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n the last centuries, Humankind has lived sourced by fossil fuels and under a linear economic perspective based on extractive activities, environmental depletion and lack of circularity. Ironically, what goes around, comes around. The prevailing paradigm of production-consumption-waste (take-make-dispose) that excluded the environmental perspective was wrong. How production and consumption patterns are settled nowadays, have repercussions in all the spheres (economy, society and the environment). Consequently, the world is currently facing significant challenges that affect all the people: Climate Change, energy security, increasing electricity demand, economic growth and employment creation are among the top concerns today. They are present in the national agendas as reflected in the Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) to achieve sustainability resilience and, ultimately, welfare. The economy and energy systems strongly condition these goals. Regarding the former, production processes now are more distant due to globalisation, information and communication technologies (ICT), offshoring and the international trade growth, and have made that production and consumption develop through complex global value chains (GVC) with different countries that produce different parts of a final product that is eventually consumed elsewhere. The Covid19's pandemic is a recent example of how the GVC phenomenon has propagated the economic shocks across sectors and countries (via lockdowns, upstream bottlenecks, dependencies and transportation problems). Understanding how GVC behave is fundamental to describing the dependencies and networks that define today's world economy. Hence, GVC become the backbone of this thesis. Concerning the later, energy coming from fossil fuels is still mainstream. This fact hinders the efforts to fight against Climate Change, which implies meeting the Paris Agreement goals. Countries are committed to reducing their greenhouse gases emissions for the year 2030. The strategy to achieve the mitigation goals needs a low carbon economy and energy transition path, so countries worldwide have launched national policy packages to increase renewable energy sources (RES). However, two main issues arise: on the one hand, these green investments planned are insufficient. On the other side, the required energy transition may impact other aspects of sustainability and resilience that imply both synergies and trade-offs between SDGs and social and economic spheres of sustainability that should be assessed. Furthermore, world energy demand is expected to increase. In developing countries, growth is dramatic. For example, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region grew at a rate of 6-8% per year in the past years. It is expected to triple by 2030. Developing countries face the same challenges as developed ones, departing from a disadvantaged position (in terms of technology, labour skills and capital endowments, institutional robustness, and political priorities). In this context, an energy transition towards decarbonisation, focused on developing regions, plays cardinal importance in the thesis. Renewable electricity ensures climate protection and energy security, as well as employment opportunities, economic growth and human welfare. It becomes part of the solution to today's problems to achieve sustainability. With Covid19, the future of energy and the global value chains is uncertain. The debate about the virtues GVC and the dependencies in the production process obviously affect the citizens' health and safety and have implications for international trade and investment (renewables included). Policymakers responsible for taking today's critical investment decisions need complete analysis and evidence of their choices' broad impacts. This is the main objective of the thesis. Aiming to depict the current functioning of the production processes focused on RES deployment, this document covers the insertion of developing regions in GVC (their role, insertion and implications), through socioeconomic and environmental indicators, and policy recommendations. The present thesis, entitled "Sustainability assessment of green investments on the path to the energy transition and the decarbonisation of the economy. The importance of global value chains", is structured in six chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the two intertwined concepts present in the whole document: energy and the global value chains. Chapters 3 to 5 deal with these two concepts at different levels (regional, national and local, respectively). It also presents the main research questions and lists the work performed up to the present date. Chapter 2 links RES deployment and value chains through a common methodological framework: the input-output analysis. It is a widely used way to measure GVC and sustainability impacts related to investments such as renewables. One of the main advantages of this method is its ability to account for a wide range of dimensions in the three spheres of sustainability along with detailed full inclusion of the GVC, including both direct and indirect effects. However, one of the main shortcomings of this methodology is the lack of data available for developing regions: many countries are not covered in the main multi-regional input-output (MRIO) databases, hindering the measurement of GVC in regions like South America or Africa. Chapter 3 addresses data shortcomings by using a regional input-output table (RIOT). Chapter 3 analyses South America's role in GVC through the Koopman, Wang and Wei (KWW) decomposition. The KWW scheme is extended to explain the limitations when using a RIOT. A novel adaptation of the KWW gross exports decomposition scheme, suitable for any RIOT, is created to this end. The implications of using a RIOT are assessed. Besides, the results are complemented with those obtained using a Multiregional Input-Output (MRIO) table. It is confirmed the low insertion of South America in GVC and its upstream position as a provider of intermediate goods and services: imported content in South American exports comes primarily from outside the region, and only Uruguay is vertically integrated. Finally, using a RIOT is not recommended for a complete sustainability analysis when MRIO tables are available. In chapter 4, Mexico's green investments for the period 2018-2030 are assessed in terms of value added, employment, materials, land use, water and CO2eq emissions in a multiregional input-output framework. These green investments are expected to account for nearly an increase of 1%, both GDP and employment, in Mexico and scheduled mitigation of around 63 Mt CO2eq, once the new facilities are fully deployed. Nevertheless, the deployment and operation, and maintenance phases will increase the emissions (0.82%), the water and material footprint (0.19 and 0.9%, respectively) and the land use (0.19%) with a substantial share of the positive and negative effects leaked outside the country borders. We compare the results with the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) proposal, aligned with the COP21 goals. If additional RES to meet the Paris Agreement is deployed in Mexico, GDP and employment are estimated to almost triple concerning the national package assessed. Chapter 5 presents a sustainability assessment of concentrated solar power (CSP) hybridisation with biomass technology to be installed in Tunisia. Environmental impacts have been assessed by Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). For socioeconomic impacts, an MRIO analysis was used to estimate the production of goods and services, value added and employment creation. Regarding the results, the system reports 22 gCO2eq per kWh. The most critical component in terms of emissions is the gasifier system, due to biomass transport. Socioeconomic results show significant impacts on Tunisia's employment creation, coming essentially from the operation and maintenance (O&M) phase. The multiplier effect of the direct investment in producing goods and services amounts to 2.4 (3.5 accounting induced impacts). Domestic value added in investment is low, only 28.9% of the overall value added created. Thus, increasing the national content of the investment stage would bring additional local benefits. Using extended MRIO, CO2 emissions have also been calculated, and the CO2 emission differences with both methodologies are discussed. This thesis concludes with some final remarks regarding the importance of RES deployment in achieving the Paris Agreement and some of the Agenda 2030 goals while identifying how GVC affect these green investments, especially in developing countries. GVC potential weaknesses and the benefits of fostering local RES components niches should be considered to create policy actions. Finally, brief comments on current and future research lines include exploring other technologies such as carbon capture, storage and use (CCUS), capital endogenisation and methodological hybridisations to contribute to identifying the benefits of green investments in the way to sustainability.

La tesi affronta la ricostruzione critica del Diario di Prigionia scritto da Siro Terreni nel periodo 8 settembre 1943- 8 settembre 1945 durante la sua permanenza a Berlino come Internato Militare Italiano e la sua attività di memorialistica nel campo della didattica per le scuole del circondario Empolese Valdelsa dal 1997 al 2012. Precede l'analisi del diario una parte di ricerca bibliografica sul contesto di guerra italiano alla data dell'8 settembre 1943 ponendo ampio risalto sulle scelte condotte dalla classe dirigente e come queste impattarono sul destino dei reparti dell'esercito che in quel momento si trovavano dislocati sui vari fronti di guerra. L'8 settembre 1943 è raccontato come visto da entrambe le parti, l'Italia che dovette operare delle scelte per ottenere una pace separata con gli Alleati anglo-americani e la Wehrmacht che in vista dell'uscita dell'Italia dalla loro alleanza dovette compiere delle scelte e occupare il territorio italiano. la storia dei cosiddetti I.M.I. Internati Militari Italiani cominciano qui, prima sottoposti alla Convenzione di Ginevra e trattati come nuovi di guerra, successivamente etichettati con una qualifica che arginava la legislazione internazionale e metteva il destino di questi uomini nelle mani degli ex alleati tedeschi. Un capitolo è infatti interamente dedicato, cercando di tracciare delle linee guida per comprendere la storia degli I.M.I. per tematiche, dalla cattura, alla richiesta di collaborazione con la Wehrmacht, all'arrivo nei lager, il lavoro coatto, fino al ritorno a casa. l'utilizzo delle memorie per ricostruire l'impatto che ebbe su di loro il sistema concentrazionario nazista è stata di fondamentale importanza, senza di queste non sarebbe possibile oggi ricostruirne le vicende. Successivamente si restringe il campo sulla Toscana, trattando il tema dell'occupazione nazifascista del territorio e la nascita della Resistenza, armata e civile, analizzando ogni capoluogo di provincia e le relative formazioni e avendo cura di riservare parte della narrazione agli eventi di violenza che si verificarono durante il passaggio del fronte dalla Linea Gustav alla Linea Gotica e che hanno portato alla messa in pratica della violenza sommaria. Viene trattato anche il contesto di guerra che si viene a creare a Empoli, città natale di Siro Terreni, la nascita della resistenza e l'importanza che la città di Empoli assunse per la costituzione di una coscienza sociale improntata sulla Resistenza e l'Antifascismo tutt 'oggi presente e che ha fornito terreno fertile per una particolare attenzione e dedizione per la memoria e la storia. Siro Terreni è stato tra coloro che sono riusciti a tornare a casa dopo la fine della guerra e non ha mai smesso di raccontare quelle vicende che lo hanno accompagnato tutta la vita. La tesi tutto il suo percorso attraversato per cercare di la presenza di quest'uomo che appare psicologia costantemente impegnato in una lotta interiore ed esteriore con la memoria, testimonianza di quanto l'internamento la guerra ha segnato nel profondo, arrivando a dettare ogni sua azione. Negli anni Novanta poi, quando torna in auge l'Era del Testimone, Siro la incarna perfettamente e inizia un percorso didattico con i ragazzi delle scuole empolesi e del circondario. Si reca da loro per raccontagli le sue esperienze vissute nella sua città e quelle dell'internamento. Dal tema della prigionia, agli antichi mestieri, ai giochi della sua infanzia, all'alluvione del sessantasei. Il suo lavoro solleva nuovamente l'eterno conflitto tra storia e memoria che affligge la ricerca storica e la porta a domandarsi fino a che punto le memorie potrebbero essere ritenute valide. E quando queste persone non saranno più in vita per raccontare a chi spetterà il dovere di divulgarle? questa tesi propone una soluzione alternativa per l'imminente ingresso nella Post-memoria, lo sguardo vicino al parente come portatore di una tradizione storica antropologica fondamentale per il futuro che con consapevolezza può portare alla storia un nuovo punto di vista che fino a questo momento non c'era mai stato. The thesis deals with the critical reconstruction of the Diary of Prison written by Siro Terreni in the period 8 September 1943 - 8 September 1945 during his stay in Berlin as an Italian Military Internship and his memorial activities in the field of teaching for the schools of the Empolese Valdelsa district. from 1997 to 2012. The analysis of the diary is preceded by a part of bibliographic research on the Italian war context on the date of 8 September 1943, placing ample emphasis on the choices made by the ruling class and how these impacted on the fate of the army units that were located at that time. on the various war fronts. On 8 September 1943 it is told as seen by both sides, Italy which had to make choices to obtain a separate peace with the Anglo-American Allies and the Wehrmacht which, in view of Italy's exit from their alliance, had to make of choices and occupy the Italian territory. the history of the so-called I.M.I. Italian military internees begin here, first subjected to the Geneva Convention and treated as new to war, subsequently labeled with a qualification that stemmed international law and placed the fate of these men in the hands of former German allies. A chapter is in fact entirely dedicated, trying to draw guidelines for understanding the history of the I.M.I. for themes, from capture, to the request for collaboration with the Wehrmacht, to the arrival in the concentration camps, forced labor, up to the return home. the use of memories to reconstruct the impact that the Nazi concentration system had on them was of fundamental importance, without them it would not be possible today to reconstruct the events. Subsequently the field on Tuscany is narrowed, dealing with the theme of the Nazi-Fascist occupation of the territory and the birth of the Resistance, armed and civil, analyzing each provincial capital and its related formations and taking care to reserve part of the narration for the events of violence that occur. occurred during the passage of the front from the Gustav Line to the Gothic Line and which led to the practice of summary violence. It also deals with the context of war that is created in Empoli, the birthplace of Siro Terreni, the birth of the resistance and the importance that the city of Empoli assumed for the constitution of a social conscience based on Resistance and Anti-Fascism. present today and which has provided fertile ground for a particular attention and dedication to memory and history. Siro Terreni was among those who managed to return home after the end of the war and he never stopped recounting those events that have accompanied him throughout his life. The thesis has crossed all its path to try to find the presence of this man who appears to be psychology constantly engaged in an internal and external struggle with memory, testimony of how much internment the war has deeply marked, coming to dictate every action of he. Then in the nineties, when the Age of the Witness returns, Siro embodies it perfectly and begins an educational path with the students of the Empoli and surrounding schools. He goes to them to tell him about his experiences in his city and those of his internment. From the theme of imprisonment, to the ancient crafts, to the games of his childhood, to the flood of sixty-six. His work again raises the eternal conflict between history and memory that plagues historical research and leads her to wonder to what extent the memories could be considered valid. And when these people are no longer alive to tell who will have the duty to disclose them? this thesis proposes an alternative solution for the imminent entry into the Post-memory, the close gaze to the relative as the bearer of a fundamental historical anthropological tradition for the future which with awareness can bring to history a new point of view that up to now has not been had ever been.

