregations as human institutions, but never tried to define the legitimacy of political institutions. It is possible, however, to find in the history of the Collegiants one significant exception: Cornelius Plockhoy\''s attempt to promote a religious-social project in the Dutch colonies of Delaware . Plockhoy\''s work illuminates the relationship and the fruitful parallels that it is possible to make between the United Provinces and England, especially during the time of the Cromwellian Commonwealth. Plockhoy\''s most significant works were written, indeed, in England, some years before the fail of Cromwell, and testify to a particular social and political engagement in the construction and definition of a community with a religious basis. It is interesting to note that only after the English experience did Plockhoy returned to Holland, following the end of the Commonwealth, to propose a similar project to the city of Amsterdam. This chapter suggests an analysis of his English and Dutch sources, stressing the differences and the modifications to his proposal. The importance of this author lies in the possibility of deducing from his position a possible Collegiant\'' thinking on politics and social organization. This contribution is certainly not descriptive of Collegiantism as a whole but represents the only explicit trace of the modification of Rijnsburger\''s religious reflections on the secular field. The description of Plockhoy\''s community in many respects echoes a certain irenicism sourced form the reading of Rosicrucian text; however it reflets and refers principally to his Collegiant experience . Although Plockhoy\''s account of the community project is never exclusively religious, the confessional element appears as prominently in both his Dutch and English projects. His religious and political project emerge clearly from his letters to Cromwell: it is essentially devoted to resolving the problem of religious conflict and the disturbance of social peace. It is, indeed, clear that Plockhoy\''s aim was not that of describing an ideal society or forming a separate community in order to conserve a purist religious ideal, but to propose a paradigmatic alternative to the religious turmoil and the social injustices of his time. The relation between political and religious arguments in Plockhoy\''s solution to religious turmoil highlights the interconnection between religious tolerance and colonial criticism, social injustice and authoritarianism. Plockhoy\''s meticulous pedagogic description of his project, his underlining of the necessity of economic independence for women and the possibility of them participating in collective work are expressions of an outlook that includes an aware judgment of his contemporary society. The last part of this chapter is dedicated to criticizes two approaches dominant in the literature about Plockhoy: one is the description of his project as a classical form of Utopia the other one is the reading of the Delaware religious community interpreted as a triumph of the work ethic. The third chapter of this dissertation deals with the tolerance, a fundamental and central concept to understand the nature of the Collegiants. It is our intention to show how during the 17th century there emerged in the Netherlands, in the religious context, a new concept of tolerance inspired by Castellio\''s works. The publication and translation, in the first half of the 17th century, of some of Castellio\''s work testify to the major interest that the French author had in the United Provinces, especially for the oppositors to the intolerant and orthodox Calvinist tradition. For the Collegiants, Castellio represented a predecessor in the struggle for religious peace. His work against the persecution of the heretics, supported by Biblical argumentation, represented a constant source of inspiration for the partisan of religious toleration. As suggested by Voogt , Castellio\''s deconstruction of the concept of heresy, as it was used by the Calvinist orthodoxy, in order to redefined it to signify a person who acts and believes differently from the mainstream, represented Collegiants\'' basis to rethink the concepts of rationality and truth. The peculiarity of the Dutch concept of vedraagzaamheid (tolerance), in opposition to how tolerance was defined and discussed in the European mainstream debate, was certainly due to the elements of reciprocity and mutuality that this particular form of tolerance included. In the 17th century, tolerance (especially religious tolerance) was used to label negative behavior, to identify indifferentism or libertinism, intolerance was, on the contrary, a sign of unity, integrity, and orthodoxy. Furthermore, arguments for religious intolerance were justified by the biblical example of the Mosaic theocracy, while religious tolerance represented the interests of the emerging mercantile elite, which supported the Republican experiment and advocated cities\'' autonomy. Tolerance became, in the 17th century, a concept contested because of its pejorative meaning; the progressive introduction of the pro-tolerance position, in order to contrast with this negative predominant vision, supported the idea that tolerance was not a menace to the integrity and peace of the Dutch Republic but the principal reason for its prosperity. The concept of tolerance became, afterwards, the battle-field on which the best juridical, economical and political form of the United Provinces was decided. The penetration of this debate about tolerance and intolerance in the Collegiants movement was adapted into an anticonfessional and irenic orientation focusing on religious and social peace. The defense of an unlimited and mutual tolerance represented, for the Collegiants, a proposal of pacification in the pluralistic dimension of the Dutch religious life, which was perceived, by their coeval, as a source of division and instability. The practice of nonexclusive tolerance and the extensive reception of different confessions inside the movement was a pragmatic attempt to find a solution to the problematic turbulence inside the Doopsgezinden and more generally to the religious disputations in the United Provinces. The central figure investigating the conduct and the limits of this debate inside the Collegiants was Jan Bredenburg. This chapter will, indeed, analyze the trouble arising from Bredenburg\''s position on tolerance and his extensive use of Spinozist concepts and language. This debate about the extension and the limits of tolerance involved, indirectly and directly, a discussion regarding religious organization, freedom of speech, and charismatic authority. In his works, Bredenburg, with his continuous redefinition of the discussion about tolerance, shows all the ambiguity and ambivalence of this term. Unlimited and mutual tolerance finds its limits in the continuous exigence of a normative delimitation of it, in the distinction of necessary and unnecessary dogma, but also, in a trivial way, in the impossibility of tolerating the intolerant. In the case of the Collegiants the adversaries of the unlimited and mutual tolerance undermined Collegiants\'' nonexclusivism with their proposals to identify with a confession of faith. Pressures in the direction of identification and exclusivism were, however, only a part of the tolerance problem. With the "Bredenburgse Twisten" (Bredenburg controversy) the limits and the ambiguities of the concept of tolerance and the limits of the penetration of Spinoza\''s philosophy in Collegiant\'' movement become clear. These limits concerned especially the necessity and priority of contrasting skeptical and atheist tendencies in the field of belief. The final chapter of this dissertation is dedicated to a question that underlines the problems of anticonfessionalism, tolerance, and secularization. The question asked in this conclusive part regards the possibility to trace the emergence of rational argument in Collegiants understanding of the divinity. To answer this question it was necessary to make some preliminary remarks about the diffusion and vernacularization of Descartes\'' and Spinoza\''s philosophies in the 17th century Netherlands. Short descriptions of the two most influential systems of thought of the epoch are two methodological steps useful in understanding not only the degree of penetration of these philosophies into Collegiants but also the nature and meaning of the concept of rationality at that time. The definition of the relationship with the divinity, after the XIX Arikelen\''s statement of the unholy Church, is represented, in the history of the Collegiant movement, by a precise moment: the discussion and dispute between the Rijnsburgers and the Quaker missionaries in the United Provinces. The debate with the Quakers assumes a specific meaning not only because it shows the proximity and similarity between the two religious movements but also because it testifies to the emergence of a central concept: the light. Central text to determine the nature of this relationship and to define the meaning that for the Collegiants had the concept of light, is Balling´s Het licht op den Kandelaar (The Light on the Candlestick). Balling\''s answer to Quakers represents a penetration of Spinozist language into the definition of religion as knowledge of God but also a singular affinity and fascination for the Quakers\'' concept of light. The question of contact with the divinity appears in the text as an individual experience, not mediated by any human instrument via language or the empirical experience. The approach to God is certainly described as an epistemological progression but the perfect comprehension of God is defined with the vocabulary of the affections rather than as full rational understanding. This text is certainly highly controversial and the continuous shift between philosophical and Quakers\'' language make its interpretation problematic. Het licht op den Kandelaar reflects Collegiants\'' position as a sum of philosophical argumentation, mysticism, and the irreconcilable reference to God as an infinite and unknowable creature. What emerges with force in the analysis of this source is the impossibility of understanding Balling\''s description of the relationship with God as purely rational. Balling, however, stresses the possibility of the constant perfectionism of human knowledge and self-emancipation and, furthermore, proposes new terms for religious thought. What he calls the "true religion" is described as ethical behavior constructed with the combination of tolerance, equal participation in the religious life, and the refusal to countenance formal conformism to Church institutions. Collegiants\'' acceptance of a Church without God does not necessary involve a pure absence of divine work, on the contrary, the proximity to God is progressively researched in an interior sphere which involve a process of knowledge. The legitimacy of the "Truth" is, then, given no more by the transcendental gift of the divinity but in the accordance of personal conviction and ethical behavior, the religion is, indeed, redefined according to these terms. True religion is, for Balling, a continuous inquiry into the natural and internal principle that each individual possesses in order to achieve full comprehension of God\''s word. This statement testify not only of a new conception of the Religion but also reaffirm the minoritaire core of Collegiants´nature; religion, in their understanding, is not more matter of concord, unity, orthodoxy but source of knowledge, problematization and continuous questioning about its own identity. Nonconformity and cultural dynamics: some preliminary remarks Before starting the presentation of the Collegiants\'' argument about tolerance, Church organization, and rationalism, to fully understand some choices and the approach of this dissertation, and to comprehend how Collegiants sources have been read, some methodological remarks are necessaries about the emergence and development of the historical phenomenon called nonconformity and how was it received and transformed in 17th century Holland. Nonconformity is, as will be shown, one of the central concepts developed by the Collegiants to justify their antiauthoritarianism and anticonfessionalism. The concept appears more interesting if we look at the number of meanings and social phenomena that it includes. It first developed in England in the juridical context and was named in the later 17th century as a defined religious movement that opposed the Act of Uniformity. In the English sources it is possible to retrace the history of this concept, demonstrating how the significance and arguments regarding nonconformity changed in one hundred years. Not far from England, in the United Provinces, the evolution of the concept of nonconformity follows another route, giving rise to radically different signification. Proposing a comparative study, between England and the United Provinces, of the development and semantic elaboration of the concept of nonconformity, is useful not only to understand the different expression of religious dissidence but also to detect cultural and social change in the approach to religion. Beyond the obvious differences between the two Countries, the different political, social and cultural history it is still possible and fruitful to compare how the concept of nonconformity developed in England and Netherlands because of the numerous contact between the Collegiants and the English religious dissident groups and because of the particular redefinition that the concept of nonconformity assumed in the United Provinces. The differentiation of English nonconformity (which dominates the European semantic field with direct and specific connotations of particular events with particular actors) from Dutch nonconformity, explains how historical agents using or interpreting a concept in a particular way can change its semantic connotation. The category of nonconformity, because of its shift from a juridical field to a social-religious one, indicates a semantic enrichment and a conceptual dynamic that can prove a sensible point to investigate structural changes. These case studies possess the necessary characteristics to be approached with the methodology developed by Koselleck and the Cambridge History of Ideas, because "society and language insofar belong among the meta-historical givens without which no narrative and no history are thinkable. For this reason, social historical and conceptual historical theories, hypotheses and methods are related to all merely possible regions of the science of history" . It is our intention to pay particular attention to the analysis of the sources and to their contextualization with the aim of constructing a map of nonconformity\''s semantic change via its arguments in pamphlets and polemical texts of the 17th century. It is our intention to investigate, through the study of the emergence of this concept, the tendencies of secularization, the development of arguments regarding religious indifferentism, and the renounciation of a religious life normalized by concrete institutions, rituals, and ceremonies. A semantic study of how the concept of nonconformity emerges, how it is filled with new meaning, and which new and old concepts intervene to define the religious and political field, is essential to explain and understand the Collegiants\'' mentality in 17th century Holland, to determine how they think, and in which ways they influence the cultural and social dynamic in a specific context. The production of new meaning and the continuous nomination of a cognitive world influence, in their turn, the production and development of new instruments of thinking. To understand the shift, the dynamics, and the changes in the cultural field, a rhetorical and semantic analysis is necessary. The arena of investigation is, however, limited to the religious sphere and the sources analyzed are, in a large majority, polemical pamphlets, which means that the question about the correlation between the emergence of a new concept and change in the mentality refers principally to the change in the perception of religion as a dogmatic and doctrinaire system. The concept of nonconformity is surrounded by many other concepts, which partly explain its nature and constitute its semantic field. In this dissertation we focus on different concepts (tolerance, anticonfessionalism, Utopia, mysticism, and millenarianism) because nonconformity emerges, from the analysis of different pamphlets and sources, as correlated with them. Dutch nonconformity involves, for example, a necessary reflection on Church form, the organization of religious life, exclusivism vs. non-exclusivism and a certain vision of the future that actualizes itself as Utopia or millenarian impulse. This constellation of concepts, which characterizes itself for semantic differentiation but also for their strict interrelation, is also useful in explaining the nature of a radical and dissident movement like the Collegiants and in understanding how the religion, understood as belief experience, was fulfilled by new themes, concepts, and meanings. Furthermore, to investigate this conceptual connection and contextualize the emergence and use of determined religious vocabulary, it is useful to understand the nature and presence, in the Dutch religious field, of the phenomenon of secularization especially in its particularly form which goes under the name of "rationalization of the world". The central question asked in this dissertation is, finally, not how it is possible to construct a category of nonconformity as an analytical concept that helps in understanding religious phenomena, but what is nonconformity and which kind of religious phenomenon it describes, how it has been used and with which consequences. The question regards how it is possible to detect structural change in the mentality while investigating conceptual change or emergence of a new concept. The cultural dynamic is, in this dissertation, understood as a semantic and cognitive phenomenon of mutual influence between emergence or nomination of new concepts and events historically determined. The History of Concepts approach privileges, as has been shown, the semantic field and text analysis for detecting changes in the mentality and in the social-cultural sphere. One more reason to find in this approach a fruitful method for understanding the Collegiants\'' universe is the particular interest that they reserved for the language. The Collegiants stressed the importance of the spread of vernacular Dutch with the compilation of grammars, dictionaries, and lexica . In 1654 the Collegiant Luidewijk Meijer published the Nederlandsche Woorden-Schat, with a new edition in 1658. The Woorden-Schat was a Latin-Dutch and French-Dutch dictionary and a guide to principal terms in Nederduitsche (Low Dutch), with particular attention paid to the basterdtwoorden (Bastard Words) and the konstwoorden beghrijpt (cultural and artistic concepts). Some Collegiants in Rotterdam, as well as in Amsterdam, were active participants in a cultural project that worked on the definition and elaboration of the Dutch language in poesy, theater, and literature. Rafael Camphuysen and Johachim Oudaan were appreciated poets and, in 1669, Luidewijk Meijer and Johannes Bouwmeester founded a cultural academy with the name Nil Volentibus Arduum (Nothing is arduous for the willing). Around the same time Adriaan Koerbagh published Een Bloemhof (A flower garden), a theological dictionary edited according to controversial philological criteria, with the explicit aim of explaining the origin of superstition and unmasking the authority of theologians\'' obscure and adulterated language . In 1706 William Sewel, a Flemish converted to Quakerism, wrote the Compendius Guide to the Low-Dutch Language, a Dutch grammar for English speakers. These sources and the presence in Collegiants\'' texts of a continuous debate about the language, testify to great awareness in their choice of terms and words. Collegiants often use italics to emphasize special concepts, or to introduce a neologism or Latin calque. In addition, they refer several times to their efforts to introduce a correct and transparent use of the language. The Collegiants were surprisingly familiar with the crystallizing power in a certain employment of discourse and language; they explicitly challenged the predominance of scholastic and theologian's terms, which substitute the direct and immediate experience of the religion with an intricate and abstract speculation on transcendence and divinity. Dutch grammar and dictionaries, work with the vernacular language in poetic or literary texts, and philological research on the origin of words, testify to a Collegiant Dutch language undertaking, an engagé project anything but neutral to democratize the discussion about religious matters and to guarantee egalitarian participation by both cultivated and uncultivated people. This effort is well represented by an emblematic figure in the Collegiants\'' sources; the founder of this religious movement, Van de Kodde, is several times described as a cultivated peasant able to speak French, Latin, Greek, in the same way the Philosopherenden Boer (Philosophizing peasant), described by Stol in 1676, extols the superiority of a simple peasant\'' reasonable pragmatism in comparison to the Cartesian\''s method and the Quaker\''s rhetoric. This was the essence of the Collegiants\'' anticonfessionalism and antiauthoritarianism, a campain with both Utopian and rational implications, aiming at a possible rethinking of religious experience outside normative structures.