La surreprésentation des hommes autochtones au sein des services correctionnels canadiens a pris une envergure alarmante et cette situation tend à se dégrader au fil du temps. En vue de mieux répondre aux besoins des détenus et de diminuer leur croissante surreprésentation, des pavillons de ressourcement ont été créés, soit des établissements où les personnes autochtones peuvent être transférées afin de poursuivre une démarche de guérison. Si nombre d'études ont été menées, d'une part, pour comprendre la guérison autochtone et, d'autre part, pour explorer les causes de la surreprésentation carcérale ou encore l'efficacité des programmes correctionnels axés sur la spiritualité, très peu de recherches s'attardent à l'expérience des principaux acteurs engagés, à savoir les hommes autochtones. De plus, alors que le rétablissement et la réinsertion sociale ont fait l'objet d'une attention soutenue dans les écrits scientifiques et dans les pratiques d'intervention sociale, la guérison autochtone demeure très peu explorée. Cette recherche qualitative vise à mieux comprendre les démarches de guérison d'hommes autochtones ayant séjourné au sein d'un pavillon de ressourcement au Canada (Waseskun, Québec; Stan Daniels et Pê Sâkâstêw, Alberta; Kwìkwèxwelhp, Colombie-Britannique) et étant actuellement en liberté totale. Plus particulièrement, les objectifs visés sont de: 1) dégager le sens que les hommes autochtones donnent à la notion de guérison; 2) comprendre l'expérience des hommes autochtones quant à leur démarche de guérison entamée ou poursuivie au sein d'un pavillon de ressourcement; 3) comprendre comment se poursuit la démarche de guérison des hommes autochtones depuis leur sortie du pavillon (facteurs facilitants et défis rencontrés) et enfin, 4) contraster l'expérience de la guérison vécue par les hommes autochtones à la conception correctionnelle de la guérison. Pour recueillir les données, 14 hommes autochtones ont été rencontrés lors d'entretiens narratifs en profondeur. Au total, 20 entrevues ont été réalisées. Une analyse documentaire a également été entreprise, regroupant 20 écrits qui reflètent la conception correctionnelle de la guérison (recherche financée par le SCC ou par les pavillons de ressourcement; publications entourant les politiques et les pratiques correctionnelles ainsi que la littérature « grise »). Une démarche constructiviste et phénoménologique des récits des hommes autochtones a permis de jeter un éclairage nouveau sur leurs expériences et sur les éléments qui facilitent ou entravent leur guérison, à l'intérieur des institutions correctionnelles comme à l'extérieur, une fois qu'ils sont libérés. Les multiples traumatismes et les blessures intérieures, conjugués au cumul de problèmes familiaux, socio-économiques et structurels, sont évoqués afin de comprendre la complexité et la globalité du contexte dans lequel s'inscrivent leurs démarches de guérison. Les résultats soutiennent que la guérison signifie, pour plusieurs hommes, de marcher sur un chemin vers l'équilibre, de travailler sur soi et de s'éloigner des mauvaises habitudes. Le retour aux valeurs autochtones (respect, partage, courage, humilité, honnêteté, responsabilité) est au cœur de la guérison telle qu'entrevue par les hommes. Les résultats indiquent également que la guérison est une démarche individuelle, mais également relationnelle. Plusieurs répondants affirment que les pavillons de ressourcement ont contribué à transformer leur vision d'eux-mêmes et de leur identité, mais également les rapports qu'ils entretiennent avec les autres. Cela s'explique par l'accès à des programmes axés sur la culture et la spiritualité ainsi qu'une reconnaissance de ces pavillons quant aux manières autochtones d'être, de penser et de comprendre le monde. Toutefois, les résultats indiquent que les éléments culturels et spirituels sont très peu mobilisés lors de la libération conditionnelle, à la sortie des pavillons de ressourcement. Ils révèlent également que la communauté et le maintien d'un réseau social et familial peuvent tantôt être des facteurs de protection, tantôt des facteurs qui entravent le parcours de guérison des hommes. Le manque de services formels destinés aux hommes autochtones est également une problématique soulevée lors des entretiens. Enfin, l'analyse documentaire a permis d'entrevoir que pour le Service correctionnel du Canada (SCC), la guérison repose sur une responsabilisation individuelle liée à des changements observables dans les comportements ainsi qu'au désistement du crime. Elle est conçue comme un moyen défini et mesurable de parvenir à la réinsertion sociale. Les résultats soutiennent que la guérison est souvent évaluée en fonction de données quantitatives liées directement aux comportements délictuels et au niveau de violence, ce qui a pour effet d'occulter les aspects subjectifs et expérientiels de la guérison vécue par les hommes. ; The over-representation of Indigenous men in Canadian correctional systems has grown alarmingly and this situation tends to deteriorate over time. In an effort to better meet the needs of offenders and reduce their growing over-representation, Healing Lodges (HL) have been created, facilities to which Indigenous offenders can be transferred in order to pursue a healing journey. While several studies have been conducted to understand Indigenous healing and, on the other hand, to explore the causes of prison over-representation or the effectiveness of spiritually-based correctional programs, very little research has focused on the experience of the primary actors involved, namely Indigenous men. Moreover, while recovery and reintegration have received sustained attention in the scientific literature and in social intervention practices, Indigenous healing remains largely unexplored. This qualitative research aims to better understand the healing journeys of Indigenous men who have stayed in a Healing Lodge in Canada (Waseskun, Quebec; Stan Daniels and Pê Sâkâstêw, Alberta; Kwìkwèxwelhp, British Columbia) and are currently in full freedom (after the Warrant Expiry Date (WED). More specifically, the objectives of this thesis are to: 1) identify the meanings that Indigenous men give to the notion of healing; 2) understand the experiences of Indigenous men with respect to their healing journey, initiated or pursued in a HL; 3) understand how the healing journey of Indigenous men has continued since leaving the lodge (facilitating factors and challenges encountered); and 4) contrast the Indigenous men's experience of healing with the correctional conception of healing. To collect the data, 14 Indigenous men were interviewed in in-depth narrative interviews. A total of 20 interviews were conducted. A documentary analysis was also completed, bringing together 20 pieces of literature that reflect the correctional conception of healing (research funded by CSC or by Healing Lodges; publications regarding correctional policies and practices as well as grey literature). A constructivist and phenomenological approach to Indigenous men's narratives has shed new light on their experiences and on the elements that facilitate or impede their healing journeys, both inside and outside correctional institutions, once they are released. The multiple traumas and inner wounds, combined with the accumulation of family, socio-economic and structural problems, are evoked in order to understand the complexity and the globality of the context in which the healing efforts of Indigenous men take place. The results show that for many men, healing means: walking a path towards balance, working on one self and stepping away from bad habits. The return to Indigenous values (respect, sharing, courage, humility, honesty, responsibility) is at the heart of healing as seen by men. The results also indicate that healing is not only an individual journey but also a relational one. Several respondents revealed that Healing Lodges have contributed to transforming their vision of themselves and their identity, but also the relationships they have with others. This is due to the access to culturally and spiritually oriented programs as well as the recognition of Indigenous ways of being, thinking and understanding the world that the Lodges provide. However, the results show that cultural and spiritual elements are very little mobilized during parole (when men have left HL). They also reveal that community and the maintenance of a social and family network can sometimes be protective factors and sometimes factors that hinder the men's healing. The lack of formal services for Indigenous men is also an issue raised in the interviews. Finally, the documentary analysis revealed that for the Correctional Service of Canada (CSC), healing is seen as an individual empowerment linked to observable changes in behavior as well as desistance from crime. It is conceived as a defined and measurable means to achieve social reintegration. The results show that healing is often assessed based on quantitative data directly related to offending behavior and the violence level, thereby obscuring both subjective and experiential aspects of men's healing.

This paper will discuss the recognition of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in legal cases based on the historical development of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM). Further the discussion will draw on the diagnostic relationship between the DSM and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). It is important to understand how the courts received evidence in relation to a person’s traumatic experience and to define the limits of liability for psychiatric illness cases. In tort law, the courts had been cautious to permit recovery to underserving litigants. Interpreting traumatic experiences from psychiatry to law, at times, do not succeed in a claim for compensation.  Belanger-Hardy opined ‘Tort Law has always viewed mental harm with caution, not to say scepticism’.  Historically, compensation for PTSD claims have always been awarded on ad hoc basis in tort law for fear of opening the floodgates.  In Saadati v Moorhead , Brown J acknowledged the requirement of a psychiatrist to diagnose a psychiatric disorder by referring to DSM and ICD classifications.  The diagnostic manual is a guide book and should be used with caution.  The DSM Manual also explains the concept of malingering and practitioners should be cautious when preparing an expert report to assist the court.
It is argued the courts are trying to play catch up with psychiatry, however, in its deliberations pronouncing inappropriate policy decisions, hampering recovery for a deserving claimant in tort law.  Ultimately, Judges control the goal posts for awarding damages in trauma related cases. 
Historically, PTSD was defined as railway spine, shell shock, traumatic neurosis, accident neurosis and fright neurosis. Medical science established there is a relationship between the mind and body and the mind can only function in the body. Therefore, if the mind is affected by an external factor, the psyche may become muddled to develop post traumatic symptoms.
This paper will examine the method adopted by practitioners and judges in interpreting the manual. This is seen from a methodological assessment of diagnostic concordance in the light of inherent problems of psychiatric classifications and malingering. This assessment will ultimately relate to psychiatric classification of individual patients who are subjected to an intense trauma resulting in fear and helplessness. Hence, unable to relate to what had taken place and subsequently not able to realize that the psyche is muddled or disorganized. In the absence of an actual physical lesion, the courts have become sceptical and wary of extending the defendant’s liability to cover alleged damage such as psychiatric illness. The inherent fears are that evidence can be confabulated and based on false premise. Hence, the courts make a linguistic interpretation in view of the struggle between the law and psychiatric illness.
Furthermore, the discussion will capture the essence of PTSD which was introduced in the 1970’s and adopted in DSM-III in 1980 by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In 1992, PTSD was recognised as a diagnosis in the International Classifications of Diseases (ICD-10) in Europe under the rubric of Neurotic, Stress-related and Somatoform Disorders by the World Health Organization (WHO).  The DSM is a guidebook for mental health practitioners.  However the origins of PTSD lie further back than the twentieth century. The history can be traced through the experience of the American Civil War, First World War, Second World War and the Vietnam War where veterans who returned home suffered trauma because of devastating exposure to war. Their traumatic experiences were documented and translated as symptoms which were eventually associated with PTSD, as described in DSM-III. These traumatic experiences were observed in the civil and forensic setting. 
Moreover, this paper will contain a summary of the historical development of the ICD and DSM classifications depicting war associated syndromes as they played a dominant role in shaping the early diagnostic thinking of WHO and APA. From 1840 to 1921, in the United States, data was collected by gathering statistical information across mental hospitals in order to produce a nationally acceptable psychiatric nomenclature.  In particular, a notable physician called Da Costa in the American Civil War gave the name ‘irritable heart’ to the symptoms suffered by some soldiers.
Consequently, the statistical information was broadened to take account of and incorporate outpatient presentations from World Wars I and II veterans. This was known as ‘shell shock’ and ‘war neurosis’. War neurosis was further refined following World War II and the Vietnam War in terms of ‘trauma’. Contemporaneously in 1948, WHO adopted the Armed Forces categorisation based on Army, Navy and Veteran experiences in World War I and II, when it integrated mental disorders into the sixth revision of the ICD depicting an European model. Mental disorders were not introduced into the ICD until its sixth edition, published by WHO in 1948,  and therefore it is not pertinent to discuss ICD classifications from 1 to 5 editions for the purposes of mental illness. 
Besides, this paper will explore the development of trauma as defined in the current understanding of PTSD. This development is necessary to show how the term ‘trauma’ was transformed into PTSD. Evidence is also drawn from the courts as to how PTSD is used in a legal setting. As was the case for DSM-I where a category called ‘gross stress reaction’  was recognized in 1952 and a diagnosis called ‘transient situational disturbance’ or ‘anxiety neurosis’  was declared in DSM-II in 1968. The development of DSM-III was coordinated with the ninth revision of ICD.  In 1980, DSM-III introduced PTSD for the first time. DSM-III made major changes in which the diagnosis of PTSD was formally introduced. DSM-III did not prescribe duration of the symptoms. 
Similarly, ICD-9 did not include diagnostic criteria to specify mental categories and facilitate the collection of basic health statistics. In view of the incompatibility between ICD-9 and DSM-III, APA suggested that modifications to be made to ICD-9 for its use in the United States. The result was ICD-9-CM. 
In 1987, DSM-III-R was introduced to refine the duration of symptoms.
In 1992, WHO introduced the diagnosis of PTSD in ICD-10 and consequently the APA formed a task force to develop the DSM-IV in 1994. At the time, WHO was ready to publish ICD-10. The U.S. was under a treaty to maintain systems consistent with WHO and there was a desire to build a better empirical foundation, using 13 groups of researchers in field trials. Research in natural environment diagnoses in the United States and Canada used DSM-IV, whilst most countries officially use ICD-10 and now ICD-11adopted in 2019. In DSM-IV-TR of 2002, there was still doubt by psychiatrists as to whether PTSD is an anxiety disorder or a disorder in its own category. Refinement of DSM-IV-TR was undertaken in the current DSM-5 following research.
In addition, issues related to malingering and methodology for the detection of malingering are explored. Such methodology will confirm evidence as to whether an individual malingers or not.
In conclusion, this paper will look at the latest developments in the DSM Manual and by discussing how such a manual should be utilised effectively by the courts and psychiatrists.

Problem statement: general view and its connection with important scientific or practical tasks. Achieving the goals and realizing the interests of states and transnational corporations and even some specific actors on the world stage is gaining new opportunities through the intensive development of high technology, innovation, information and global cyberspace. Open military confrontation and other types of conflicts in these conditions are transformed into hybrid forms of destructive actions, in which the component of cognitive influences aimed at the human mind, worldview, mentality, which are an integral part of the cognitive sphere of society, grows. Such influences, at the present stage of development of society, are often aimed at forming distrust, changing views and value systems, weakening social cohesion and distorted perception of national interests and values, etc., so their study and counteraction is extremely relevant. Analysis of recent publications in sphere of research and identification of previously unresolved parts of the general problem. Issues related to the study of the cognitive sphere and its components, various cognitive influences on the audience in the process of communication, cognitive manipulation, especially in the field of discourses, and their consequences, were considered in the works of many domestic and foreign researchers, namely: M. Eisenko, L. Apostel, M. Bakhtin, D. Bolinger, P. Brown, E. Bienvenu, R. Blakar, X. Weinrich, A. Vezhbytska, V. Vinokur, Y. Habermas, J. Gintikki, G. Grice, S. Green, T. van Dyck, V. Demyankov, V. Zabotkin, A. Zvirintsev, S. Kara-Murza, E. Koit, O. Kubryakova, R. Lakoff, J. Lakoff, J. Lich, Y. Lotman , S. Levinson, D. Marr, J. Allwood, J. Austin, M. Popper, G. Pocheptsov, O. Rosenstock-Hussey, J. Searle, W. Stewart, S. Tulmin, L. Yakubinsky. At the same time, the study of multilevel, interconnected destructive cognitive effects in cyberspace and through cyberspace in hybrid conflicts and the analysis of practical experience of their coping and consequences, especially with regard to deep systemic aspects and synergies in modern publications are insufficiently addressed. The aim of the article is to study the threats and features of cognitive influences on society in cyberspace and respond to them to reduce the risks of their consequences. Main results. Modern hybrid warfare is a war with a combination of fundamentally different types and methods of its conduct, which are used in a coordinated manner to achieve its goals. It is a high-tech conflict, a continuation of the policy of states (coalitions, political groups, transnational corporations, etc.) in order to impose their will on opponents through complex, adaptive, asymmetric and synchronized influences on them in multidimensional space and various spheres with a combination of conventional and unconventional components, ensuring multiplicity and synergy of results and a high level of uncertainty for opponents regarding the ultimate goals and ways to achieve them. Its features are permanent, variable, in wide ranges, intensity, focus on systemic destabilization and changes that are useful to achieve the interests of the beneficiary, in all spheres of life and activity of the state that is the object of aggression. Hybrid actions, in addition to the purely force component, include complex destructive cognitive, informational, informational-psychological, propaganda and disinformation influences on certain target groups and society as a whole, with cyberattacks on information resources, infrastructure, economic processes and democratic institutions. At the same time, cognitive influences play a significant role in trying to manage communication, transform the beliefs of target audiences to the right (desired) and control their behavior. Issues of destructive cognitive actions are directly related to the processes of emission, processing, interpretation, transformation and internalization of knowledge in managed communication from strategic to tactical levels, from general to targeted impacts on society as a whole and its individual components and specific targets. audiences with integrated use of linguistic, figurative, hidden media effects, mental and other influences at different levels of cybersocial interaction, which, in modern conditions, is increasingly carried out in cyberspace and / or through cyberspace. The theoretical and applied results presented in the article can be used to ensure timely detection of dangers and threats of destructive cognitive influences on society in cyberspace and through cyberspace, risk assessment of their implementation and taking measures to counter and neutralize them. Conclusions. Cognitive influences have become an integral part of hybrid conflicts, both interstate and domestic, and between any geopolitical and regional actors, corporations, and organizations. The cognitive component has an exceptional role in the set of factors that form and cause conflict, affect its course and results, intensity and consequences. Therefore, modern, and especially conflicts of the future, are and will be conducted for the cognitive sphere of society (society, social groups, individuals), taking control and management of cognitive space, which includes perception, awareness, beliefs, understanding and values, intellectual environment of both individuals and social groups and society as a whole, in which, in fact, is their decision-making. Therefore, the main result of successful destructive cognitive influences is a change in the model of the world and its perception in man, social groups and society as a whole, which provides the opportunity to take control and external management on emotional, moral, cultural, ideological and mental levels with the formation stereotypes for the perception of reality through their prism. Of particular importance are the imposition and promotion of erroneous scientific, social, economic, state, military theories, paradigms, concepts, strategies, narratives, which are most effectively promoted and implemented through educational and scientific institutions, NGOs, electronic, social networks and the blogosphere. To this end, all opportunities for strategic communication are used, informational, psychological, cyber and other measures (actions, operations, etc.) are taken, which are aimed at both the direct participants in the conflict and the population of the participating countries, the international community. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of the threats of such influences, their timely detection and deploy an effective system to counter them and neutralize them, because it becomes one of the key components of national security for today and in the future. Key words: cognitive influences; cyberspace; cybersecurity; destructive cyber influences; information security. ; У статті розглядаються теоретико-прикладні аспекти, особливості, небезпеки, загрози і ризики когнітивних впливів на соціум у кіберпросторі і через кіберпростір та реагування на них. Доведено, що боротьба за отримання контролю над певними цільовими групами в сучасних умовах передбачає насамперед можливість управління їхньою когнітивною сферою з використанням методів ментального, образного, мовного тощо впливів на неї. Це здійснюється в різноманітних інфокомунікаційних системах відповідно до ситуацій, переважно через соціальні мережі, блогосферу, художню, науково-популярну і наукову літературу та відповідні ресурси в інтернеті, розважальну і професійно-орієнтовану аудіо- і відеопродукцію, рекламу, ЗМІ, а також шляхом уведення змін, які сприяють цьому, в наукові теорії, навчальні програми тощо. Основна мета – навмисний вплив на відповідні цільові аудиторії для трансформації їх поглядів, переконань, світогляду, і самого сприйняття дійсності відповідно до інтересів і потреб сторони, яка справляє вплив. Це завжди багатоплановий, багатовекторний, комплексний, системний та керований процес загальної спрямованості або цільові, спрямовані на суспільство в цілому або на цільові групи, конкретних індивідів (ключових акторів), який передбачає справляння за єдиним замислом, планом, місцем і часом когнітивних, інформаційних, інформаційно-психологічних, кібер-впливів тощо. У сучасних умовах значна кількість сфер людської життєдіяльності перенеслася до кіберпростору та здійснюється через кіберпростір. При цьому майже єдиним джерелом знань та інформації для більшості людей поступово стають різноманітні інформаційні та освітні портали й електронні ресурси, які формуються в кібер­просторі. Це значно впливає на формування та зміну світогляду і ментальності соціуму. Саме через глобальну мережу «Інтернет» молодь сприймає найбільше неперевіреної, часто негативної, небажаної і навіть небезпечної інформації. Відсутність захисту соціуму від когнітивних загроз, які реалізуються в кіберпросторі і через кіберпростір, стає серйозним фактором ризику, деякі аспекти зменшення якого розглядаються в цій роботі. Ключові слова: когнітивні впливи; кіберпростір; кібербезпека; деструктивні кібервпливи; інформаційна безпека.