ABSTRACTApplying of governance good to represent absolute requirement of people majority for the shake of creation an political system more standing up for governance importance of people as according to principles democratize universally. This matter earn also become factor impeller of its form governance political wanting that various process governance of that goodness from facet process formulation of policy of public, management of development, execution of public bureaucracy of governance to be walking transparently, efficient and effective to increase kesejahtraan of people. Writer conduct research about principal applying of Governance Good in execution of service of Public in District Of Girian Town of Bitung (study about service of Akte Sales). This research will use method qualitative, that is a[n research of kontekstual making human being as instrument, and adapted for by fair situation that in its bearing with data collecting which is on generally have the character of qualitative. Approach qualitative distinguished by target of research coping to comprehend symptoms which in such a manner which do not need kuantifikasi, because symptom do not enable to be measured precisely. Focus in this research : 1) governmental Principle Participation government officer in giving service of public; 2) Rule / definitive order in service of Sale Act Buy; 3) Principle Transparency in service of making of Sale act Buy; and 4) Principal and Responsive Principle of Akuntabilitas.Keywords : Principles Applying, Good Governance, Public ServicePENDAHULUANPenerapan good governance adalah merupakan kebutuhan mutlak mayoritas rakyat demi terciptanya suatu sistem politik pemerintahan yang lebih berpihak kepada kepentingan rakyat sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip demokrasi secara universal. Hal ini dapat pula menjadi faktor pendorong terwujudnya political governance yang menghendaki bahwa berbagai proses pemerintahan baik itu dari segi proses perumusan kebijakan publik, penyelenggaraan pembangunan, pelaksanaan birokrasi publik pemerintahan agar berjalan secara transparan, efektif dan efisien untuk meningkatkan kesejahtraan rakyat. Era globalisasi yang ditandai dengan semakin terbukanya arus informasi, komunikasi dan transportasi, komunikasi dan transportasi antar Negara di dunia, menuntut suatu Negara untuk memprakondisikan dirinya dengan melakukan upaya pemberdayaan (empowering) dan reformasi total atas kehidupan politik dan pemerintahan, hukum, ekonomi, sosial, budaya, dan pertanahan serta keamanan nasional. Dalam kondisi persaingan bebas di era globalisasi, peran pemerintah mengalami pergeseran, dalam arti bahwa pemerintah sudah tidak lagi menjalankan peran secara dominan dalam berbagai aktivitas Negara melainkan hanya sebagai fasilitator bagi kelancaran arus perdagangan dan persaingan bebas. Ini menuntut kondisi Negara (pemerintah) dangan pernerintah yang bersih dan bebas dari korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme (KKN) agar memperoleh kepercayaan yang besar dari masyarakat serta agar terciptanya iklim usaha yang kondusif bagi peningkatan arus investasi guna mendorong laju pertumbuhan dan perkembangan ekonomi maupun mikro ekonomi.2Penerapan good governance dapat dijadikan sebagai bagian dari upaya untuk melaksanakan asas-asas demokrasi dan demokratisasi, yang merefleksikan dijunjung tingginya aspek pemenuhan hak-hak rakyat oleh penguasa, ditegakannya nilai-nilai keadilan dan solidaritas sosial, serta adanya penegakan HAM dalam berbagai aspek kehidupan Negara, misalnya dengan menegakan prinsip Rule Of Law atau supremasi hukum dalam berbagai aspek kehiduapn Negara. Good governance j uga dapat dipandang sebagai suatu konsep ideology politik yang memuat kaidah-kaidah pokok atau prinsip-prinsip umum pemerintahan yang harus dijadikan pedoman dalam menyelenggarakan kehidupan Negara. Dalam perspektif Otonomi Daerah, khususnya di Indonesia, penerapan Good governance merupakan suatu urgensitas dalam upaya mewujudkan pemerintahan daerah atau local governance yang efektif, efisien, mandiri serta bebas korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme (KKN). Hal ini didukung pula dengan diberlakunya UU Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 Tentang pemerintahan Daerah yang akan memberikan peluang lebih besar bagi terlaksananya asas desentralisasi, dekonsentrasi dan tugas pembantuan; serta prinsip-prinsip Otonomi Daerah sehingga pemerintah daerah mampu menyelenggarakan tugas-tugas pemerintahan, pembangunan dan pelayanan kepada masyarakat (publik services) secara optimal dan tidak terlalu bergantung lagi kepada pemerintah pusat (sentralistik) sebagaimana era pemerintahan sebelumnya. Kenyataan yang dapat dilihat sekarang bahwa sampai saat ini pun pelaksanaan kehidupan Negara, khususnya dalam konteks pemerintahan daerah di era globalisasi, reformasi, demokratisasi, dan otonomi daerah, justru masih menghadapi berbagai masalah dalam melaksanakan tugas dan kewenangarmya guna mewujudkan good governance secara utuh. Di Kota Bitung penerapan good governance dihadapkan pada berbagai kendala seperti masih banyaknya praktik penyelenggaraan birokrasi pemerintahan yang diliputi oleh berbagai tindak pidana korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme (KKN) yang dilakukan oleh oknum pejabat teras pemerintah. Ditambah lagi perilaku para penyelenggara negara di daerah ini (baik itu penyelenggara pemerintah maupun legislatif) yang seringkali tidak sesuai dengan nilai-nilai etis (etika pemerintahan) dalam menjalankan tugas dan perannya sebagai pemerintah. Suarasuara rakyat yang menghendaki sosok pemerintah daerah yang dekat dengan rakyat, dan mengutamakan kepentingan rakyat dibandingkan kepentingan pribadi terbentur oleh arogansasi dan sikap acuh dari kalangan pejabat penyelenggara pemerintah. Kondisi ini menurut pengamatan penulis juga terjadi di salah satu Kecamatan di Kota Bitung, yaitu Kecamatan Girian. Di era pemerintahan modern dewasa ini, fungsi pokok birokrasi dalam Negara adalah menjamin terselenggaranya kehidupan Negara dan menjadi alat rakyat/masyarakat dalam mencapai tujuan ideal suatu Negara (Budi Setiono, 2002:72). Dalam konteks tersebut birokrasi pemerintah setidaknya memiliki tiga tugas pokok (Dwipayana 2003:65) yakni: pertama, fungsi pelayanan publik (publik services) yang bersifat rutin kepada masyarakat, seperti memberikan pelayanan perijinan, pembuatan document, perlindungan, pemeliharaan fasilitas umum, pemeliharaan kesehatan, dan jaminan keamanan bagi penduduk. Kenyataan fungsi birokrasi pemerintah didaerah ini belum berjalan sebagaimana mestinya. Masyarakat pada umumnya mengidentikan birokrasi sebagai proses berbelit, belit, waktu yang lama, biaya yang banyak, dan pada akhirnya menimbulkan keluh kesah bahwasanya birokrasi sangat tidak adil dan tidak efisien. Sikap mental yang arogan dan etos kerja rendah dikalangan birokrat sering menjadi sumber masalah bagi peningkatan kualitas pelayanan publik selama ini. Masalah pelayanan publik atau publik services di kantor Kecamatan Girian untuk masa sekarang ini masih jadi persoalan yang perlu memperoleh perhatian dan penyelesaian yang komperhensif hal ini dibuktikan ketika timbul berbagai tuntunan pelayanan publik sebagai tanda ketidakpuasan masyarakat. Kecenderungan seperti ini terjadi karena masyarakat masih diposisikan sebagai pihak yang "melayani" bukan yang dilayani. Pelayanan yang seharusnya ditujukan pada masyarakat umum kadang dibalik menjadi pelayanan masyarakat kepada Pejabat Negara. Kurang transparan pengambil keputusan yang dilakukan pemerintah, control lembaga control yang kuran berfungsi dengan baik sehingga pelayanan kepada masyarakat di kantor Kecamatan Girian kurang maksimal, masih terdapat penyalahgunaan kekuasaan oleh oknum-oknum pejabat tertentu.3Kondisi ini membuat penulis tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian tentang penerapan prinsip-prinsip Good governance dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan Publik di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung (studi tentang pelayanan Akte Jual Beli). Perumusan Masalah Bertitik tolak dari latar belakang tersebut di atas maka masalah yang dibahas dalam penulisan skripsi ini dapat dirumusakan sebagai berikut :1. Bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance yang dijalankan oleh Camat sebagai PPAT dalam pelayanan Pembuatan Akta Jual Beli di kantor Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung?2. Apa saja faktor-faktor yang mendorong terselenggaranya prinsip-prinsip good governance dalam pelayanan publik?Tujuan Dan Manfaat Penelitian Adapun yang menjadi tujuan dan manfaat dari penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut :1. Tujuan Penelitiana. Untuk mengetahui penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance yang dijalankan oleh Camat sebagai PPAT dalam pelayanan pembuatan AJB di kantor Kecamatan Girian.b. Untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mendorong terseleggaranya prinsip prinsip good governance.2. Manfaat Penelitian :a. Manfaat praktis, yaitu :Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan masukan (input) bagi aparat Pemerintah Daerah dalam menjalankan tugas dan perannya secara efektif dan efisien demi terwujudnya bentuk pemerintahan yang lebih baik lagi di masa mendatang serta dapat memberikan infolniasi akurat berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan pelayanan publik yang sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip good governance di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung.b. Manfaat ilmiah yaitu;Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memperkaya khasanah pemikiran secara intelektualitas dibidang ilmu pemerintahan, serta dapat meningkatkan kemampuan analisa ilmiah dalam mencermati fenomena-fenomena penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publikTINJAUAN PUSTAKAKonsep Penerapan Menurut Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI), pengertian penerapan adalah perbuatan menerapkan. Sedangkan menurut beberapa ahli berpendapat bahwa, penerapan adalah suatu perbuatan mempraktekkan suatu teori, metode, dan hal lain untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu dan untuk suatu kepentingan yang diinginkan oleh suatu kelompok atau golongan yang telah terencana dan tersusun sebelumnya. Penerapan dapat berarti sebagai suatu pemakaian atau aplikasi suatu cara atau metode suatu yang akan diaplikasikannya. Arti kata penerapan adalah bisa berarti pemakaian suatu cara atau metode atau suatu teori atau sistem. Untuk mempermudah pemahaman bisa dicontohkan dalam kalimat berikut: sebelum dilakukan penerapan sistem yang baru harus diawali dengan sosialisasi agar masyarakat tidak kaget. (kamus besar bahasa Indonesia). Good governanceGood governance merupakan suatu kesepakatan menyangkut pengaturan Negara yang diciptakan bersama oleh pemerintah, masyarakat madani dan sektor swasta dimana kesepakatan tersebut mencakup pembentukan selunih mekanisme, proses, dan lembaga-lembaga dimana warga4dan kelompok-kelompok masyarakat mengutarakan kepentingan rriereka, menggunakan hak hukum, memenuhi kewajiban dan menjembatani perbedaan-perbedaan di antara mereka. (Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia : 2002:9) Disisi lain istilah Good governance menurut Dwi Payana (2003:45) merupakan sesuatu yang sulit didefinisikan karena didalamnya terkandung makna etis. Dalam artian bahwa sesuatu yang dipandang baik dalam suatu masyarakat, namun bagi masyarakat lainnya belum tentu mendapat penilaian yang sama. Berbagai definisi Good governance (Dwi Payana, 2003:47) lainnya adalah sebagai berikut: "Good Govenance" sering di artikan sebagai "kepemerintahan yang baik". Adapula yang mengartikannya sebagai "tata pemerintahan yang baik" dan ada pula yan mengartikannya sebagai "sistem pemerintahan yang baik". Selanjutnya dijelaskan pula bahwa istilah "governance" sebagai proses penyelenggaraaan kekuasaan Negara dalam melaksanakan publik good and services. Sedangkan arti "good' dalam "good gevernace" mengandung dua pengertian, pertama, nilai-nilai yang menjujung tinggi keinginan/kehendak rakyat, dan nilai-nilai yang dapat meningkatkan kemampuan rakyat dalam pencapaian tujuan (nasional) kemandirian, pembngunan, berkelanjutan dan keadilan sosial; kedua , aspek-aspek fungsional dari pemerintah yang efektif dan efisien dalam melaksanakan tugasnya untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan tersebut. Praktek terbaiknya di sebut "good governance" atau kepemerintahan yang baik. Sehingga dengan demikian "good governance" didefinisikan sebagai "penyelenggaraan pemerintah yang solid dan bertangung jawab, serta efektif dan efisien dengan menjaga kesinergian interaksi yng konsrtuktif di antara domain-domain Negara, sektor swasta dan masyarakat". Menurut Riswanda Imawan (2002:32) "good governance" diartikan sebagai cara kekuasaan Negara digunakan dalam mengatur sumber-sumber ekonomi dan sosial bagi pembangunan masyarakat (the way state power is used in managing economic and social resources for development of society). Menurut Sedarmayati (2003:76) good governance adalah suatu bentuk manajemen pembangunan, yang juga disebut administrasi pembangunan. Dengan demikian ia berpendapat bahwa pemerintah berada pada posisi sentral (agent of chance) dari suatu masyarakat dalam suatu masyarakat berkembang. Dalam good governance tidak hanya pemerintah, tetapi juga citizen, masyarakat yang dimaksud adalah masyarakat yang terorganisir, seperti LSM, asosiasi-asosiasi kerja, bahkan paguyuban. Menurut Zulkarnain (2002:21) good governance merupakan sesuatu yang baru bagi masyarakat Indonesia, dimana aplikasi daripada konsep ini seringkali tergantung pada kerjasama pemerintah dan masyarakat untuk mencapai dua tujuan yaitu pemerintah yang bersih dan demokratis. Dijelaskan pula bahwa terjadinya krisis disebabkan banyaknya penyimpangan dan penyalahguanaan kekuasaan yang telah merusak sendi-sendi penyelenggaraan Negara dan berbagai sendi kehidupan nasional. Sejak reformasi dimulai maka konsep good governance masuk dalam khasanah pemulihan ekonomi Indonesia. Untuk mengetahui gagasan dan praktek good governance, maka inti good governance adalah seni pemerintah yang berpijak pada rule of law dengan elemen transparansi, akuntanbilitas, fairness, dan responsibility. Elemen-elemen tersebut menyadarkan kita bahwa good governance adalah seperangkat tindakan yang memberikan pagar yang lebih jelas dari proses pemerintahan dengan fungsi dan wewenangnya. Dari sudut pendekatan sistem menurut Pulukadang (2002:34), good governance menyangkut pelaksanaan kekuasaan pemerintah dalam hal decisison making dan dalam hal menjalankan fungsinya secara utuh, dan menyeluruh sebagai suatu kesatuan tindakan yang terarah dan teratur, baik itu meliputi bidang ekonomi (economic governance), politik (political governance), dan administrasi (administrativ governance). Kepemerintahan ekonomi fungsinya melalui proses-proses pembuatan keputusan yang memfasilitasi kegaitan dibidang ekonomi mdidalam negeri dan interaksi diantara pelaku ekonomi. Kepemerintahan politik fungsinya menyangkut proses-proses pembuatan keputusan untuk formulasi kebijakan. Kepemerintahan administrasi adalah system pelakanaan proses kebijakan.Beberapa aspek yang biasa menunjukan dijalankannya good governance atau pemerintahan5yang baik menurut Suhardono (2001:115), yaitu pertama, pengakuan atas pluaraliatas politik; kedua, keadilan sosial; ketiga, akuntanbilitas penyelenggaraan pemerintahan; dan keempat, kebebasan. Kasus-kasus yang berkembang di dunia ketiga dan upaya pembauran sistem kapitalisme dunia, telah memunculkan ide perubahan yang cukup penting, dalam, proses penyelenggaraan pemerintahan. Good governance dalam konteks ini dapat dipandang sebagi langkah untuk menciptakan mekanisme baru yang memungkinkan Negara kembali berfungsi untuk mengatasi masalah-masalah yang justru di akibatkan oleh kerja mekanisme pasar. Good governance sering diartikan sebagi tata pemerintahan yang baik. Konsep good governance padas suatu gagasan adanya saling (interdependence) dan interaksi dari bermacam-macam aktor kelembagaan disemua level di dalam Negara (Legislatif, Eksekutif, yudikatif, militer) dan sektor swasta (Perusahaan, lembaga keuangan). Tidak boleh ada aktor kelembagaan didalam good governance yang mempunyai kontrol yang absolute. Dengan kata lain, didalam good governance hubungan antar Negara, masyarakat madani, dan sektor swasta harus dilandasi prinsip-prinsip transparansi, akuntanbilitas publik dan pertisipasi, yaitu suatu prasyarat kondisional yang dibutuhkan dalam proses pengambilan dan keberhasilan pelaksanaan kebijakan publik dan akseptibilitas masyarakat terhadap suatu kebijakan yang dibuat bukan ditentukan oleh kekuasaan yang dimiliki, tetapi sangat tergantung dari sejauh keterlibatan actor-aktor didalamnya. Prinsip-Prinsip Good Governance Menurut kamus besar bahas Indonesia dalam KoAk (2002:55) dikatakan bahwa prinsip mengandung pengertian "asas" (kebenaran yang menjadi pokok dasr berpikir dan bertindak, dan sebagainya). Secara harafiah, prinsip dapat diartikan sebagai dasar yang mnejadi pedoman yang dijunjung tinggi oleh seseorang atau kelompok karena diyakini kebenarannya. Dalam kaitannya dengan judul skripsi ini, maka faktor yang ditekankan disini adalah bagaimana suatu "Prinsip" dapat diterapkan secara nyata dalam kehidupan sehari-hari sebagai suatu kebenaran umum bukan sekedar mengetahui atau memahami saja hakikat dari pada prinsip itu sendiri. Selain itu juga berbicara mengenai bagaimana suatu prinsip diterapkan secara seimbang dan selaras sehingga tidak menimbulkan kekacauan dan ketimpangan (overlapping) dalam kehiduapan masyrakat, bangsa dan Negara. Lembaga Administrasi Negara memberikan pengertian Good governance yaitu penyelenggaraan pemerintah negara yang solid dan bertanggung jawab, serta efesien dan efektif, dengan menjaga kesinergian interaksi yang konstruktif diantara domain-domain negara, sektor swasta, dan masyarakat. Dalam Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 101 Tahun 2000 prinsip-prinsip kepemerintahan yang baik terdiri dari :1. Profesionalitas, meningkatkan kemampuan dan moral penyelenggara pemerintahan agar mampu memberi pelayanan yang mudah, cepat, tepat dengan biaya yang terjangkau.2. Akuntabilitas, meningkatkan akuntabilitas para pengambil keputusan dalam segala bidang yang menyangkut kepentingan masyarakat.3. Transparansi, menciptakan kepercayaan timbal batik antara pemerintah dan masyarakat melalui penyediaan informasi dan menjamin kemudahan di dalam memperoleh informasi yang akurat dan memadai.4. Pelayanan prima, penyelenggaraan pelayanan publik yang mencakup prosedur yang baik, kejelasan tarif, kepastian waktu, kemudahan akses, kelengkapan sarana dan prasarana serta pelayanan yang ramah dan disiplin.5. Demokrasi dan Partisipasi, mendorong setiap warga untuk mempergunakan hak dalam menyampaikan pendapat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan, yang menyangkut kepentingan masyarakat baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung6. Efisiensi dan Efektifitas, menjamin terselenggaranya pelayanan kepada masyarakat dengan menggunakan sumber daya yang tersedia secara optimal dan bertanggung jawab.7. Supremasi hukum dan dapat diterima oleh seluruh masyarakat, mewujudkan adanya6penegakkan hukum yang adil bagi semua pihak tanpa pengecualian, menjunjung tinggi HAM dan memperhatikan nilai-nilai yang hidup dalam masyarakat.METODOLOGI PENELITIANJenis Penelitian Penelitian ini akan menggunakan metode kualitatif, yaitu suatu penelitian kontekstual yang menjadikan manusia sebagai instrumen, dan disesuaikan dengan situasi yang wajar dalam kaitannya dengan pengumpulan data yang pada umumnya bersifat kualitatif. Menurut Bogdan dan Tylor (dalam Moleong, 2001:31) merupakan prosedur meneliti yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis atau lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang dapat diamati. Pendekatan kualitatif dicirikan oleh tujuan penelitian yang berupaya memahami gejala-gejala yang sedemikian rupa yang tidak memerlukan kuantifikasi, karena gejala tidak memungkinkan untuk diukur secara tepat (Grana, 2009:32). Fokus Penelitian Pembatasan fokus penelitian sangat penting dan berkaitan erat dengan masalah maupun data yang dikumpulkan, dimana fokus merupakan pecahan dari masalah. Agar penelitian ini lebih terarah dan mudah dalam pencarian data, maka lebih dahulu ditetapkan focus penelitiannya. Hal ini sesuai dengan yang diungkapka oleh Lexy J. Moleong (2001:45) bahwa : "Penelitian kualitatif menghendaki ditetapkannya batas dalam penelitian atas dasar fokus yang timbul sebagai masalah dalam penelitian. Hal tersebut disebabkan oleh beberapa hal, pertama, batasan menentukan kenyataan ganda yang mempertajam fokus. Kedua, penetapan fokus lebih dekat dihubungkan oleh interaksi peneliti dan fokus. Dengan kata lain, bagaimanapun penetapan fokus sebagai masalah penelitian penting artinya dalam menentukan batas penelitian. Dengan hal itu peneliti menemukan lokasi peneliti". Adapun yang menjadi fokus dalam penelitian ini adalah:1. Prinsip Partisipasi aparat pemerintah dalam memberikan pelayanan publik.2. Ketentuan/aturan yang pasti dalam pelayanan Akta Jual Beli.3. Prinsip Transparansi dalam pelayanan pembuatan Akta Jual Belie4. Prinsip Responsif dan Prinsip AkuntabilitasSerta hal-hal lain yang kan berkembang dalam pelaksanaan penelitian nanti.GAMBARAN UMUM KECAMATAN GIRIANKeadaan Penduduk1. Jumlah PendudukJumlah Penduduk Kecamatan Girian menurut data yang diperoleh melalui penelitian pada Kantor Kecamatan Girian adalah 27.219 j iwa. Untuk mendapat gambaran mengenai potensi penduduk yang berada di Kecamatan Girian berdasarkan kelurahan yang ada seperti Nampak pada tabel 1 berikut ini : Tabel 1 Penduduk Kecamatan GirianNoKelurahanJumlah Penduduk1Girian Atas33452Girian Bawah49903Girian Weru Satu28764Girian Weru Dua39845Girian Indah62416Girian Permai35867Girian Wengurer2197Total27219Sumber : Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 201272. Penduduk Menurut Mata PencaharianGambaran mengenai keadaan penduduk menurut jenis mata pencaharian di Kecamatan Girian, penduduknya memiliki profesi yang berbeda-beda. Ada yang bekerja sebagai petani, perkebunan, nelayan, pengusaha, pedagang, peternak, pegawai negeri sipil dan TNI. Untuk mengetahui keadaan penduduk dan jumlahnya menurut mata pencahariannya, maka dapat dilihat pada tabel2 berikut : Tabel 2 Keadaan Penduduk Menurut Mata Pencaharian Di Kecamatan GirianNoJenis Mata PencaharianJumlah1Petani3802Perkebunan983Peternak2404Nelayan45Industri Besar / Kecil1286Pedagang357Pegawai Negeri Sipil / TNI1278Pensiun PNS / TNI1219Lainnya546Jumlah1679Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012 Dari tabel diatas terlihat bahwa sebagian besar penduduknya berprofesi sebagai PNS dan Petani kemudian disusul pedangang. Untuk sisa penduduk lainnya adalah mereka yang belum bekerja atau masih dibawah umur dan anak sekolahan.A. Prasarana Sosial1. AgamaKehidupan antar umat beragama di Kecamatan Girian tetap berjalan dengan baik. Dalam kehidupan masyarakat, hubungan antar sesama pemeluk agama terjalin dengan harmonis dan tidak terjadi pertentangan antara pemeluk agama lain. Untuk mengetahui gambaran tentang agama dan pemeluknya diwilayah Kecamatan Girian, maka dapat dilihat pada tabel 3 sebagai berikut : Tabe1 3 Keberadaan Agama Dan Penganutnya Di Kecamatan GirianNoGolongan AgamaJumlah PenganutProsentase1Kristen Protestan216070,892Islam32616,233Kriste Katolik30412,464Budha--5Hindu--Jumlah27219100Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012 Dari tabel 3 diatas terlihat bahwa penduduk Kecamatan Girian sebagian besar adalah penganut Agama Kristen Protestan, kemudian disusul penganut agama Islam, dan seterusnya. Untuk kegiatan peribadatan telah tersedia sarana peribadatan bagi masing-masing agama dan penganut aliran kepercayaan. Jenis kepercayaan yang dimaksud dapat dilihat pada tebel berikut:8Tabe1 4 Sarana Peribadatan di Kecamatan GirianNoSarana IbadahJumlah1Geraja202Mesjid13Wihara-4Pura-Jumlah21Sumber : Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 20122. PendidikanDalam rangka mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa serta meningkatkan sumber daya manusia di Kecamatan Girian, keadaan pendidikan masyarakat sudah jauh lebih baik dari keadaan sebelumnya. Sarana dan Prasarana pendidikan mulai dari Taman Kanak-kanak sampai Perguruan Tinggi sudah memadai untuk menampung Kebutuhan akan pendidikan masyarakat, keadaan gedung dan fasilitas lainnya pada umumnya sudah lebih baik. Untuk mengetahui gambaran yang lebih jelas mengenai tingkat pendidikan masyarakat, maka dapat dilihat pada tabel 5 berikut : Tabe1 5 Keadaan Tingkat Pendidikan Masyarakat Di Kecamatan GirianNoTingkat PendidikanJumlahProsentase1Belum Sekolah75813,192Tidak Tamat Sekolah308,263Tamat SD / Sederajat12017,354Tamat SMP / Sederajat13322,215Tamat SMU / Sederajat169814,856Tamat Akademik / Universitas / Perguruan Tinggi13515,287Buta Akrasa188,058Lainnya--Jumlah22219100Sumber : Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012 Dari tabel diatas Nampak penduduk Keeamatan Girian sebagian besar sudah mewakili, pendidikan baik pendidikan dasar maupun pendidikan tingkat atasnya. Maju tidaknya pendidikan tidak terlepas dari tersedianya saranalfasilita$. Untuk melihat sarana pendidikan tersebut di Kecamatan Girian maka dapat dilihat pada tabel 6 berikut ini : Tabe16 Keadaan Sarana Pendidikan Di Kecamatan (iirianNoTingkat PendidikanJumlah1TK192SD193SMP84SMU75Uiversitas / Perguruan Tinggi / Akademik9Jumlah62Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 201293. KesehatanPelayanan Kesehatan di Kecamatan Girian sudah sangat baik. Sarana dan fasilitas kesehatan serta tenaga medis telah tersedia. Adapun jenis sarana kesehatan yang ada diwilayah kecamatan Girian dapat dilihat pada tabel 7 berikut : Tabel 7 Keadaan Sarana Kesehatan Di Kecamtan GirianNoTingkat PendidikanJumlahTenaga Medis1Apotek6242Posyandu993Puskesmas1584Puskesmas Pembantu335Dokter Praktek2121Jumlah40115Sumber: Kantor Kecamatan Girian Tahun 2012HASIL DAN PEMBAHASANPenelitian merupakan analisa tentang penerapan prinsip-prinsip Good Governance dalam pelayanan publik di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung, menyangkut pelayanan pembuatan Akta Jual Beli Tanah yang dilakukan oleh camat sebagai PPAT, informan dalam penelitian ini adalah: Camat, dan masyarakat yang melakukan pengurusan Akta Jual Beli Tanah, yang tercatat oleh peneliti sebanyak 3 orang, dengan klasifikasi 2 orang sebagai masyarakat biasa, dan 1 orang sebagai wiraswasta, dimana pengurusan Akta Jual Beli tanah digunakan untuk tempat usaha/toko bangunan. Berikut ini akan disampaikan hasil wawancara dari beberapa informan: ST selaku camat mengatakan : dalam memberikan pelayanan pembuatan akta tanah di kecamatan girian saya selalu mengedapankan aturan, dalam arti bagi yang telah memenuhi syarat untuk diurus dan dikeluarkan AJB, segera saya buatkan AJBnya. AW sebagai warga yang pernah mengurus AJB mengatakan : selama pengurusan AJB saya tidak pernah mengalami kesulitan atau dipersulit, karena bapak camat sebagai Pejabat Pembuat Akta tanah sangat partisipatif, hal ini juga didukung oleh persyaratan yang telah saya lengkapi terlebih dahulu. Berbeda dengan RT salah seorang warga mengatakan : selama saya mengurus AJB dikantor kecarnatan ada sedikit kendala yang saya temui, dimana untuk biaya pengurusannya saya rasa diminta agak mahal, pada saal itu saya tidak terlalu paham mekanisme pembualan AJB, sehingga saya hanya mengiyakan saja apa yang diminta untuk biaya pengurusan ini, tetapi karena pada saat itu dana yang ada pada saya belum mencukupi, hingga pengurusan AJB agak tertunda. SE selaku warga yang mengurus AJB mengatakan : dalam pengurusan AJB ini saya mengalami sedikit kendala, dimana status tanah yang saya beli masih dalam sengketa pihak keluarga, walaupun pada akhirnya dapat diselesaikan, tetapi saya harus mengeluarkan biaya yang cukup banyak, karena pada saat itu bapak camat tidak bersedia membuat AJB. ST selaku camat mengatakan : selama pengurusan AJB yang saya layani, semua biaya dan ketentuan yang harus dipenuhi selalu disampaikan kepada pemohon, sehingga tidak ada kong kalingkong dalam pengurusan AJB ini, dan setiap warga yang bermaksud membuat AJB mengerti dan paham akan ketentuan serta biaya yang dibutuhkan.1. Prinsip Partisipasi (Participation)Partisipasi sebagai salah satu prinsip good governance dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintah daerah, dimaksud adalah semua warga Negara mempunyai suara dalam pengambilan keputusan, baik secara langsung maupun melalui lembaga-lembaga perwakilan yang sah yang mewakili kepentingan mereka. Partisipasi menyeluruh tersebut dibangun berdasarkan kebebasan berkumpul10dan mengungkapkan pendapat, serta kapasitas untuk berpartisipasi secara konstruktif. Secara konkrit (operasional) ini dapat diamati melalui beberapa komponen sebagai berikut :1. Adanya ruang partisipasi dari lembaga-lembaga politik dan sosial kemasyarakatan dalam pelaksanaan pemerintahan serta penentuan keputusan publik;2. Adanya upaya-upaya konkrit untuk memperjuangkan aspirasi masyarakat secara menyeluruh dan kontinyu3. Melakukan pemberdayaan masyarakat, khususnya pemberdayaan terhadap perempuan dalam pelaksanaan pemrintahan serta dalam kehidupan masyarakat;4. Menciptakan iklim yang kondusif dalam mengembangakan kebebasan pers dan dalam hal mengemukakan pendapat bagi seluruh komponen masyarakat, sepanjang dilakukan dengan penuh kesadaran akan nilai-nilai etika dan profesionalisme kerja yang tingi.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara terhadap informan dari tiga unsur utama penyelenggara pemerintahan di Kecamatan Girian, diperoleh gambaran tentang bagaimana pelaksanaan publik service dalam penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip partisipasi sebagaimana dapat dilihat dari wawancara kepada informan aparat pemerintah kecamatan Bapak R.K, baliau mengatakan "selaku aparat pemerintah kami selalu berpartisipasi dalam penyelenggaraan dimana selaku penyelenggara pemerintah kami dituntut untuk selalu melakukan pekerjaan kami dengan baik. peherapan prinsip partisipasi berarti bahwa baik dalam proses perumusan kebijakan, pelaksanaan maupun implementasinya telah secara langsung maupun tidak langsung melibatkan berbagai unsur/kelompok dalam masyarakat. Untuk nrengetahui tanggapan mengenai partisipasi masyarakat dalam penerapan prinsip partisipasi demi tercapainya pelayanan publik yang berkualitas, penulis mewawancarai informan dari masyarakat Ibu. AT, beliau mengatakan "partisipasi masyarakat dalam penerapan good governance di kecamatan girian dapat dikatakan baik, dimana kami selaku masyarakat selalu menunjang demi terselenggdranya pelayanan publik yang baik". Hal sebaliknya dikatakan oleh bapak T.K. partisipasi masyarakat saya rasa masih rendah hal ini karena kurangnya pelibalan oleh pemerintahan dalam perumusan kebijakan Contohnya : penentuan tarif yang bersentuhan langsung dengan kepentingan masyarakat, seperti retribusi dan lainrlain. Berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum dan ML sebagai tokoh masyarakat mengemukakan bahwa; kondisi ini dimungkinkan karena mengingat magnitude dan intensitas kegiatan dan tanggung jawab di masing-masing derah nantinya akan sedemikian besar, terutama dihadapkan pada kemampuan sumber daya yang dimiliki oleh masing-masing pemerintah daerah, maka mau tidak man harus ada perpaduan antara upaya pemerintah daerah dengan masyarakat. Dengan kata lain, pemerintah daerah harus mampu mendorong prakarsa, kreativitas dan peran serta masyarakat didaerahnya untuk ikut serta dalam setiap upaya yang dilaksanakan oleh pemerintah daerah dalam rangka memajukan kesejahtaraan masyarakat.2. Prinsip Supremasi Hukum (Rule of Law)Yang dimaksud dengan penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum dalam penelitian ini ialah kerangka hukum harus adil dan diberlakukan tanpa pandang bulu, termasuk didalamnya hukum-hukum yang menyangkut hak asasi manusia. Kepastian dan penegakan hukum jelas merupakan salah satu prasyarat keberhasilan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah. Secara konkrit (operasional) dimensi/domain ini dapat diamati melelui bebrapa komponen sebagai berikut :1. Adanya penegakan hukum secara utuh dalam berbagai aspek pemerintahan daerah.2. Adanya peraturan hukum serta perundang-undangan yang jelas dan tegas serta yang mengikat seluruh aparat pemerintahan daerah tanpa terkecuali.3. Adanya lembaga peradilan dan hukum yang kredibel dan bebas KKN.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara informan dari tiga unsur utama penyelenggara pemerintah di Kecamatan Girian, diperoleh gambaran tentang sejaumana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip supremasi hukum dalam pembuatan akte jual beli sebagaiman11dilihat dari hasil wawancaran dengan seorang warga pengguna jasa publik di kecamatan Bapak P.Y yang pernah mengurus AJB beliau mengatakan penegakan supremasi hukum dalam pelayanan publik di kecamatan saya rasa sudah berjalan dengan baik sesuai dengan peraturan yang berlaku, walaupun tidak ada yang sempurna namun saya rasa secara keseluruhan sudah berjalan dengan baik Dalam mengurus AJB prinsip ini berjalan dengan baik. Hal yang tidak jauh berbeda dikatakan oleh informan warga lainnya Ibu. J.L. beliau mengatakan mengenai penegakan supremasi hukum dalam pembuatan AJB dikecamatan saya rasa tidak ada masalah, semua berjalan dengan baik. Dari hasil wawancara daiatas, menurut pendapat informan adalah bahwa hukum telah ditegakan secara utuh dalam berbagai aspek pemerintahan daerah dan didukung oleh peraturan-peraturan hukum dan perundang-undangan yang mengikat seluruh aparat pemerintah daerah tanpa terkecuali. Hal ini dapat ditunjang oleh fakta bahwa lembaga peradilan dan hukum dapat memainkan peran yang signifikan dalam menyelesaikan kasus-kasus pelenggaran hukum/tindak pidana korupsi. Berdasarkan hasil analisa data tersebut dapat di kemukakan bahwa penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum di Kecamatan Girian telah mencapai tingkat rata-rata atau cukup baik. Realitas ini sesuai dengan hasil waancara terhadap informan kunci IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum mengemukakan bahwa yang menyatakan bahwa sejak dilakukannya reformasi, penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum telah diupayakan antara lain dengan dilakukannya upaya penegakan hukum yang dilakukan oleh oknum tertentu dan pelayanan kepada masyarakat selalu dilaksanakan berdasarkan aturan yang berlaku. Sesuai dengan hasil wawancara dengan IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum mengemukakan bahwa faktor-faktor yang mendukung penerapan prinsip supremasi hukum di Kecamatan Girian antara lain :o Adanya dukungan dari pemerintah penyelenggara pemerintahan maupun legislativeo Adanya koordinasi intensif antara instansi terkait meliputi lembaga hukum dan peradilan, poIri, serat kalangan organisasi,LSM, dan unsur masyarakat lainnya.o Adanya peraturan hukum serta sanksi yang diterapkan secara tegas dan tidak mernihak.3. Prinsip Transparansi (Transparancy)Secara konseptual, transparansi dibangun atas dasar arus informasi yang bebas. Seluruh proses pemerintahan, lembaga-lembaga dan informasi perlu dapat di akses oleh pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan,dan informasi yang tersedia harus memadai agar dapat dimengerti dan dipantau. Dengan prinsip transparansi yang benar-benar diimplementasikan pada setiap aspek dan fungsi pemerintahan di daerah, apalagi bila di lengkapi dengan penerapan prinsip merit system dan reward and punishment dan keberhasilan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan didaerah. Secara konkrit, penerapan prinsip transparansi dapat dijabarkan sebagai berikut :a. Adanya arus informasi dan komunikasi yang akurat bagi masyarakat umum dalam kaitannya dengan program-program pemerintahan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah Kecamatanb. Adanya keterbukaan dalam hal pengambil keputusan publik dan dalam proses implementasi atau pelaksanaannya.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara beberpa informan bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance dalam pengunisan Akte Jual Beli, khususnya prinsip transparansi didapati bahwa prinsi transparansi di kecamatan girian telah berjalan dengan baik, hal ini berdasarkan yang dikatakan oleh infonnan tokoh masyarakat Bapak T.G beliau berpendapat bahwa penerapan prinsip keterbukaan (transparansi) dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di Kecamatan Girian khususnya dalam pengurusan A.JB telah dilakukan secara optimal atau berada pada kategori baik, pegawai selalu menjelaskan apa, bagaimana dan berapa yang harus dikeluarkan untuk mengurus sesuatu di kecamatan. Hal ini membuat masyarakat tidak perlu bertanya-tanya dan merasa nyaman.Hal berbeda dikatakan oleh ibu. UR yang pernah mengurus akte jual bell di kecamatan, beliau mengatakan, dalam hal transparansi saya rasa perlu ada beberapa pembenahan, terkadang dalam beberapa kondisi pegawai kecamatan tidak terbuka dalam hal biaya, mungkin karena tidak12ada pimpinan atau bagaimana. Hal ini pernah terjadi waktu saya mengurus AJB, dimana ada pegawai yang meminta lebih dari biasanya. Namun setelah saya bertanya kepada teman saya yang pernah mengurus, tidak seperti itu. Untuk mengklarifikasi hal tersebut penulis mewawancarai informan kunci yakni bapak camat girian, beliau mengatakan, sebelum melaksanakan pelayanan kepada masyarakat, saya selaku pimpinan di kecamatan selalu menginstruksikan untuk selalu bersikap terbuka dan profesional dalam pekojaan, dan apabila didapati melanggar aturan, akan dikenakan sanksi, baik itu tertulis maupun tidak. Penerapan prinsip transparansi adalah mereka yang merasakan bahwa berbagai proses penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah telah berjalan secara transparan/terbuka dan dapat diakses oleh berbagai pihak, termasuk elemen masyarakat yang membutuhkan informasi. Realitas hasil penelitian ini senada dengan pendapat yang dikemukakan oleh informan IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum bahwa salah satu bentuk penerapan prinsip transparansi yang diterapkan oleh pemerintah Kecamatan Uirian antara lain dengan melakukan fungsi pelayanan komunikasi kepada masyarakat, unsur pers; serta fungsi koordinasi dengan instansi terkait berkaitan dengan tugas-tugas pemerintahan yang hasilnya kemudian di sosialisasikan secara langsung kepada masyarakat dan swasta. Adapun jenis informasi yang disampaikan kepada masyarakat ada yang bersifat vital dan fatal (dari sudut akibat yang ditimbulkan); ada pula informasi yang sifatnya biasa, atau tidak member dampak buruk bagi persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa (contoh:informasi tentang isu/konflik SARA, dan sebagainya). Sebagai bentuk transparansi birokrasi . pemerintahan, selalu diupayakan suatu laporan mengenai hasil capaian kerja birokrasi pemerintahan dan disosialisasikan kepada masyarakat luas sesuai dengan prosedur yang berlaku. Namun , sejauh ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa upaya penerapan prinsip transparansi pemerintah Kecamatan kepada masyarakat belum dilakukan secara maksimal. Menurut ML sebagai tokoh masyarakat mengemukakan bahwa faktor yang menyebabkan antara lain, :1. Adanya berbagai kepentingan politik dari berbagai kelompok elit politik yang ada di lingkungan elit pemerintahan.2. Selain itu, faktor dana operasional yang kurang mencukupi3. Faktor kurangnya kesadaran dari sebagian masyarakat tentang pentingnya sebuah informasi4. Belum tersedianya perangkat operasional seperti berbagai sarana dan prasarana yang memadai.4. Prinsip ResponsivenessPrinsip responsivitas (peduli pada stakeholder) dimaksudkan adalah lembaga-lembaga dan seluruh proses pemerintahan harus berusaha melayani semua pihak yang berkepentingan. Domain ini diamati melalui beberapa komponen antara lain :a. Mampu menciptakan sistem pelayanan kepada masyarakat yang efektif dan efisien, tidak bersifat birokratis dan feodalismeb. Memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat serta menyelesaikan segala permasalahan yang ada dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bemegara secara menyeluruh.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara terhadap informan, diperoleh gambaran bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip responsiveness. Informan dari unsur penyelenggara pemerintahan yang di wawancarai tentang bagaimana penerapan prinsip responsiveness dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di Kecamatan Girian, yakni bapak G.H berpendapat bahwa prinsip tersebut telah diterapkan dengan baik, hal ini karena pemerintah kecamatan selalu berusaha melakukan yang terbaik baik masykarakat begiut juga dikatakan oleh Kasie Pemerintahan Kecamatan Girian, beliau setuju dengan apa yang dikatakan oleh informan sebelumnya yakni pemerintah sejauh ini telah melakukan yang terbaik. Hasil ini memberikan indikasi bahwa dari kalangan pemerintah (birokrasi) mempunyai suatu keyakinan bahwa prinsip responsivitas dalam rnemberikan peleyanan publik telah dipupayakan secara optimal. Dari beberapa wawancara diatas dapat disilmpulkan :131. Pemerintah Keeamatan telah menunujukan kemampuan dalam menciptakan sistem pelayanan yang efektif dan efisien kepada masyarakat;2. Setiap upaya peningkatan pelayanan kepada masyarakat tidak bersifat birokratis dan feodalisme;3. Telah mampu memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat, serta menyelesaikan segala peramsalahan yang ada dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara secara menyeluruh.Dari unsur masyarakat bependapat hampir bertolak belakang dengan pendapat unsur pemerintahn, hal ini sesuai wawancara dengan bapak K.L beliau mengatakan sampai sekarang ini saya belum melihat adanya keseriusan pemerintah daerah, khususnya pemerintah Kecamatan menerapkan prinsip responsivitas dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publik, hal ini terlihat masih lambanya kerja yang dilakukan oleh pegawai kecamatan dan terkadang mahalnya pembiayaan dalam pengurusan. Seperti pengurusan AJB. Penulis juga mewawancarai beberapa informan masyarakat, dan ada 2 hal pokok yang penulis simpulkan yakni : (1) pemerintah Kecarrlatan, belum mampu menciptakan sistem pelayanan yang efektif dan efisien kepada masyarakat. Artinya bahwa pelayanan yang dilakukan masih bemuansa ekonomi biaya tinggi, terlalu birokratis dan penuh dengan tiuansa KKN; (2) belum mampu memenuhi kebutuhan dan tuntutan masyarsakat serta belum secara optimal dapat menyelesaikan permasalah yang ada dalam kehidupan masyarakat secara keseluruhan. Namun tidak seluruh informan masyarakat yang setuju dengan pendapat sebelumnya, seperti Bapak K.D, beliau mengatakan bahwa saya melihat adanya usaha yang menuju kearah yang lebih baik yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah kecamatan dibandingkan yang sebelumnya, walaupun semuanya berjalan dengan sempurna namun saya mengapresiasi usaha dari kecatnatan yang mettgusakan pelayanan yang baik kepada masyarakat. Dan hasil diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa secara umum penerapan prinsip responsivitas dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publik sebagai upaya mewujudkan pemerintahan yang baik, belum menarnpakan hasil yang optimal. Menurut AM dan GP masing-,masing sebagai tokoh masyarakat merigerriukakan bahwa responsivitas (cepat tanggap) pemerintah daerah terhadap tuntutan, aspirasi dan kebutuhan masyarakat sebagai salah satu prinsip good governance belum sepenuhnya dapat di terapkan oleh pemerintah Kecamatan secara maksimal.5. Prinsip Akuntanbilitas (Accountability)Penerapan prinsip akuntanbilitas akan mendorong setiap pejabat pemeiritahan daerah untuk meleksanakan setiap tugasnya dengan cara yang terbaik bagi keberhasilan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan di daerahnya; karena setiap tindakan dan keputusan yang di ambil harus dapat di pertanggunggjawabkan kehadapan publik maupun dari kacamata hukum. Secara operasional, domain ini dijabarkan melalui beberap komponen antara lain :1. Mengefektitkan proses pengawasan intensif dan terintegral terhadap keseluruhan proses pemerintahan oleh berbagai komponen, baik pemerintah maupun masyarakat;2. Menerapkan mekenisme pertariggungjawab yang proporsional sesuai dengan tugas dan wewenang masing-masing dalam kerangka pelaksanaan peineriritaliari;3. Menyediakan informasi yang relevan, nyata dan actual mengenai penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah kepada berbagai pihak yang berkepentingan sebagai wujud pertanggungjawab pemerintah daerah.Berdasarkan hasil wawancara terhadap informan penyelenggara petlieriritahan di Kecamatan Girian diperoleh gambaran tentang bagaimana penerapan prinsip-prinsip good governance, khususnya prinsip akuntanbilitas didapati bahwa penerapan prinsip akuntanbilitas dalam pelaksanaan pelayanan publik maka perlu dijelaskan lebih lanjut hal-hal sebagai berikut :1. Informan dari unsur penyelenggara pemerintahaii kecamatan yang berhasil diwawancarai, berpendapat bahwa penerapan prinsip akuntabilitas telah dapat di laksanakan sudah optimal, hal ini berdasarkan hasil wawancara dengan seorng pegawai kecamatan Ibu. L.S. beliau mengatakan penerapan prinsip akuntabilitas di kecamatan sudah berjalan secara optimal yakni dengan adanya LAKIP kecamatan dengan adanya hal tersebut kecamalan telah melaksanakan prinsip akuntabilitas, hal ini juga ditegaskan oleh Sekcam Kecamatan Girian beliau14mengatakan penerapan prinsip akuntabilitas di kecamatan girian telah berjalan dengan baik dimana kami selalu mempertanggung jawabkan dan melaporkan perkembangan kecamalan baik itu kepada pimpinan maupun masyarakat.2. Pendapat diatas senada jug dengan pendapat dari unsur masyarakat, dimana hasil wawancara dengan masyarakat girian yang pernah menggunakan jasa dikecamatan yakni ibu O.P. mengatakan prinsip akuntabilitas di kecamatan saya sudah berjalan dengan baik, walaupun harus ada beberapa perubahan dan perbaikan.Hal ini sejalan derigan pendapat IT sebagai kepala Seksi Pelayanan Umum dan KT sebagai tokoh masyarakat yang beihasil di wawancarai, bahwa secara garis besar dapat dikatakan prinsip akutanbilitas di lingkungan pemerintah kecamatan sudah cukup bagus. Salah satu wujud nyata adanya pembuatan LAKIP atau laporan Akuntabilitas Kinerja Instansi Pemerintah oleh setiap instansi pemerintah yang ada yang di laporkan kepada stakeholder. Stakeholder yang utama adalah atasan (pimpinan) instansi pemerintah yang bersangkutan. LAKIP ini telah di buat secara berkala sebagai pertangung jawaban pemerintah kepada publik.PENUTUPKesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dalam bab sebelumnya, dan apa yang menjadi perumusan masalah, maka penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut :1. Dalam penerapan prinsip-prinsip Good Governance dalam pelayanan publik, terutama prinsip Partisipasi, ketentuan dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku, prinsip transparansi, dan prinsip responsif camat telah memberikan yang terbaik, walaupun ada beberapa warga menurut hasil wawancara mengatakan camat selaku PPAT cenderung pilih kasih terhadap warga yang berkemampuan secara finansial dan warga yang kurang berkemampuan.2. Secara umum pelayanan publik yang mengedepankan prinsip-prinsip Good Governance yang ada di Kecamatan Girian Kota Bitung telah dilaksanakan dengan baik, walaupun belum sepenuhnya maksimal.3. Faktor-faktor yang mendorong terselenggaranya prinsip-prinsip Good Governance dalam pelayanan publik adalah prinsip Partisipasi, ketentuan dan aturan-aturan yang berlaku, prinsip transparansi, dan prinsip responsif.Saran Hal-hal yang perlu disarankan dalam penelitian ini adalah :1. Perlunya prinsip pemerataan kualitas pelayanan yang dilakukan oleh camat, agar dalam pemberian pelayanan pembuatan AJB, lebih mengedepankan pemerataan, kepada semua warga, tidak memandang yang berkemampuan secara finansial maupun warga yang tidak berkemampuan.2. Lebih ditingkatkan dan dimaksimalkan pelayanan publik kepada setiap warga, yang akan mengurus surat-surat kependudukan dan Akta Jual Bell Tanah, agar nantinya dapat tercipta pelayanan prima kepada masyarakat melalui prinsip-prinsip Good Governance.3. Perlunya ditambahkan faktor pemerataan dalam penyelenggaran pemerintah kecamatan girian, demi terciptanya pelayanan publik yang baik, berdasarkan penerapan dari prinsip Good Governance.15DAFTAR PUSTAKADwipayana, AAGN. Ari. 2003. Membangun Good Governance. Raja Grafindo Pustaka, Jakarta Grana, Judistira K. 2009. Metode penelitian kualitatif. Edisi ketiga. Bandung: Primaco Akademika Garna Foundation. Komite Anti Korupsi (KoKAK), 2002, "Panduan Rakyat Memberantas Korupsi ; Cetakan Pertama, Penerbit Komite Anti Korupsi (KoAk), Bandar Lampung. Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia Indonesia, 2002, "Supermasi Hukum", Modul, Jakarta ________,2002, "Good governance Ian Penguatan Instansi Daerah ", Cetakan Pertama, Penerbit Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia. Bekerjasama Dengan AusAID, Jakarta. ________,2002, "Gerakan Anti Korupsi Pilar Tegaknya Good governanceLeadership for Goopenerbitd Governance "Modul. Moleong, Lexy, J. 2001. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Penerbit Remaja Rosdakarya. Pulukadang. Ishak, 2002, "Evaluasi dan Revitalisasi Program Pembangunan Kota Manado dibidang Kepemerintahan Yang Baik ; Makalah, FISIP Unsrat. Manada. Sedarmayati, 2003. Good Govermance: Kepemerintahan Yang Baik Dalam Rangka Otonomi Daerah Upaya Membangun Organisasi Efektif dan Efisien Melalui Restrukturisasi dan Pemberdayaan. Bandung : Mandar Maju Suhardono, Edi dkk, 2001, "Good governance Untuk Daulat Siapa?" Forum LSM DIY, Yogyakarta. Zullcarnain, happy Bone, 2002, "Kendala Terwujudnya Good governance", Artikel. Sumber-Sumber Lain : - Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah, Penerbit Sinar Grafika, Jakarta 2007. - Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 101 Tahun 2000 Tentang pendidikan, pelatihan jabatan pegawai negeri sipil - Peraturan Pemerintah (PP) Nomor 19 tahun 2008 tentang kecamatan. - Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. 2002 - Kepmenpan No. 63 tahun 2003 Tentang Pedoman Umum Penyelenggaraan Pelayanan Publik- www.lan.go.id

Innovation is a core topic for the social and administrative sciences concerned with organizations management. Hence the name of our journal: INNOVAR, depicted as action and reflection. Insights about innovation are diverse, ranging from the importance of change in production techniques pointed out by Marx, to the structural vision by Schumpeter and the Neo-Schumpeterians about creative destruction as one of the drivers of capitalist development (Chang, 2016). In recent decades, innovation has been gaining an increasingly prominent role in economic and organizational processes due to the emergence and consolidation of the so-called "knowledge-based society" (Drucker, 1994; Castells, 1996; Dubina, Carayannis & Campbell, 2012).Innovation demands the confluence of multiple factors and dimensions, such as creativity, science and technology, the interactions between University, business and society, as well as competition, the role of the State and innovation financing, among others. Precisely, the intersection between the role of the State and innovation financing has been one of the research interests of the Italian economist Mariana Mazzucato. In her book The Entrepreneurial State - Debunking Public vs. Private Sector Myths, Mazzucato (2016) advocates for a change in the understanding of the role of the State within innovation processes. Using empirical evidence from the sectors of communications technology (exemplifying companies like Apple), renewable energies and the pharmaceutical sector, Mazzucato points out to the active and paramount role of the State in contemporary innovation, considering that states have been investors and executors of projects in the base of innovations such as the touch screen, the cps, the Internet or Siri, which were later exploited by private companies. Whether in the field of military defense, aeronautics or the energy sector, investments by the State and the resulting projects have been vital for the conception and subsequent diffusion of innovations. The characteristics of high-risk investments that can be undertaken by the State added to the way it brings together and articulates multiple capacities and institutions, constitute transmission chains that are essential for innovation.Mazzucato's contribution is questioning a series of myths around innovation that suggest this phenomenon arises only by the activities of private entrepreneurs and investors. This perspective, now dominant, demands a downsized State focused on encouraging private forces, so that the invisible hand and competition promote the emergence of new knowledge leading to innovations. Mazzucato's book (2016) opens wide paths for research since it does not deny the relevance of companies and innovative entrepreneurs, but it calls to recognize, characterize and assess the importance of public organizations and projects in the dynamics of innovation. All of this encourages the academic research interests of INNOVAR, to which we summon Ibero-American academic community of the Management Sciences.Our current issue is made up by four of our traditional sections: Strategy and Organizations, Marketing, Human Factor, and Business Ethics. These gather ten papers by Colombian and international partners.Three research papers are published in Strategy and Organizations section.As a results of an international cooperation, Professors Julio César Acosta, from Externado de Colombia University, Mónica Longo-Somoza, from the Council of Education of the Community of Madrid - Spain, and María Belén Lozano, from the University of Salamanca - Spain, introduce their work "Does Family Ownership Affect Innovation Activity? A Focus on the Biotechnological Industry". This work tried to identify the profile of innovative firms in order to analyze whether family ownership is a feature related to innovation initiatives and processes. For that purpose, a hierarchical cluster analysis is performed in a sample of 243 Spanish companies within the biotechnology sector. It is concluded from the study that innovative Spanish firms belonging to this sector are non-family-owned firms. The negative relationship between innovation and family ownership could be explained by the conservative behavior of family-owned companies, which avoid taking the risks demanded by innovation.Professors Valentin Azofra, from the University of Valladolid - Spain, Magda Lizet Ochoa, from the Autonomous University of Tamaulipas - Mexico, and Begoha Prieto and Alicia Santidrian, from the University of Burgos - Spain, present the paper "Creating Value through the Application of Intellectual Capital Models". This research aims to link both the adoption level and the use of intellectual capital models with the creation of value in companies under a long-term perspective. Empirical work involved the selection of companies showing commitment towards the use of information systems on intellectual capital. Based on information from 79 Spanish companies a model was developed and then applied in order to relate the variables of growth in sales, productivity per employee and intellectual capital index, among others, to the adoption level and use of indicators on intellectual capital. Results show that companies with higher levels of intellectual capital models report better indexes related to aforementioned variables, which represent, in turn, greater creation of value.Additionally, independent researcher Giuseppe Vanoni and Professor Carlos Rodriguez from the National University of Colombia authored the paper "Growth Strategies Implemented by Economic Groups in Ecuador (2007-2016)", a study intended to identify growth strategies of 132 economic groups in Ecuador during the time frame previously stated. After a complete literature review and the introduction of the conceptual notions of "economic group" and "growth strategy", empirical work shows that a specialization-based concentration strategy prevails among the studied groups. Furthermore, this work allowed concluding that Ecuadorian economic groups belong to some specific families, and that the economic stability experienced by this country over the course of the period under study had a direct influence on the concentration strategy by specialization adopted by economic groups.Marketing section in this issue of INNOVAR introduces four papers.Brazilian researchers Celso Ximenes and Josemeire Alves, and Professors Gabriel Aguiar, from the Faculdade Mauricio de Nassau, and Danielle Miranda de Oliveira, from the Uni-versidade Estadual do Ceará in the city of Fortaleza - Brazil, take part in this issue with the work "You Solved my Problem, but I Won't Buy from You Anymore! Why Don't Consumers Want to Go Back Doing Business in Online Stores?". This study set as its main goal to understand the motives driving online consumers not to make new purchases when experiencing troubles with purchase processes, even when inconveniences were solved. Following a qualitative approach and based on a sample of 200 complaints over four e-commerce enterprises, a descriptive focus allowed classifying the possible problems and solutions deployed by companies. Results point that consumers manifest their wish of not making further purchases with the same company due to problems with logistics as well as delays with problemsolving and handling complaints.From the University of Seville in Spain, Professors Carlos Javier Rodríguez and Encarnación Ramos add to this current issue the paper "Influence of Religiosity and Spirituality on Consumer Ethical Behavior", whose objective is to analyze consumers' ethical behavior. For this reason, a model of structural equations relating the scales of religiosity and spirituality and contrasting the results of 286 surveys to Spanish citizens is developed. The study implied resizing the Consumer Ethics Scale based on the results found in the literature in order to fit the purposes of this work. The paper concludes by presenting evidence on the existence of a relationship between religiosity-spirituality and the ethical behavior shown by consumers.Professors Alejandro Tapia, associated to the University Loyola Andalucía, and Elena Martín Guerra, from the University of Valladolid, both institutions in Spain, are the authors of "Neuroscience and Advertising. An Experiment on Attention and Emotion in Television Advertising". This paper presents the results of a neuroscience experiment applied to advertising, whose purpose was to study how attention and the generation of emotional responses influence the recall of w spots. The experiment was carried out in a group of 30 students aged 18-22, who were exposed to advertising spots of the University of Valladolid. Results from this exercise show important aspects influencing attention and emotion towards the spots, both positively and negatively, among them: comic content, language, loudness or negative and sad contents, and some others.From the Center of Economic and Management Sciences at the University of Guadalajara - Mexico, Professors José Sánchez, Guillermo Vázquez and Juan Mejía sign the work "Marketing and Elements Influencing the Competitiveness of Commercial Micro, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Guadalajara, Mexico". This study seeks to state the correlation between different key marketing elements that impact micro, small and medium-sized enterprises of clothing items in Guadalajara, Mexico. Based on structural equation modelling, strategies, knowledge and planning in marketing were identified as determinants for the competitiveness of this type of companies. Empirical work used a sample of 380 companies of the retail-clothing sector. The results confirm a positive and significant correlation between key marketing factors and competitiveness, where marketing factors are decisive for companies within the sector, which have been regarded as the weakest link in Mexican economy.Our Human Factor section gathers two studies derived from research processes.We include the paper titled "Subjectivity and Power in Business Organizations: A Case Study", authored by Adriana Valencia Espinosa, Professor at the University of Valle -Colombia. This work was praised as one of the best lectures presented during the First International Congress on Organizations Management that was venued at the National University of Colombia. The objective of this research was to understand the impact of business organizations on the subjectivity of employees, emphasizing the implications of labor breakdown (the termination of a contract). The case study is carried out at a renowned company in Valle del Cauca - Colombia, whose core business, among other lines, is mass printing and editorial processes. This paper addresses testimonies by key participants, that is, workers who experienced labor ruptures with the company. The article also identifies some mechanisms deployed by the organization in the process of sensemaking and the creation of meaning for subjectivity mobilization.Professors Matias Ginieis, María Victoria Sánchez and Fernando Campa from the Rovira i Virgili University, in Spain, present in this issue the paper "How much is the Staff According to the Type of Airline and its Geographical Location in Europe? A Comparative Analysis". This research study was aimed at determining the link between the costs per employee, the types of airlines (traditional or low cost) and the different geographical locations of the headquarters of the studied airlines (Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the United Kingdom and the Nordic countries). A total of 152 airlines were analyzed during the period 2008-2013. Based on statistical correlation tests it was possible to determine there is no relationship between the type of airline and staff-related costs.Last but not least, our Business Ethics section presents a research paper for this issue of INNOVAR.At the University of Zaragoza in Spain, Professors Francisco José López and Ana Bellosta contribute to this issue with the work titled "Corporate Social Responsibility and Good Corporate Governance practices in Spanish Ethical Mutual Funds: Analysis of Investee Companies". This paper studies the type of firms composing the portfolio of Spanish ethical mutual funds, characterizing such companies on the basis of the Corporate Governance model they follow, their organizational structure and some of their economic and financial variables. Different models of Corporate Governance by investee companies and their relationship with financial variables are presented and then evaluated. Results show that companies under the German corporate governance model are preferred by ethical mutual funds, followed by those companies with Anglo-Saxon corporate governance models, which means that, for allocating resources, ethical mutual funds take an interest in companies that involve different stakeholders in their governance processes.We are sure these contributions will be of great interest for the academic community of the Social and Management Sciences both in Colombia and abroad. ; La innovación es un tópico medular para las ciencias sociales y administrativas preocupadas por la gestión de las organizaciones. De allí el nombre de nuestra publicación: INNOVAR, expresado como acción y reflexión. Las concepciones sobre la innovación son diversas y van desde la importancia del cambio en las técnicas de producción, señalado por Marx, hasta la visión estructural de Schumpeter y de los neoschumpeterianos, según la cual la destrucción creativa es uno de los motores del desarrollo capitalista (Chang, 2016). En las últimas décadas, la innovación ha venido ganando un lugar cada vez más protagónico en los procesos económicos y organizacionales, por el surgimiento y consolidación de la llamada "sociedad del conocimiento" (Drucker, 1994; Castells, 1996; Dubina, Carayannis y Campbell, 2012).La innovación requiere la confluencia de múltiples factores y dimensiones, como la creatividad; la ciencia y la tecnología; las relaciones entre universidad, empresa y sociedad; la competencia; el papel del Estado, y la financiación de la innovación, entre otros. Precisamente, la intersección entre el papel del Estado y la financiación de la innovación ha sido uno de los temas de investigación de la economista italiana Mariana Mazzucato. En su libro El Estado emprendedor. Mitos del sector público frente al privado, Mazzucato (2016) aboga por un cambio en la comprensión del papel del Estado en los procesos de innovación. Con evidencia empírica de los sectores de tecnología de las comunicaciones (ejemplarizando con empresas como Apple), las energías renovables y del sector farmacéutico, Mazzucato señala que el Estado ha tenido un papel activo y determinante en la innovación contemporánea, debido a que ha sido inversor y ejecutor de proyectos que están en la base de innovaciones como la pantalla táctil, el CPS, Internet o Siri, que luego son aprovechadas por empresas privadas. Bien sea en el campo del sector defensa, el aeronáutico o el energético, las inversiones del Estado y los proyectos que ejecuta han sido vitales para la gestación y posterior difusión de las innovaciones. Las características de las inversiones de riesgo, que puede ejecutar el Estado, y la forma como congrega y articula múltiples capacidades e instituciones se constituyen realmente en cadenas de transmisión vitales para la innovación.La aportación de Mazzucato (2016) consiste en cuestionar una serie de mitos sobre la innovación, que plantean que tal proceso emerge solo en virtud del actuar de emprededores e inversores privados. Desde esa mirada, hoy dominante, se reclama un Estado mínimo, concentrado en incentivar las fuerzas privadas, para que la mano invisible y la competencia promuevan el surgimiento de nuevos conocimientos que desemboquen en innovaciones. El libro de Mazzucato (2016) abre un sinfín de oportunidades de investigación, puesto que no niega la relevancia de la empresa y los emprendedores innovadores, sino que nos convoca a reconocer, caracterizar y evaluar la importancia de las organizaciones y los proyectos públicos en la dinámica de la innovación. Todo ello alienta la investigación académica que interesa a INNOVAR, y a la que convocamos a la comunidad académica de las ciencias de la gestión en Iberoamérica.La presente edición está organizada en cuatro de nuestras tradicionales secciones: Estrategia y Organizaciones, Marketing, Factor Humano y Ética Empresarial, en las que publicamos diez artículos de nuestros colaboradores nacionales e internacionales.En la sección de Estrategia y Organizaciones, se publican tres trabajos, resultado de investigación.Fruto de una colaboración internacional, los profesores Julio César Acosta, de la Universidad Externado de Colombia; Mónica Longo-Somoza, de la Consejería de Educación de la Comunidad de Madrid, España, y María Belén Lozano, de la Universidad de Salamanca, España, aportan el trabajo titulado "Does family ownership affect innovation activity? A focus on the biotechnological industry". Este trabajo buscó identificar el perfil de las empresas innovadoras, para analizar si la propiedad familiar es una característica que se relaciona con las iniciativas y procesos de innovación. En la investigación se realiza un análisis clúster jerárquico con una muestra de 243 empresas españolas del sector de la biotecnología. Se concluye que las empresas españolas que innovan en este sector no son empresas de propiedad familiar. La relación negativa que se encuentra entre innovación y propiedad familiar, puede ser explicada porque las empresas familiares en tal industria son conservadoras y evitan tomar riesgos como los que la innovación reclama.Los profesores Valentín Azofra, de la Universidad de Valladolid, España; Magda Lizet Ochoa, de la Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, México, y Begoña Prieto y Alicia Santidrián, de la Universidad de Burgos, España, aportan el artículo "Creando valor mediante la aplicación de modelos de capital intelectual". La investigación pretende vincular el nivel de implantación y uso de modelos de capital intelectual con la creación de valor en la empresa, desde una perspectiva de largo plazo. Para el trabajo empírico se seleccionaron empresas que muestran compromiso hacia la utilización de sistemas de información sobre el capital intelectual. Con base en información de 79 empresas españolas, se realizó y aplicó un modelo para relacionar las variables de crecimiento en ventas, productividad por empleado, índice de capital intelectual, entre otras, con el nivel de uso e implantación de indicadores sobre capital intelectual. Los resultados evidencian que las empresas con mayores niveles de implantación de modelos de capital intelectual presentan mejores índices de productividad, crecimiento en ventas y eficiencia del capital intelectual, es decir, mayor creación de valor.Por otra parte, en una colaboración interinstitucional, el investigador independiente Giuseppe Vanoni, y el profesor Carlos Rodríguez, de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, suscriben el artículo titulado "Estrategias de crecimiento implementadas por los grupos económicos del Ecuador (2007-2016)", con la que se pretende identificar las estrategias de crecimiento de 132 grupos económicos en el Ecuador, durante el periodo señalado. Luego de una importante revisión de la literatura y de la definición conceptual de "grupo económico" y de "estrategia de crecimiento", el trabajo empírico muestra que prevalece una estrategia de concentración, basada en la especialización. Se concluye que los grupos económicos en Ecuador son pertenecientes a familias concretas. La estabilidad que vivió el país en los años del estudio influyó en la estrategia de concentración por especialización de los grupos económicos.La sección de Marketing del presente número de INNOVAR está conformada por cuatro artículos.Los investigadores brasileños Celso Ximenes y Josemeire Alves, y los profesores Gabriel Aguiar, Facultade Mauricio de Nassau, y Danielle Miranda de Oliveira, de la Universi-dade Estadual do Ceará, en Fortaleza-Brasil, participan con el trabajo "Resolveram meu problema, porém nao compro mais! Por que os consumidores nao desejam voltar a fazer negócios com Lojas Virtuais? El trabajo se planteó como objetivo comprender los motivos que llevan a los consumidores online a no realizar nuevas compras, cuando tuvieron problemas en el proceso, pese a que tales problemas hubiesen sido resueltos. Desde un enfoque cualitativo, con base en 200 quejas de cuatro empresas que venden sus productos en Internet, se realizó un trabajo descriptivo y cualitativo que permitió categorizar los posibles problemas y las soluciones desplegadas por las empresas. Los consumidores expresan su voluntad de no realizar otra compra con la misma empresa por problemas logísticos, demora en resolución del problema y demora en la atención de la queja.De la Universidad de Sevilla, España, los profesores Carlos Javier Rodríguez y Encarnación Ramos aportan a esta edición el artículo titulado "Influencia de la religiosidad y la espiritualidad en el comportamiento ético del consumidor". El objetivo de la investigación es analizar el comportamiento ético del consumidor, para lo que realiza un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales que relaciona las escalas de religiosidad y espiritualidad, y que contrasta los resultados de 286 encuestas realizadas a ciudadanos españoles. La investigación implicó redimensionar la Consumer Ethics Scale, con base en los resultados encontrados en la literatura y con el propósito de ajuste perseguido en el trabajo. Se concluye el artículo presentando evidencia de la existencia de una relación entre la religiosidad-espiritualidad y el comportamiento ético del consumidor.Los profesores Alejandro Tapia, vinculado a la Universidad Loyola de Andalucía, y Elena Martín Guerra, de la Universidad de Valladolid, ambas instituciones en España, son los autores de "Neurociencia y publicidad. Un experimento sobre atención y emoción en publicidad televisiva". El artículo presenta los resultados de un experimento en neuro-ciencia, aplicado a la publicidad. El propósito era estudiar cómo la atención y la generación de respuesta emocional influyen en el recuerdo de una cuña publicitaria (spot) en televisión. El experimento se desarrolló con un grupo de 30 estudiantes de entre 18 y 22 años, que fueron expuestos a cuñas publicitarias de la Universidad de Valladolid. Los resultados muestran que existen condiciones importantes que impactan en la atención y la emoción hacia los spots, tanto positiva como negativamente, entre ellos, el contenido cómico, el idioma, la fuerza del sonido, la presencia de contenidos negativos y tristes, entre otros.Desde el Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico-Administrativas, de la Universidad de Guadalajara, México, los profesores José Sánchez, Guillermo Vázquez y Juan Me-jía suscriben el trabajo "La mercadotecnia y los elementos que influyen en la competitividad de las mipymes comerciales en Guadalajara, México". El artículo busca establecer la correlación que existe entre los diferentes factores clave de mercadotecnia que impactan en las micro, medianas y pequeñas empresas de prendas de vestir en Guadalajara, México. A partir de un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales, se establecieron como factores clave las estrategias, el conocimiento y la planeación, todos de mercadotecnia, como variables determinantes de la competitividad de la mipyme. Para el trabajo empírico, se usa una muestra de 380 empresas del sector de prendas de vestir al menudeo. Los resultados verifican que existe una correlación positiva y significativa entre los factores clave de marketing y la competitividad, por lo que resultan determinantes para estas empresas, consideradas por muchos como el eslabón más débil de la economía mexicana.La sección de Factor Humano recoge dos trabajos, resultado de procesos de investigación.Publicamos el artículo titulado "Subjetividad y poder en la organización empresarial: un estudio de caso", de la profesora de la Universidad del Valle, Colombia, Adriana Valencia Espinosa, y que fue una de las mejores ponencias presentadas en el Primer Congreso Internacional de Gestión de las Organizaciones, realizado en la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. El objetivo del trabajo de investigación fue comprender la incidencia de la organización empresarial en la subjetividad de los empleados, enfatizando en las implicaciones de la ruptura laboral (la finalización del contrato). El estudio de caso se realiza en una reconocida empresa del Valle del Cauca, dedicada, entre otros negocios, a la impresión masiva y los procesos editoriales. Se abordan relatos de participantes clave, trabajadores que vivieron rupturas laborales con la empresa. El artículo identifica algunos dispositivos desplegados por la organización en el proceso de creación de sentido y producción de significado que moviliza la subjetividad.De los profesores Matias Ginieis, María Victoria Sánchez y Fernando Campa, de la Universitat Rovira i Virgili, España, en esta edición se publica el artículo "¿Cuánto cuesta el personal según el tipo de aerolínea y su ubicación geográfica en Europa? Un análisis comparativo". La investigación se planteó establecer la relación existente entre los costos por empleado, los tipos de aerolíneas (tradicionales y de bajo costo) y las diferentes zonas geográficas de ubicación en Europa en que están domiciliadas las aerolíneas (Europa occidental, Europa del este, Reino Unido y países nórdicos). Se estudiaron 152 compañías áreas, en el periodo comprendido entre el 2008 y el 2013. A partir de pruebas estadísticas de correlación, se estableció que no hay una relación entre el tipo de aerolínea y el costo del personal.Finalmente, la sección de Ética Empresarial para este número de INNOVAR recoge un artículo de investigación.Desde la Universidad de Zaragoza, España, los profesores Francisco José López y Ana Bellosta aportan el trabajo "Corporate Social Responsibility and Good Corporate Governance Practices in Spanish Ethical Mutual Funds: Analysis of Investee Companies". El artículo analiza los tipos de compañías que conforman el portafolio de los fondos mutuos de inversión ética españoles, caracterizando tales empresas desde el modelo de Gobierno corporativo que siguen, su estructura organizacional y algunas de sus variables económicas y financieras. Se presentan y evalúan diferentes modelos de Gobierno corporativo de las empresas en que se invierte y su relación con variables financieras. Los resultados muestran que las empresas que siguen un modelo de gobierno corporativo alemán son las preferidas por los fondos mutuos de inversión ética, seguidas de las empresas con modelos de Gobierno corporativo anglosajones. Es decir, a los fondos mutuos de inversión ética les interesa que las empresas en que invierten incluyan diferentes grupos de interés en sus procesos de gobernanza.Confiamos en que estos trabajos resulten de interés para la comunidad académica en ciencias sociales y administrativas a nivel nacional e internacional.

The quality of articles submitted to Brazilian journals has been a source of criticism (Ferreira Falaster, 2016), not only in the International Journal of Innovation - IJI but also in other journals. Journals also usually receive work outside their scope. It motivated us to write this editorial comment. We aim to help the authors better understand the scope of the IJI and understand what we expect from the submitted works. Our concern is related to the format and the elements necessary for each type of work. In addition to the authors, the reviewers can also consult this editorial comment to guide their evaluations.The predominant field of IJI is innovation with a focus on emerging markets. Within innovation, the themes of interest to the journal are: Innovative Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Learning, Innovation and Sustainability, Internationalization of Innovation, Innovation Systems, Emerging Themes of Innovation and Digital Transformation. As scope, the IJI brings: Scientific research, theoretical essays, and reviews that advance the understanding and variety of innovation, improve its efficiency and critical approaches. We prioritize the development of new challenging theories, clarify existing theories, and identify new theoretical issues. Example: Systematic reviews, Bibliometrics, Theoretical essays, Reviews, among others.Empirical investigations or applied tests that, based on theories or references formulated, show state of the art and practical application in innovation; priority is given to unpublished technological contributions and their importance for studies in the area. Example: Empirical articles (quantitative and qualitative), Technological articles, Articles with guidelines for practice, among others.Perspectives that show the advance of established and emerging methodologies that are used in the area of innovation such as: Experimental, Technometrics, Text Mining, Data Mining, Modeling, Bibliometrics, Netnography, Neuroscientific Methods, Design Science Research, Grounded Theory and others.We will continue discussing what we expect from the papers submitted to IJI. We will contextualize some of the types of papers we accept: Articles, Technological articles, Perspectives, Reviews, and Editorial Comments. When submitting the work at IJI, the author must choose one of these options mentioned. We remind the authors that all types of papers must contain a structured summary in Portuguese, English, and Spanish. This structured summary can be adapted for reviews and perspectives, using only the elements that fit the study. Editorial commentLast year, we started the editorial comment section at IJI. This section is exclusively authored by the editors of IJI and their guests. Eventually, we invite members of the editorial board or scholars to contribute with their knowledge. Editorial comments do not go through peer review. Therefore, they are not considered articles.With the editorial comments from IJI, our goal is to assist authors and readers in understanding the various aspects related to scientific research, the publication of articles, and themes related to innovation. We want to help the researchers in their scholarly productions, orienting their articles in the best possible way. We intend to guide the IJI community through our editorial comments, minimizing the desks rejects of the articles, and maximizing authors' publications in the area of innovation. Articles[1]At the time of submission, authors who choose this type of work option may include empirical articles (qualitative and quantitative), theoretical and review articles (systematic literature reviews, bibliometric, theoretical essays)—always taking care of the scope of the IJI with a focus on innovation in emerging countries.In addition to the formatting guidelines that are found in the IJI, we suggest that the articles follow the following structure: Introduction; Literature review; Conceptual Development (Propositions or Hypotheses, when applicable); Methods; Results; Discussions and Conclusions. This structure, which will be suggested below, may undergo some changes depending on the article type. For example, a review article may not have a literature review section, as its results play this role. We suggest that an article has approximately 8000 (eight thousand) words.Introduction: When developing the introduction note the following aspects with greater specificity: if it is clear what the theoretical focus is used, present the research question that motivates the article, indicates the method, present the main results and the contributions or implications. Some failure possibilities deserve special attention from the authors: (1) the article indicates the research question, and (2) the article includes an explanation of the desired contribution.Literature review: Aspects to be considered by the authors: (1) the author is not limited to exposing a set of previous works on a theme with little connection to the current article; (2) links previous works to this article - the authors must clarify how previous referenced works relate to this article; and (3) it has a good balance in the inclusion of classic, or seminal, pertinent references, and more recent references.Conceptual development (propositions or hypotheses, when applicable): An article may or may not have propositions or hypotheses, but it must always have specific conceptual support that motivates the study. Authors should pay attention to the text of the propositions or hypotheses, the consistency between the various hypotheses, and whether they are adjusted to the research question. Authors should give special attention to the argument that supports each of the propositions or hypotheses. Check that it is consistent.Method: The method section needs to be elaborated on several aspects, especially on the data collection procedures and instruments, sample, variables, and data analysis procedures. Check if the data are appropriate to the objectives and if they are not biased. The article should include an adequate explanation of the data and sources used, given that primary data or lesser-known sources require further explanation. Likewise, it is important to understand the characteristics of the data and their representativeness, for which the sample description must be complete. An adequate description if an instrument is used is crucial, and it is not enough to send the questionnaire as an attachment to the article. The questionnaire items, the measurement method, and the source of the items are important. Finally, it is necessary to check the data analysis procedures. In empirical studies, the article must indicate which statistical technique is most effective for testing hypotheses.Results: The authors must include some descriptive elements. The descriptive component is relevant to observe the distribution of the data. A quantitative article should include the correlation table, for example. The article must contain tables with the statistical results, and in the text, the authors need to indicate sequentially if each hypothesis is verified. The text must contain an interpretation of at least the most important results.Discussion: It is a whole section for articles submitted to IJI. The authors must briefly mention the purpose of the article and how it was pursued throughout it. Here the authors must integrate the theory used in the theoretical framework, the hypotheses or propositions, and the results. It is time to show the contributions and/or implications of the study given the existing knowledge. Authors must present an analysis of the main results about the exposed theory. The discussion must be sustained in the analyzes so as not to run the risk of being speculative.Final considerations: the authors must pay special attention to some aspects. The conclusion does not need be too long. One can start by remembering the purpose of the article and how it was achieved. Authors should bring the limitations of the study and suggestions for future research. The ideal is a paragraph for each limitation and any future research. All of these elements must flow coherently and without ramblings for similar subjects or with references to other studies in progress. Technological articleWe will now conceptualize the technological article and show its difference from an academic article. The technological article is a production with a professional emphasis, with an approach mainly focused in problem-solving (Motta, 2017). It is the fundamental difference between a technological article and a production with an academic emphasis. The technological article generally describes experiences in organizations. Even so, authors must follow scientific and methodological rigor in their writing (Biancolino et al., 2012).We propose that the authors submit in this technological article section applied research that prioritizes the learning description, presenting the practical results experienced in the organizations. The CIMO logic (Van Aken, 2007) brings us some insights for a technical production:Context (problem situation);Intervention (intervention proposed to solve the problem presented);Mechanisms adopted (description of how the problem was solved);Results Obtained (objectively describe the results obtained in the organization).It is worth mentioning that in a technological article, reports of solutions implemented with results already obtained are expected. It does not make sense to report something that has not yet been implemented in the organization. So, it is expected that the technological article submitted to IJI will offer contributions to knowledge, as an example (Gregor and Hevner, 2013):Focus on innovation: new solutions to new problems;Focus on improvement: new solutions to known problems;Focus on extrapolation: known solutions to new problems.Another point that we would like to clarify is the size of a technological article. Even if some journals accept technological articles with fewer pages, we suggest that the submission to IJI has at least 6000 (six thousand) words. Also, authors should follow the format available in the guidelines for the author, including the structured abstract and adopting the structure[2] presented below.Introduction: its purpose is to present what the technological article is about briefly, and the intervention carried out, making it clear which problem situation will be solved. Quickly inform how the research was carried out and how the data collected to interpret the technological article were interpreted.Literature review: must be related to the intervention carried out in the organization. The theoretical framework will give theoretical support to the findings of the technological article and contribute to the discussion of the results obtained.Technical production method: despite being a technical production, the technological article must follow a method, which must be well detailed. It should contain a description of the procedures used to collect the data and information relevant to the technological article's realization. It needs to indicate whether it was a direct observation or direct participation, among other examples.Context and problem situation: the authors must present the problem or the opportunity and characterize the organization.Types of intervention and mechanisms adopted: the authors must analyze the problem situation and discuss the possible alternatives for its resolution: innovation, improvement or extrapolation, and describing the activities developed to solve the problem situation.Results obtained and analysis: the authors must bring the most relevant contributions according to the subjects dealt with in the technological article. Its relevance for similar cases with lessons from the reported experience should be emphasized. Describe the results obtained and analyze the data.Discussions and final considerations: the discussion is also welcome in the technological article. It is time to compare the analysis of the results with the researched theory. Show that the objectives of the technological article have been achieved. The authors can comment on the limitations for the research to be carried out and propose new ideas for studies of a technical nature that can continue what was presented.References: the authors must insert at the end all authors used in the theoretical framework, according to APA standards found in the IJI guidelines. Reviews[3]Review is the analysis of a work in an evaluative and critical way, exposing the summary of its main points. Authors who choose this option at the time of submission should exercise caution. They must remember that the review is an academic work to encourage authors and readers to understand and criticize the reviewed work.With this review section, the IJI proposes to provide, for its readers and the wider community of academics, interesting reviews that deal with topics relevant to research or the practice of innovation. The reviews can be, for example, of recently published books and seminal or classic books, which are important for the academic community and complement the training of graduate students.The suggested steps in the review, presented below, should make sense for the author and the reader. All of these elements must appear coherently and fluidly in the text of the review. We suggest that a review has at least 6000 (six thousand) words, depending on the work reviewed.Bibliographic reference: presents a brief description of the work's registration data, such as author's name, title/subtitle, edition (place of publication, publisher, edition, etc.), number of pages.References of the author of the work: this phase is dedicated to the author's data, such as date and place of birth and death (if applicable), his main works, and the works' main themes.What are the issues that mobilized the work being examined: explain why, according to the author, the work is important for studies in this field. This information is generally placed in the introduction and can be important to understand the meaning of the work.Context of the work: indicates the period and place in which the work was carried out, especially in the case of publications and works considered seminal.Methodology of the work (if it is the case especially works of a theoretical-practical nature): point out the main methodological axes described by the author.Summary of the work's main conclusions: this phase is dedicated to the conclusions/contributions of the work, according to the author.Most important bibliographic references of the reviewed work: identify the main references most cited in the work.Reviewer's Opinion: Main contributions of the work, according to the reviewer;For which target audience can this work be recommended?What is your opinion about the work? Strengths and weaknesses, specific limitations.The reviewer can complement the review with results from other research on the topic in question. For example, present the results of a systematic review or a bibliometric for possible additions to the theme or comparisons. PerspectiveIn the perspective section, we want to reach specialist readers who are not necessarily academic to disseminate ideas and concepts that can contribute to practice and reflection on their day-to-day activities in the scope of innovation. These articles seek to focus on evidence, much more than on the development of theory. However, they can demonstrate the advancement of established and emerging methodologies that are used in the area of innovation, such as Experimental, Technometrics, Text Mining, Data Mining, Modeling, Bibliometrics, Netnography, Neuroscientific Methods, Design Science Research, Grounded Theory, and others, as we mentioned earlier. Thus, this section proposes to receive articles reviewing concepts, articles that integrate theories and results, new ideas about the field, and integration of fields of study.Our intention with the perspectives section is to raise debates and increase the IJI community's discussion to attract the public to thoughts and reflections on the theme of innovation. In addition to having another channel to disseminate academic research progress, so distant from executives and undergraduate students, or even academics from other areas of knowledge. We suggest that a prospect has at least 6000 (six thousand) words. Main reasons for work failures at IJIWe will share with the IJI community the main reasons for rejection of the submitted works. The aim is to bring our experience as editors in the conduct of editorial processes. This way, we minimize rejections in the desk reviews and the works that peers are already evaluating. The desk review is a moment before peer review; it takes place before the editors send the submitted article to the reviewers. The IJI desk review takes place in two stages, which will be described below.In the first stage, as soon as the work is submitted to IJI, it undergoes a technical desk review to verify that the work is minimally in the journal's rules. It is at this point that many authors need to resubmit their work. The main reasons are:Authors forget to exclude the indication of their names in the file sent;The work goes through plagiarism identification software, and we often find similarities outside of good academic practices;The authors do not place the work within the rules presented in the submission guidelines. For example, the IJI only accepts papers within the APA standards, or with a certain maximum number of pages. Moreover, the authors do not adapt their article in our format.After the technical verification, we, the editors, carried out the second stage of the desk review. In this step, we assess the work scope as adherent to IJI, as presented at the beginning of this editorial comment. We also check if the work is adequate according to the suggestions we present in the articles we receive for submissions. The main reasons for rejections at this stage of the desk review are:The works are not within the scope established in the IJI;The works do not meet the suggested structure suggestions for each type of study. As an example: they do not have a discussion section; or do not have a literature review section in the empirical articles; they do not have a minimum number of words, making it a superficial job; they have serious method errors.After the works go through these two stages of desk review, we proceed with the editorial process, and the works are sent to the reviewers. Right now, there are several reasons for rejection. But most of the time, the works are rejected because the authors do not heed the suggestions of the reviewers. An important item that facilitates this process of rounds between the authors and the reviewers is the letter of reply from the authors regarding changes in the work. Our guideline is that when the authors send the revised paper, send a letter and all the changes suggested by the reviewers made in this new version.We take the opportunity to thank the authors for their confidence in submitting their work to the IJI. We also thank the efforts of all the reviewers, who were involved with the IJI, for their extraordinary work and to offer authors valuable suggestions for improvement. We hope that readers will appreciate our editorial comment and that the guidelines will be useful to further improve their submissions to IJI. And that they serve as an incentive to send your research papers on innovation to our journal.[1] (Adapted from Ferreira, 2014).[2] (Adapted from Biancolino et al., 2012).[3] (Adapted from Marconi Lakatos, 2010).