Public libraries, which are undergoing technological and socio-cultural changes, today become centres of socialization of communities, creating social and cultural well-being, therefore, their effective management becomes the object of research. This is also relevant in the implementation of public policy: strategic documents ("Europe 2030", "Lithuania 2030"), which guide public sector bodies to achieve a sustainable economy, also actualize the ability to anticipate the necessary changes in the organization.In addition to the usual long-term strategic goals (providing high-quality various services, programs, resources to people of all ages; developing existing collections; creating an environment that responds to community needs and promotes creativity), municipal libraries aim to strengthen the institution's management and develop local communities. Due to COVID-19, the revised strategic plans of public libraries of the Republic of Lithuania have made the accessibility aspect of services even more relevant. Long-term goals testify to the need for strategic change, at the same time raise the problematic questions: what are the essential aspects of science in the management of strategic change in the municipal public library? What is the situation of strategic change management in Lithuanian municipal public libraries? The research aims to practically investigate the situation of strategic change management in Lithuanian municipal public libraries and to discern the aspects to be improved.Based on the scientific literature, we define strategic change as significant fundamental changes in the organization aimed at positive change: to eliminate shortcomings, negative consequences and take on new challenges inherent in the organization's strategy. They are always linked to the strategic goals of the organization, are changing or touching the entire organization, requiring strategic and change management competencies.The strategic changes implemented in the libraries of the Republic of Lithuania in this decade are more attributable to adaptation or evolution, as there are changes in sustainable growth. According to the hierarchical structural model, strategic administrative (changes in management structures, processes) or strategic functional changes (e.g. changes in personnel, financial management strategy, etc.) are usually initiated in the municipal public libraries themselves. Strategic political and strategic changes in work are mainly driven by politicians. Strategic change requires leadership at all levels of an organization's governance and is generally seen as a significant factor in increasing employees' commitment to change.The management of strategic change in libraries as a process has much in common with the management of strategic change in other public sector institutions. Their management in libraries is influenced by external and internal factors, in particular public policy. Among the internal factors for municipal public libraries, the process of managing changes, in general, is important, as it was common practice in Lithuanian municipalities to work in accordance with the municipal cultural policy strategy without developing a separate strategy for the development of their own, separate institution. In the current context of increasing decentralization of governance, it is increasingly the responsibility of libraries to take the initiative and take care of the long-term goals of the organization.The public libraries of two neighbouring municipalities (Akmenė district and Mažeikiai district) were selected for the research, a strategy of mixed methods was applied, combining qualitative research methods (content analysis of documents) and quantitative research methods (total questionnaire survey of both library employees except director and deputy director usingapklausa.lt, after receiving participants' consent via e-mails).Having analysed the strategic plans and activity reports of the years 2011–2021 of public libraries in municipalities of Akmenė district and Mažeikiai district, it was revealed that the most important strategic changes in the recent period correspond to the guidelines of Lithuanian cultural policy (2010) and were mostly technological changes or technological-organizational: related to building reconstructions, renovations; with the digitization of administrative management and services; with the socialization of socially excluded groups, with the increase of digital literacy of communities through education, etc. The documents testify that the public library in Mažeikiai district, during the research, already had its own strategic plan, while the public library in Akmenė district, was developing its first strategy. Different experiences of strategic management have also led to partly different expressions of strategic change management in libraries. The library in Mažeikiai district constantly performs the analysis of external factors, while the library in Akmenė district yet only intends to do so. Among the external factors, the project activities carried out by Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania, including public libraries, are important in both cases. By strategizing activities, both libraries conduct the performance analysis using SWOT, highlighting similar weaknesses (limited funding for modernization), strengths (systematically training staff, modernized public library infrastructure, strong collaborative relationships with other public and county libraries).Wider cooperation with business is not yet visible. The library in Akmenė district sees the consideration of the needs of stakeholders and the use of social partners' resources as an opportunity, whereas the library in Mažeikiai district is already planning more active partnership relations, also with Lithuanian and foreign libraries.After conducting the opinion research of the employees of public libraries in Akmenė district and Mažeikiai district, the following most important aspects of the management of strategic changes in the studied municipal public libraries have been revealed:Situation– libraries undergo strategic changes initiated by external institutions through programs and projects; they have experience in implementing strategic change, communicating the results of change; there is no resistance to innovations in libraries; employees begin to be involved in strategic change management through separate sub-processes, while for the time being, managers take the lead in strategic change management; organizations lack a deeper understanding of strategic change, the competencies to initiate them involving the entire library community.Potential– employees would like to be more involved in the management of strategic change: 1) relatively good internal communication about already implemented (mostly project-based) strategic changes is revealed; 2) over 10 percent of employees are already involved in managing strategic change; 3) half of the surveyed employees feel able to offer ideas for innovations and strategic changes, the other 50 percent of employees feel "not invited" to do so; 4) Most staff feel ready to take on good practice from other (including foreign) institutions.This research has confirmed the insights of scholars and cultural strategists that public libraries today are undergoing tremendous change, making long-term perspective knowledge and strategic planning a necessity in every organization. With the growth of decentralization of management as well as the uncertainty due to global changes, in the public sector this is achieved through greater involvement of the community in governance and inter-institutional cooperation. Leadership alone is not enough.This research shows that municipal public libraries have the potential to initiate and manage strategic change themselves, as they have been involved in the implementation of changes initiated by external institutions for 10 years, there is no anti-change attitude in organizations. On the other hand, there is a lack of experience and competencies to anticipate change, initiate change, motivate employees to get involved themselves. This research also raises the debate questions that require broader research: Knowing that municipal public libraries are accustomed to working according to the programs, projects and plans coming from above, the question arises whether the current 2016-2017 legislation on improving library management approved by the Minister of Culture of the Republic of Lithuania is effective and meets today's challenges; why there is no methodological assistance to public libraries on how to improve their management. What governance structure of municipal public libraries would be conducive to increasing staff involvement in strategic change management? What managerial innovations would increase employee motivation to initiate change? ; Išsikėlus teorines prielaidas,kad strateginiais pokyčiais siekiama tobulinti organizacijos veiklą įgyvendinant nacionalinę, vietos kultūros politiką atliepiančius strateginius tikslus, kurių išsikėlime dalyvauja organizacijos bendruomenė, kad pokyčių valdyme svarbi vadovų lyderystė, jų kompetencija valdyti pokyčius, empiriniu tyrimu siekiama ištirti Lietuvos savivaldybių viešųjų bibliotekų strateginių pokyčių valdymo situaciją, įžvelgti tobulintinus aspektus. Bibliotekų vidinių dokumentų analizė bei darbuotojų apklausa parodė, kad bibliotekos geba įgyvendinti kitų inicijuotus pokyčius. Iš organizacijos vidaus pareinančioms iniciatyvoms valdyti, panaudoti turimą pozityvų nusiteikimą dalyvauti pokyčiuose trūksta strateginio valdymo, pokyčių, bendruomenės įtraukimo į pokyčių valdymą kompetencijų, motyvacijos.