In this edition, the reader will find ten articles distributed in two thematic sections: Cooperation and asymmetric international integration in matters of security, strategy and commerce and Global culture in international relations.Cooperation and asymmetric international integration in matters of security, strategy and commerce We opened the 2018-I edition of the article entitled "How to strengthen EU-China cooperation based on Belt and Road", by the authors Weidong Wang and Simona Picciau; in which the Belt and Road initiative, presented by the Chinese president Xi Jinping in 2013, promotes cooperation and the strengthening of person-to-person connections between Asia, Africa, and Europe. China has already signed cooperation agreements with more than forty States and trained thirty others. This initiative impacted the establishment of relations between China and the European Union, based on win-win cooperation and aimed at fostering mutual respect.Sonia Alda Mejías publishes her article "The challenges of Latin America to project as a regional actor in the field of international security", in which she considers the possibility of Latin America to project itself as a regional actor in the field of global security from a qualitative methodology. Also, reference as necessary the processes of subregional or regional integration and the development of national and international multilateral cooperation in the field of security and defense, and the participation of Latin American countries in international peace missions, from a sovereignty perspective very marked.The article "Notions of safety and control in the Northern Border Plan: an expression of teichopolitics", by the authors Gilberto Aranda and Cristian Ovando, considers the teichopolitics as a current expression of segmented globalization, which not only raises the erection of walls. Chile manifested this policy in the 70s, undermining border areas as preventive mechanisms to a foreign invasion and today, through the Northern Border Plan. This securitization mechanism aims to guarantee the continuity of trade flows and the cultural consequences that it entails, from the constructivist approach.Pablo Garcés Velástegui presents his article "Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach". In this paper, social planning is not any problem, but a "wicked", not docile, a problem of exact sciences that involves a public policy issue; a problem hard to define, unique, inherently paradoxical, important, subject to many interpretations and, thus, without a correct solution. Latin American integration has these characteristics, and the implications are relevant for academics and decision makers. If regional integration continues to be approached as an easy problem, the results will probably continue to disagree with expectations."The United Kingdom and Argentina: geopolitics of technological constraint and strategic-export controls", by Daniel Blinder, shows how the United Kingdom controls the export of military or dual-use technology to the Argentine Republic through its defense institutions and trade, as well as with others of an international nature. A strategic public policy at a local and global level represented in the logical space/power, relative to the possibility of Argentina acquiring sensitive technologies.The co-authors Roldán Andrés-Rosales, Luis Alberto Sánchez-Miter and José Nabor Cruz Marcelo, present the article entitled "Insecurity and its impact on tourism in Guerrero: a spatial approach, 1999-2014". This paper gives the reader the possibility to know how Mexican insecurity has affected the economic growth of the State and the region at the tourist level. This is done through a case study in Guerrero because it obeys one of the most insecure areas, classified worldwide, which is an index of violence that shows the concentration of the danger through the analysis of the figures of the Institute. National Statistics and Geography."Asymmetric regionalism as the axis of the South American resistance to Brazil (2000-2013)", by Rita Giacalone, assumes that regionalism in itself creates asymmetric tensions. Brazilian regionalism has realistic, constructivist and institutionalist features, which emphasize such asymmetries following the region-centric paradigm. The organizations built to support the regional and global projection of Brazil generated resistance in South American governments between 2000 and 2013. This article analyzes the opposition of Chile, Argentina, and Venezuela, through a decentralized multipolarity.Global culture in international relationsWe open this thematic section with the article by Juliano Oliveira Pizarro titled "Governance of sport: an inflection of global governance?" In this, it is considered that the global is a birthplace of diverse actors that exercise specific governments, as represented by football. A sport made a social and cultural mechanism that suffers direct impacts from the globalizing processes. FIFA is a non-profit, non-governmental organization, although it may not seem so, because its activities express hybrid and contradictory conditions, either from the perspective of global governance or as a multinational company.Luis González Tule, in his article "Organization of global space in 'classic' geopolitics: a view from critical geopolitics", starts at the roots of the geopolitics and its development, in between of European imperial rivalries, global wars, border mutations, political changes, significant technological developments and transformation in the dynamics of power (1870 and 1945). The classic indoctrinators coming from the main powers established the geopolitical discourses to their accommodation.Thus, this edition closes with the article "The emergence and increase of Anti-Semitism in the Governments of Hugo Chávez and its relationship with the deepening of the relations between Venezuela and Iran (2005-2013)", by Margarita Figueroa Sepúlveda, which establishes the growth of media and Chavez anti-Semitic incidents in 2004, as well as their direct proportional relationship with the rapprochement and creation of new ties with the Islamic Republic of Iran. The ideological convergence —based on anti-imperialism— is analyzed through the empirical evidence provided by primary and secondary sources. The author considers that anti-imperialism made Israel be conceived as an enemy of both countries.Thanking the confidence of the institutional authorities again to edit the Journal of International Relations, Strategy and Security, I invite you to know, use and disseminate the content of this edition. ; En esta edición el lector encontrará diez artículos distribuidos en dos secciones temáticas: Cooperación e integración internacional asimétrica en asuntos de seguridad, estrategia y comercio y Cultura global en relaciones internacionales.Cooperación e integración internacional asimétrica en asuntos de seguridad, estrategia y comercio Abrimos la edición 2018-I con el artículo denominado "Cómo fortalecer la cooperación EE. UU. - China basada en el cinturón y la carretera", de los autores Weidong Wang y Simona Picciau, en el cual la iniciativa belt and road, presentada por el presidente chino Xi Jinping en 2013, promueve la cooperación y el reforzamiento de las conexiones persona-a-persona entre Asia, África y Europa. China ya ha firmado acuerdos de cooperación con más de cuarenta Estados y capacitó a otros treinta. Esto impactó el establecimiento de relaciones entre China y la Unión Europea, basadas en la cooperación win-win y direccionadas al favorecimiento del respeto mutuo.Sonia Alda Mejías publica su artículo "Los desafíos de América Latina para proyectarse como actor regional en el ámbito de la seguridad internacional", en el que contempla la posibilidad de América Latina de proyectarse como actor regional en el ámbito de la seguridad internacional desde una metodología cualitativa. Asimismo, referencia como necesarios los procesos de integración subregional o regional y el desarrollo de la cooperación multilateral intra e internacional en el ámbito de la seguridad y la defensa, y la participación de los países latinoamericanos en las misiones internacionales de paz, desde una perspectiva soberanista muy marcada.El artículo "Las nociones de seguridad y control en el plan frontera norte: una expresión de teichopolítica", de los autores Gilberto Aranda y Cristian Ovando, considera la teichopolítica como una expresión actual de la globalización segmentada, la cual no solo plantea la erección de muros. Chile manifestó dicha política en los años 70, minando zonas fronterizas como mecanismos preventivos a una invasión extranjera y hoy, a través del plan Frontera Norte. Este mecanismo securitario pretende garantizar la continuidad de los flujos comerciales y las consecuencias culturales que conlleva, desde el enfoque constructivista.Pablo Garcés Velástegui presenta su artículo "Integración latinoamericana como un problema perverso: el caso para un abordaje plural". En este la planificación social no es un problema cualquiera, sino uno "perverso", nada dócil, un problema de ciencias exactas que conlleva un tema de política pública; un problema difícil de definir, único, inherentemente paradójico, importante, sujeto a muchas interpretaciones y, así, sin una solución correcta. La integración latinoamericana tiene estas características y las implicaciones son relevantes para académicos y tomadores de decisión. Si la integración regional continúa siendo abordada como un problema dócil, los resultados probablemente seguirán discordando con las expectativas."El Reino Unido y Argentina: geopolítica de la limitación tecnológica y controles de exportación estratégicos", de Daniel Blinder, muestra cómo el Reino Unido controla la exportación de tecnología militar o de uso dual a la República Argentina a través de sus instituciones de defensa y comercio, así como con otras de índole internacional. Una política pública estratégica a nivel local y global representada en la lógica espacio/poder, relativa a la posibilidad de que la Argentina adquiera tecnologías sensibles.Los coautores Roldán Andrés-Rosales, Luis Alberto Sánchez-Mitre y José Nabor Cruz Marcelo presentan el artículo titulado "La inseguridad y su impacto en el turismo en Guerrero: un enfoque espacial, 1999-2014", que le brinda al lector la posibilidad de conocer cómo la inseguridad mexicana ha afectado el crecimiento económico del Estado y la región a nivel turístico. Esto lo hacen a través de un estudio de caso en Guerrero, pues obedece a una de las zonas más inseguras, clasificada a nivel mundial, lo que constituye un índice de violencia que muestra la concentración del peligro a través del análisis de las cifras del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía."El regionalismo asimétrico como eje de la resistencia sudamericana a Brasil (2000-2013)", de Rita Giacalone, supone que el regionalismo en sí mismo crea tensiones asimétricas. El regionalismo brasileño posee rasgos realistas, constructivistas e institucionalistas, que enfatizan tales asimetrías siguiendo el paradigma región-céntrico. Las organizaciones construidas para apoyar la proyección regional y global de Brasil generaron resistencia en Gobiernos sudamericanos entre 2000 y 2013. Este artículo analiza la resistencia de Chile, Argentina y Venezuela, mediante una multipolaridad descentralizada.Cultura global en relaciones internacionalesAbrimos esta sección temática con el artículo de Juliano Oliveira Pizarro titulado "Gobernanza del deporte: ¿una inflexión de la gobernanza global?". En este se considera que lo global es un espacio de nacimiento de diversos actores que ejercen gobiernos específicos, como lo representa el fútbol. Un deporte hecho mecanismo social y cultural que sufre impactos directos desde los procesos globalizadores. La FIFA es una organización no gubernamental sin fines lucrativos, aunque no lo parezca, pues sus actividades expresan condiciones híbridas y contradictorias, bien sea desde la óptica de la gobernanza global, o bien como una empresa multinacional.Por su parte, Luis González Tule, en su artículo "Organización del espacio global en la geopolítica "clásica": una mirada desde la geopolítica crítica", inicia en las raíces de la geopolíca y su desarrollo, en medio de rivalidades imperiales europeas, guerras mundiales, mutaciones fronterizas, cambios políticos, grandes desarrollos tecnológicos y transformación en las dinámicas de poder (1870 y 1945). Los doctrinantes clásicos provenientes de las principales potencias establecieron los discursos geopolíticos a su acomodo.Así, pues, la presente edición se cierra con el artículo "La emergencia y aumento del antisemitismo en los Gobiernos de Hugo Chávez y su relación con la profundización de las relaciones entre Venezuela e Irán (2005-2013)", de Margarita Figueroa Sepúlveda, que establece el crecimiento de los incidentes antisemitas mediáticos y chavistas en 2004, así como su relación directamente proporcional con el acercamiento y creación de nuevos lazos con la República Islámica de Irán. Se analiza la convergencia ideológica –sustentada en el antiimperialismo–, a través de la evidencia empírica proporcionada por fuentes primarias y secundarias La autora considera que el antiimperialismo hizo que Israel fuera concebido como enemigo de ambos países.Agradeciendo nuevamente la confianza de las autoridades institucionales para editar la Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad, los invito a conocer, usar y divulgar el contenido de la presente edición. ; Nesta edição o leitor encontrará dez artigos distribuídos em duas seções temáticas: Cooperação é integração internacional assimétrica em assuntos de seguran- ça, estratégia, comércio e Cultura global em relações internacionais.Cooperação e integração internacional assimétrica em assuntos de segurança, estratégia e comércioAbrimos a edição 2018-I com o artigo denominado "Como fortalecer a coopera- ção EE. UU - China baseada no cinturão e a estrada", dos autores Weidong Wang e Simona Picciau, no qual a iniciativa belt and road apresentada pelo presidente chino, Xi Jinping em 2013, promove a cooperação e o fortalecimento das conexões pessoa-a-pessoa entre a Ásia, África e a Europa. China já assinou acordos de cooperação com mais de quarenta Estados e treinou a outros trinta. Isto impactou o estabelecimento das relações entre a China e a União Europeia, baseadas na cooperação win-win e direcionadas ao favorecimento do respeito mútuoSonia Alda Mejías publica no seu artigo "Os desafios da América Latina para projetar-se como ator regional no âmbito da segurança internacional", no qual contempla a possibilidade da América Latina de projetar-se como ator regional no âmbito da segurança internacional desde uma metodologia qualitativa. Assim mesmo, referência como necessários, os processos de integração sub-regional ou regional e o desenvolvimento da cooperação multilateral "intra" e internacional no âmbito da segurança e a defesa, e a participação dos países latino-americanos nas missões internacionais de paz, desde uma perspectiva "soberanista" muito marcada.O artigo "As noções de segurança e controle no plano fronteira norte: uma expressão de "teichopolítica", dos autores Gilberto Aranda e Cristian Ovando, considera a "teichopolítica" como uma expressão atual da globalização segmentada, na qual não fala somente na construção de muros. Chile manifestou tal política nos anos 70, minando zonas de fronteiras como mecanismos preventivos a uma invasão estrangeira, através do plano Fronteira Norte. Este mecanismo de segurança pretende garantir a continuidade dos fluxos comerciais e as consequências culturais que leva, desde o foco construtivista. Pablo Garcés Velástegui apresenta seu artigo "Integração latino-americana como um problema perverso: o caso para uma abordagem plural". Neste a planificação social não é um problema qualquer, si não um problema "perverso", nada suave, um problema de ciências exatas que encaminha a um tema de política pública; um problema difícil de definir, único, inerentemente paradóxico, importante, sujeito a muitas interpretações e assim sem uma solução correta. A integração latino-americana tem estas características e as implicações são relevantes para acadêmicos e tomadores de decisão. Sem a integração regional continua sendo abordada como um problema suave, os resultados provavelmente continuarão discordando com as expectativas."O Reino Unido e Argentina: geopolítica da limitação tecnológica e controles de exportação estratégicas", de Daniel Blinder, mostra como o Reino Unido controla a exportação tecnologia militar ou de uso dual para a República Argentina através de suas instituições de defesa e comércio, assim também como com outras de caráter internacional. Uma política pública estratégica a nível local e global representada na lógica espaço/poder, relativa a possibilidade de que Argentina adquira tecnologias sensíveis.Os co-autores Roldán Andrés-Rosales, Luis Alberto Sánchez-Mitre e José Nabor Cruz Marcelo apresentam o artigo titulado "A insegurança e o seu impacto no turismo em Guerrero: um enfoque espacial, 1999-2014", que lhe oferece ao leitor a possibilidade de conhecer como a insegurança mexicana tem afetado o crescimento econômico do Estado e da região a nível turístico. Isto o faz através de um estudo de caso em Guerrero, pois abrange a uma das zonas mais inseguras, classificada a nível mundial, o que constitui um índice de violência que mostra a concentração do perigo através das análises das cifras do Instituto Nacional de Estatística e Geografia."O regionalismo assimétrico como eixo da resistência sul-americana ao Brasil (2000-2013)", de Rita Giacalone, supõem que o regionalismo em si mesmo cria tensões assimétricas. O regionalismo brasileiro possui rasgos realistas, construtivistas e institucionalistas, que enfatizam tais assimetrias seguindo o paradigma "região-centrico". As organizações construídas para apoiar a projeção regional e global do Brasil geram resistência nos Governos sul-americanos entre 2000 e 2013. Este artigo analisa a resistência do Chile, Argentina e Venezuela, mediante uma multipolaridade descentralizada.Cultura global em relações internacionaisAbrimos esta seção temática com o artigo de Juliano Oliveira Pizarro titulado "Governança do deporte: uma inflexão da governança global?". Neste se considera que o global é um espaço de nascimento de diversos atores que exercem governos específicos, como representa o futebol. Um esporte feito para mecanismo social e cultural que sofre impactos diretos desde os processos globalizadores. A FIFA é uma organização não governamental sem fins lucrativos, ainda que não pareça, pois, as suas atividades expressam condições híbridas e contraditórias, seja ela, desde a ótica da governança global ou bem como uma empresa multinacional.Luis González Tule, por sua parte, no seu artigo "Organização do espaço global na geopolítica "clássica": um olhar desde a geopolítica crítica", inicia nas raízes da geopolítica e seu desenvolvimento, em meio das rivalidades imperiais europeias, guerras mundiais, mutações de fronteiras, mudanças políticos, grandes desenvolvimentos tecnológicos e transformações nas dinâmicas do poder (1870 e 1945). Os doutrinantes clássicos provenientes das principais potencias estabeleceram os discursos geopolíticos de acordo a sua conveniênciaAssim, a presente edição se fecha com o artigo "A emergência e aumento do antissemitismo nos Governos de Hugo Chávez e sua relação com a aprofundamento das relações entre Venezuela e o Iram (2005-2013)", de Margarita Figueroa Sepúlveda, que estabelece o crescimento dos incidentes antissemitas mediáticos e chavistas em 2004, assim como a sua relação diretamente proporcional com a aproximação e criação de novos laços com a República Islâmica do Iram. Se analisa a convergência ideológica –sustentada no anti-imperialismo–, através da evidencia empírica proporcionada por fontes primárias e secundarias. A autora considera que o anti-imperialismo fez que Israel fosse concebido como inimigo de ambos países.Agradecendo novamente a confiança das autoridades institucionais para editar a Revista de Relações Internacionais, Estratégia e Segurança, os convido a conhecer, usar e divulgar o conteúdo da presente edição.

Esta tesis doctoral se ha realizado dentro del marco de un acuerdo de co-tutela entre la Universidad de Zaragoza (Universidad de origen), la Universidad de Calabria (Universidad anfitriona) y la Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología de la Universidad NOVA de Lisboa (FCT NOVA) (Universidad anfitriona). El trabajo de investigación se ha llevado a cabo dentro del programa de Doctorado en Ingeniería de Membranas Erasmus Mundus (EUDIME), (FPA 2011-0014), financiado por la Unión Europea. La tesis se centró principalmente en el uso de la técnica de electrohilado para producir diferentes tipos de membranas que puedan ser utilizadas en distintas aplicaciones biomédicas. Se sintetizaron y produjeron nanopartículas orgánicas e inorgánicas para ser utilizadas como rellenos o como portadores (sistema de administración de fármacos), así como membranas nanofibrosas electrohiladas. Este trabajo se llevó a cabo en el Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragón (INA), específicamente en el grupo de Nanostructured Films and Particles (NFP) bajo la supervisión de la profesora Silvia Irusta y la Dra. Gracia Mendoza. Una parte importante de la caracterización físico-química se realizó en el INA. En la Universidad de Calabria se trabajó bajo la supervisión de la Dra. Loredana de Bartolo en el Instituto de Tecnología de Membranas (ITM). Allí se utilizaron técnicas específicas tanto para la caracterización como para estudiar diferentes señales biológicas producidas por las membranas sintetizadas, bajo la supervisión. Por otro lado, la movilidad llevada a cabo en la Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología (FCT NOVA) de la Universidade NOVA (FCT NOVA) bajo la supervisión de la profesora Ana Isabel Aguiar-Ricardo, permitió realizar una caracterización completa de dos membranas asimétricas siguiendo diferentes Normas Internacionales que establecen diferentes ensayos a realizar en apósitos primarios utilizados en heridas. El desarrollo de nuevos scaffolds cargados con proteínas morfogenéticas o antibióticos es de gran interés en el campo de la ingeniería de tejidos óseos. Scaffolds electrohilados con una microporosidad mejorada puede ser beneficioso para mejorar la viabilidad celular debido a que una alta porosidad junto a la presencia de microporos puede proporcionar un entorno tridimensional (3D) que no solamente facilita la siembra y difusión celular sino también proporciona una mejor difusión de los nutrientes y residuos a través del scaffolds. La adición de cerámica de fosfato de calcio ha sido ampliamente investigada para fabricar scaffolds altamente porosos para la ingeniería de tejidos óseos debido a que presentan una composición muy similar al hueso, incluyendo excelentes propiedades de biocompatibilidad, osteoinductivas y osteoconductoras. Partículas cargadas con proteínas morfogenéticas de hueso distribuidas homogéneamente en el scaffolds podrían asegurar una liberación continua del factor de crecimiento proporcionando de esta forma las señales bioquímicas necesarias para la reparación y regeneración ósea. Los scaffolds cargados con antibióticos pueden proporcionar una liberación sostenida del fármaco en el sitio de interés, así como el mantenimiento de propiedades osteogénicas mejoradas para la regeneración exitosa del hueso. Evitando de esta forma que se alcancen niveles de toxicidad o niveles ineficaces en la zona de interés, así como la aparición de efectos secundarios indeseados en los pacientes que provocan un rechazo a los tratamientos prolongados de fármacos por vía sistemática (vía oral e intravenosa). Otra aplicación biomédica interesante de las membranas electrohiladas es la fabricación de apósitos inteligentes eficientes para el tratamiento de heridas. Para lograr una curación rápida de la herida es necesario desarrollar membranas apropiadas con poros interconectados capaces de prevenir la deshidratación rápida y la penetración de bacterias. Para mantener un ambiente húmedo en el lecho de la herida se necesita una alta capacidad de absorción y una adecuada transmisión de vapor de agua. Además, si la membrana electrohilada presenta propiedades bactericidas facilitará el proceso de curación. El objetivo principal de esta tesis fue el desarrollo mediante electrohilado de membranas fibrosas con las características apropiadas para ser utilizadas en la ingeniería de tejidos óseos o como apósito para heridas. En los Capítulos II al V se plantean una serie de objetivos específicos con el fin de cumplir el objetivo principal. Este documento de tesis se dividió en las siguientes secciones:  CAPÍTULO I, corresponde a la introducción general donde se describen los conceptos de biomateriales, scaffolds, ingeniería de tejidos y el objetivo principal de los sistemas de liberación de fármacos. Así como, la clasificación de los biomateriales y la ingeniería de tejidos según el origen de los materiales. Además se ponen de manifiesto todos los factores que deben tenerse en cuenta para desarrollar y aplicar adecuadamente los apósitos para heridas. Se mencionaron las diferentes técnicas utilizadas en la literatura haciendo énfasis en el uso de electrohilado y electropulverización para producir scaffolds o membranas para su uso en la ingeniería del tejido óseo y como apósitos para heridas.  CAPÍTULO II, se enfoca en el desarrollo y mejora de andamios 3D capaces de promover una eficiente regeneración ósea junto con la liberación de antibióticos dirigidos para prevenir la colonización de bacterias. El objetivo de este trabajo fue sintetizar y caracterizar un sistema de liberación de fármacos que consiste en nanofibras electrohiladas de policaprolactona (PCL) decoradas con partículas de poli (ácido láctico-coglicólico) (PLGA) cargadas con rifampicina (RFP). Este material debe promover la reparación ósea evitando el deterioro del scaffolds provocado por una infección. Se realizó la evaluación in vitro de la capacidad bactericida del material electrohilado sintetizado contra bacterias Gram positivas (Staphylococcus aureus) y Gram negativas (Escherichia coli), así como su citocompatibilidad en cultivos 3D con osteoblastos humanos. Estos resultados se enviaron a la Revista de farmacia "International Journal of Pharmaceuitics" para su publicación en formato de artículo y está bajo revisión.  CAPÍTULO III, se describe la síntesis y caracterización de membranas con estructura de núcleo-envoltura de PCL y acetato de polivinilo (PVAc) obtenidas por electrohilado. Las fibras se cargaron con nanopartículas de hidroxiapatita sintética (HAn) para aumentar la bioactividad de los materiales. Los scaffolds desarrollados se trataron con ablación láser para crear características topográficas deseadas a nivel micrométrico con el objetivo de favorecer la adhesión y crecimiento celular. Todas las membranas obtenidas presentaron una estructura de poros tridimensionalmente interconectados y el tratamiento con láser provocó un aumento en la viabilidad y densidad celular. Además, el aumento en la biocompatibilidad de los scaffolds sugiere que los microporos pequeños favorecen la adhesión y proliferación celular. Estos resultados fueron publicados en el artículo titulado "Laser-treated electrospun fibers loaded with nano-hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragon, Nuria Navascues, Gracia Mendoza, Silvia Irusta. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 525,112–122, 2017. DOI:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.022.  CAPÍTULO IV, se refiere al desarrollo de un scaffold electrohilado compuesto por fibras con estructura de núcleo-cubierta de PCL o PCL/PVAc cargado con HAn sintética. Estas fibras se decoraron con partículas de PLGA cargadas con proteína morfogenética ósea 2 (BMP2) mediante el uso simultaneo de electrohilado coaxial y electropulverización. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar las propiedades estructurales y físico-químicas así como el proceso de biodegradación de los nuevos scaffolds desarrollados y su capacidad para abordar las características arquitectónicas, bioquímicas y funcionales del tejido óseo. Para esto, se probó la bioactividad del scaffold mediante el cultivo de osteoblastos humanos sobre ellos y se monitoreo de la viabilidad celular durante 4 semanas. Se evaluó la actividad osteogénica in vitro de las células sembradas sobre los scaffolds determinando la actividad de la fosfatasa alcalina (ALP) y la expresión de osteocalcina (OCN) y osteopontina (OPN) como proteínas osteogénicas. Estos resultados fueron publicados en el artículo titulado "Polymeric electrospun scaffolds for bone morphogenetic protein 2 delivery in bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragón, Simona Salerno, Loredana De Bartolo, Silvia Irusta and Gracia Mendoza. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 531 (2018) 126–137. DOI:10.1016/j.jcis.2018.07.029.  El CAPÍTULO V, describe la síntesis de un apósito antimicrobiano para heridas, con una resistencia mecánica adecuada que es capaz de absorber exudados y evitar la deshidratación rápida de una herida. Se prepararon membranas asimétricas de PCL/PVAc cargadas con carvacrol (CRV) mediante el uso simultáneo de electrohilado y electropulverización. Las membranas constan de dos capas; la primera es una capa de PCL electrohilado; la segunda, una lámina de PVAc que estaría en contacto con la piel liberando a su vez el compuesto antimicrobiano. Se demostró que el uso de diferentes disolventes pueden dar lugar a la obtención de diferentes morfologías de la capa PVAc-CRV. Los valores obtenidos de elongación máxima de las membranas antes de romperse son adecuados para ser utilizados como apósitos para heridas ya que están en el mismo rango reportado de elongaciones en la piel humana. Las membranas presentan una tasa óptima de Transmisión de vapor de agua (WVTR) con valores que se encuentran en el rango requerido para mantener un buen balance entre humedad y pérdida de agua en la herida. En la primera semana, se liberó más del 60 % del CRV cargado, mientras que después de tres semanas, las membranas liberaron entre el 85 y el 100 % del CRV cargado mediante la contribución de un proceso de difusión de tipo Fickiano y la relajación delas cadenas poliméricas. Las membranas sintetizadas son candidatas potenciales para ser utilizadas como apósitos para heridas. El manuscrito que resume estos resultados se envió a la revista "Materials Science and Engineering C" y está bajo revisión (MSEC_2018_3013).  CAPÍTULO VI, resume las conclusiones generales del trabajo de tesis.  APÉNDICE 1, describe las principales técnicas de caracterización y los métodos para evaluar diferentes propiedades en función de las posibles aplicaciones.  APÉNDICE 2, resume los artículos publicados y la participación en foros científicos durante el período de tesis. 1 The current Doctoral Thesis work has been performed under a co-supervision agreement between University of Zaragoza (Home University), University of Calabria (Host University) and Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the NOVA University of Lisbon (FCT NOVA) (Host University). This research has been carried out inside the Erasmus Mundus Doctorate in Membrane Engineering program (EUDIME), (FPA 2011-0014), funded by the European Union. This thesis focused mainly on the use of the electrospinning technique to produce different kind of membranes for biomedical applications. In particular, it described the synthesis and production of inorganic and organic nanoparticles to be used as fillers or as carriers (drug delivery system) as well as the production of electrospun nanofibrous membranes. This work was carried out within the Institute of Nanoscience of Aragon (INA), specifically in the Nanostructured Films and Particles (NFP) group under the supervision of the Professor Silvia Irusta and Dr Gracia Mendoza. Also an important part of the physico-chemical characterization was done at INA. The study of different biological signals and the use of specific techniques for membrane characterization were acquired at the University of Calabria under the supervision of Dr. Loredana De Bartolo in the Institute on Membrane Technology of the National Research Council of Italy (ITM-CNR). On the other hand, the mobility carried out at the Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FCT NOVA) of Universidade NOVA (FCT NOVA) under the supervision of Professor Ana Isabel Aguiar-Ricardo, allowed a total characterization of two asymmetric membranes following different International Standards to accomplish testing for primary wound dressing. The development of novel membranes loaded with morphogenetic proteins or antibiotic are of great interest in the field of bone tissue engineering. To promote the cellular viability and extracellular matrix production, electrospun membranes with enhanced porosity and micro-scale pores could be beneficial since increased porosity and pore size can provide a three-dimensional (3D) environment that not only facilitates cell seeding/diffusion but also provides better diffusion of nutrients and waste throughout the membranes. The addition of calcium phosphate ceramics has been extensively investigated to fabricate highly porous membranes to bone tissue engineering due to their close similar composition of bone, including excellent biocompatibility, osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties. A homogeneous distribution of the bone morphogenetic protein-loaded particles along the entire membrane could be ensuring a continuous release of the growth factor to provide the necessary biochemical cues for bone repair and regeneration. Antibiotic-loaded membranes may provide drug targeted and sustained release, avoiding the long-term oral and intravenous systematic multidrug administration, which implies toxic side effects, low delivery to the target site and low patient adherence to the treatment. Therefore, membranes loaded with antibiotics can overcome the drawbacks of the traditional therapy sustaining enhanced osteogenic properties for the successful regeneration of the bone. Another interesting biomedical application of electrospun membranes is the fabrication of efficient smart dressings for the treatment of wounds. A rapid wound healing requires developing appropriate membranes with interconnected pores that allow the oxygen diffusion and transport of metabolic waste, as well as an adequate pore size to prevent rapid dehydration and bacteria penetration. A high absorption capacity and adequate water vapor transmission will be necessary to keep a moist environment in the wound bed. Besides, if the electrospun membrane has some bactericidal properties will be better for the healing process. The main goal of this thesis was the development of fibrous membranes by electrospinning with the appropriate characteristics to be used in bone tissue engineering or as wound dressing materials. To achieve this target, several specific objectives were defined, which are described in Chapters II to V. The thesis was divided in the following sections: CHAPTER I, is an introduction where the concepts of biomaterials, scaffolds and tissue engineering and the main target of drug delivery systems are described. The chapter includes the classification of biomaterials according to the origin of the materials and tissue engineering is also described as well as all the factors that must be taken into account to develop and properly apply a wound dressing are discussed. Different kind of techniques used in the literature to produce scaffolds or membranes for bone tissue engineering and wound dressings are mentioned, focusing on the use of electrospinning and electrospray to produce them. CHAPTER II, focuses on the development of enhanced 3D membranes able to promote efficient bone regeneration together with targeted antibiotic release to prevent bacteria colonization. The aim of this work was to synthesize and characterize a drug delivery system consisting of polycaprolactone (PCL) electrospun nanofibers decorated with rifampicin (RFP) loaded into poly(lactic-coglicolic acid) (PLGA) particles. This material would promote bone repair avoiding the impairment of the membrane mediated by infection. The bactericidal ability of the synthesized electrospun material was assessed In vitro against gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and gram negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria, as well as its cytocompatibility in human osteoblasts 3D cultures. These results are included in the accepted article entitled "Composite scaffold obtained by electro-hydrodynamic technique for infection prevention and treatment in bone repair". Javier Aragon, Sergio Feoli, Gracia Mendoza, Silvia Irusta. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. CHAPTER III, describes the synthesis and characterization of core-shell membranes of PCL and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) obtained by electrospinning. The fibers were loaded with synthetic hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAn) to increase the bioactivity of the materials. The prepared membranes were then treated by laser ablation to create desired microscale topographical features in order to favor cell adhesion and growth. All prepared membranes exhibited a three-dimensional network structure with interconnected pores; the laser treatment has modified the structural characteristics of the membrane causing an increase the cell viability and cell density. The materials biocompatibility is affected by the structural properties of the membranes, indeed smaller micropore sizes favor cell adhesion and proliferation. These results are published in the article entitled "Laser-treated electrospun fibers loaded with nano-hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragon, Nuria Navascues, Gracia Mendoza, Silvia Irusta. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 525,112–122, 2017. DOI:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.022. CHAPTER IV, refers to the development of a composite electrospun membrane of PCL or PCL/PVAc core–shell fibers loaded with synthetic HAn. These fibers were decorated with bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) loaded in/into PLGA particles via simultaneous electrospraying and coaxial electrospinning. The aim of this study was to evaluate the structural and physico-chemical properties and biodegradation processes of the newly developed membranes assessing their ability to address the architectural, biochemical, and functional features of bone tissue. For this purpose, the membrane bioactivity was tested by culturing human osteoblasts on the membranes and by monitoring cell viability up to 4 weeks. The In vitro osteogenic activity of cells seeded onto the membranes was evaluated by assessing alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and the expression of osteogenic proteins osteocalcin (OCN) and osteopontin (OPN). These results are published in the article "Polymeric electrospun scaffolds for bone morphogenetic protein 2 delivery in bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragón, Simona Salerno, Loredana De Bartolo, Silvia Irusta and Gracia Mendoza. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 531 (2018) 126–137. DOI:10.1016/j.jcis.2018.07.029. CHAPTER V, describes the synthesis of an antimicrobial wound dressing material, with appropriate mechanical resistance avoiding rapid dehydration and absorbing exudates. PCL/PVAc asymmetric membranes loaded with carvacrol (CRV) were prepared by electrospinning and electrospraying simultaneously. The membranes consist of two layers: the first is an electrospun PCL sheet, the second a PVAc sheet that would be in contact with the skin releasing the antimicrobial compound. The use of different solvents results in different morphologies for the PVAc-CRV layer. The membranes exhibit mechanical properties with strain to failure values that are in the range of human skin, being adequate to be deposited over a wound surface. The samples present Water Vapor Transmission (WVTR) values in the required range to keep good moisture balance with water loss from the wound at the optimal rate. In the first week, more than 60 % of the loaded CRV was released while after three weeks membranes released between 85 to 100 % of the loaded CRV through a Fickian diffusion and diffusion due to polymer relaxation. The synthesized membranes are potential candidates to be used for wound dressing applications. The manuscript summing up these results has been submitted to a scientific journal and is currently under review. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, summarizes the conclusions of the thesis work. APPENDIX 1, describes the main characterization techniques and the methods to evaluate different properties according to the possible applications. APPENDIX 2, summarizes the articles published and the participation in scientific forums during the thesis period.

In my postgraduate formation during the last years of the 80's, we had close to thirty hospital beds in a pavilion called "sépticas" (1). In Colombia, where abortion was completely penalized, the pavilion was mostly filled with women with insecure, complicated abortions. The focus we received was technical: management of intensive care; performance of hysterectomies, colostomies, bowel resection, etc. In those times, some nurses were nuns and limited themselves to interrogating the patients to get them to "confess" what they had done to themselves in order to abort. It always disturbed me that the women who left alive, left without any advice or contraceptive method. Having asked a professor of mine, he responded with disdain: "This is a third level hospital, those things are done by nurses of the first level". Seeing so much pain and death, I decided to talk to patients, and I began to understand their decision. I still remember so many deaths with sadness, but one case in particular pains me: it was a woman close to being fifty who arrived with a uterine perforation in a state of advanced sepsis. Despite the surgery and the intensive care, she passed away. I had talked to her, and she told me she was a widow, had two adult kids and had aborted because of "embarrassment towards them" because they were going to find out that she had an active sexual life. A few days after her passing, the pathology professor called me, surprised, to tell me that the uterus we had sent for pathological examination showed no pregnancy. She was a woman in a perimenopausal state with a pregnancy exam that gave a false positive due to the high levels of FSH/LH typical of her age. SHE WAS NOT PREGNANT!!! She didn't have menstruation because she was premenopausal and a false positive led her to an unsafe abortion. Of course, the injuries caused in the attempted abortion caused the fatal conclusion, but the real underlying cause was the social taboo in respect to sexuality. I had to watch many adolescents and young women leave the hospital alive, but without a uterus, sometime without ovaries and with colostomies, to be looked down on by a society that blamed them for deciding to not be mothers. I had to see situation of women that arrived with their intestines protruding from their vaginas because of unsafe abortions. I saw women, who in their despair, self-inflicted injuries attempting to abort with elements such as stick, branches, onion wedges, alum bars and clothing hooks among others. Among so many deaths, it was hard not having at least one woman per day in the morgue due to an unsafe abortion. During those time, healthcare was not handled from the biopsychosocial, but only from the technical (2); nonetheless, in the academic evaluations that were performed, when asked about the definition of health, we had to recite the text from the International Organization of Health that included these three aspects. How contradictory! To give response to the health need of women and guarantee their right when I was already a professor, I began an obstetric contraceptive service in that third level hospital. There was resistance from the directors, but fortunately I was able to acquire international donations for the institution, which facilitated its acceptance. I decided to undertake a teaching career with the hope of being able to sensitize health professionals towards an integral focus of health and illness. When the International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994, I had already spent various years in teaching, and when I read their Action Program, I found a name for what I was working on: Sexual and Reproductive Rights. I began to incorporate the tools given by this document into my professional and teaching life. I was able to sensitize people at my countries Health Ministry, and we worked together moving it to an approach of human rights in areas of sexual and reproductive health (SRH). This new viewpoint, in addition to being integral, sought to give answers to old problems like maternal mortality, adolescent pregnancy, low contraceptive prevalence, unplanned or unwanted pregnancy or violence against women. With other sensitized people, we began with these SRH issues to permeate the Colombian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, some universities, and university hospitals. We are still fighting in a country that despite many difficulties has improved its indicators of SRH. With the experience of having labored in all sphere of these topics, we manage to create, with a handful of colleagues and friend at the Universidad El Bosque, a Master's Program in Sexual and Reproductive Health, open to all professions, in which we broke several paradigms. A program was initiated in which the qualitative and quantitative investigation had the same weight, and some alumni of the program are now in positions of leadership in governmental and international institutions, replicating integral models. In the Latin American Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FLASOG, English acronym) and in the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FIGO), I was able to apply my experience for many years in the SRH committees of these association to benefit women and girls in the regional and global environments. When I think of who has inspired me in these fights, I should highlight the great feminist who have taught me and been with me in so many fights. I cannot mention them all, but I have admired the story of the life of Margaret Sanger with her persistence and visionary outlook. She fought throughout her whole life to help the women of the 20th century to be able to obtain the right to decide when and whether or not they wanted to have children (3). Of current feminist, I have had the privilege of sharing experiences with Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz and Alejandra Meglioli, leaders of the International Planned Parenthood Federation – Western Hemisphere Region (IPPF-RHO). From my country, I want to mention my countrywoman Florence Thomas, psychologist, columnist, writer and Colombo-French feminist. She is one of the most influential and important voices in the movement for women rights in Colombia and the region. She arrived from France in the 1960's, in the years of counterculture, the Beatles, hippies, Simone de Beauvoir, and Jean-Paul Sartre, a time in which capitalism and consumer culture began to be criticized (4). It was then when they began to talk about the female body, female sexuality and when the contraceptive pill arrived like a total revolution for women. Upon its arrival in 1967, she experimented a shock because she had just assisted in a revolution and only found a country of mothers, not women (5). That was the only destiny for a woman, to be quiet and submissive. Then she realized that this could not continue, speaking of "revolutionary vanguards" in such a patriarchal environment. In 1986 with the North American and European feminism waves and with her academic team, they created the group "Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia", incubator of great initiatives and achievements for the country (6). She has led great changes with her courage, the strength of her arguments, and a simultaneously passionate and agreeable discourse. Among her multiple books, I highlight "Conversaciones con Violeta" (7), motivated by the disdain towards feminism of some young women. She writes it as a dialogue with an imaginary daughter in which, in an intimate manner, she reconstructs the history of women throughout the centuries and gives new light of the fundamental role of feminism in the life of modern women. Another book that shows her bravery is "Había que decirlo" (8), in which she narrates the experience of her own abortion at age twenty-two in sixty's France. My work experience in the IPPF-RHO has allowed me to meet leaders of all ages in diverse countries of the region, who with great mysticism and dedication, voluntarily, work to achieve a more equal and just society. I have been particularly impressed by the appropriation of the concept of sexual and reproductive rights by young people, and this has given me great hope for the future of the planet. We continue to have an incomplete agenda of the action plan of the ICPD of Cairo but seeing how the youth bravely confront the challenges motivates me to continue ahead and give my years of experience in an intergenerational work. In their policies and programs, the IPPF-RHO evidences great commitment for the rights and the SRH of adolescent, that are consistent with what the organization promotes, for example, 20% of the places for decision making are in hands of the young. Member organizations, that base their labor on volunteers, are true incubators of youth that will make that unassailable and necessary change of generations. In contrast to what many of us experienced, working in this complicated agenda of sexual and reproductive health without theoretical bases, today we see committed people with a solid formation to replace us. In the college of medicine at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the College of Nursing at the Universidad El Bosque, the new generations are more motivated and empowered, with great desire to change the strict underlying structures. Our great worry is the onslaught of the ultra-right, a lot of times better organized than us who do support rights, that supports anti-rights group and are truly pro-life (9). Faced with this scenario, we should organize ourselves better, giving battle to guarantee the rights of women in the local, regional, and global level, aggregating the efforts of all pro-right organizations. We are now committed to the Objectives of Sustainable Development (10), understood as those that satisfy the necessities of the current generation without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own necessities. This new agenda is based on: - The unfinished work of the Millennium Development Goals - Pending commitments (international environmental conventions) - The emergent topics of the three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. We now have 17 objectives of sustainable development and 169 goals (11). These goals mention "universal access to reproductive health" many times. In objective 3 of this list is included guaranteeing, before the year 2030, "universal access to sexual and reproductive health services, including those of family planning, information, and education." Likewise, objective 5, "obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls", establishes the goal of "assuring the universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights in conformity with the action program of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Action Platform of Beijing". It cannot be forgotten that the term universal access to sexual and reproductive health includes universal access to abortion and contraception. Currently, 830 women die every day through preventable maternal causes; of these deaths, 99% occur in developing countries, more than half in fragile environments and in humanitarian contexts (12). 216 million women cannot access modern contraception methods and the majority live in the nine poorest countries in the world and in a cultural environment proper to the decades of the seventies (13). This number only includes women from 15 to 49 years in any marital state, that is to say, the number that takes all women into account is much greater. Achieving the proposed objectives would entail preventing 67 million unwanted pregnancies and reducing maternal deaths by two thirds. We currently have a high, unsatisfied demand for modern contraceptives, with extremely low use of reversible, long term methods (intrauterine devices and subdermal implants) which are the most effect ones with best adherence (14). There is not a single objective among the 17 Objectives of Sustainable Development where contraception does not have a prominent role: from the first one that refers to ending poverty, going through the fifth one about gender equality, the tenth of inequality reduction among countries and within the same country, until the sixteenth related with peace and justice. If we want to change the world, we should procure universal access to contraception without myths or barriers. We have the moral obligation of achieving the irradiation of extreme poverty and advancing the construction of more equal, just, and happy societies. In emergency contraception (EC), we are very far from reaching expectations. If in reversible, long-term methods we have low prevalence, in EC the situation gets worse. Not all faculties in the region look at this topic, and where it is looked at, there is no homogeneity in content, not even within the same country. There are still myths about their real action mechanisms. There are countries, like Honduras, where it is prohibited and there is no specific medicine, the same case as in Haiti. Where it is available, access is dismal, particularly among girls, adolescents, youth, migrants, afro-descendent, and indigenous. The multiple barriers for the effective use of emergency contraceptives must be knocked down, and to work toward that we have to destroy myths and erroneous perceptions, taboos and cultural norms; achieve changes in laws and restrictive rules within countries, achieve access without barriers to the EC; work in union with other sectors; train health personnel and the community. It is necessary to transform the attitude of health personal to a service above personal opinion. Reflecting on what has occurred after the ICPD in Cairo, their Action Program changed how we look at the dynamics of population from an emphasis on demographics to a focus on the people and human rights. The governments agreed that, in this new focus, success was the empowerment of women and the possibility of choice through expanded access to education, health, services, and employment among others. Nonetheless, there have been unequal advances and inequality persists in our region, all the goals were not met, the sexual and reproductive goals continue beyond the reach of many women (15). There is a long road ahead until women and girls of the world can claim their rights and liberty of deciding. Globally, maternal deaths have been reduced, there is more qualified assistance of births, more contraception prevalence, integral sexuality education, and access to SRH services for adolescents are now recognized rights with great advances, and additionally there have been concrete gains in terms of more favorable legal frameworks, particularly in our region; nonetheless, although it's true that the access condition have improved, the restrictive laws of the region expose the most vulnerable women to insecure abortions. There are great challenges for governments to recognize SRH and the DSR as integral parts of health systems, there is an ample agenda against women. In that sense, access to SRH is threatened and oppressed, it requires multi-sector mobilization and litigation strategies, investigation and support for the support of women's rights as a multi-sector agenda. Looking forward, we must make an effort to work more with youth to advance not only the Action Program of the ICPD, but also all social movements. They are one of the most vulnerable groups, and the biggest catalyzers for change. The young population still faces many challenges, especially women and girls; young girls are in particularly high risk due to lack of friendly and confidential services related with sexual and reproductive health, gender violence, and lack of access to services. In addition, access to abortion must be improved; it is the responsibility of states to guarantee the quality and security of this access. In our region there still exist countries with completely restrictive frameworks. New technologies facilitate self-care (16), which will allow expansion of universal access, but governments cannot detach themselves from their responsibility. Self-care is expanding in the world and can be strategic for reaching the most vulnerable populations. There are new challenges for the same problems, that require a re-interpretation of the measures necessary to guaranty the DSR of all people, in particular women, girls, and in general, marginalized and vulnerable populations. It is necessary to take into account migrations, climate change, the impact of digital media, the resurgence of hate discourse, oppression, violence, xenophobia, homo/transphobia, and other emergent problems, as SRH should be seen within a framework of justice, not isolated. We should demand accountability of the 179 governments that participate in the ICPD 25 years ago and the 193 countries that signed the Sustainable Development Objectives. They should reaffirm their commitments and expand their agenda to topics not considered at that time. Our region has given the world an example with the Agreement of Montevideo, that becomes a blueprint for achieving the action plan of the CIPD and we should not allow retreat. This agreement puts people at the center, especially women, and includes the topic of abortion, inviting the state to consider the possibility of legalizing it, which opens the doors for all governments of the world to recognize that women have the right to choose on maternity. This agreement is much more inclusive: Considering that the gaps in health continue to abound in the region and the average statistics hide the high levels of maternal mortality, of sexually transmitted diseases, of infection by HIV/AIDS, and the unsatisfied demand for contraception in the population that lives in poverty and rural areas, among indigenous communities, and afro-descendants and groups in conditions of vulnerability like women, adolescents and incapacitated people, it is agreed: 33- To promote, protect, and guarantee the health and the sexual and reproductive rights that contribute to the complete fulfillment of people and social justice in a society free of any form of discrimination and violence. 37- Guarantee universal access to quality sexual and reproductive health services, taking into consideration the specific needs of men and women, adolescents and young, LGBT people, older people and people with incapacity, paying particular attention to people in a condition of vulnerability and people who live in rural and remote zone, promoting citizen participation in the completing of these commitments. 42- To guarantee, in cases in which abortion is legal or decriminalized in the national legislation, the existence of safe and quality abortion for non-desired or non-accepted pregnancies and instigate the other States to consider the possibility of modifying public laws, norms, strategies, and public policy on the voluntary interruption of pregnancy to save the life and health of pregnant adolescent women, improving their quality of life and decreasing the number of abortions (17).

Priorities for future sustainable development within Europe and Central Asia are formulated in visions by governments and societal actors. Integrated scenario and modelling studies enable the assessment of impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people, and a good quality of life resulting from these priorities, and help to co-design and codeliver appropriate pathways to sustainable futures (established but incomplete) (5.1.2, 5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.5.2). Priorities for future sustainable development are captured in regional visions, which describe a future desired by society or parts of society in Europe and Central Asia. Matching these priorities to the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets revealed that regional priorities include sustainable economic growth in tandem with sustainable industrialization (Goal 8, Goal 9), sustainable agriculture, forestry, aquaculture and management of natural resources (Goal 15, Target 7), all promoted by sustainable consumption and production patterns (Goal 12, Target 4). Climate action and sustainable energy (Goal 13, Goal 7) are also priorities. Reduced inequalities (Goal 10), gender equality (Goal 5) and peace, justice and strong institutions (Goal 16), as well as representation of a diverse range of values, are less emphasized (established but incomplete) (5.1.2, 5.4.2, 5.4.3). Integrated assessments of future interactions between the priorities for sustainable development and nature and its contributions to people, which support proactive decisionmaking that anticipates change, mitigates undesirable trade-offs and fosters societal transformation in pursuit of a good quality of life, are rare due to the complexity of human and environment interdependencies (well established) (5.1.1, 5.3.1, 5.5.3, 5.5.4). Nevertheless, ignoring these complexities is likely to cause undesired trade-offs and to prevent the realization of synergies (5.3.1). Cross-sectoral and cross-scale integration of adaptation, mitigation and transformative actions and policies by multiple actors is key to the co-design and co-delivery of appropriate pathways to realize visions of future sustainable development (established but incomplete) (5.4.2, 5.4.3, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.5, 5.5.6). The choices made by decision-makers and societal actors are expected to lead to large differences in future impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people, and good quality of life within Europe and Central Asia (established but incomplete) (5.2.3, 5.3.3, 5.3.4). More positive impacts are projected under futures that assume proactive decision-making on environmental issues and promote a more holistic approach to managing human and environmental systems which supports multifunctionality and multiple contributions from nature to people (established but incomplete) (5.2.3, 5.3.3, 5.3.4). Projecting historical trends into the future under a businessas- usual scenario results in stable trends in nature (e.g. reflected in biodiversity vulnerability indices), negative trends in nature's regulating contributions (e.g. regulation of climate or hazards and extreme events) and mixed trends in nature's material contributions (e.g. food production) (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Different assumptions about future trends in drivers lead to widely varying projected impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people and a good quality of life. Under economic optimism scenarios, where global developments are steered by economic growth and environmental problems are only dealt with when solutions are of economic interest, an increase in the provision of most of nature's material contributions to people (e.g. food and timber) is projected associated with a general decline in nature and its regulating contributions to people (e.g. air and water quality regulation) (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Under regional competition scenarios there is a growing gap between rich and poor, increasing problems with crime, violence and terrorism, and strong trade barriers. Consequently, its impacts are highly mixed with generally large declines in nature (e.g. habitat maintenance and creation) and the most negative impacts of all scenarios on nature's non-material contributions to people (e.g. learning and inspiration) and good quality of life indicators (e.g. health and well-being) (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Inequality scenarios, which assume increasing economic, political and social inequalities, where power becomes concentrated in a relatively small political and business elite who invest in green technology, result in negative impacts on nature's regulating contributions to people (established CHAPTER 5. CURRENT AND FUTURE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NATURE AND SOCIETY 575 but incomplete), but mixed or unclear impacts on other indicators (inconclusive) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Under global sustainable development scenarios, which are characterized by an increasingly proactive attitude of global policymakers towards environmental issues and a high level of regulation, positive impacts are projected for nature and its regulating contributions to people. Predominantly positive trends are also projected for nature's material contributions to people and good quality of life indicators, with some regional variation (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Under regional sustainability scenarios, which show increased concern for environmental and social sustainability and a shift toward local and regional decision-making, similar impacts are projected as for global sustainable development. Regional sustainability, however, leads to slightly fewer benefits for nature's regulating and material contributions to people (with decreases in food provision) than global sustainable development and more positive impacts on nature's non-material contributions to people and good quality of life, particularly traditional knowledge and supporting identities reflecting the local focus of the regional sustainability scenario (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Trade-offs between nature and different contributions from nature to people are projected under all plausible futures for Europe and Central Asia (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.3.4). How these trade-offs are resolved depends on political and societal value judgements within each plausible future. In general, those futures where environmental issues are mainstreamed across sectors are more successful in mitigating undesirable cross-sector trade-offs, resulting in positive impacts across a broad range of indicators concerning nature, nature's contributions to people and good quality of life indicators (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Trade-offs between nature's material and regulating contributions to people are commonly projected in the economic optimism and regional competition scenarios, which tend to promote a limited number of nature's material contributions to people. For example, increases in food provision (generally associated with the expansion of agricultural land or the intensification of livestock production and fish captures) are often associated with decreases in the provision of nature's regulating contributions to people (e.g. prevention of soil erosion, regulation of water quality and quantity) and nature values. Similar trade-offs were projected between increases in timber provision and decreases in nature's regulating (e.g. carbon sequestration) and non-material (e.g. aesthetic value) contributions to people. Such trade-offs lead to strong positive effects in nature's contributions to people with market values and negative effects in nature's contributions to people without market values (established but incomplete) (5.3.3, 5.6.1). Trade-offs were also apparent under the sustainability scenario archetypes, particularly in relation to the use of land and water (e.g. effects of agricultural extensification – the opposite of agricultural intensification - or increases in bioenergy croplands on other land uses and biodiversity) (established but incomplete) (5.6.1). However, such scenarios proactively deal with such trade-offs through, for example, political choices aiming to maximize synergizes through mainstreaming and multifunctionality (global sustainable development) or through societal choices to live less resource-intensive lifestyles and, hence, reduce demand for nature's material contributions to people (regional sustainability). Impacts of plausible futures differ across the regions of Europe and Central Asia. Hence, regional and national decision-makers face different trade-offs between nature and its various contributions to people. Cooperation between countries opens up possibilities to mitigate undesirable crossscale impacts and to capitalize on opportunities (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). In Central Asia, significant water shortages are projected in the long-term. This affects farmers' choices between intensive crop production and more sustainable production with resulting impacts on nature's regulating contributions to people, such as water quality (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). Similar impacts on water stress are projected under future scenarios for Central Europe, including decreases in multiple contributions from nature to people from wetlands (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). Transboundary and integrated water management strategies that protect minimum water levels for the environment are projected to mitigate these negative impacts. In Eastern Europe, particularly Russia, trade-offs between wood extraction and carbon sequestration are projected. Sustainable forest management and reforestation of areas set aside from agricultural activities are suggested as having the potential to mitigate such trade-offs. Similarly, in mountain systems in Central and Western Europe and in marine systems in all subregions adaptive management strategies are projected to address the vulnerability of the majority of nature's contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). In the European Union (EU), significant differences between northern and southern countries are projected. Most scenarios indicate increases in agricultural production for food, feed and bioenergy for northern European Union countries, while decreases in agricultural and timber production, as well as increases in water stress, are projected for southern European Union countries. The latter is projected to have considerable negative impacts on nature's non-material contributions to people, such as national heritage and tourism-related services dependent on local food production. Scenarios which included international coordination of adaptive measures across THE REGIONAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES FOR EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA 576 geographical areas were projected to have better capacity to cope with, or mitigate, undesirable cross-scale impacts (established but incomplete) (5.3.3). Future impacts of drivers of change on nature and its contributions to people in Europe and Central Asia are likely to be underestimated because scenario studies are dominated by a few individual drivers (e.g. climate change) and often omit other important drivers (e.g. pollution) that may adversely affect their impacts (well established) (5.2.2, 5.3.2). Scenario studies predominantly focus on single direct drivers and fail to capture interactions between drivers (well established) (5.2.2, 5.3.2). Climate change is the most represented single direct driver in scenarios of biodiversity and ecosystem change. By contrast other direct drivers, such as pollution and invasive alien species, which are known to have an adverse impact on nature and its contributions to people, are poorly represented in scenario studies (well established) (5.2.2). Single-driver scenarios fail to capture various dynamics such as feedbacks and synergies between and amongst indirect and direct drivers operating at different scales. Policy approaches that consider single drivers or single sectors are unlikely to successfully address environmental problems as they do not consider trade-offs between different drivers, impacts and responses. Integrated, multi-driver scenario studies offer a more realistic assessment of impacts to inform robust decision-making about future sustainable development pathways that avoid unintended consequences (established but incomplete) (5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.4, 5.3.1, 5.3.3, 5.3.4, 5.4.4, 5.4.5, 5.5.5). Priorities for future sustainable development expressed by governments and other societal actors for Europe and Central Asia are more widely achieved under plausible futures that consider a diverse range of values (established but incomplete) (5.3.4, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.6.1). Recognizing the different time frame of the scenarios of plausible futures (often 2050 or later) to those stated in the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2030 or 2020), continuing current trends under a business-as-usual scenario is estimated to lead to failure in achieving most of the Sustainable Development Goals (13 out of 17), but mixed effects on achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (8 achieved). Economic optimism is estimated to have a mixed level of success in achieving the goals (8 achieved), but would fail to achieve the majority of the targets (16 out of 20), while regional competition fails to reach the majority of all goals and targets (15 and 19, respectively). The focus of these scenarios on instrumental values and individualistic perspectives, with little acknowledgement of relational or intrinsic values, means they are unlikely to offer effective sustainable solutions to environmental and social challenges (established but incomplete) (5.3.4, 5.6.1). In contrast, the sustainability scenarios (regional sustainability and global sustainable development) are estimated to achieve the majority of the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Such scenarios attempt to support nature and its multiple nature's contributions to people and aspects of a good quality of life. Thus, they represent a greater diversity of values, but often at the acceptance of lower, or more extensive, production of nature's material contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.3.4, 5.6.1). Multiple alternative pathways exist to achieve the priorities for future sustainable development set by governments and societal actors within Europe and Central Asia and in particular for mitigating tradeoffs between nature and nature's contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.5.2). The most promising pathways include long-term societal transformation through continuous education, knowledge sharing and participatory decisionmaking. Such pathways emphasize nature's regulating contributions to people and the importance of relational values in facilitating a holistic and systematic consideration of nature and nature´s contribution to people across sectors and scales (established but incomplete) (5.5.3, 5.5.4). Four types of pathways have been developed to address trade-offs between food, water, energy, climate and biodiversity at different scales (5.5.2). Green economy pathways focus on sustainable intensification and diversification of production activities coupled with the protection and restoration of nature. Low carbon transformation pathways focus on biofuel production, reforestation and forest management. Both types of pathways include actions related to technological innovation, land sparing or land sharing. Green economy and low carbon transformation pathways do not fully mitigate trade-offs between nature's material contributions to people, nature conservation, and nature's regulating and non-material contributions to people (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4). Ecotopian solutions pathways focus on radical social innovation to achieve local food and energy self-sufficiency and the production of multiple contributions from nature to people. They include actions on multifunctionality within individual land uses with connecting green infrastructure, urban design and food production (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4). Transition movements pathways emphasize a change towards relational values, promoting resource-sparing lifestyles, continuous education, new urban spatial structures and innovative forms of agriculture where different knowledge systems are combined with technological innovation. Transformation is achieved through local empowerment, participatory decision-making processes, community actions and voluntary agreements. As opposed to other pathways, transition movements CHAPTER 5. CURRENT AND FUTURE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NATURE AND SOCIETY 577 pathways address all of the Sustainable Development Goals identified as being important in the Europe and Central Asia visions (5.1.2, 5.5.4), except Goal 7 (sustainable energy). The narrative offers the broadest set of actions targeting elements of nature, multiple contributions from nature to people (material, regulating and non-material) and multiple dimensions of a good quality of life (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.6.1). Different sets of actions and combinations of policy instruments are suggested by the different pathways. Joint instruments suggested across pathways give priority to participation, education and awareness raising, and often cross-scale integration and mainstreaming of environmental objectives across sectors (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.6). The green economy and low carbon transformation pathways build towards sustainability without challenging the economic growth paradigm. They are implemented through combinations of top-down legal and regulatory instruments mixed with economic and financial instruments designed at regional (European Union) or national levels (Eastern Europe and Central Asia). Such pathways are often formulated at a sectoral level, and integration across sectoral pathways is critical. However, because green economy and low carbon transformation pathways do not fully mitigate trade-offs, they may not be sufficient alone to achieve sustainability (established but incomplete) (5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.6.1). The trade-offs are better addressed by diverse local bottom-up transition movements or ecotopian solutions pathways (5.5.2). Such pathways reconsider fundamental values and lifestyles through sets of actions focusing on less resource-intensive lifestyles, education, knowledge sharing, good social relations and equity (e.g. food and dietary patterns, transport, energy and consumption patterns). Transition movements pathways also develop bottom-up transformative capabilities by combining rights-based instruments and customary norms (including indigenous and local knowledge) and social and information instruments (established but incomplete) (5.5.3, 5.5.4). The sets of actions proposed in the pathways are not mutually exclusive and can be combined. For example, actions from green economy and low carbon transformation pathways may pave the way towards more transformative transition movements pathways. Moreover, future transitions to sustainability may be fostered through cross-scale integration and mainstreaming of environmental issues into sectoral policies and decisions, along with nurturing diverse social, institutional and technological experiments (established but incomplete) (5.5.5). Participatory scenario, vision and pathway development is a powerful approach for knowledge co-production and has great potential for the explicit inclusion of indigenous and local knowledge (established but incomplete) (5.4.3, 5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.6, 5.6.2). Many scenario, vision and pathways exercises include local stakeholders and their valuable knowledge and practices. However, the use of different knowledge systems, such as indigenous and local knowledge, was rarely explicitly mentioned in studies (5.6.2). Explicit examples that included indigenous and local knowledge (see Boxes 5.2, 5.6 and 5.10), show a clear added value from combining different forms of knowledge with technological innovations, and cultural diversity, norms and customary rights when pursuing goals of sustainable development (5.2.2, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.6). Knowledge gaps and resulting uncertainties in exploring future interactions between nature and society are substantial because integrated assessments of future impacts on nature, nature's contributions to people and a good quality of life that take account of the complex interdependencies in human and environmental systems are rare (well established) (5.6.2). Very few studies were available for Central Asia and to a lesser extent for Eastern Europe (well established) (5.6.2). Less information was also available for marine systems than for terrestrial and freshwater systems (well established) (5.6.2). Few integrated scenario and modelling studies include indicators of nature's nonmaterial contributions to people and good quality of life (5.3.2, 5.5.1, 5.6.2) and therefore existing assessments of synergies and trade-offs are limited in the interactions and feedbacks they represent (well established) (5.3.2). No studies were found that assessed future flows of nature's contributions to people across countries, which would have been important to assess the impacts of the scenarios and pathways for Europe and Central Asia on other parts of the world (well established) (5.6.2). There is also a significant gap in the current literature in recognizing the diversity of values, with the focus being mainly on instrumental values (well established) (5.6.2). Finally, scenario and modelling studies include many uncertainties in their projections of the future resulting from input data, scenario assumptions, model structure and propagation of uncertainties across the integrated components of the systems, which should be borne in mind when interpreting their results (well established).