The problem of medicines counterfeiting is relevant for all countries of the world, without exception. At the same time, the effectiveness of combating the spread of counterfeit medicines (CM) in different countries, as well as the volume of counterfeited medical products, varies. Any state that aimed to ensure highly effective control over the circulation of medicines has to elaborate a comprehensive solution to this problem, primarily to adopt high-quality national legislation. The executive authorities should not only pay attention to neutralizing CM problem, but also take the most active part in this process. The primary role here should be played by law enforcement authorities. There is a need for coordinated work by law enforcement authorities to investigate the cases of falsified medicines and clandestine production, as well as by regulatory bodies to identify such products. It is also necessary to systematize the investigative and judicial practice on this issue, create an unified system for recording the facts of identifying the counterfeit drugs. The need for systematic monitoring and analysis of regulatory legal acts regarding the counteraction to the circulation of the CM in order to assess their effectiveness, as well as the adoption of appropriate measures by the authorized bodies, determine the relevance of the study. The aim of the work was to analyze the laws and regulations of CM adopted in Ukraine after the Declaration of Independence had been signed (1991), to assess their effectiveness in terms of bringing perpetrators to justice for pharmaceutical counterfeiting. Materials and methods. Scientific publications on the problem of CM, as well as the Laws of Ukraine and legal acts adopted by various authorities to combat the spread of falsified medicines, reports of law enforcement agencies, the General Prosecutor's Office, the State Judicial Administration, court decisions included in the Unified State Register of Court Decisions (USRCD) under Article 321-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. The analysis of the respective norms of the legislation adopted during 1991–2020 is carried out. Results. Having analyzed the reports of law enforcement agencies, the State Statistical Office, and the Prosecutor General's Office, the authors established that none of the people who had been convicted under Article 321-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, after the entry of the guilty verdict into force, was in places of deprivation of liberty. There are many information sources that provide various forms of statistics, but understanding them is quite a challenge. A large number of criminal proceedings have been investigated for a long time, and since the USRCD is inaccessible, and is available only for the pre-trial investigation bodies and the prosecutor's office, it is impossible for a private person to get information regarding the end of the pre-trial investigation in certain cases. Conclusions. Despite the large quantity of regulatory legal acts adopted in Ukraine to prevent the spread of counterfeit medicines, the severity of the sanctions of Article 321-1 of the Criminal Code, which criminalizes the falsification and circulation of medicines, as well as the importance of medicines' counterfeiting for public health, the effectiveness of measures to combat this phenomenon is dramatically low. ; Проблема фальсификации лекарственных средств актуальна для всех стран мира. Эффективность борьбы с распространением фальсифицированных лекарственных средств (ФЛС) в разных странах разная, как и объемы медицинской продукции, которую подделывают. Любое государство, которое стремится к обеспечению высокоэффективного контроля над оборотом лекарственных средств (ЛС), должно решать проблему комплексно, прежде всего за счет принятия качественного национального законодательства, а органы исполнительной власти должны не только обратить внимание на нейтрализацию проблемы ФЛС, но и принять в ней активное участие. Первостепенную роль должны играть правоохранительные органы. Необходима согласованная работа силовых ведомств по расследованию случаев фальсификации ЛС и подпольных производств, а также контролирующих органов по выявлению такой продукции. Также необходима систематизация следственной и судебной практики по этому вопросу, создание единой системы учета фактов выявления ФЛС. Актуальность исследования определяется необходимостью систематического мониторинга и анализа нормативно-правовых актов (НПА) относительно противодействия обращению ФЛС для оценки их эффективности, а также принятия уполномоченными органами соответствующих мер. Цель работы – анализ законов и НПА по вопросам фальсификации ЛС, принятых в Украине после провозглашения независимости, и оценка их эффективности с точки зрения привлечения виновных лиц к ответственности за подделку фармацевтической продукции. Материалы и методы. Проанализировали научные публикации по проблеме фальсификации лекарств, а также Законы Украины и НПА, принятые различными органами власти для борьбы с распространением фальсифицированных ФЛС, отчетность правоохранительных органов, Генеральной прокуратуры, Государственной судебной администрации (ГСА) и судебные решения, внесенные в Единый государственный реестр судебных решений по статье 321-1 Уголовного кодекса (УК) Украины. Результаты. Проведен анализ норм законодательства, принятого в течение 1991–2020 гг., по фальсификации ЛС, а также определение проблем и перспектив в процессе реализации соответствующих правовых норм. Из отчетов правоохранительных органов, ГСА и Генпрокуратуры установлено, что ни одно лицо из осужденных по статье 321-1 УК Украины после вступления в силу обвинительного приговора не находилось в местах лишения свободы, все были освобождены от отбывания наказания. Существует множество информационных ресурсов, которые представляют различные формы статистики, однако разобраться в них очень трудно. Большое количество уголовных производств расследуют в течение длительного времени, а поскольку доступ к Единому реестру досудебных расследований закрыт и разрешен только органам досудебного расследования и прокуратуры, просмотреть информацию относительно окончания досудебного расследования по тем или иным делам рядовым пользователям информации не представляется возможным. Выводы. Несмотря на большой массив НПА, принятых в Украине для предотвращения распространения ФЛС, на строгость санкции статьи 321-1 УК Украины, которой установлена уголовная ответственность за фальсификацию и оборот ФЛС, а также важность для здоровья населения, вопросы фальсификации ЛС, эффективность мер борьбы с этим явлением достаточно низкая. ; Проблема фальсифікації лікарських засобів (ЛЗ) актуальна для всіх країн світу. Ефективність боротьби з поширенням фальсифікованих лікарських засобів (ФЛЗ) у різних країнах різна, як і обсяги медичної продукції, яку підробляють. Будь-яка держава, котра прагне до забезпечення високоефективного контролю над обігом ЛЗ, має розв'язати проблему комплексно, передусім через ухвалення якісного національного законодавства, а органи виконавчої влади повинні не тільки звернути увагу на проблему боротьби з ФЛЗ, але й взяти в ній найактивнішу участь. Провідну роль мають відігравати правоохоронні органи. Необхідна узгоджена робота силових відомств із розслідування випадків фальсифікації ЛЗ і підпільних виробництв, а також контролювальних органів із виявлення такої продукції. Потрібна систематизація слідчої та судової практики з цього питання, створення єдиної системи обліку фактів виявлення ФЛЗ. Актуальність дослідження зумовлена необхідністю систематичного моніторингу та аналізу нормативно-правових актів (НПА) щодо протидії обігу ФЛЗ для оцінювання їхньої ефективності та ухвалення уповноваженими органами відповідних заходів. Мета роботи – аналіз законів і НПА з питань фальсифікації ЛЗ, що ухвалені в Україні після проголошення незалежності, та оцінювання їхньої ефективності в аспекті притягнення винних осіб до відповідальності за підроблення фармацевтичної продукції. Матеріали та методи. Проаналізували наукові публікації з проблеми фальсифікації ліків, а також Закони України та НПА, ухвалені різними органами влади для боротьби з поширенням фальсифікованих ФЛЗ, звітність правоохоронних органів, Генеральної прокуратури, Державної судової адміністрації (ДСА) та судові рішення, внесені в Єдиний державний реєстр судових рішень за статтею 321-1 Кримінального кодексу (КК) України. Результати. Проаналізували норми законодавства, що ухвалене протягом 1991–2020 рр., з питань фальсифікації ЛЗ, а також визначили проблеми та перспективи у процесі реалізації відповідних правових норм. Зі звітів правоохоронних органів, ДСА та Генпрокуратури встановили: жодна з засуджених за статтею 321-1 КК України особа після набрання чинності обвинувального вироку не перебувала в місцях позбавлення волі, всі особи були звільнені від відбування покарання. Є безліч інформаційних ресурсів, що подають різні форми статистики, але розібратися в них дуже складно. Велику кількість кримінальних проваджень розслідують протягом тривалого часу, а оскільки доступ до Єдиного реєстру досудових розслідувань закритий і дозволений тільки органам досудового розслідування та прокуратури, то переглянути інформацію про завершення досудового розслідування тих чи інших справ пересічні користувачі інформації не можуть. Висновки. Незважаючи на великий масив НПА, ухвалених в Україні для запобігання поширення ФЛЗ, на суворість санкції статті 321-1 КК України, якою встановлена кримінальна відповідальність за фальсифікацію та обіг ФЛЗ, а також на важливість для здоров'я населення, питання фальсифікації ЛЗ, ефективність заходів боротьби з цим явищем доволі низька.

Summary. The purpose of the research is to study the depiction of the events of the Cossack-Polish war of 1652–1653 in the works of the Polish historians of the late 19th century till 1939, and in particular, the battles of Batoh, Zhvanets and Zhvanets Peace Treaty; to find out the peculiarities of scientific approaches and interpretations by researchers of historical events and the influences on them of the intellectual discourse of the epoch in which scientists lived and worked; to identify the specifics of scientists' interpretations of the facts of the past through the prism of their political sympathies and belonging to various historical schools and trends; to analyze the diversity of scientists' approaches to the causes and consequences of battles and attempts to establish understanding between the parties to the conflict; to consider general historians' assessments of the significance of the events of 1652–1653 in the fate of the Polish and Ukrainian peoples. The methodology of the research is based on the general scientific principles of objectivity, historicism, objectivism, scientific pluralism, systematics and reliance on historical sources. Both general scientific (analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction, comparison) and special-historical methods were used in the work: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, problem-chronological, historical-systematic ones etc. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that it was the first to study the image of the events of the Polish-Cossack wars of 1652–1653 in Polish historiography of the late 19th century till 1939 on the basis of a significant set of historiographical sources. The peculiarities of ideological influences of political concepts and historical schools on the assessments of Polish scientists of the battles near Batoh and Zhvanets, Zhvanets Peace Treaty were studied in the research as well. Conclusions. Polish historians of the late 19th century – 1939 saw the cause of the new Polish-Cossack war of 1652 in the unresolved conflict during the Brest campaign, when the military victory of the crown armies was lost due to aristocratic anarchy and the flexibility of Polish commanders during negotiations at Bila Tserkva. Researchers believed that the difficult situation of B. Khmelnytsky after the defeat in 1651 pushed him to start a new round of war. Scholars exposed the Battle of Batoh itself as one of the greatest national tragedies of the Polish people and described these events in mythologized images. Special emphasis was placed on the depiction of the execution of captured Polish soldiers by Cossacks and Tatars, which emphasized the barbaric nature of the Cossacks. Scholars saw the very defeat of the crown troops as evidence of the problems of the society of the Commonwealth, which was ruled by aristocratic anarchy. For Polish scholars, the battle of Batoh became a symbol of the transition of the Polish-Ukrainian confrontation to a new stage, characterized by a special intransigence of the parties, and was a cornerstone in the destruction of the ancient brotherhood of both peoples. In the bloody finale of the campaign of 1652, scholars saw the reason for the conclusion of the Ukrainian-Moscow Agreement of 1654, because after the Battle of Batoh a peaceful settlement of relations between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Cossacks was no longer possible. The campaign of Zhvanets of 1653 was studied by many Polish historians in the context of the Moldavian campaigns of the crown and Cossack troops and it was considered to have been their finale. In assessing the significance of the Battle of Zhvanets, Polish researchers tended to define it as a hopeless forced confrontation between the hostile parties, who were aware of their futile chances for a final victory in this armed confrontation. Thus, scholars saw the campaign of Zhvanets as a failure for both sides of the conflict, which only exacerbated the depletion of their human and material resources. Similarly, scholars viewed Zhvanets Peace Treaty as a mere temporary agreement that was to suspend the military campaign of 1653 and had no