In this edition, the reader will find ten articles distributed in two thematic sections: Cooperation and asymmetric international integration in matters of security, strategy and commerce and Global culture in international relations.Cooperation and asymmetric international integration in matters of security, strategy and commerce We opened the 2018-I edition of the article entitled "How to strengthen EU-China cooperation based on Belt and Road", by the authors Weidong Wang and Simona Picciau; in which the Belt and Road initiative, presented by the Chinese president Xi Jinping in 2013, promotes cooperation and the strengthening of person-to-person connections between Asia, Africa, and Europe. China has already signed cooperation agreements with more than forty States and trained thirty others. This initiative impacted the establishment of relations between China and the European Union, based on win-win cooperation and aimed at fostering mutual respect.Sonia Alda Mejías publishes her article "The challenges of Latin America to project as a regional actor in the field of international security", in which she considers the possibility of Latin America to project itself as a regional actor in the field of global security from a qualitative methodology. Also, reference as necessary the processes of subregional or regional integration and the development of national and international multilateral cooperation in the field of security and defense, and the participation of Latin American countries in international peace missions, from a sovereignty perspective very marked.The article "Notions of safety and control in the Northern Border Plan: an expression of teichopolitics", by the authors Gilberto Aranda and Cristian Ovando, considers the teichopolitics as a current expression of segmented globalization, which not only raises the erection of walls. Chile manifested this policy in the 70s, undermining border areas as preventive mechanisms to a foreign invasion and today, through the Northern Border Plan. This securitization mechanism aims to guarantee the continuity of trade flows and the cultural consequences that it entails, from the constructivist approach.Pablo Garcés Velástegui presents his article "Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach". In this paper, social planning is not any problem, but a "wicked", not docile, a problem of exact sciences that involves a public policy issue; a problem hard to define, unique, inherently paradoxical, important, subject to many interpretations and, thus, without a correct solution. Latin American integration has these characteristics, and the implications are relevant for academics and decision makers. If regional integration continues to be approached as an easy problem, the results will probably continue to disagree with expectations."The United Kingdom and Argentina: geopolitics of technological constraint and strategic-export controls", by Daniel Blinder, shows how the United Kingdom controls the export of military or dual-use technology to the Argentine Republic through its defense institutions and trade, as well as with others of an international nature. A strategic public policy at a local and global level represented in the logical space/power, relative to the possibility of Argentina acquiring sensitive technologies.The co-authors Roldán Andrés-Rosales, Luis Alberto Sánchez-Miter and José Nabor Cruz Marcelo, present the article entitled "Insecurity and its impact on tourism in Guerrero: a spatial approach, 1999-2014". This paper gives the reader the possibility to know how Mexican insecurity has affected the economic growth of the State and the region at the tourist level. This is done through a case study in Guerrero because it obeys one of the most insecure areas, classified worldwide, which is an index of violence that shows the concentration of the danger through the analysis of the figures of the Institute. National Statistics and Geography."Asymmetric regionalism as the axis of the South American resistance to Brazil (2000-2013)", by Rita Giacalone, assumes that regionalism in itself creates asymmetric tensions. Brazilian regionalism has realistic, constructivist and institutionalist features, which emphasize such asymmetries following the region-centric paradigm. The organizations built to support the regional and global projection of Brazil generated resistance in South American governments between 2000 and 2013. This article analyzes the opposition of Chile, Argentina, and Venezuela, through a decentralized multipolarity.Global culture in international relationsWe open this thematic section with the article by Juliano Oliveira Pizarro titled "Governance of sport: an inflection of global governance?" In this, it is considered that the global is a birthplace of diverse actors that exercise specific governments, as represented by football. A sport made a social and cultural mechanism that suffers direct impacts from the globalizing processes. FIFA is a non-profit, non-governmental organization, although it may not seem so, because its activities express hybrid and contradictory conditions, either from the perspective of global governance or as a multinational company.Luis González Tule, in his article "Organization of global space in 'classic' geopolitics: a view from critical geopolitics", starts at the roots of the geopolitics and its development, in between of European imperial rivalries, global wars, border mutations, political changes, significant technological developments and transformation in the dynamics of power (1870 and 1945). The classic indoctrinators coming from the main powers established the geopolitical discourses to their accommodation.Thus, this edition closes with the article "The emergence and increase of Anti-Semitism in the Governments of Hugo Chávez and its relationship with the deepening of the relations between Venezuela and Iran (2005-2013)", by Margarita Figueroa Sepúlveda, which establishes the growth of media and Chavez anti-Semitic incidents in 2004, as well as their direct proportional relationship with the rapprochement and creation of new ties with the Islamic Republic of Iran. The ideological convergence —based on anti-imperialism— is analyzed through the empirical evidence provided by primary and secondary sources. The author considers that anti-imperialism made Israel be conceived as an enemy of both countries.Thanking the confidence of the institutional authorities again to edit the Journal of International Relations, Strategy and Security, I invite you to know, use and disseminate the content of this edition. ; En esta edición el lector encontrará diez artículos distribuidos en dos secciones temáticas: Cooperación e integración internacional asimétrica en asuntos de seguridad, estrategia y comercio y Cultura global en relaciones internacionales.Cooperación e integración internacional asimétrica en asuntos de seguridad, estrategia y comercio Abrimos la edición 2018-I con el artículo denominado "Cómo fortalecer la cooperación EE. UU. - China basada en el cinturón y la carretera", de los autores Weidong Wang y Simona Picciau, en el cual la iniciativa belt and road, presentada por el presidente chino Xi Jinping en 2013, promueve la cooperación y el reforzamiento de las conexiones persona-a-persona entre Asia, África y Europa. China ya ha firmado acuerdos de cooperación con más de cuarenta Estados y capacitó a otros treinta. Esto impactó el establecimiento de relaciones entre China y la Unión Europea, basadas en la cooperación win-win y direccionadas al favorecimiento del respeto mutuo.Sonia Alda Mejías publica su artículo "Los desafíos de América Latina para proyectarse como actor regional en el ámbito de la seguridad internacional", en el que contempla la posibilidad de América Latina de proyectarse como actor regional en el ámbito de la seguridad internacional desde una metodología cualitativa. Asimismo, referencia como necesarios los procesos de integración subregional o regional y el desarrollo de la cooperación multilateral intra e internacional en el ámbito de la seguridad y la defensa, y la participación de los países latinoamericanos en las misiones internacionales de paz, desde una perspectiva soberanista muy marcada.El artículo "Las nociones de seguridad y control en el plan frontera norte: una expresión de teichopolítica", de los autores Gilberto Aranda y Cristian Ovando, considera la teichopolítica como una expresión actual de la globalización segmentada, la cual no solo plantea la erección de muros. Chile manifestó dicha política en los años 70, minando zonas fronterizas como mecanismos preventivos a una invasión extranjera y hoy, a través del plan Frontera Norte. Este mecanismo securitario pretende garantizar la continuidad de los flujos comerciales y las consecuencias culturales que conlleva, desde el enfoque constructivista.Pablo Garcés Velástegui presenta su artículo "Integración latinoamericana como un problema perverso: el caso para un abordaje plural". En este la planificación social no es un problema cualquiera, sino uno "perverso", nada dócil, un problema de ciencias exactas que conlleva un tema de política pública; un problema difícil de definir, único, inherentemente paradójico, importante, sujeto a muchas interpretaciones y, así, sin una solución correcta. La integración latinoamericana tiene estas características y las implicaciones son relevantes para académicos y tomadores de decisión. Si la integración regional continúa siendo abordada como un problema dócil, los resultados probablemente seguirán discordando con las expectativas."El Reino Unido y Argentina: geopolítica de la limitación tecnológica y controles de exportación estratégicos", de Daniel Blinder, muestra cómo el Reino Unido controla la exportación de tecnología militar o de uso dual a la República Argentina a través de sus instituciones de defensa y comercio, así como con otras de índole internacional. Una política pública estratégica a nivel local y global representada en la lógica espacio/poder, relativa a la posibilidad de que la Argentina adquiera tecnologías sensibles.Los coautores Roldán Andrés-Rosales, Luis Alberto Sánchez-Mitre y José Nabor Cruz Marcelo presentan el artículo titulado "La inseguridad y su impacto en el turismo en Guerrero: un enfoque espacial, 1999-2014", que le brinda al lector la posibilidad de conocer cómo la inseguridad mexicana ha afectado el crecimiento económico del Estado y la región a nivel turístico. Esto lo hacen a través de un estudio de caso en Guerrero, pues obedece a una de las zonas más inseguras, clasificada a nivel mundial, lo que constituye un índice de violencia que muestra la concentración del peligro a través del análisis de las cifras del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía."El regionalismo asimétrico como eje de la resistencia sudamericana a Brasil (2000-2013)", de Rita Giacalone, supone que el regionalismo en sí mismo crea tensiones asimétricas. El regionalismo brasileño posee rasgos realistas, constructivistas e institucionalistas, que enfatizan tales asimetrías siguiendo el paradigma región-céntrico. Las organizaciones construidas para apoyar la proyección regional y global de Brasil generaron resistencia en Gobiernos sudamericanos entre 2000 y 2013. Este artículo analiza la resistencia de Chile, Argentina y Venezuela, mediante una multipolaridad descentralizada.Cultura global en relaciones internacionalesAbrimos esta sección temática con el artículo de Juliano Oliveira Pizarro titulado "Gobernanza del deporte: ¿una inflexión de la gobernanza global?". En este se considera que lo global es un espacio de nacimiento de diversos actores que ejercen gobiernos específicos, como lo representa el fútbol. Un deporte hecho mecanismo social y cultural que sufre impactos directos desde los procesos globalizadores. La FIFA es una organización no gubernamental sin fines lucrativos, aunque no lo parezca, pues sus actividades expresan condiciones híbridas y contradictorias, bien sea desde la óptica de la gobernanza global, o bien como una empresa multinacional.Por su parte, Luis González Tule, en su artículo "Organización del espacio global en la geopolítica "clásica": una mirada desde la geopolítica crítica", inicia en las raíces de la geopolíca y su desarrollo, en medio de rivalidades imperiales europeas, guerras mundiales, mutaciones fronterizas, cambios políticos, grandes desarrollos tecnológicos y transformación en las dinámicas de poder (1870 y 1945). Los doctrinantes clásicos provenientes de las principales potencias establecieron los discursos geopolíticos a su acomodo.Así, pues, la presente edición se cierra con el artículo "La emergencia y aumento del antisemitismo en los Gobiernos de Hugo Chávez y su relación con la profundización de las relaciones entre Venezuela e Irán (2005-2013)", de Margarita Figueroa Sepúlveda, que establece el crecimiento de los incidentes antisemitas mediáticos y chavistas en 2004, así como su relación directamente proporcional con el acercamiento y creación de nuevos lazos con la República Islámica de Irán. Se analiza la convergencia ideológica –sustentada en el antiimperialismo–, a través de la evidencia empírica proporcionada por fuentes primarias y secundarias La autora considera que el antiimperialismo hizo que Israel fuera concebido como enemigo de ambos países.Agradeciendo nuevamente la confianza de las autoridades institucionales para editar la Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad, los invito a conocer, usar y divulgar el contenido de la presente edición. ; Nesta edição o leitor encontrará dez artigos distribuídos em duas seções temáticas: Cooperação é integração internacional assimétrica em assuntos de seguran- ça, estratégia, comércio e Cultura global em relações internacionais.Cooperação e integração internacional assimétrica em assuntos de segurança, estratégia e comércioAbrimos a edição 2018-I com o artigo denominado "Como fortalecer a coopera- ção EE. UU - China baseada no cinturão e a estrada", dos autores Weidong Wang e Simona Picciau, no qual a iniciativa belt and road apresentada pelo presidente chino, Xi Jinping em 2013, promove a cooperação e o fortalecimento das conexões pessoa-a-pessoa entre a Ásia, África e a Europa. China já assinou acordos de cooperação com mais de quarenta Estados e treinou a outros trinta. Isto impactou o estabelecimento das relações entre a China e a União Europeia, baseadas na cooperação win-win e direcionadas ao favorecimento do respeito mútuoSonia Alda Mejías publica no seu artigo "Os desafios da América Latina para projetar-se como ator regional no âmbito da segurança internacional", no qual contempla a possibilidade da América Latina de projetar-se como ator regional no âmbito da segurança internacional desde uma metodologia qualitativa. Assim mesmo, referência como necessários, os processos de integração sub-regional ou regional e o desenvolvimento da cooperação multilateral "intra" e internacional no âmbito da segurança e a defesa, e a participação dos países latino-americanos nas missões internacionais de paz, desde uma perspectiva "soberanista" muito marcada.O artigo "As noções de segurança e controle no plano fronteira norte: uma expressão de "teichopolítica", dos autores Gilberto Aranda e Cristian Ovando, considera a "teichopolítica" como uma expressão atual da globalização segmentada, na qual não fala somente na construção de muros. Chile manifestou tal política nos anos 70, minando zonas de fronteiras como mecanismos preventivos a uma invasão estrangeira, através do plano Fronteira Norte. Este mecanismo de segurança pretende garantir a continuidade dos fluxos comerciais e as consequências culturais que leva, desde o foco construtivista. Pablo Garcés Velástegui apresenta seu artigo "Integração latino-americana como um problema perverso: o caso para uma abordagem plural". Neste a planificação social não é um problema qualquer, si não um problema "perverso", nada suave, um problema de ciências exatas que encaminha a um tema de política pública; um problema difícil de definir, único, inerentemente paradóxico, importante, sujeito a muitas interpretações e assim sem uma solução correta. A integração latino-americana tem estas características e as implicações são relevantes para acadêmicos e tomadores de decisão. Sem a integração regional continua sendo abordada como um problema suave, os resultados provavelmente continuarão discordando com as expectativas."O Reino Unido e Argentina: geopolítica da limitação tecnológica e controles de exportação estratégicas", de Daniel Blinder, mostra como o Reino Unido controla a exportação tecnologia militar ou de uso dual para a República Argentina através de suas instituições de defesa e comércio, assim também como com outras de caráter internacional. Uma política pública estratégica a nível local e global representada na lógica espaço/poder, relativa a possibilidade de que Argentina adquira tecnologias sensíveis.Os co-autores Roldán Andrés-Rosales, Luis Alberto Sánchez-Mitre e José Nabor Cruz Marcelo apresentam o artigo titulado "A insegurança e o seu impacto no turismo em Guerrero: um enfoque espacial, 1999-2014", que lhe oferece ao leitor a possibilidade de conhecer como a insegurança mexicana tem afetado o crescimento econômico do Estado e da região a nível turístico. Isto o faz através de um estudo de caso em Guerrero, pois abrange a uma das zonas mais inseguras, classificada a nível mundial, o que constitui um índice de violência que mostra a concentração do perigo através das análises das cifras do Instituto Nacional de Estatística e Geografia."O regionalismo assimétrico como eixo da resistência sul-americana ao Brasil (2000-2013)", de Rita Giacalone, supõem que o regionalismo em si mesmo cria tensões assimétricas. O regionalismo brasileiro possui rasgos realistas, construtivistas e institucionalistas, que enfatizam tais assimetrias seguindo o paradigma "região-centrico". As organizações construídas para apoiar a projeção regional e global do Brasil geram resistência nos Governos sul-americanos entre 2000 e 2013. Este artigo analisa a resistência do Chile, Argentina e Venezuela, mediante uma multipolaridade descentralizada.Cultura global em relações internacionaisAbrimos esta seção temática com o artigo de Juliano Oliveira Pizarro titulado "Governança do deporte: uma inflexão da governança global?". Neste se considera que o global é um espaço de nascimento de diversos atores que exercem governos específicos, como representa o futebol. Um esporte feito para mecanismo social e cultural que sofre impactos diretos desde os processos globalizadores. A FIFA é uma organização não governamental sem fins lucrativos, ainda que não pareça, pois, as suas atividades expressam condições híbridas e contraditórias, seja ela, desde a ótica da governança global ou bem como uma empresa multinacional.Luis González Tule, por sua parte, no seu artigo "Organização do espaço global na geopolítica "clássica": um olhar desde a geopolítica crítica", inicia nas raízes da geopolítica e seu desenvolvimento, em meio das rivalidades imperiais europeias, guerras mundiais, mutações de fronteiras, mudanças políticos, grandes desenvolvimentos tecnológicos e transformações nas dinâmicas do poder (1870 e 1945). Os doutrinantes clássicos provenientes das principais potencias estabeleceram os discursos geopolíticos de acordo a sua conveniênciaAssim, a presente edição se fecha com o artigo "A emergência e aumento do antissemitismo nos Governos de Hugo Chávez e sua relação com a aprofundamento das relações entre Venezuela e o Iram (2005-2013)", de Margarita Figueroa Sepúlveda, que estabelece o crescimento dos incidentes antissemitas mediáticos e chavistas em 2004, assim como a sua relação diretamente proporcional com a aproximação e criação de novos laços com a República Islâmica do Iram. Se analisa a convergência ideológica –sustentada no anti-imperialismo–, através da evidencia empírica proporcionada por fontes primárias e secundarias. A autora considera que o anti-imperialismo fez que Israel fosse concebido como inimigo de ambos países.Agradecendo novamente a confiança das autoridades institucionais para editar a Revista de Relações Internacionais, Estratégia e Segurança, os convido a conhecer, usar e divulgar o conteúdo da presente edição.

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; Introducción Durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, el concepto Innovación ha estado intrínsecamente ligado a universidades, centros de investigación y departamentos de Investigación y Desarrollo de grandes empresas. Los procesos, investigaciones y resultados se ocultaban o protegían mediante Propiedad Intelectual para mantener la competitividad y posición dominante de la empresa en el mercado. Los cerebros más brillantes, la gente más imaginativa e innovadora pertenecía a la organización, y su permanencia en la empresa durante toda la vida profesional era un factor clave en el mantenimiento de la posición dominante de la compañía y evitando que el conocimiento escapase del control de la empresa. El modelo arriba descrito, o modelo de Innovación Cerrada según H. Chesbrough, tiene gran éxito en el siglo pasado, y existen múltiples ejemplos de éxito de estas empresas a la vista, como compañías farmacéuticas, de armamento o de bienes de consumo. Sin embargo, a finales del siglo XX este modelo se enfrenta a factores externos que erosionan sus resultados. El acceso a formación universitaria y la mayor tasa de doctorandos e investigadores; la mayor movilidad de los trabajadores entre empresas y la posibilidad de arrastrar los conocimientos y la experiencia adquiridos; el incremento del flujo de dinero disponible a través de las compañías de capital de riesgo (Venture Capital); y la mayor formación de los consumidores junto con la necesidad de reducir el tiempo de desarrollo son los principales factores que han reducido la validez del modelo de Innovación Cerrada. Ante esta pérdida de valor, ciertas empresas han visto necesario aplicar un nuevo modelo que complementa al modelo anterior para conseguir una vuelta al crecimiento y a la innovación dentro de la compañía: el modelo de Innovación Abierta. viii El modelo de Innovación Abierta busca incluir a actores exteriores a la empresa para ayudar a resolver los problemas o desafíos de la empresa bajo un punto de vista diferente y sin estar afectados por la cultura, valoración interna o la asunción del modelo de negocio de la empresa. Las soluciones o tecnologías presentadas desde el exterior serán combinadas con las internas para conseguir un desarrollo más rápido hacia el mercado de cualquier producto o servicio. Además, el modelo de Innovación Abierta busca que las empresas distribuyan, de la manera que crean conveniente, aquellos desarrollos que, aún investigados dentro de los departamentos de I+D propios, no han sido utilizados o no constituyen una tecnología clave para mantener la posición de mercado o el futuro liderazgo. Este proyecto define una estrategia de implementación del modelo de Innovación Abierta en la empresa de servicios públicos, en este caso de distribución y trasmisión de electricidad, SP Energy Networks, con presencia en el sur y centro de Escocia y norte de Gales, donde sirve a más de 3,5 millones de consumidores de electricidad, para resolver los retos a los que se enfrenta la red eléctrica. SP Energy Networks tiene un gran compromiso con la innovación para resolver los retos a los que se está enfrentando la red eléctrica actualmente y los grandes cambios que se esperan en el futuro. El crecimiento inesperado en la generación renovable, el despliegue de generación distribuida, el salto de calidad y coste de sensores que permite una implantación masiva, el tratamiento y análisis de los datos obtenidos en la red y la introducción del vehículo eléctrico son, entre otros muchos, los retos que están cambiando el estado de la red, como esta se comporta y los perfiles de los usuarios. Metodología El proyecto realizado por el alumno define una estrategia de implementación del modelo de Innovación Abierta en la compañía para buscar el éxito de esta iniciativa, y que el proyecto sirva como modelo para futuras implementaciones en otras empresas de la misma industria o de otras industrias. Se estudia amplia literatura sobre Innovación Abierta, y tres casos de éxito en la implementación de procesos de Innovación Abierta como son Procter&Gamble, NASA y GE. ix Posteriormente se lleva a cabo la preparación y definición de una estrategia de implementación de Innovación Abierta en SP Energy Networks, estudiándose los mecanismos, actividades y procesos necesarios a implementar, modificar, mejorar o eliminar, y los riesgos asociados al cambio de modelo de Innovación y la respuesta por parte de los empleados a dicho cambio. La estrategia de implementación se divide en 6 Paquetes de trabajo que se puede observar en la imagen siguiente. El paquete WP1 incluye la definición de la estrategia, de la que es parte el proyecto Innovación Abierta en el Negocio Regulado. Gracias a la estrategia preparada en este proyecto, la implementación de Innovación Abierta en SP Energy Networks ha comenzado, una vez firmado el plan y autorizado por las autoridades de la empresa. Esto ha permitido contar con el apoyo de la organización y tener acceso a los primeros resultados sobre la implementación, que permite de manera todavía muy ligera tener conclusiones sobre la validez de la estrategia. También por ello se tiene muy en cuenta la necesidad de comunicar a los empleados de la empresa los cambios que el nuevo modelo puede suponer, como ellos pueden dar su apoyo o pasar a formar parte del nuevo modelo. Esta parte de la estrategia ha supuesto el mayor reto, ya que una parte importante de los empleados no están enterados de los procesos, tecnologías o nuevos desarrollos que se hacen desde el equipo de innovación de SP Energy Networks, el equipo de Redes Futuras. Por ello se ha dedicado un paquete de trabajo solamente a dar a conocer las nuevas x oportunidades a los empleados y recabar su soporte, ideas y futuro uso de las tecnologías que el modelo introduzca en la empresa. Resultados La definición de Innovación Abierta precisa y única para el sector de los servicios públicos, donde se engloba SP Energy Networks, ha sido probada y validada. "El principal objetivo de Innovación Abierta es cambiar la cultura innovadora en SP Energy Networks, ampliando la selección de proveedores para la compañía y la red eléctrica en Reino Unido, incrementando la conciencia y el apoyo de los empleados hacia la innovación, buscando siempre mejorar el servicio dado a los clientes, mejorando la calidad, la eficiencia y la eficacia, junto con un compromiso firme para reducir la huella ambiental de las actividades de SP Energy Networks. El socio elegido ha sido, en un primer momento, y con la posibilidad de añadir alguno más en el futuro, Energy Innovation Centre (EIC), con el que se han llevado a cabo ya una Llamada de Innovación con éxito, relativa a un nuevo proceso para monitorizar el estado de cimentaciones de las torres eléctricas de trasmisión y distribución. EIC es una empresa sin beneficios cofundada por todos los operadores de energía en el Reino Unido, enfocado en buscar empresas que puedan resolver las necesidades de estos, ya sea como conjunto, o en forma de retos individuales. El caso concreto de la Llamada de Innovación para la monitorización de las cimentaciones de las torres permite observar la gran oportunidad que presenta el modelo de Innovación Abierta. Debido a la falta de los resultados, se ha optado por un criterio conservativo respecto a las cifras tomadas y por confidencialidad, las cifras son todas indicativas del orden de magnitud. Concepto Coste Unitario (£) Cantidad Anual Total Coste anterior £9.000 600 £5.400.000 Coste posterior (Innovación Abierta) £6.000 600 £3.600.000 Anterior Total £5.400.000 Posterior Total £3.600.000 Ahorro estimado por año £1.800.000 Monitorización de la Cimentación de las Torres Eléctricas xi Se puede llegar a conseguir un ahorro superior a 1,5 millones de libras por año, sin tener en cuenta las mejoras en el conocimiento del estado de las cimentaciones, lo que permite mejores decisiones respecto a las necesidades de reparación, inversión o renovación. Respecto a la comunicación de la Innovación tanto interior como exterior se han llevado a cabo ya las primeras acciones con resultados muy prometedores, sobre todo en la aceptación por parte de los empleados de la compañía. El parcial desconocimiento anterior se ha visto sustituido por interés real por saber las posibilidades que la Innovación puede aportar a su trabajo del día a día. Los resultados que se pueden mostrar en este proyecto son aún muy limitados, ya que la implementación se encuentra en sus primeras etapas, y únicamente según pase el tiempo seremos capaces de entender el valor real del modelo de Innovación Abierta en el caso particular de SP Energy Networks. Conclusiones Este proyecto sirve como introducción a una metodología adecuada y probada de éxito para la implementación de la Innovación Abierta, sin necesidad de grandes inversiones ni cambios dramáticos dentro de la empresa, minimizando por tanto el cambio para los empleados, pero fomentando su participación y realizando un cambio en la cultura interna de la empresa y en la comunicación entre las diferentes partes que la componen. La estrategia presentada es válida, ya que se ha podido comprobar como el uso de un socio externo permite encontrar soluciones diferentes, muchas veces por empresas que no están muy lejos de la empresa interesada, pero que no ha entrado en ese sector por diferentes motivos. El desarrollo de la implementación basado en la estrategia durante los próximos años servirá para confirmar de manera más documentada y extensa la validez del modelo y de la estrategia presentada. ; Introduction During the XX century, innovation concept has been linked with universities, research centers and large Research & Development departments inside the big corporations. Processes, researches and results were kept hidden to the rest of the world to maintain the competitive position and the leadership in their respective markets. Brightest brains, most imaginative and innovative people had to be maintained working for the firm for all their professional life, to keep the knowledge and know-how under the control of the company. Closed Innovation model had a huge success, and there are multiple examples of companies that profited from the model, such as pharmaceutical, weaponry companies or consumer goods companies. However, at the end of XX century, it is observed that the model faces external factors that erode the results. The growing mobility of highly experienced and skilled people; higher number of graduates and PhDs, allowing knowledge to spill out of the corporate central research labs; the growing presence of private venture capital (VC), experts in create companies that commercialized external research that can become competitors for established companies and fast time to market and customers with more knowledge are the main factors that erode the validity of Closed Innovation model. Considering the loss of value of Closed Innovation model, and to face the external erosion factors, some companies have applied a model that supplement Closed Innovation model to return to constant growth rates and long-term profit: Open Innovation model. Open Innovation model aims to add external actors to solve the challenges and problems that appear inside a corporation or company, under a different point of view and without being affected by the company culture or own valuations or business model. Solutions and technologies presented or submitted would be combined with internal developments to get a faster path to market for any product or service the company is willing to commercialize. xiv Moreover, Open Innovation model expects companies to distribute, in a convenient way, those technologies or processes that have been developed inside the company, but have not been found an internal use for products and services, and that are not part of a key technology to maintain leadership position in the market currently or in the future. This project defines an implementation strategy for Open Innovation model in a utility, in the electricity distribution and transmission industry, SP Energy Networks, with presence in Central and Southern Scotland and Northern Wales, with more than 3,5 million customers. SP Energy Networks has a great commitment with innovation to solve the challenges that electricity network currently faces and the drastic changes that it would have in the future. An unexpected growth in renewable generation, the wide deployment of distributed generation, the quality of the new sensors with a reduced cost that allows a massive deployment, the processing and treatment of the data generated, or the introduction of the electric vehicle are some of the challenges that are moving forward the network, how it behaves and the consumption load profile of the customers. Methodology The project done by the student is pioneer, because it uses the opportunity given by SP Energy Networks to develop a strategy for the implementation of Open Innovation in a company in the regulated business. The project would serve as an example and case study for later implementations. The project is inside an initiative developed by the government agency Scottish Enterprise to increase innovation in Scotland through SMES and get them more contracts with the big corporations participating in the Open Innovation Award initiative. The report by the student takes a look about the literature about Open Innovation, and three of the most successful case of implementation of Open Innovation, Procter&Gamble, NASA and GE. Then, the preparation, study and plan of a implementation strategy for Open Innovation in SP Energy Networks is done, studying the mechanisms, activities and processes xv needed to be implemented, modified, improved or deleted. Also the risks related to the changes and to the innovation model are studied, together with the countermeasures to avoid their negative effects and to convince the employees of the need of change. The implementation strategy is divided in 6 Work Packages that are showed in the following picture for the 4-year duration of the project. Work package 1 includes the definition of the strategy, from where Open Innovation in the Regulated Business appears. In parallel to the drafting of the project, the student has start with the implementation tasks of Open Innovation in SP Energy Networks, at the moment the strategy was signed and approved by the management of the company. This fact has allowed to count on the support of the organization and to have access to the first implementation results that would allow reaching certain conclusions to the validity of the strategy. The need to communicate the employees the change that the new model could mean to their normal work has been really important, as they can support and take part in the new model. Gain the support of the employees has been one of the hardest part of the strategy, as they were not fully aware of the process, technologies and solutions that the innovation team has developed in last years, Future Networks team in SP Energy Networks. To solve this problem, a whole work package has been dedicated to spread and disseminate the work of the team, and gain support to the new model. xvi Results The definition of Open Innovation for the utility industries, in which SP Energy Networks is part, has been proven and validated. "Open Innovation main aims is to change the innovative culture in SP Energy Networks, broadening the pool of solvers for electricity networks challenges, and increasing the awareness and engagement of the employees on innovation, looking always to improve the service given to the customers, improving the quality, the efficient and the efficacy, together with the highest commitment to reduce the environmental print of the activity". The partner chosen is the Energy Innovation Centre (EIC) and the first Innovation Call has been successfully launched, related to tower foundation monitoring. In the future the use of other extra partner is possible as a different approach or pool of solvers could help. EIC is a non-profit organization cofounded by United Kingdom energy operators, focusing its aims to search and scout for companies that could solve the need of the energy operators, as a whole or individually. The concrete case of the Call for Innovation related to tower foundation monitoring allows having a first view of the opportunities Open Innovation model has. Due to the lack of real results, a conservative criterion has been used in the numbers taken, together with the need to maintain confidential part of the data. Concept Unit Cost (£) Quantity Total Former Cost £9.000 600 £5.400.000 Open Innovation Cost (Future) £6.000 600 £3.600.000 Former Total Cost £5.400.000 Total Open Innovation Cost £3.600.000 Expected Annual Saving £1.800.000 Tower Foundation Monitoring Up to around 2-million-pound savings could be achieved per year, not taking into account the improvement in the knowledge of the real state of the assets that allows for better decisions to repair, invest or refurbish. In respect to the communication of the change of model, both internal and external activities have been carried out with really promising results, mostly in the acceptance by xvii employees. The partial former ignorance has been substituted by a real interest to know more about the possibilities that innovation can contribute to their day-to-day job. The results showed in this project are really limited, because the implementation is in its first stages, and only as the time goes by, we would be able to understand the real value of Open Innovation model in the particular case of SP Energy Networks, Conclusions The project serves as an introduction to a correct and proven methodology of success for the implementation of the Open Innovation model, without the need of big investments or dramatic changes in the organization, limiting the change for the employees, but promoting their participation and changing the internal culture of the company and the communication media. Presented strategy is valid, as it could be confirmed. The use of an external partner allows finding different solutions, by companies that are close in distance but far away in terms of industry. The opportunity of Open Innovation allows them to enter in service with SP Energy Networks. The development of the strategy during the following year would serve to confirm in a more documented way the validity of the model and the quality of the strategy.

Introduction: After the Second World War, the political and economical block that today we call European Union started when six countries sought to ensure the peace among them. Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands put their heavy industries under a common management, with the Coal and Steel Treaty, so no one could build weapons or develop its war industry without the others knowing it. This experience led to the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and 50 years later the ideas of people, goods and service freedoms continue spreading around, and the European Union has become one of the best examples of economical, political and cultural integration, and a reference around the world to encourage other regions to group. Therefore, among others, the Latin America Free Trade Association (LAFTA) appeared in 1960, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in 1967; the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA), in 1991; and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in 1993. In the case of South America , in spite of their good intentions, the huge asymmetries between LAFTA members caused the apparition of sub-regional blocs: the Andeans Community (CAN) founded in 1969, and now grouping Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru; and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) founded in 1991, between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Nowadays, after more than 40 years of integration processes, there are still strong problems inside both sub-regional blocs. CAN Member States have several diplomatic discussions regarding their political models; and Peru, Ecuador and Colombia have or are negotiating independent Free Trade Agreements with external blocs, including USA and the EU. In the other side, MERCOSUR's main players -Argentina and Brazil- have commercial disputes at the World Trade Organization, surrounding their own sub-regional bodies . Nevertheless, these two sub-regional associations were the basis for the South American Community of Nations (CSN on Spanish) in 2004, and from that point, the present attempt to unify South-America: the South American Union of Nations (UNASUR, 2008), with the participation of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay and Venezuela. The integration levels in political and economical affairs in this latter group are expected to change the way international relations will be conduit in the future of South-America. This new regional bloc has an extension of 17 658 Km² and 383 million inhabitants (2007) . With a general GDP of $2348 953 (2007) and a GDP per capita of $6126 (2007), it is one of the regions with more perspectives of development, but it is also one of the regions with the highest degrees of economic asymmetry. While in 2007 Chile, Venezuela and Brazil had a GDP per capita (2007) of $9865, $8601 and $6819, there were other countries like Paraguay and Bolivia, with a GDP per capita (2007) of $1669 and $1342. These asymmetries have leaded to strong disagreements between South American countries during previous integration process. An example that just pooling economies is not the whole solution for development is the case of Paraguay, in the middle of MERCOSUR and with barely a quarter of the MERCOSUR's GDP $6642 (2007). 'Integration' will not always mean international governmental organizations where Member States have decided to transfer competitions and empowerment of supranational institutions; in this Master Thesis, the South American integration processes will be defined as '(...)the creation and maintenance of intense and diverse patrons of interaction between previously autonomous units.' Furthermore, 'Integration' in the context of the South American reality included two concepts: 'Regionalism' and 'Regionalization'. The first is related to the wave of thinking, the interaction projects and the political initiatives (the processes) and the second, to the institutions or the agreements that represent the integration (the result). This Master Thesis tries to be oriented to describe the processes more than the institutions or the agreements; nevertheless, it is not possible to present the first without the second and vice versa. What kind of integration can be expected in South America? What kind of goals, challenges and success can South-American Nations find in their way to a social, political and economical integration? Whereas the EU is -since its very beginning- a supranational initiative, South American regional and sub-regional blocs are characterised for being mostly, the result of intergovernmental agreements. Will this difference be determinant in the integration processes? In this thesis of Master in European Studies, the South American integration -processes and institutions- will be review under the framework of six dimensions that give the EU its character of integrated regional bloc and are advocated to deep the South America Integration. Three of them related to structural bodies: executive, judicial and legislative; and the other three related to the policies that defines a Union: Monetary Policy, Foreign and Security Policy; and, Social and Development Policy. In order to do not miss the main emphasis, the description and analysis of the executive supranational body will be deeper than the corresponding to judicial and legislative bodies and the three common policies. In addition, two cases of the South American Integration will be modeled, to present the best possible scenarios to foster the integration. By the comparison of the structures and policies, and by the scenario modeling; this Master Thesis attempts to demonstrate that the lack of supranational authority and law enforcement power will play a determinant role in the success or failure in the South American integration process. The analysis in this thesis can be divided in two sections, the descriptive part and the analysis of Case Study. The information for the descriptive part is mostly from published books, research papers, journals and case studies, the information for the Case Study comes mostly from News and Newspaper articles. The technique used in the analysis of the Case Studies is the Theory Game: a shared-decision model with two players that have different priorities for the same decision. The methodology for that is described more widely in section 4.1 Fundamentals of Game Theory. This Master Thesis presents the South American integration as a whole, and the UNASUR as the present meeting point of the Andean Community and MERCOSUR. Therefore, wherever South American Integration is mentioned, it is not limited to UNASUR, CAN or MERCOSUR analysis, because they coexist and overlap each other at the same time. Instead, time framework and integration approaches are considerations that need to be undeniably included. To write about the integration processes in South America is to review almost 40 years of history and political agreements and disagreements of twelve countries and the influence that they received from external factors, like Central-, North America and Europe. Nowadays, the remaining sub-regional blocs face the opportunity to pool agreements in a new attempt, together with the risk of breaking-off of the Treaties, by the influence of external agreements of Member States with third parties around the world. For reasons of space, and to focus in the present regional integration process, those external agreements, like the NAFTA or the negotiations between the CAN and the EU, and their influence in the South American regional integration process are not going to be covered in this Master Thesis. That does not mean that their influence is negligible, rather than that, in some cases, like the Free Trade Agreements between the USA and Colombia, or Peru, it means the risk of the end of the CAN as a sub-regional economic bloc. In addition, a commercial developments analysis of the South American integration process requires a separate review of each commercial category and each bilateral agreement and therefore, a deeper description of those topics is not included. Other issues that are not going to be covered in this Master Thesis are those integration processes or commercial agreements that are not part or do not lead to the South American Union of Nations, like the 'Bolivarian Alternative for Our Americas' (on Spanish ALBA) or the 'Commercial Agreement of the Peoples' (on Spanish TCP). Their own dynamic and priorities are quite interesting; nevertheless going deeper in these issues could mean to reduce attention in the main topics of this Master Thesis. This Master Thesis uses study cases to describe two facets of the South American Integration process under the Two-Person Model of the Game Theory. The model used in this Master Thesis is characterised for the intersection of two players with mutual influence and different priorities. Game Theory is a useful analysis tool with many applications in mathematics, economics and political fields; nevertheless, as a model, it is a simplification of the reality and therefore, some details like the simplicity of its initial assumptions, the deep of the analysis, outsider players and feedback, are limited, further details of these limitations are presented in section 4.2. The analysis of a play of a Game, under the Game Theory can also be made by a mathematical approach. That mathematical approach is not going to be considered in this Master Thesis in order to keep the focus in the integration process.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Content: Dedicatory and Acknowledgementsii Abstractiii List of Contentsiv List of Tablesv List of Figuresvi List of Acronymsvii I.INTRODUCTION1 1.1Introduction2 1.2Methodology4 1.3Remarks4 II.SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT6 2.1Political Framework Development towards the South-American Union of Nations7 III.SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION UNDER THE EU FRAMEWORK26 3.1'New Regionalism' and the functional approach of South American integration.27 3.2South American- and EU- Integration Structures and Policies34 3.2.1A Supranational Executive Body37 3.2.2Supranational judicial functions41 3.2.3Supranational legislative functions43 3.2.4Common Currency and Supranational Monetary Institution46 3.2.5A Common Foreign and Security Policy47 3.2.6A Common Social and Development Policy48 IV.GAME THEORY AND SOUTH AMERICAN INTEGRATION CASE STUDIES50 4.1Game Theory51 4.1.1Fundamentals of Game Theory51 4.1.2Limitations of Game Theory54 4.2Case Studies55 4.2.1Case Study 1: Political Integration, the creation of the South American Energy Council (2007)55 4.2.2Case 2: Economical Integration, the Ecuadorian safeguards settlement (2009)62 V.CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL COMMENTS67 REFERENCES71 APPENDIXES Appendix A: South American figures78 Appendix B: Game Theory Glossary82 Appendix C: Combined priorities84 DISCLAIM89Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 3.2.1, A Supranational Executive Body: Regarding the legal order, Supranationalism means that sovereign states agree to abide by norms which are adopted at a higher level of organization. In the case of the European Union, Supranationalism is not referred to the transfer of sovereignty; it is only the transfer of the power to exercise that sovereignty. Together with that, the supremacy of the Community law and the principle of direct effect present that the legal system of the Community has a federal nature. Thence, a Supranational Institution has competences to exercise powers that belong to sovereign States. In addition, the exercise of this power should be in line with the principles of proportionality, i.e. No action shall go beyond that it is necessary; and subsidiarity, i.e. In competences that Supranational Institution shares with Member States, it does intervene only if the objective of the action cannot be achieved by the Member State. The interaction between national governments and EU Institutions, together with the freedom to act according to those competences, is the basis for the adoption of the EU rules. Beyond the legal order, Supranationalism may be employed in decision-making, monitoring and enforcement. Supranationalism can also be divided in decisional (pooling sovereignty) and normative (delegation of power). Decisional Supranationalism is referred to those decisions taken by voting procedures other than unanimity, and when governments decided to act either jointly or not at all. Normative Supranationalism refers to the delegation of power to autonomous institutions that are created by the Member States. Therefore, a Supranational Executive Body will be an Institution with the right to adopt normative decisions directly based on the Treaties, with the autonomy to execute those decisions, and without the need of approval by the Member States. Supranational actors contribute to the integration by different means and reasons. Moravscik presented that pooling or delegation in the EU, are means to assure that other governments will accept agreed legislation or enforcement in issue-areas, where joint gains are high and distributional conflicts are moderate, and where there is uncertainty about future decisions. Other contribution of supranational bodies to integration process is that they might reduce the transaction costs by institutionalizing the integrative dynamic and negotiating procedure; and, it may assist national governments in issues area in which there are reasonably clear added benefits working according to the rules, but with predictable temptations to chat in response to short-term pressures. In addition, supranational institutions bring mutual confidence; smaller countries, which want their interests taken in account, especially in multinational scenarios where there is not veto power, can relay in the impartiality of supranational actors, instead of intergovernmental decision-making procedures, where the most powerful Member States shape the process. Probably the best example of the contribution of a Supranational Executive Body to Regional Integration is in Competition Policy: The Commission received decision powers in the sphere of state aid, based on the EEC Treaty provisions, due to the necessity of an impartial and independent body to apply agreed rules to face national pressures. One of the earliest Community Regulations fixed the modalities by which the Commission would exercise that power directly to ensure that undertakings respected antitrust rules. A supranational executive body can also shape the process and foster the integration. An example is the development of the European Monetary Union (EMU). Monetary union was neither the uncontested solution to economic problems, nor an easily obtainable response to German reunification. Nevertheless, Commission officials successfully disseminated the notion that EMU altogether provided a coherent solution to the problems created by financial globalization and the end of the Cold War; furthermore, they were leading actors in the sudden proliferation of governmental initiatives in France, Italy and German in favour of the EMU. By doing that, they fostered solid political momentum behind an originally lukewarm and unfocused demand for monetary integration. There are several reasons and examples of the benefits of a Supranational Executive Body; nevertheless, South American Nations still working with Intergovernmental Structures. During the negotiations for the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty, its former General Secretary, Rodrigo Borja, presented a proposal for the authority and competences of UNASUR. In that document, member states, '(...) in exchange of the economical, political and geopolitical advantages that a common order can offer; agreed in the limitation of some of their sovereign faculties and will form the Union with common decision and executive multinational bodies'. The proposal was not accepted and finally, was part of the reasons of Borja's resignation. While in the case of the EU, the presence of a Supranational Executive Body is one of the strongest driving forces of the integration process, in the South American context, there is not yet a political will to pool sovereignty. Solón, pro-tempore General Secretary of UNASUR from 2006 to 2008, affirms 'Nobody doubts that in the future it will be necessary to move to supranational authorities (...) but today they want an agreement where everybody shall count with the other to have a meeting point'. Behind that attitude, the reasons that can be drawn are the political will of member states, driven by governments or national monopolies, which do not want to lose control over the process and the stagnation of the over-institutionalism in the past (Central America Common Market and the CAN). The stagnation of over-institutionalism drives member states to appeal to external bodies in the dispute settlement, continuing the weakening of the idea of a supranational body; the political will of member states, or its absence, could be explained for the existence of strong national political elites, allowed for the late trade liberalizations of national monopolies. Rajagopal refers to studies of how MERCOSUR member states have been primarily driven by domestic political considerations when they have furthered the integration process. This it could lead to conclude that they are not likely to develop the kind of supranational governance institutions present in the European Union; as policy elites in MERCOSUR, member states desire to maintain a great deal of domestic policy autonomy. In addition of its intergovernmental character, the faculties of the UNASUR Secretariat as Executive body are restricted by its small budget of 3 million US$/year, much more limited than the 5,4 million US$/year of the CAN General Secretariat ; and by the denial of the proposal of pooling the executive bodies of CAN and MERCOSUR. Another issue to consider is that the feasibility for South American countries to pool sovereignty or to delegate power varies from one Member State to another, according to their own constitutive and legal framework. In some cases, Constitutional texts are quite clear in stimulating regional integration and stressing the prevalence of regional law, like the Venezuelan Constitution that allows to 'confer on supranational organisations (...) the exercise of the powers necessary to carry out these integration processes (...)'(Art. 153, Venezuelan Constitution 1999). The Colombian external relations 'are based on national sovereignty (...) and on recognition of the principles of international law accepted by Colombia' and 'The State shall promote economic, social and political integration with other nations(…)', (Art. 19 and Art. 227, Colombian Constitution 1991). There are, however, other Member States whit Constitutions that needs amendment to pool sovereignty; like the Bolivian Constitutions which states 'The public authorities may not delegate the powers conferred on them by this Constitution, or confer on the executive branch powers other than those expressly conferred on them by it' (Art. 30, Bolivian Constitution). Therefore, the creation of a supranational executive body could not be totally accepted until the totality of the national Constitutions were in line with it. In addition to the considerations presented above, Chapter IV presents two Case Study based on the Game Theory to demonstrate the strong influence of an executive body with supranational competences in the integration process. Nevertheless, it is likely to expect that present integration structures will remain tied to intergovernmental political intentions, and the integration process will loose the benefits of a Supranational Executive Body.

This guide accompanies the following article: Doreen Anderson‐Facile and Shyanne Ledford, 'Basic Challenges to Prisoner Reentry', Sociology Compass 3/2 (2009): 183–195, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2009.00198.xAuthor's IntroductionCrime, incarceration and prisoner reintegration are pressing issues facing the United States today. As the prison population grows at record rates so, in turn, does the reentry of prisoners into society. The transition from prison to the outside world is often difficult for post‐release prisoners, their families, their communities and the larger society. Many formally incarcerated individuals do not have the skills or support to succeed outside prison walls. Unfortunately, when post‐release prisoners are not successfully reintegrated, they are often returned to prison and begin the cycle of incarceration.The following is a course designed around the basic challenges prisoners face upon reentry. The literature suggests that success depends in part on support and overcoming several barriers, such as homelessness and under/unemployment. This course begins with an examination of reentry barriers facing post‐release prisoners followed by an exploration of the relationship between prisoner reentry, race, gender, family, and employment and concludes with an assessment of ongoing research and public policy.Author RecommendsAnderson‐Facile, Doreen. (2009). 'Basic Challenges to Prisoner Reentry'. Sociology Compass, 3(2): 183–95.Anderson‐Facile's review of current research on prisoner reentry yields interesting results. Her article examines prisoner reentry as it relates to the barriers preventing successful reintegration. Anderson‐Facile begins with a look at incarceration and recidivism statistics leading readers through the barriers preventing reentry success. Barriers such as housing, family and community support, employment, and the stigma of a prison record make successful reentry difficult. Anderson‐Facile concludes with a look at current reentry programs. Anderson‐Facile highlights literature suggesting post‐release success begins with rehabilitation and ends with community support. The author notes that many successful programs are faith or character‐based. These programs focus on the individual and assist in substance abuse issues, vocational training, and transitional living arrangements. Finally, Anderson‐Facile notes that programs that work in one community may not show success in other communities, therefore concluding that matching programs with communities is a critical component for assuring post‐release success.Dhami, Mandeep K., David R. Mandel, George Loewesnstein, and Peter Ayton. (2006). 'Prisoners' Positive Illusions of Their Post‐Release Success'. Law and Human Behavior30: 631–47.Dhami et al. examine prisoners' forecasts of reentry success as this may have implications for how prisoners respond to imprisonment, release, and parole decisions. The authors examine sentenced US and UK prisoners' predictions for personal recidivism. The authors also asked UK prisoners how successful they will be compared to the average prisoner. Overall, both samples yielded overly optimistic, unrealistic beliefs about personal reentry success when compared to official data. The UK participants demonstrated a self‐enhancement bias by expressing that they would fair far better than the average prisoner. The authors conclude their article by discussing the implications of their findings and suggest future research possibilities.Holzer, Harry J., Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll. (2002). 'Can Employers Play a More Positive Role in Prisoner Reentry? Urban Institute's Reentry Roundtable'.The authors report that in the early 21st century over 600 000 prisoners were released each year from prison and three million or more ex‐prisoners were in the general population. Holzer et al. indicate that one of the greatest hurdles for a newly released prisoner is finding employment because, as applicants, they are faced with an aversion on the employers part to hiring ex‐offenders. Holzer et al. explore the extent and nature of this aversion. Holzer et al. maintain that interventions by other agencies can help mediate employer aversions to hiring post‐release prisoners.La Vigne, Nancy G., Diana Brazzell, and Kevonne M. Small. (2007). 'Evaluation of Florida's Faith‐ and Character‐Based Institutions'. The Urban Institute.La Vigne et al. produced a summary of the findings from a 'process and impact' evaluation of two of Florida's faith and character‐based programs, also known as FCBIs. The authors' note that FCBIs are founded on principles of self‐betterment and faith development and are often ran by volunteers. The authors gathered data in the following ways: one on one interviews, semi structured interviews with staff members at all levels, focus groups with inmates, administrative data/official documents, and telephone and email communications with state corrections personnel. The authors noted that at six months, male FCBI housed participants were more successful than post‐released prisoners housed in Federal Department of Corrections (FDOC) facilities.La Vigne, Nancy G., Rebecca L. Naser, Lisa E. Brooks, and Jennifer L. Castro. (2005). 'Examining the Effect of Incarceration and In‐Prison Family Contact on Prisoners' Family Relationships'. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice21(4): 314–35.In this article, La Vigne, Naser, Brooks and Castro look at the role of the family in recidivism rates. Specifically, they examine the role of in‐prison contact with family members on released prisoner success. This article first defines family and then looks at the quality of familial bonds at imprisonment and during incarceration. Next, they examine the inter‐personal bonds in relationships, i.e., parent–child vs. husband‐wife of these post‐released prisoners. The authors' findings were inconsistent. For example, in some situations in‐prison contact was detrimental on family relationships and ties, wherein other cases the same contact served to strengthen the family and create a tighter network of family support for the newly released prisoner. These findings suggest further research is necessary.Pager, D. (2003). 'The Mark of a Criminal Record'. The American Journal of Sociology108(5): 937–75.Pager examined the relationship between prior incarceration and race on employment on two teams of subjects. One team consisted of two 23‐year‐old, white men and the other team was two 23‐year‐old, African‐American men. The two teams were nearly identical in personality, appearance, skills and employment history. The variables were race and criminal record. The findings suggest that race and employment history are important factors on post‐released employment. Thirty‐four percent of white applicants without criminal backgrounds received a call back while only 14 percent of black applicants without criminal backgrounds got called back. Seventeen percent of white applicants with criminal records received call backs while only 5 percent of black applicants with criminal records received call backs. These findings indicate that race and not prison record is a greater determinant of employment.Parsons, Mickey L. and Carmen Warner‐Robbins. (2002). 'Factors That Support Women's Successful Transition to the Community Following Jail/ Prison'. Health Care for Women International23: 6–18.Parson and Warner‐Robbins simply state the purpose of their article is to describe the factors that support the successful reentry of post‐release women into the community. The authors look at a specific program called Welcome Home Ministries (WHM), a community‐based program. The authors examine the demographics of the population, the rising incarceration rates, issues that lead to incarceration, and support for post‐release mothers. Through qualitative interviews with women who were participating in WHM programs upon release many themes emerged. The authors argue that these themes lead to implications about what future programs need to support women who are transitioning from prisoner to general public.Seiter, Richard P. and Karen R. Kadela. (2003) 'Prisoner Reentry: What Works, What Does Not, and What is Promising'. Crime and Delinquency49(3): 360–88.Seiter and Kadela examine the nature of the reentry issue and explore which reentry programs show success in reducing recidivism. The authors note a swing from modified sentencing to determinate sentencing which increases length of incarceration as an additional factor in successful reentry. Seiter and Kadela define reentry, categorize programs for prisoner reentry, and use the Maryland Scale of Scientific Method to determine program effectiveness. The authors find that programs that emphasized vocational training and employment development yield the most success.Travis, Jeremy and Joan Petersilia. (2001). 'Reentry Reconsidered: A New Look at an Old Question'. Crime and Delinquency47(3): 291–313.Travis and Petersilia drive prison reform by providing research‐based implications for revamping the current system of prisoner management. While prisoners have always been arrested and released, the authors point out that the numbers of both are increasing. They believe this is a call to action. Travis and Petersilia look at changing sentencing policies, changes in parole supervision, and how the removal and return of prisoners influence communities. The authors highlight the astronomical increase of prisoners at a time when sentencing policies are changing and are often inconsistent. They examine parole, the demographics of transitioning inmates, and the links between reentry and five social policies. The findings provide guidance for development of reentry policies.Wacquant, Loic. (2002). 'Deadly Symbiosis: Rethinking Race and Imprisonment in Twenty‐ First‐Century America'. Boston Review27(2): 22–31.Waquant begins his article with three abrupt facts about racial inequality and imprisonment in the United States all of which point to a 'blackening' of the nations prisons. The author points out that the high percentage of black people incarcerated in the United States is a direct result of four institutions; slavery, the Jim Crow System, the organizational structure of urban ghettos and the growing prison system. One of the main findings, according to Waquant, is that when laws and social reform restricted segregation (technically ended), the prisons picked up where society left off. Essentially he argues that, as evidenced by the ghettos and increasing numbers of African‐Americans behind bars, the prison serves to reaffirm racial inequality.Online MaterialsDepartment of Justice http://www.usdoj.gov/Urban Institute http://www.urban.org/California Departmen of Corrections and Rehabilitation http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Bureau of Justice Statistics http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjsLloyd Sealy Library at John Jay College http://www.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/Pew Center http://www.pewresearch.org/Sample Syllabus Week 1: Introduction to Prisoner Reentry Anderson‐Facile, Doreen. (2009). 'Basic Challenges to Prisoner Reentry'. Sociology Compass 3/2: 183–95.Visher, Christy A. and Jeremy Travis. (2003). 'Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways'. Annual Review of Sociology29: 89–113. Week 2: Introduction to Prisoner Reentry Continued Travis, Jeremy and Joan Petersilia. (2001). 'Reentry Reconsidered: A New Look at an Old Question.'Crime and Delinquency 47/3: 291–313.The Urban Institute. 'Beyond the Prison Gates: The State of Parole in America. A First Tuesday Forum.'http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=900567, November 5, 2002. Week 3: Incarceration, Reentry, and Race Pettit, Becky, and Bruce Western. (2004). 'Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in US Incarceration.'American Sociological Review69: 151–169.Wacquant, Loic. (2002). 'Deadly Symbiosis: Rethinking race and Imprisonment in twenty‐first‐century America'. Boston Review 27/2 (April/May): 22–31.Marbley, Aretha Faye and Ralph Ferguson. (2005). 'Responding to Prisoner Reentry, Recidivism, and Incarceration of Inmates of Color: A Call to the Communities'. Journal of Black Studies 35/5(May): 633–49. Week 4: Incarceration, Reentry, and Gender O'Brien, Patricia. (2007). 'Maximizing Success for Drug‐Affected Women after Release from Prison: Examining Access to and Use of Social Services During Reentry'. Women & Criminal Justice 17/2&3: 95–113.Severance, Theresa A. (2004). 'Concerns and Coping Strategies of Women Inmates Concerning Release: 'It's Going to Take Somebody in My Corner"'. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 38/4: 73–97.Parsons, Mickey L. and Carmen Warner‐Robbins. (2002). 'Factors that Support Women's Successful Transition to the Community Following Jail/ Prison.'Health Care for Women International23: 6–18. Week 5: Incarceration, Reentry, and Family/ Home La Vigne, Nancy G., Rebecca L. Naser, Lisa E. Brooks, and Jennifer L. Castro. (2005). 'Examining the Effect of Incarceration and In‐Prison Family Contact on Prisoners' Family Relationships'. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 21/4 (November): 314–35.Pearson, Jessica and Lanae Davis. (2003). 'Serving Fathers Who Leave Prison'. Family Court Review 41/3(July): 307–20.Roman, Caterina Gouvis and Jeremy Travis. (2004). 'Taking Stock: Housing, Homelessness, and Prisoner Reentry,'The Urban Institute.http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411096, March 8, 2004. Week 6: Incarceration, Reentry, and Employment Pager, Devah. (2003). 'The Mark of a Criminal Record,'American Journal of Sociology 108/5 (March): 937–75.Solomon, Amy L., Kelly Dedel Johnson, Jeremy Travis, and Elizabeth C. McBride. (2004). 'From Prison to Work: The Employment Dimensions of Prisoner Reentry'. Urban Institute Justice Policy Center. October 2004, pp. 1–32. Week 7: Incarceration, Reentry, and Employment Continued Holzer, Harry J., Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll. (2002). 'Can Employers Play a More Positive Role in Prisoner Reentry? A Roundtable Paper'. The Urban Institute, March 20–21, 2002, pp. 1–16.Harrison, Byron, and Robert Carl Schehr. (2004). 'Offenders and Post‐Release Jobs: Variables Influencing Success and Failure'. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 39/3: 35–68. Week 8: Prisoner Reentry: What Works? MacKenzie, Doris Layton. (2000). 'Evidence‐Based Corrections: Identifying What Works'. Crime and Delinquency46: 457–71.Petersilia, Joan. (2004). 'What Works in Prisoner Reentry? Reviewing and Questioning Evidence'. Federal Probation 68/2 (September): 4–8.Seiter, Richard P. and Karen R. Kadela. (2003). 'Prisoner Reentry: What Works, What Does Not, and What is Promising,'Crime and Delinquency 49/3 (July): 360–88. Week 9: Incarceration, Reentry, Research and Public Policy Lynch, James P. (2006). 'Prisoner Reentry: Beyond Program Evaluations.'Criminology and Public Policy 5/2: 401–12.Pager, Devah. (2006). 'Evidence‐Based Policy for Successful Prisoner Reentry'. Criminology and Public Policy 5/3: 505–14.La Vigne, Nancy G. Diana Brazzell, and Kevonne M. Small. (2007). 'Evaluation of Florida's Faith‐ and Character‐Based Institutions'. The Urban Institute http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411561, October 1, 2007.Jacobson, Michael. (2006). 'Reversing the Punitive Turn: The Limits and Promise of Current Research'. Criminology and Public Policy 5/2: 277–84. Week 10: Incarceration, Reentry, and Outcomes Dhami, Mandeep K., David R. Mandel, George Loewenstein, and Peter Ayton. (2006). 'Prisoners Positive Illusions of Their Post‐Release Success'. Law and Human Behavior30: 631–47.Richards, Stephen C., James Austin, and Richard S. Jones. (2004). 'Kentucky's Perpetual Prisoner Machine: It's About Money'. The Review of Policy Research 21/1: 93–106.Suggested ReadingsEvans, Donald G. (2005). 'The Case for Inmate Reentry'. Corrections Today pp. 28–9.Lynch, James P. and William J. Sabol. (2001). 'Prisoner Reentry in Perspective'. Crime Policy Report3: 1–25.'One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008'. The Pew: Center on the States 2008, pp. 1–35.Petersilia, Joan. (1999). Parole and Prisoner Reentry in the United States, The University of Chicago.Petersilia, Joan (2003). When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0‐19‐516086‐x.Travis, Jeremy, Amy L. Solomon, and Michelle Waul. (2001). 'From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry'. The Urban Institute.Young, D. Vernetta and Rebecca Reviere (2006). Women Behind Bars. London: Lynn Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1‐58826‐371‐1.Focus Questions

 Think about the kind of crimes for which people are imprisoned. What types of crimes do you think the majority of the prisoners commit? What precursors would lead to someone being arrested and eventually imprisoned for these types of crimes? What is the likelihood that these factors remain upon release?
 Do you think prison should be rehabilitative or punitive?
 Do you think prison is always the best option for criminal behavior (in other words, is the old adage 'if you do the crime you need to do the time' valid?).
 Why are incarceration and recidivism rates different across race and class? How do you explain the disparities in incarceration rates for people of color?
 What kind of programs, if any, do you feel should be incorporated into a prison sentence (i.e. job training, counseling, AA, NA, religious opportunities, etc.). Suggested Culminating Activity: Students are to design a pilot program to assist prisoners successfully reenter into the community. Students must have the following parts in their report/ presentation: Prison/Community Summary (what population and community do you want to serve), Program Summary and Justification (what is the program – how does it work and why do you think it is a valuable program), Requirements for Participation in Program, Barriers to Success, Assessment/ Measurement of Success/ Failure, and Conclusion. Students must briefly site articles from this course to support their methodologies and indicate the problems they suspect they will face as they try to determine the success or failure of their program. Budgets and money are a non‐issue. In the 'real' world budgets are always an issue but for the purpose of this assignment they are not. However, when designing your program you should consider whether your design is financially feasible.. The goal of such an assignment is for students to recognize the barriers prisoners face to successful reentry, the evidence and research that goes into creating prisoner policies, and that a program must be multi‐faceted and comprehensive in order to provide a platform for former inmate success.

This sample syllabus above is modeled after a 10 week term. It is recommended for longer terms, that the following book be utilized:Irwin, John. (2005). The Warehouse Prison. California: Roxbury Publishing Company.ISBN: 1‐931719‐35‐7.John Irwin derived his data from a prison in Solano County, California. Irwin watched as incarceration rates doubled between 1980 and 2000 despite crime levels staying relatively stable. Irwin notes that most of the prisoners in his study were incarcerated for 'unserious' crimes and were often treated in unethical ways. Irwin begins by examining incarceration rates, the demographics of the prison population, problems prisoners faced while incarcerated, post‐release difficulties and hurdles, and the societal costs of the prison super‐structure. Irwin offers a thorough examination of why prisoners are incarcerated, what they face while inside prison walls, what challenges they face once released, and the financial implications of imprisoning people.