prospect of continuing it to truly resolve the differences between the Ukrainian and Polish peoples. According to scholars, the treaty was forced by agreements with the Tatars for King John Casimir, while for B. Khmelnytsky it was fictitious because of his already reached agreement with Moscow. Historians have paid attention to the gradual strengthening of the role of the Crimean Khan as an arbiter in relations between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ukrainian Cossacks during 1652–1653, as well as the growth of his role in the geopolitical structure of Central and Eastern Europe. ; Анотація. Мета дослідження полягає у вивченні зображення подій козацько-польської війни 1652–1653 рр. у працях польських істориків кінця ХІХ ст. – 1939 р., а зокрема, битв під Батогом та Жванцем, Жванецького мирного договору. З'ясувати особливості наукових підходів та інтерпретацій дослідниками історичних подій і впливів на них інтелектуального дискурсу епохи, у якій жили та працювали науковці. Виявити специфіку інтерпретацій вченими фактів минулого через призму їх політичних симпатій та приналежності до різноманітних історичних шкіл й напрямів. Проаналізувати різноплановість підходів науковців до причин та наслідків битв, спроб налагодження порозуміння між сторонами конфлікту. Розглянути загальні оцінки істориками значимості подій 1652–1653 рр. у долі польського та українського народів. Методологія дослідження спирається на загальнонаукові принципи історизму, об'єктивізму, наукового плюралізму, системності та опори на історичні джерела. У роботі застосовувались як загальнонаукові (аналізу, синтезу, індукції та дедукції, порівняння), так і спеціально-історичні методи: історико-генетичний, історико-порівняльний, проблемно-хронологічний, історико-системний та ін. Наукова новизна дослідження полягає у тому, що у ньому на основі значного комплексу історіографічних джерел уперше було системно вивчено образ подій польсько-козацьких воєн 1652– 1653 рр. у польській історіографії кінця ХІХ ст. – 1939 р. Досліджено особливості ідейних впливів політичних концепцій та історичних шкіл на оцінки польськими вченими битв під Батогом та Жванцем, Жванецького мирного договору. Висновки. Польські історики кінця ХІХ ст. – 1939 р. бачили причину нової польсько-козацької війни 1652 р. у неврегульованості конфлікту під час Берестецької кампанії, коли військова перемога коронних армій була змарнована через шляхетську анархію та поступливість польських командирів під час переговорів під Білою Церквою. Дослідники вважали, що важке становище Б. Хмельницького після поразки 1651 р. штовхало його до розв'язання нового витка війни. Саму битву під Батогом учені експонували як одну із найбільших національних трагедій польського народу й описували ці події у міфологізованих образах. Особливий акцент робився на зображенні страти козаками й татарами полонених польських воїнів, де підкреслювалася варварська сутність козацтва. Саму ж поразку коронних військ науковці бачили свідченням проблем суспільства Речі Посполитої, у якому панувала шляхетська анархія. Для польських вчених битва під Батогом стала символом переходу польсько-українського протистояння на новий етап, що вирізнявся особливою непримиренністю сторін, та була наріжною у руйнуванні давнього братерства обох народів. У кривавому фіналі кампанії 1652 р. науковці вбачали причину укладення українсько-московського порозуміння 1654 р., адже після битви під Батогом мирне врегулювання відносин між Річчю Посполитою та козацтвом було уже неможливим. Жванецьку кампанію 1653 р. багато польських істориків розглядали у контексті походів коронних та козацьких військ у Молдавію й бачили у ній їх фінал. В оцінках значення битви під Жванцем польські дослідники схилялись до визначення її як безперспективного вимушеного зіткнення ворогуючих сторін, що були свідомі своїх марних шансів на остаточну перемогу у цьому збройному протистоянні. Таким чином, вчені бачили Жванецьку кампанію як невдалу для обох сторін конфлікту, яка лише посилила виснаження їх людських та матеріальних ресурсів. Подібно науковці розглядали і Жванецький мирний договір як лише тимчасову домовленість, що слугувала для призупинення військової кампанії 1653 р. та не мала жодних перспектив продовження для справжнього врегулювання суперечностей між українським та польським народами. Для короля Яна Казимира договір, на думку вчених, був вимушений домовленостями із татарами, натомість для Б. Хмельницького угода була фіктивною через його уже досягнуте порозуміння із Москвою. Історики акцентували увагу на поступовому посиленні протягом 1652–1653 рр. ролі Кримського хана як арбітра у відносинах між Річчю Посполитою та українським козацтвом, зростанню його ролі у геополітичній системі Центральної та Східної Європи.

Problem statement: general view and its connection with important scientific or practical tasks. Achieving the goals and realizing the interests of states and transnational corporations and even some specific actors on the world stage is gaining new opportunities through the intensive development of high technology, innovation, information and global cyberspace. Open military confrontation and other types of conflicts in these conditions are transformed into hybrid forms of destructive actions, in which the component of cognitive influences aimed at the human mind, worldview, mentality, which are an integral part of the cognitive sphere of society, grows. Such influences, at the present stage of development of society, are often aimed at forming distrust, changing views and value systems, weakening social cohesion and distorted perception of national interests and values, etc., so their study and counteraction is extremely relevant. Analysis of recent publications in sphere of research and identification of previously unresolved parts of the general problem. Issues related to the study of the cognitive sphere and its components, various cognitive influences on the audience in the process of communication, cognitive manipulation, especially in the field of discourses, and their consequences, were considered in the works of many domestic and foreign researchers, namely: M. Eisenko, L. Apostel, M. Bakhtin, D. Bolinger, P. Brown, E. Bienvenu, R. Blakar, X. Weinrich, A. Vezhbytska, V. Vinokur, Y. Habermas, J. Gintikki, G. Grice, S. Green, T. van Dyck, V. Demyankov, V. Zabotkin, A. Zvirintsev, S. Kara-Murza, E. Koit, O. Kubryakova, R. Lakoff, J. Lakoff, J. Lich, Y. Lotman , S. Levinson, D. Marr, J. Allwood, J. Austin, M. Popper, G. Pocheptsov, O. Rosenstock-Hussey, J. Searle, W. Stewart, S. Tulmin, L. Yakubinsky. At the same time, the study of multilevel, interconnected destructive cognitive effects in cyberspace and through cyberspace in hybrid conflicts and the analysis of practical experience of their coping and consequences, especially with regard to deep systemic aspects and synergies in modern publications are insufficiently addressed. The aim of the article is to study the threats and features of cognitive influences on society in cyberspace and respond to them to reduce the risks of their consequences. Main results. Modern hybrid warfare is a war with a combination of fundamentally different types and methods of its conduct, which are used in a coordinated manner to achieve its goals. It is a high-tech conflict, a continuation of the policy of states (coalitions, political groups, transnational corporations, etc.) in order to impose their will on opponents through complex, adaptive, asymmetric and synchronized influences on them in multidimensional space and various spheres with a combination of conventional and unconventional components, ensuring multiplicity and synergy of results and a high level of uncertainty for opponents regarding the ultimate goals and ways to achieve them. Its features are permanent, variable, in wide ranges, intensity, focus on systemic destabilization and changes that are useful to achieve the interests of the beneficiary, in all spheres of life and activity of the state that is the object of aggression. Hybrid actions, in addition to the purely force component, include complex destructive cognitive, informational, informational-psychological, propaganda and disinformation influences on certain target groups and society as a whole, with cyberattacks on information resources, infrastructure, economic processes and democratic institutions. At the same time, cognitive influences play a significant role in trying to manage communication, transform the beliefs of target audiences to the right (desired) and control their behavior. Issues of destructive cognitive actions are directly related to the processes of emission, processing, interpretation, transformation and internalization of knowledge in managed communication from strategic to tactical levels, from general to targeted impacts on society as a whole and its individual components and specific targets. audiences with integrated use of linguistic, figurative, hidden media effects, mental and other influences at different levels of cybersocial interaction, which, in modern conditions, is increasingly carried out in cyberspace and / or through cyberspace. The theoretical and applied results presented in the article can be used to ensure timely detection of dangers and threats of destructive cognitive influences on society in cyberspace and through cyberspace, risk assessment of their implementation and taking measures to counter and neutralize them. Conclusions. Cognitive influences have become an integral part of hybrid conflicts, both interstate and domestic, and between any geopolitical and regional actors, corporations, and organizations. The cognitive component has an exceptional role in the set of factors that form and cause conflict, affect its course and results, intensity and consequences. Therefore, modern, and especially conflicts of the future, are and will be conducted for the cognitive sphere of society (society, social groups, individuals), taking control and management of cognitive space, which includes perception, awareness, beliefs, understanding and values, intellectual environment of both individuals and social groups and society as a whole, in which, in fact, is their decision-making. Therefore, the main result of successful destructive cognitive influences is a change in the model of the world and its perception in man, social groups and society as a whole, which provides the opportunity to take control and external management on emotional, moral, cultural, ideological and mental levels with the formation stereotypes for the perception of reality through their prism. Of particular importance are the imposition and promotion of erroneous scientific, social, economic, state, military theories, paradigms, concepts, strategies, narratives, which are most effectively promoted and implemented through educational and scientific institutions, NGOs, electronic, social networks and the blogosphere. To this end, all opportunities for strategic communication are used, informational, psychological, cyber and other measures (actions, operations, etc.) are taken, which are aimed at both the direct participants in the conflict and the population of the participating countries, the international community. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a thorough analysis of the threats of such influences, their timely detection and deploy an effective system to counter them and neutralize them, because it becomes one of the key components of national security for today and in the future. Key words: cognitive influences; cyberspace; cybersecurity; destructive cyber influences; information security. ; У статті розглядаються теоретико-прикладні аспекти, особливості, небезпеки, загрози і ризики когнітивних впливів на соціум у кіберпросторі і через кіберпростір та реагування на них. Доведено, що боротьба за отримання контролю над певними цільовими групами в сучасних умовах передбачає насамперед можливість управління їхньою когнітивною сферою з використанням методів ментального, образного, мовного тощо впливів на неї. Це здійснюється в різноманітних інфокомунікаційних системах відповідно до ситуацій, переважно через соціальні мережі, блогосферу, художню, науково-популярну і наукову літературу та відповідні ресурси в інтернеті, розважальну і професійно-орієнтовану аудіо- і відеопродукцію, рекламу, ЗМІ, а також шляхом уведення змін, які сприяють цьому, в наукові теорії, навчальні програми тощо. Основна мета – навмисний вплив на відповідні цільові аудиторії для трансформації їх поглядів, переконань, світогляду, і самого сприйняття дійсності відповідно до інтересів і потреб сторони, яка справляє вплив. Це завжди багатоплановий, багатовекторний, комплексний, системний та керований процес загальної спрямованості або цільові, спрямовані на суспільство в цілому або на цільові групи, конкретних індивідів (ключових акторів), який передбачає справляння за єдиним замислом, планом, місцем і часом когнітивних, інформаційних, інформаційно-психологічних, кібер-впливів тощо. У сучасних умовах значна кількість сфер людської життєдіяльності перенеслася до кіберпростору та здійснюється через кіберпростір. При цьому майже єдиним джерелом знань та інформації для більшості людей поступово стають різноманітні інформаційні та освітні портали й електронні ресурси, які формуються в кібер­просторі. Це значно впливає на формування та зміну світогляду і ментальності соціуму. Саме через глобальну мережу «Інтернет» молодь сприймає найбільше неперевіреної, часто негативної, небажаної і навіть небезпечної інформації. Відсутність захисту соціуму від когнітивних загроз, які реалізуються в кіберпросторі і через кіберпростір, стає серйозним фактором ризику, деякі аспекти зменшення якого розглядаються в цій роботі. Ключові слова: когнітивні впливи; кіберпростір; кібербезпека; деструктивні кібервпливи; інформаційна безпека.

Yksi keskeisiä kysymyksiä muuttoliikkeen sävyttämässä maailmassa on, miten valtiot ja kansakunnat kykenevät integroimaan uudet tulijat ja heidän jälkeläisensä osaksi yhteiskuntaa. Maahanmuuttajien kotoutuminen tapahtuu lukuisilla yhteiskunnan eri osa-alueilla, kuten työmarkkinoilla, mutta myös politiikassa. Maahanmuuttajien poliittinen kiinnittyminen uudessa kotimaassa – mukaan lukien kyky ymmärtää ja vaikuttaa poliittisiin prosesseihin sekä kiinnostus seurata yhteiskunnallisia asioita – edistää heidän kotoutumistaan sekä yksilö- että ryhmätasolla. Yksi merkittävä maahanmuuttajien poliittiseen kiinnittymiseen vaikuttava tekijä on heidän poliittinen edustuksensa demokraattisissa päätöksentekoelimissä. Etnisten ja maahanmuuttotaustaisten vähemmistöjen mukanaolo poliittisessa päätöksenteossa viestii tasa-arvoisesta ja moniäänisestä yhteiskunnasta, jossa jokaisella on yhtäläinen mahdollisuus vaikuttaa yhteisiin asioihin syntyperästään riippumatta. Tarkastelemalla maahanmuuttotaustaisten ehdokkaiden rekrytoitumista Suomen kuntavaaleissa tämä tutkimus syventää keskustelua tekijöistä, jotka yhtäältä edistävät ja toisaalta vaikeuttavat maahanmuuttajien poliittisen edustuksen toteutumista. Tutkimuksen empiirisessä osiossa keskitytään kevään 2017 kuntavaaleihin ja vastataan kolmeen päätutkimuskysymykseen: (1) Mitkä olivat keskeisimmät erot eri etnisten ryhmien poliittisessa kiinnittymisessä? (2) Mikä vaikutti poliittisten puolueiden kysyntään eli halukkuuteen rekrytoida maahanmuuttotaustaisia henkilöitä ehdokaslistoilleen? (3) Miten maahanmuuttotaustaisten ehdokkaiden tarjonta eli heidän yhteiskunnallinen taustansa, resurssinsa ja motivaationsa vaikuttivat paitsi päätökseen ehdolle asettumisesta myös heidän valikoitumiseensa ehdokaslistalle? Tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään sekä määrällistä että laadullista aineistoa. Rekisteri- ja kyselypohjaiset aineistot muodostavat pohjan laajemmalle Suomen maahanmuuttotaustaisen väestön poliittisen kiinnittymisen ja poliittisen edustuksen analyysille kuntatasolla. Määrällisten aineistojen avulla on mahdollista vertailla valtaväestöön lukeutuvien ehdokkaiden ja maahanmuuttotaustaisten ehdokkaiden henkilökohtaisia ja sosiaalisia voimavaroja, motivaatiota, poliittisia arvoja ja asenteita, sekä ehdokaskampanjoita. Laadullinen haastatteluaineisto puolestaan valottaa etnisten ja maahanmuuttotaustaisten vähemmistöjen poliittista rekrytoitumista niin maahanmuuttotaustaisten ehdokkaiden kuin puolueiden näkökulmasta. Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittavat, ensinnäkin, että poliittinen kiinnittyminen vaihtelee suuresti eri etnisten vähemmistöryhmien välillä ja että tätä selittävät moninaiset taustamaahan, Suomeen muuton syihin ja ryhmien kotoutumiseen liittyvät seikat. Suomalainen avointen listojen vaalijärjestelmä sekä ehdokkaiden korkea kysyntä kuntavaaleissa kuitenkin luovat verrattain suotuisan ympäristön Suomeen muuttaneiden ehdokkaaksi pääsylle. Toisaalta, vaikka kynnys ehdokkaaksi pääsylle ei ole korkea, useimmat ehdokkaat tarvitsevat ulkopuolista kannustusta ehdokkuudelleen. Suomeen muualta muuttaneet tarvitsevat kannustusta puolueilta ja omalta lähipiiriltään valtaväestöä useammin, sillä monet heistä kokevat oman suomen (tai ruotsin) kielen taitonsa ja/tai suomalaista poliittista järjestelmää ja kulttuuria koskevan tietotasonsa riittämättömiksi. Puolueiden kykyä ja motivaatiota luoda ehdokastarjontaa eli aktiivisesti kannustaa Suomeen muuttaneita asettumaan ehdolle vaaleissa hankaloittavat puolueiden vähäiset sosiaaliset siteet eri etnisiin vähemmistöryhmiin. Verkostojen niukkuus tai suoranainen puute estää puolueita hankkimasta tietoa potentiaalisista maahanmuuttotaustaisista ehdokkaista eli henkilöistä, jotka voisivat olla kiinnostuneita asettumaan ehdolle ja joilla olisi siihen myös riittävät resurssit. Suomen henkilökeskeisessä vaalijärjestelmässä puolueiden vaalitulos riippuu voimakkaasti niiden asettamien ehdokkaiden kyvyistä hankkia henkilökohtaisia ääniä, jotka kaikki menevät puolueen yhteiselle listalle ja määrittävät puolueen saamien edustajanpaikkojen lukumäärän. Näin ollen ehdokkaita rekrytoidessaan puolueet haluavat varmistua siitä, että niiden ehdokkailla on riittävästi voimavaroja ja motivaatiota aktiivisen ehdokaskampanjan järjestämiseen ja äänestäjien mobilisointiin. Tiedon ja sitä myöden luottamuksen puutteen vuoksi puolueet kokevat maahanmuuttotaustaisten ehdokkaiden rekrytoimisen haastavaksi, mikä puolestaan vähentää puolueiden halukkuutta käyttää resurssejaan vähemmistöehdokkaiden löytämiseksi. Puolueet aloittavat ehdokasrekrytoinnin omasta organisaatiostaan edeten organisaation sisäkehältä sen ulkokehälle eli tarkastelemalla ensin aktiivisia jäseniään, sitten vähemmän aktiivisia ja tämän jälkeen jäsenten henkilökohtaisia verkostoja. Koska Suomeen muuttaneet ovat valtaväestöä harvemmin jäseniä puolueorganisaatioissa ja koska heidän verkostonsa eivät aina riittävästi risteä valtaväestön verkostojen ja elämänpiirin kanssa, he jäävät usein puolueiden rekrytointiverkostojen ulkopuolelle. Näin ollen monet Suomeen muuttaneet jäävät vaille sitä kannustusta ja tukea, jota he tarvitsisivat ehdolle asettumisekseen. Sosiaalisilla verkostoilla ja niiden eriytyneisyydellä on siten keskeinen rooli Suomeen muuttaneiden ehdokkaaksi rekrytoitumisen esteiden ja poliittisen aliedustuksen taustalla. Aiemmassa maahanmuuttajien poliittista rekrytoitumista käsittelevässä tutkimuksessa ei ole tarkasteltu riittävästi sosiaalisten verkostojen ja sosiaalisen pääoman merkitystä ja roolia. Sosiaalisiin verkostoihin nivoutuvien tekijöiden järjestelmällinen erittely on tästä syystä yksi tämän tutkimuksen keskeisimmistä kontribuutioista. Tutkimuksen tulokset auttavat tunnistamaan maahanmuuttajien poliittiseen kiinnittymiseen liittyviä tekijöitä ja poistamaan esteitä, jotka vaikeuttavat heidän pääsyään uuden kotimaansa poliittisen järjestelmän tasavertaisiksi jäseniksi. ; One of the crucial questions facing countries across the world is how immigrants and their descendants can become part of a society and nation. Integration of immigrants takes place in multiple arenas, such as in the labour market, but also in the political arena. Immigrants' engagement in host country politics – including the ability to understand and influence political processes as well as having an interest in what is happening in society – facilitates their societal inclusion at both individual and group levels. One of the important factors that supports the political engagement of immigrants is their presence in decision-making bodies. It sends a message of an equal and multivoiced society in which everyone has a chance to participate and to 'have a say'. The general aim of this study is to further the discussion of factors that facilitate and hinder immigrants' political representation by investigating the recruitment of immigrant-origin candidates in Finnish municipal elections. The study draws on empirical evidence from the 2017 municipal elections and answers three main questions. First, what were the key differences in electoral engagement between different ethnic groups? Second, what influenced political parties' demand for immigrant-origin candidates, i.e. motivated parties to recruit immigrants to their candidate lists? Third, what role did immigrant-origin candidates' supply factors, i.e. their socioeconomic backgrounds, resources, and motivations, play in their decision to stand as candidates and in their selection to candidate lists? The empirical material consists of both quantitative and qualitative data. The register and survey-based datasets form the basis for understanding the wider picture of electoral engagement and political representation of the foreign-origin population in Finnish municipal politics. They enable comparisons between native and immigrant-origin candidates regarding their personal and social resources, motivations, political attitudes, and campaigns. The qualitative interview data, in turn, sheds light on the process of political recruitment of immigrant-origin candidates from the perspective of parties and individual immigrant-origin candidates. The findings show, first, that the level of electoral engagement varies significantly between ethnic minority groups due to factors related to their countries of origin, reasons for migrating, and the level of integration in Finland. Second, the Finnish open-list proportional representation electoral system and a high demand for candidates in local elections result in a relatively favourable context for immigrants' access to candidacy. However, although the barrier of access to the ballot list is not high, most candidates need external encouragement before they decide to stand as candidates. Due to factors such as the language barrier and unfamiliarity with the Finnish political system and political culture, immigrant-origin candidates need even more encouragement from parties and their own personal networks. Yet, active recruitment by the parties is hindered by their lack of social ties to immigrant groups. Limited ties prevent parties from acquiring information about immigrant-origin individuals with interest and resources to stand as candidates. When recruiting candidates under a heavily personalised electoral system, in which parties' ability to win seats depends on their individual candidates' ability to attract personal votes, parties want to know that their candidates engage in active campaigning and have vote-earning attributes. Due to a lack of information, as well as the familiarity and trust related to it, parties often feel unable and unwilling to recruit candidates from immigrant communities. Furthermore, immigrants have significantly less experience with political organisations, and hence are less often in the party's inner network, from which parties begin their search for candidates. Those who are not members of parties' networks are not very likely to be personally targeted and encouraged to stand. Therefore, social networks play a fundamental role in the recruitment of immigrant-origin candidates and, thus, in the political representation of immigrants in Finnish municipal councils. The role of social networks and social capital in political recruitment has not been sufficiently acknowledged in previous studies on immigrants' political representation. Therefore, the systematic documentation of these factors is one of the main contributions of this study. The findings of this study can be used to recognise and overcome the barriers that immigrants face on their pathways to political integration.