Authors' introductionAlthough Latinas/os have a long history in the United States and represent a growing percentage of the population, they remain largely invisible or stereotyped in popular images and discourses. Ahistoric, fragmented, and individual‐level perspectives often frame Latina/o migration, education, and activism and thus negatively influence public perceptions and policy. Fortunately, over the past 30 years, scholars in disciplines such as sociology, history, Chicana/o–Latina/o Studies, and Latin American Studies have done much to remedy these gaps and misperceptions. However, for a broad and inclusive approach to understanding the structures influencing Latina/o lives and communities, we believe that more work is needed to connect these scholarly developments which are often separated by academic divisions. Thus, we recommend the following materials that together offer a multidisciplinary and multifaceted framework that highlights the significance of global capitalism and white supremacy on Latina/o immigration, education, and activism. Key to this framework is a movement away from individual‐level arguments and assimilationist perspectives to an emphasis on US imperialism, economic exploitation, and schooling within capitalism. By broadening the frameworks for analysis and linking together the factors shaping Latina/o migration, education, and activism, we emphasize the systems of power and inequality that influence the lives of marginalized communities, without losing sight of the legacy of resistance in Latin America and the United States.Suggested textsTomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994).Using primary and secondary sources, this book traces the distinct racialized experiences of Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and European Americans in late‐19th century California. Almaguer focuses on the material and ideological basis of group placement and delivers one of the few theoretical works on the factors shaping the multiracial hierarchy that characterizes the history of California.Antonia Darder, Reinventing Paulo Freire: A Pedagogy of Love (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2002).This engaging book roots contemporary schooling to global capitalism and racism. In it, Darder draws on the legacy of renowned Brazilian educator Paulo Freire to offer powerful reflections and examples from today's teachers who are practicing liberatory education in the struggle for social and economic justice.Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia, PA: Balch Institute Press, 1990).This foundational book is devoted to the history of Chicana/o education and traces the roots of inequality in education from the early 1900s to Mendez v. Westminster, the landmark desegregation case in 1947. Gonzalez uses historical documents and dissertations to detail the historical relationships between capitalism, sociological theories, and school practices in reproducing a classed, raced, and gendered labor market. He placed particular attention on Americanization Programs, segregated schooling, vocational education, and the political economy. The book ends with an analysis of the role of parents, community, and various organizations in the eventual elimination of de jure segregation for Mexican American students in schools.Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2001).Employing a hemispheric approach, journalist Juan Gonzalez analyzes the close connection between US imperial expansion and Latino/a migration. As part of the harvest of empire, Gonzalez examines migration from various countries, including Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba, focusing on the macro‐structural factors that have led to migration.'History and Critical Pedagogies: Transforming Consciousness, Classrooms, and Communities', Radical History Review, 102 (Fall 2008).This special journal issue explores how scholars and activists have used critical pedagogies to challenge unequal power relations in classrooms and communities. A number of articles provide concrete reflections and strategies such as drama‐based pedagogies, service‐learning, and community‐based projects. Interviews with scholars and activists demonstrate how praxis has the power to transform society and popular education employs an asset‐based approach to education.Pierrette Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Doméstica: Central Americans Cleaning and Caring in the Shadow of Affluence (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001).This qualitative study focuses on the lives and experiences of domestic workers and the people who employ them. After beginning with an important overview of the historical, economic, and political context shaping Central American migration and the service industry, Hondagneu‐Sotelo provides an in‐depth and nuanced analysis of domestic work and employee‐employer relationships. She ends the book with crucial strategies for improving the occupation and examples of labor organizing among Los Angeles‐area domestic workers.Enrique C. Ochoa and Gilda L. Ochoa, eds., Latino Los Angeles: Transformations, Communities, and Activism (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2005).This collection of articles examines diverse Latina/o communities in the greater Los Angeles regions and their formations and activism in the context of global capitalism. The first section examines how migration is connected to macro factors including US foreign policy and capitalist restructuring. The second section explores community and identity (re)formation. The final section examines multiple forms of activism, with articles on the struggle for Chicana/o Studies at UCLA, Justice for Janitors, and labor and community alliances with day laborers.Suggested videos El Norte (1983)This now‐classic feature length film by Gregory Nava traces the harrowing experiences of a young brother and sister as they migrate from Guatemala to the United States. Along with capturing their trying experiences crossing multiple borders, the film also details the struggles they encounter as they try to adjust to the hardships of life in the United States, including their distinct gendered experiences. We recommend combining this film with a discussion of the increased border deaths accompanying the growing criminalization of immigrants and the militarization of the Guatemala–Mexico and the Mexico–United States borders. Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary (1997)In this documentary, Director Laura Angelica Simon details the contemporary impact of anti‐immigration policies and debates on students and teachers at a Los Angeles elementary school. The documentary was made during the 1990s when California was in the midst of an economic recession and citizens were voting on Proposition 187, an initiative that sought to deny social services to undocumented immigrants. It is a powerful teaching tool that includes students' voices and experiences; however, we suggest combining the video with some historical background on US military, economic, and political involvement in Latin America. Viewers might also be encouraged to deconstruct some of the director's images, interview questions, and racially loaded language. Made in L.A. (Hecho in Los Angeles) (2007)This documentary follows the lives of three inspiring Latina garment workers originally from Mexico and El Salvador and their participation in the 3‐year struggle for labor rights. In the process of organizing through the Garment Worker Center for basic labor protections from the trendy clothing retailer Forever 21, the women become increasingly empowered – resulting in one who separates from her husband and another who becomes an organizer. Woven throughout their narratives are the historical struggle of garment workers, the role of nation‐states in dividing families, and the power of coalition building. Salt of the Earth (1954)This feature‐length move is based on an actual labor struggle of the era. It examines the intersections of class, race/ethnicity, and gender as a primarily Mexicana/o community goes on strike and struggles with historic patriarchy to unify against the large mining company that dominates their lives. The movie deals with the legacy of US conquest of the Southwest and capitalist expansion in the region, while showing how communities have struggled to challenge inequalities. Salt of the Earth was made by artists shunned during the McCarthy era and the movie was not played widely in the United States. Much of the cast were not professional actors but were workers and union activists involved in the strike. Taking Back the Schools (1996)This documentary focuses on the 1968 Chicana/o School Blowouts where over 10,000 East Los Angeles students walked out of their high schools demanding bilingual‐bicultural education, more Mexican American teachers, relevant curriculum, accurate textbooks, and the end of curriculum tracking and prejudiced teachers who steered Mexican Americans into vocational classes. It uses original footage from the walkouts and contemporary interviews with the student organizers. It also highlights the precursors to the walkouts such as a history of Spanish language repression and de jure and de facto segregation in schools. Voces inocentes/Innocent Voices (2005)Set in 1980s El Salvador, the movie follows the life of a young boy during the Civil War. It deals with the impacts of war and US intervention on youth.Suggested websites David Bacon, 'Uprooted and Criminalized: The Impact of Free Market on Migrants,'Backgrounder The Oakland Institute (Autumn 2008) http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/pdfs/backgrounder_uprooted.pdf Renowned journalist and activist David Bacon provides a lively analysis of the link between free trade policies and migration. Drawing on his years of activism and journalism, Bacon underscores the human toll of free trade and migration while laying bare the system that undergirds it. Several powerful photographs complement the report. In Motion Magazine‐Education Rights Section http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er.html In Motion Magazine is a multicultural progressive on‐line magazine dealing with democracy. Harvard education professor Pedro Noguera co‐edits the Education Rights section to provide 'a forum for activists, educators, parents and students who are searching for alternative ideas to the challenges confronting education today.' Mexican Labor News and Analysis (MLNA) http://www.ueinternational.org/Mexico_info/mlna.php MLNA publishes the latest news on labor and social justice issues in Mexico. It emphasizes labor and working class struggles and does an excellent job of tracking strikes, demonstrations, and demands for social justice. MLNA is published in conjunction with the Authentic Labor Front in Mexico and the United Electrical Workers in the United States. ICED (I Can End Deportation) http://www.icedgame.com This an educational game deals with combating deportation. It focuses on several New York City youth and their struggles. Players must answer a series of questions on immigration and avoid ICE agents. Background lesson material is provided and is aligned with the New York State Standards. Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org/ Rethinking Schools is a monthly publication committed to educational equality and the vision of the public school as foundational in a democratic society. Articles are published by teachers, activists, parents, and students on a wide range of issues affecting schools. In addition to the monthly magazine, it publishes a broad range of progressive educational materials dealing with educating working class students of color.Sample syllabusMost general courses should include materials on Latinas/os especially given the historical presence and the contemporary growth of the population. For example, the following sections, topics, and reading could be incorporated into any of the following courses: Introduction to Sociology, Sociology of (Im)Migration, Sociology of Education, Race and Ethnicity, Social Movements, and Chicanas/os‐Latinas/os in the United States.Section 1: Chicana/o‐Latina/o Identities in the U.S.Topics: Latina/o Heterogeneity; Pan‐ethnicity; Identity Formation; Multiple Identities; Racial FormationReadings:Aurora Levins Morales, 'Child of the Americas,' in Race, Class, and Gender in the United States, ed. Paula Rothenberg (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press 2001), 660–661.Pat Mora, 'Legal Alien' in Making Face, Making Soul, Haciendo Caras: Creative and Critical Perspectives by Feminists of Color, ed. Gloria Anzaldúa (San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Foundation, 1990), p. 376.Martha E. Gimenez, 'Latino/Hispanic – Who Needs a Name?' in Latinos and Education: A Critical Reader, eds. Antonia Darder, Rodolofo D. Torres, and Henry Gutiérrez (New York, NY: Routledge, 1997), 225–238.Gilda L. Ochoa, ' "This is Who I Am": Negotiating Racial/Ethnic Constructions' in Becoming Neighbors in a Mexican American Community: Power, Conflict, and Solidarity (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2004), 70–97.Anulkah Thomas, 'Black Face, Latin Looks: Racial‐Ethnic Identity among Afro‐Latinos in the Los Angeles Region' in Latino Los Angeles: Transformations, Communities, and Activism (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2005), 197–221.Bernadete Beserra, 'Negotiating Latinidade in Los Angeles: The Case of Brazilian Immigrants' in Latino Los Angeles: Transformations, Communities, and Activism (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2005), 178–196.Cherrie Moraga, 'La Güera' in Loving in the War Years (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1983), 50–59.Nicholas De Genova and Ana Y. Ramos‐Zayas, Latino Crossings: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and the Politics of Race and Citizenship (New York, NY: Routledge, 2003).Section 2: Theorizing and (De)Constructing Popular Conceptions of Latinas/os and Latin AmericaTopics: White Supremacy; Manifest Destiny; The Social Construction of Race; Dominant Conceptions of Immigration; Linking Migration, Education, and ActivismReadings:Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994).Clara E. Rodríguez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York, NY: New York University Press, 2000).Leo R. Chavez, Covering Immigration: Popular Images and the Politics of the Nation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001).Gilda L. Ochoa and Enrique C. Ochoa, 'Framing Latina/o Immigration, Education, and Activism', Sociology Compass. 1/2 (2007), 701–719.Section 3: US Imperialism and Capitalist Expansion in Latin AmericaReadings:Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Culture of Empire: American Writers, Mexico, Mexican Immigrants (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2003).Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, and Science and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley, CA: UC Press, 2002).Robert G. Williams, Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2001).Greg Grandin, Empire's Workshop: Latin America, The United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York, NY: Metropolitan Books, 2006).Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The U.S. in Central America (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1993).Héctor Tober, Tattooed Soldier (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2000).Judith Adler Hellman, Mexican Lives (New York, NY: The New Press, 1995).David Bacon, Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2007).Video: Voces inocentes/Innocent Voices (2005)Section 4: Politics, Economics, and Latin American Migration to the U.S.Topics: The 'Revolving Door Strategy;' Economic Restructuring; Transnational Ties; Gender and Migration; Undocumented MigrationReadings:Saskia Sassen, Globalization and Its Discontents: Essays on the New Mobility of People and Money (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1998).Maria Cristina García, Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, the United States, and Canada (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006).Jonathan Fox and Gaspar Rivera‐Salgado. Indigenous Mexican Migrants in the United States (San Diego, CA: Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, 2004).Joseph Nevins, Dying to Live: A Story of U.S. Immigration in an Age of Global Apartheid (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Publishers, 2008).Robert Courtney Smith, Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006).Cecilia Menjívar, Fragmented Ties: Salvadoran Immigrant Networks in America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000).Pierrette Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Doméstica: Central Americans Cleaning and Caring in the Shadow of Affluence (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001).Leon Fink, The Maya of Morgantown: Work and Community in the New South (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).Gloria González‐Lopez, Erotic Journeys: Mexican Immigrants and their Sex Lives (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005).Video: El Norte (1983)Section 5: Latinas/os and Education: Schools as Reproducers of InequalityTopics: Americanization Programs; De Jure and De Facto Segregation; Curriculum Tracking; Education and Globalization; Raced and Gendered Experiences; Undocumented YouthReadings:Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia, PA: Balch Institute Press, 1990).Antonia Darder, Reinventing Paulo Freire: A Pedagogy of Love (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2002).Michael W. Apple, Educating the 'Right' Way: Markets, Standards, God, and Inequality (New York, NY: Routledge Falmer, 2001).Gilda G. Ochoa, Learning from Latino Teachers (San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Publishers, 2007).Angela Valenzuela, Subtractive Schooling: U.S.‐Mexican Youth and the Politics of Caring (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999).Nancy Lopez, Hopeful Girls, Troubled Boys: Race and Gender Disparity in Urban Education (New York, NY: Routledge, 2003).Gabriela Madera, Angelo A. Mathay, Armin M. Najafi, et al. Underground Undergrads: UCLA Undocumented Immigrant Students Speak Out (Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Center for Labor Research and Education, 2008).Videos:The Lemon Grove Incident (1986)Mendez v. Westminster (2004)Taking Back the Schools (1996)Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary (1997)Section 6: Latina/o Resistance and ActivismTopics: Responses to U.S. Imperialism; union and grassroots activism; school integration; cross‐border organizingWillia V. Flores and Rina Benmayor, Latino Cultural Citizenship: Claiming Identity, Space, and Rights (Boston, MA: Beacon, 1997).Mary Pardo, Mexican American Women Activists: Identity and Resistance in Two Los Angeles Communities (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1998).Ruth Milkman, L.A. Story: Immigrant Workers and the Future of the Labor Movement (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).Milagros Peña, Latina Activists Across Borders: Women's Grassroots Organizing in Mexico and Texas (Duke University Press, 2007).Guadalupe San Miguel Jr., Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston (College Station, TX: Texas A.M. Press, 2001).Kara Zugman, 'Autonomy in a Poetic Voice: Zapatistas and Politics Organizing in Los Angeles', Latino Studies. 3 (2005): 325–46.Videos:Salt of the Earth (1954)Bread and Roses (2000)Made in L.A. (2007)Focus questionsWhat are the dominant images of Latina/o migration, education, and activism? From where do these images emerge? Why do they exist? Who benefits from them? How have they changed over time? What are their impacts? How are these images being challenged?What connections can be made between Latina/o migration, education, and activism? What theoretical frameworks can be used to understand each one individually and the three of them collectively? What are the relationships between Latina/o migration, education, and activism?Discuss the value of adopting a historical, economic, and political framework of Latina/o migration, education, and activism. Assess the value of applying a similar framework to other contemporary topics.Compare and contrast the similarities and differences that exist among Latinas/os in the United States.How does centering the history and experiences of Latinas/os enhance your understanding of race/ethnicity, class, and gender?Looking toward the future, what do you think will be the state of Latina/o migration, education, and activism in the next ten years? What led you to these hypotheses? What do you need to know to address this question? What do you hope will be the state of Latina/o migration, education, and activism in the next 10 years? Why? How does your desire compare with the desires conveyed in the videos or readings? What might account for these shared or different hopes?Note
* Correspondence address: Pomona College. Email: glo04747@pomona.edu

El objetivo principal de esta investigación consiste en identificar y caracterizar las oportunidades comerciales que para el sector industrial del Valle del Cauca presenta la consolidación en el año 2005 del Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas – ALCA – especialmente con Estados Unidos y Canadá. Para lograr este objetivo se requirió, en primera instancia, revisar la situación de intercambio comercial entre Colombia y Canadá, y también Colombia y Estados Unidos a través de un mecanismo unilateral temporal como la Ley de Preferencias Arancelarias Andinas (Andean Trade Preference Act) – ATPA, para luego revisar el estado de las negociaciones según el capítulo de acceso a mercados del Borrador de Acuerdo ALCA. Además se hizo necesario evaluar la situación comercial del Valle del Cauca en el tema de comercio exterior para determinar la importancia de los productos o sectores productivos participantes. De este resultado se tomaron para análisis aquellos productos o sectores más representativos para los cuales se establecieron las posibles oportunidades comerciales que se perfilan si el Acuerdo se consolida y pone en marcha en la fecha propuesta. Este estudio se desarrolló en dos fases. La primera fase comprende la recolección de toda la información agrupada en dos grandes temas: Primero, la información existente sobre Colombia en el proceso de integración económica en América y sobre el Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas – ALCA – que incluye la revisión de la situación de intercambio comercial entre Colombia y Estados Unidos y Canadá a través de un mecanismo unilateral temporal como el ATPA, la búsqueda de antecedentes históricos, la evolución del proceso de integración hemisférica de acuerdo con los avances alcanzados en los Grupos de Negociación y, finalmente, la revisión del capítulo "Acceso a Mercados" del Borrador de Acuerdo ALCA. El segundo tema abarca la información existente en materia de intercambio comercial entre Colombia y el Valle del Cauca y los demás países de América donde se analizaron las estadísticas del comercio que han mantenido y se determinaron las expectativas que tiene el sector industrial del Valle del Cauca frente a la conformación del ALCA. En la segunda fase del estudio se hizo un análisis de la información obtenida en la primera fase para así realizar la caracterización de las oportunidades comerciales concretas identificando los productos o sectores más representativos de la industria vallecaucana en materia de exportaciones de la actualidad y seleccionando los que participan por lo menos con el 5% de la exportación vallecaucana identificando así el paretto en el tema. Igualmente se identificaron los sectores con potencial exportador según el Plan Estratégico Exportador Regional 2001 – 2010 del Valle del Cauca desarrollado por el CARCE. Al analizar los resultados obtenidos fruto de la investigación se identificaron ciertas conclusiones que resulta importante mencionar. Para que Colombia y el Valle del Cauca salgan airosos frente al gran reto que representa la consolidación del ALCA, es perentorio que el Gobierno, el sector privado, la Academia e incluso la sociedad civil estén concentrados en planes de trabajo compartidos y enfocados en estrategias bien definidas donde cada uno juegue su papel. Esfuerzos individuales aislados no garantizan el logro de los objetivos generales que busca la participación exitosa de Colombia en este proceso de integración, debe ser un esfuerzo coordinado. La obtención de ventajas comerciales competitivas y sostenibles en un mercado Americano ampliado por efecto del ALCA, depende del trabajo integrado y alineado bajo los mismos objetivos estratégicos de cada uno de estos actores en este nuevo escenario. Como complemento se identificaron unos factores que pueden considerarse como primordiales para alcanzar un desempeño satisfactorio ante la consolidación del ALCA por parte del Gobierno Nacional y el sector público, por parte del sector privado, por parte de la Academia y por parte de los Trabajadores como miembros de la sociedad civil. ; Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey ITESM;Corporación Universitaria Autónoma de Occidente ; INTRODUCCIÓN 1 1. AMÉRICA Y COLOMBIA FRENTE A LA GLOBALIZACIÓN 9 1.1. CAMBIOS EN EL ENTORNO MUNDIAL 9 1.1.1. Del modelo proteccionista al modelo aperturista. 12 1.1.2. Globalización y regionalización. 14 1.1.2.1. La Unión Europea. 15 1.1.2.2. El Asia Pacífico. 15 1.1.2.3. Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN o NAFTA). 16 1.1.3. Integración económica. 16 1.1.3.1. Modalidades. 16 1.2. REGIONALIZACIÓN EN BLOQUES ECONÓMICOS 18 1.2.1. Convenios o acuerdos regionales en el mundo. 19 1.2.1.1. América. 19 1.2.1.2. Europa. 21 1.2.1.3. Asia. 21 1.2.1.4. África. 22 1.2.2. Integración subregional en América. 22 1.3. LA INTEGRACIÓN ECONÓMICA DE COLOMBIA 25 1.3.1. Área de Libre Comercio de las Américas – ALCA. 26 1.3.2. Organización Mundial del Comercio – OMC. 26 1.3.3. Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración – ALADI. 36 1.3.4. Asociación de Estados del Caribe – AEC. 39 1.3.5. Comunidad Andina de Naciones – CAN. 40 1.3.5.1. Ordenamiento jurídico. 41 1.3.5.2. Beneficios de la integración andina. 42 1.3.6. Colombia – CAN – Argentina. 45 1.3.7. Colombia – CAN – Brasil. 46 1.3.7.1. Antecedentes de las relaciones comerciales Colombia – Brasil. 47 1.3.7.2. Resultados del Acuerdo para las exportaciones colombianas. 48 1.3.7.3. Contenido del Acuerdo de Complementación No 39. 49 1.3.7.4. Los principales aspectos normativos. 49 1.3.8. Colombia – Chile. 50 1.3.8.1. Acuerdo de Complementación económica No. 24 entre Colombia y Chile. 51 1.3.8.2. Acuerdo sobre Inversiones. 53 1.3.9. Colombia – Cuba. 54 1.3.10. Colombia – Guatemala. 56 1.3.11. Colombia – Honduras. 56 1.3.12. Colombia – Nicaragua. 57 1.3.13. Colombia – Costa Rica. 58 1.3.14. Colombia – El Salvador. 58 1.3.15. Colombia – Panamá 59 1.3.16. Colombia – Paraguay. 61 1.3.17. Colombia – Uruguay. 62 1.3.18. Tratado de Libre Comercio del Grupo de los Tres – G-3. 63 1.3.18.1. Programa de desgravación. 63 1.3.18.2. Acceso a mercados. 65 1.3.18.3. Sector automotor. 65 1.3.18.4. Sector agropecuario y medidas fitosanitarias y zoosanitarias. 65 1.3.18.5. Reglas de origen. 67 1.3.18.6. Salvaguardias. 67 1.3.18.7. Practicas desleales de comercio internacional. 68 1.3.18.8. Principios generales sobre el comercio de servicios. 68 1.3.18.9. Servicios financieros. 69 1.3.18.10. Entrada temporal de personas de negocios. 69 1.3.18.11. Normas técnicas. 70 1.3.18.12. Inversión. 70 1.3.18.13. Propiedad intelectual. 71 1.3.19. CARICOM – Colombia. 71 1.3.20. Mercosur – Comunidad Andina. 77 1.3.21. Colombia – Asia Pacífico. 79 1.3.21.1. Concejo de Cooperación Económica del Pacífico (PECC). 79 1.3.21.2. Concejo Económico de la Cuenca del Pacífico (PBEC). 81 1.3.21.3. Foro de Cooperación Económica del Asia Pacífico (APEC). 82 1.3.21.4. Conclusiones. 85 1.3.22. Colombia – Unión Europea. 87 1.3.22.1. Sistema de Preferencias Generalizadas – SPG. 87 1.3.22.2. SPG Andino. 87 1.3.22.3. Normas de Origen. 88 1.4. RELACIONES COMERCIALES ENTRE COLOMBIA Y ESTADOS UNIDOS 91 1.4.1. Perfil económico y comercial de Estados Unidos. 91 1.4.1.1. Información básica. 91 1.4.1.2. Indicadores sociales y económicos. 91 1.4.1.3. Comercio exterior. 93 1.4.1.4. Principales socios comerciales globales de E.U. 93 1.4.1.5. Estados Unidos: principal importador del mundo. 94 1.4.1.6. Origen de las importaciones de E.U. 96 1.4.1.7. Aranceles, regulaciones y normas. 97 1.4.2. Importancia de las relaciones comerciales con Estados Unidos 101 1.4.2.1. Origen de las importaciones de E.U. desde Latinoamérica. 102 1.4.2.2. Destino de las exportaciones de Estados Unidos. 103 1.4.2.3. Exportaciones de Estados Unidos hacia Latinoamérica. 103 1.4.2.4. Participación bilateral en el comercio mundial. 104 1.4.3. Situación actual del Sistema Generalizado de Preferencias – SGP. 105 1.4.4. Ley de Preferencias Arancelarias Andinas – ATPA. 107 1.4.4.1. Objetivos del ATPA. 109 1.4.4.2. Beneficios. 110 1.4.4.3. Exportaciones de Colombia a Estados Unidos (con ATPA). 111 1.4.4.4. Comercio bilateral entre países ATPA y Estados Unidos. 113 1.4.5. Nota del Arancel de Estados Unidos en relación con el ATPA. 114 1.4.6. Estado actual y futuro del ATPA. 116 1.4.6.1. Vencimiento del ATPA. 117 1.4.6.2. Nuevos productos del ATPA ampliado. 118 1.4.6.3. Iniciativas legislativas en el Congreso de Estados Unidos. 118 1.4.6.4. ¿Cómo exportar ahora bajo el ATPA? 121 1.4.7. Links. 125 1.5. RELACIONES COMERCIALES ENTRE COLOMBIA Y CANADÁ 126 1.5.1. Perfil económico y comercial de Canadá. 126 1.5.1.1. Información básica. 126 1.5.1.2. Indicadores sociales y económicos. 126 1.5.1.3. La economía de Canadá. 128 1.5.1.4. Comercio exterior. 131 1.5.1.5. Origen de las importaciones de Canadá. 133 1.5.1.6. Diez principales importaciones de Canadá. 134 1.5.1.7. Diez principales exportaciones de Canadá. 134 1.5.2. Reglamentación y procedimientos aduaneros en Canadá 135 1.5.2.1. Impuesto a las ventas. 136 1.5.2.2. Reglamentos específicos aplicables a determinados productos. 137 1.5.2.3. Importaciones controladas y prohibidas. 138 1.5.2.4. Cuotas y aranceles estacionales. 139 1.5.3. Logística. 140 1.5.3.1. Alternativas de transporte y puertos de entrada. 140 1.5.3.2. La relación contractual: Incoterms y otras garantías. 141 1.5.3.3. Documentos claves para importar en Canadá 146 1.5.4. Sugerencias para exportar exitosamente a Canadá. 149 1.5.4.1. Estrategia principal para aumentar la competitividad 150 1.5.4.2. La importación de los Precios. 153 1.5.4.3. El cumplimiento y la flexibilidad como ventajas competitivas. 153 1.5.5. Preferencias arancelarias. 154 1.5.5.1. Estructura de los aranceles. 154 1.5.5.2. Negociación de preferencias unilaterales. 156 1.5.5.3. Lista propuesta por la Comunidad Andina. 159 1.5.6. Links. 160 2. EL ÁREA DE LIBRE COMERCIO DE LAS AMÉRICAS – ALCA 161 2.1. ANTECEDENTES DEL ÁREA DE LIBRE COMERCIO DE LAS AMÉRICAS 161 2.1.1. Antecedentes remotos del ALCA. 161 2.1.2. Período de desintegración. 164 2.1.3. Primer antecedente directo del ALCA 166 2.1.4. Antecedentes recientes del ALCA. 170 2.2. EVOLUCIÓN DEL ACUERDO ALCA 171 2.2.1. Principios rectores de las negociaciones del ALCA. 173 2.2.2. Estructura y organización de las negociaciones del ALCA. 173 2.2.2.1. Presidencia de las Negociaciones. 174 2.2.2.2. Los Ministros Responsables del Área de Comercio. 174 2.2.2.3. Comité de Negociaciones Comerciales. 174 2.2.2.4. Grupos de Negociación y Comités. 175 2.2.2.5. Apoyos. 176 2.2.2.6. Declaración relacionada con los actos terroristas de finales del 2001. 177 2.2.3. Primera Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 178 2.2.4. Segunda Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 179 2.2.5. Tercera Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 180 2.2.6. Cuarta Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 182 2.2.7. Quinta Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 184 2.2.8. Sexta Reunión de Ministros de Comercio Exterior. 185 2.2.9. La Cumbre de las Américas 2001 187 2.3. EL BORRADOR DEL ACUERDO ALCA 191 2.3.1. Consideraciones. 192 2.3.2. Grupo de Negociación sobre Agricultura. 192 2.3.2.1. Objetivos. 193 2.3.2.2. Reuniones. 194 2.3.2.3. Intereses de Colombia. 195 2.3.3. Grupo de Negociación sobre Compras del Sector Público 195 2.3.3.1. Objetivos. 195 2.3.3.2. Reuniones. 196 2.3.3.3. Intereses de Colombia. 197 2.3.4. Grupo de Negociación sobre Inversión. 197 2.3.4.1. Objetivos. 197 2.3.4.2. Reuniones. 197 2.3.4.3. Intereses para Colombia. 198 2.3.5. Grupo de Negociación sobre Acceso a Mercados. 198 2.3.5.1. Objetivos. 198 2.3.5.2. Reuniones. 199 2.3.5.3. Intereses de Colombia. 200 2.3.5.4. Texto oficial del Acuerdo. 200 2.3.6. Subsidios, Antidumping y Derechos Compensatorios. 200 2.3.6.1. Objetivos. 201 2.3.6.2. Reuniones. 201 2.3.6.3. Intereses de Colombia. 202 2.3.7. Grupo de Negociación sobre Solución de Controversias. 202 2.3.7.1. Objetivos. 202 2.3.7.2. Reuniones. 202 2.3.7.3. Intereses de Colombia. 203 2.3.8. Grupo de Negociación sobre Servicios. 203 2.3.8.1. Objetivos. 204 2.3.8.2. Reuniones. 204 2.3.8.3. Intereses de Colombia. 205 2.3.9. Grupo de Negociación sobre Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual. 205 2.3.9.1. Objetivos. 205 2.3.9.2. Reuniones. 205 2.3.9.3. Intereses de Colombia. 206 2.3.10. Grupo de Negociación sobre Política de Competencia. 206 2.3.10.1. Objetivos. 206 2.3.10.2. Reuniones. 207 2.3.10.3. Intereses de Colombia. 208 2.4. EL PROCESO DE NEGOCIACIÓN DEL ALCA 208 2.4.1. Estado actual de las negociaciones. 210 2.4.2. Futuro de las negociaciones. 211 2.4.3. Pautas y lineamientos acordados. 212 2.5. COLOMBIA FRENTE AL ALCA 214 2.5.1. El Plan Estratégico Exportador 1999 – 2009 de Colombia. 215 2.5.1.1. Objetivo Estratégico 1. 216 2.5.1.2. Objetivo Estratégico 2. 217 2.5.1.3. Objetivo Estratégico 3. 218 2.5.1.4. Objetivo Estratégico 4. 218 2.5.1.5. Objetivo Estratégico 5. 219 2.5.2. El Plan Estratégico Exportador 2001 – 2010 del Valle del Cauca. 219 2.5.2.1. Visión exportadora del Departamento. 219 2.5.2.2. Variables claves para el desarrollo del PEER. 220 2.5.2.3. Objetivos. 220 2.5.2.4. Proyectos prioritarios. 225 2.5.2.5. Entidades y empresas participantes. 229 2.5.3. Colombia y el ALCA en cifras. 231 2.5.3.1. Exportación de bienes. 232 2.5.3.2. Exportación de servicios comerciales 232 2.5.3.3. Inversión extranjera en Colombia 233 2.5.4. Objetivo e intereses de Colombia en el ALCA. 234 2.5.5. Rol de Colombia, los empresarios y la sociedad civil. 235 2.5.6. "Empresarios por el ALCA". 240 3. COMERCIO EXTERIOR DE COLOMBIA Y EL VALLE DEL CAUCA 243 3.1. INTERCAMBIO COMERCIAL DE COLOMBIA 243 3.1.1. Destino de las Exportaciones Colombianas. 244 3.1.2. Exportaciones Colombianas por Sector Económico. 246 3.1.3. Exportaciones por Sectores Económicos y Grupos de Destino. 249 3.1.4. Origen de las Importaciones Colombianas. 252 3.1.5. Importaciones de Colombia por Grupos Económicos de Origen. 253 3.1.6. Importaciones según Sectores de Origen 255 3.1.7. Balanza Comercial Según Grupos Económicos de Países. 258 3.1.8. Algunas Observaciones Preliminares. 260 3.1.9. Significado del ALCA para Colombia 262 3.2. EL VALLE DEL CAUCA Y SU POSICIÓN FRENTE AL ALCA 263 3.2.1. Importaciones del Valle del Cauca. 263 3.2.2. Origen de las importaciones del Valle del Cauca. 267 3.2.3. Exportaciones del Valle del Cauca. 268 3.2.4. Destino de las exportaciones del Valle. 273 3.2.5. Comportamiento histórico de las exportaciones vallecaucanas. 275 3.2.6. Exportaciones no tradicionales de Colombia y el Valle. 276 3.2.7. Balanza Comercial del Valle del Cauca. 278 3.2.8. El compromiso del empresario vallecaucano. 278 3.3. COMERCIO ENTRE COLOMBIA Y LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS 279 3.3.1. Balanza Comercial entre Colombia y los Estados Unidos. 279 3.3.2. Importaciones y Exportaciones por productos. 281 3.4. COMERCIO ENTRE COLOMBIA Y CANADÁ 282 3.4.1. Balanza Comercial. 282 3.4.2. Inversión extranjera. 283 3.4.3. Comercio bilateral. 284 3.4.3.1. Importaciones de Canadá a Colombia. 285 3.4.3.2. Exportaciones de Colombia a Canadá. 286 3.4.4. Perspectivas del mercado canadiense. 286 4. OPORTUNIDADES 289 4.1. OPORTUNIDADES FRENTE AL ATPA 289 4.2. OPORTUNIDADES EN EL MERCADO CANADIENSE 293 4.3. OPORTUNIDADES FRENTE AL ALCA 294 4.3.1. Papel del sector privado. 295 4.3.2. Oportunidades generales para el empresario. 296 4.3.3. Oportunidades para la industria del Valle del Cauca. 298 4.3.4. Sectores exportadores clave del Valle del Cauca. 300 4.3.4.1. Sectores representativos año 2001. 301 4.3.4.2. Sectores estratégicos del Valle del Cauca. 302 4.3.5. Análisis del sector exportador Vallecaucano 305 5. CONCLUSIONES 308 5.1. SOBRE LAS EXPORTACIONES DE COLOMBIA 308 5.2. SOBRE LAS IMPORTACIONES DE COLOMBIA 310 5.3. SOBRE EL VALLE DEL CAUCA 311 5.4. FACTORES CLAVE DEL ÉXITO 316 5.4.1. Por parte del Gobierno Nacional y el sector público. 317 5.4.2. Por parte del sector privado. 317 5.4.3. Por parte de la Academia. 318 5.4.4. Por parte de los Trabajadores. 318 6. RECOMENDACIONES 319 BIBLIOGRAFÍA 321 ANEXOS 324 ; Maestría ; The main objective of this research is to identify and characterize the commercial opportunities that the industrial sector of Valle del Cauca presents with the consolidation in 2005 of the Free Trade Area of the Americas - FTAA - especially with the United States and Canada. To achieve this objective, it was required, in the first instance, to review the commercial exchange situation between Colombia and Canada, and also Colombia and the United States through a temporary unilateral mechanism such as the Andean Trade Preference Act - ATPA , and then review the status of the negotiations according to the market access chapter of the Draft FTAA Agreement. In addition, it was necessary to evaluate the commercial situation of Valle del Cauca on the subject of foreign trade to determine the importance of the participating products or productive sectors. From this result, those most representative products or sectors were taken for analysis for which the possible commercial opportunities that are outlined if the Agreement is consolidated and put into operation on the proposed date were established. This study was carried out in two phases. The first phase includes the collection of all the information grouped into two main topics: First, the existing information on Colombia in the process of economic integration in America and on the Free Area. Commerce of the Americas - FTAA - which includes the review of the trade situation between Colombia and the United States and Canada through a temporary unilateral mechanism such as the ATPA, the search for historical antecedents, the evolution of the hemispheric integration process according to with the progress made in the Negotiating Groups and, finally, the revision of the chapter "Market Access" of the Draft FTAA Agreement. The second topic covers the existing information on commercial exchange between Colombia and Valle del Cauca and the other countries of America, where the trade statistics they have maintained were analyzed and the expectations that the industrial sector of Valle del Cauca has regarding to the formation of the FTAA. In the second phase of the study, an analysis was made of the information obtained in the first phase in order to characterize the specific commercial opportunities, identifying the most representative products or sectors of the Valle del Cauca industry in terms of current exports and selecting those that they participate with at least 5% of Valle del Cauca exports, thus identifying the paretto on the subject. Likewise, the sectors with export potential were identified according to the Regional Exporting Strategic Plan 2001 - 2010 of Valle del Cauca developed by CARCE. When analyzing the results obtained as a result of the investigation, certain conclusions were identified that it is important to mention. For Colombia and Valle del Cauca to succeed in the face of the great challenge represented by the consolidation of the FTAA, it is imperative that the Government, the private sector, the Academy and even civil society are focused on shared work plans and focused on well-defined strategies. defined where everyone plays their role. Isolated individual efforts do not guarantee the achievement of the general objectives sought by the successful participation of Colombia in this integration process, it must be a coordinated effort. Obtaining competitive and sustainable commercial advantages in an American market expanded as a result of the FTAA, depends on the integrated work and aligned under the same strategic objectives of each of these actors in this new scenario. As a complement, some factors were identified that can be considered as essential to achieve a satisfactory performance before the consolidation of the FTAA by the National Government and the public sector, by the private sector, by the Academy and by the Workers as members. of civil society.