En raison des restrictions législatives de plus en plus sévères sur la pollution de l'environnement, les industries laitières font face au fil des dernières années à un défi crucial de valorisation des grandes quantités de lactosérum générées. Ainsi, grâce aux récents progrès technologiques et scientifiques ainsi que la forte croissance du marché d'ingrédients biofonctionnels, une voie de valorisation plus efficiente et prometteuse du lactosérum a émergé. En effet, au cours des dernières années, plusieurs études ont démontré que les attributs nutritionnels et biofonctionnels du lactosérum sont particulièrement liés à ses protéines qui constituent une source optimale d'ingrédients alimentaires fonctionnels et de peptides bioactifs. Ainsi, la ß-lactoglobuline (ß-lg), protéine majeure du lactosérum est un additif fréquemment utilisé dans une large gamme de produits alimentaires en raison de ses excellentes propriétés biofonctionnelles, de sa valeur nutritionnelle élevée et de son faible coût. Ces propriétés biofonctionnelles de la ß-lg peuvent être améliorées par différentes méthodes de traitement, notamment les traitements physiques, chimiques et enzymatiques. Cependant, en raison de sa structure globulaire compacte, la ß-lg sous sa forme native est relativement résistante aux modifications. Bien que les traitements conventionnels soient efficaces pour améliorer les propriétés structurelles et fonctionnelles des protéines ainsi que la production de peptides biologiquement actifs, ils sont cependant consommateurs de ressources et peuvent affecter négativement la qualité des produits finaux. Par conséquent, l'application de méthodes de traitement physique non thermique émergentes s'avère nécessaire. Ainsi, dans le cadre de ce projet doctoral, les traitements électriques à hauts voltages (TEHV) respectueux de l'environnement, notamment les champs électriques pulsés (CEP) et les arcs électriques (ARC) ont été utilisés comme méthode de prétraitement de la ß-lg. Un prétraitement thermique de la ß-lg a été effectué afin de comparer l'efficacité des prétraitements par TEHV avec l'approche conventionnelle. De ce fait, les échantillons de ß-lg préchauffés étaient considérés comme témoin positif et ceux de la forme native, comme témoin négatif. L'effet des prétraitements sur les propriétés fonctionnelles de la ß-lg a été évalué. De même, l'impact des TEHV et du prétraitement thermique sur la structure de la ß-lg et sa susceptibilité à l'hydrolyse trypsique et chymotrypsique a été étudié. La chromatographie liquide ultra-performante couplée à la spectrométrie de masse en tandem (UPLC-MS/MS) a été utilisée afin d'analyser et de caractériser les fractions peptidiques issus des différents hydrolysats de la ß-lg. De plus, les scores d'éco-efficience (EE) de génération de peptides après hydrolyses trypsique et chymotrypsique ont été calculés dans le but de déterminer laquelle des méthodes de prétraitement était la plus efficiente. Les résultats ont démontré une amélioration des propriétés fonctionnelles (propriétés moussantes, émulsifiantes et d'hygroscopicité) de la ß-lg favorisée par l'impact positif des TEHV sur sa structure secondaire. En effet, les analyses structurales ont montré que les TEHV ont induit une modification partielle de la conformation de la ß-lg. Une telle modification structurelle a eu pour conséquence une augmentation du degré d'hydrolyse (DH) de près de 2 fois après prétraitement par TEHV comparée à la protéine native. Dans le cas du prétraitement par chauffage conventionnel, l'augmentation du DH était d'environ 1,2 fois comparée à la protéine native. Ces résultats ont été confirmés par l'amélioration des paramètres cinétiques de la ß-lg à l'état d'équilibre, après les TEHV. Par ailleurs, une différence significative a été observée entre la trypsine et la chymotrypsine quant au DH et l'efficacité catalytique des deux enzymes. En effet, les constantes d'efficacité catalytique de la chymotrypsine étaient plus élevées que celles de la trypsine, suggérant une meilleure affinité de la chymotrypsine pour la protéine par rapport à la trypsine. En outre, l'analyse des échantillons prétraités en UPLC-MS/MS a démontré que l'application des TEHV a conduit à la libération de peptides à partir des molécules de ß-lg avant même l'ajout de trypsine et de chymotrypsine aux milieux réactionnels. De plus, les TEHV ont généré en moyenne 37 à 50 % plus de peptides que les protéines natives et préchauffées. Enfin, l'analyse de l'EE a révélé que les TEHV constituaient une méthode de prétraitement plus éco-efficiente que la méthode conventionnelle car leurs scores EE étaient plus élevés tant pour les procédés d'hydrolyse que pour les peptides bioactifs résultant de l'hydrolyse. Cette thèse apporte également de nouveaux éléments de compréhension quant à la valorisation multidirectionnelle des protéines du lactosérum. ; Due to increasingly severe legislative restrictions on environmental pollution, dairy industries have faced over the past few years a crucial challenge of valuing the large quantities of whey generated. Thus, thanks to recent technological and scientific progress as well as the important growth of the biofunctional ingredients market, a more efficient and promising way of whey valorization has emerged. Indeed, in recent years, several studies have demonstrated that the nutritional and biofunctional attributes of whey are particularly linked to its proteins, which constitute an optimal source of functional food ingredients and bioactive peptides. Therefore, -lactoglobulin (ß-lg), a major whey protein is an additive frequently used in a wide range of food products due to its excellent biofunctional properties, its high nutritional value and its low cost. These biofunctional properties of ß-lg can be improved by different treatment methods, including physical, chemical and enzymatic ones. However, due to its compact globular structure, ß-lg in its native form is relatively resistant to modifications. Although conventional treatments are effective in improving the structural and functional properties of proteins as well as the production of biologically active peptides, they are nonetheless resource intensive and can negatively affect the quality of final products. Therefore, the application of emerging nonthermal physical treatment methods is necessary. Thus, in the frame of this doctoral project, sustainably high-voltage electrical treatments (HVET), namely pulsed electric fields (PEF) and electric arcs (ARC) were used as pretreatment method of ß-lg. Thermal pretreatment of ß-lg was performed in order to compare the efficiency of HVET pretreatments with the conventional approach. Therefore, the preheated ß-lg samples were considered as positive control and those of the native one as negative control. The effect of pretreatments on the functional properties of ß-lg was evaluated. Likewise, the impact of HVET and heat pretreatments on the structure of ß-lg and its susceptibility to tryptic and chymotryptic hydrolyses was investigated. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to analyze and characterize the peptide fractions from the various hydrolysates of ß-lg. In addition, the eco-efficiency (EE) scores of peptide generation after tryptic and chymotryptic hydrolyses were calculated in order to determine which of the performed pretreatment methods was the most efficient. The results demonstrated an improvement in the functional properties (foaming, emulsifying and hygroscopicity properties) of ß-lg promoted by the positive impact of HVET on its secondary structure. Indeed, structural analyzes have shown that HVET induced a partial modification of the conformation of ß-lg. Such structural modification resulted in almost 2-times increase in the degree of hydrolysis (DH) after HVET pretreatments compared to the native protein. In the case of the conventional heating pretreatment, the increase in DH was approximately 1.2-times compared to native protein. These results were confirmed by the improvement in the kinetic parameters of ß-lg at steady state after HVET. Furthermore, a significant difference was observed between trypsin and chymotrypsin with regard to DH and the catalytic efficiency of the two enzymes. Indeed, the catalytic efficiency constants of chymotrypsin were higher than those of trypsin, suggesting a better affinity of chymotrypsin with the protein compared to trypsin. In addition, the UPLC-MS MS analysis of pretreated samples demonstrated that the application of HVET led to the release of peptides from ß-lg molecules even before the addition of trypsin and chymotrypsin to the reaction media. Additionally, the HVET have generated in average 37-50% more peptides than native and preheated proteins. Finally, the EE analysis revealed that HVET were the most efficient pretreatment method than the conventional one as their EE scores were higher for both hydrolysis processes and bioactive peptides generated from performed hydrolyses. This thesis highlights new understanding elements regarding the multidirectional valorization of whey proteins

Introduction. Depuis la réforme européenne d'éducation supérieure Licence-Master-Doctorat (LMD), diverses alliances et partenariats internationaux francophones ont créé des opportunités de mobilité internationale en santé tant chez les étudiantes, les praticiennes que les formatrices. L'accroissement de cette mobilité a forcé l'étudiante-chercheuse à réfléchir à la compétence culturelle des formatrices en sciences infirmières comme une solution favorisant la qualité et l'équité dans la formation en contexte international francophone. À notre connaissance, aucune étude n'a permis de comprendre la compétence culturelle manifestée chez des infirmières formatrices dans le cadre de formations infirmières en contexte francophone à l'étranger. But. Cette étude visait à mieux comprendre comment se manifeste la compétence culturelle d'infirmières formatrices franco-canadiennes lors d'expériences de partage de savoirs en sciences infirmières et ce, en contexte international francophone. Cadre. Un cadre de référence, intégrant la définition d'une compétence de Tardif (2006) au modèle The Process of Cultural Competence in Mentoring de Campinha-Bacote (2010a) et l'approche d'investigation relationnelle de Doane et Varcoe (2015; 2021), a favorisé un ancrage en science de la formation infirmière. Méthode. Une étude de cas multiples avec méthode mixte de type convergent (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018), réalisée dans une approche pragmatique (Morgan, 2007) de recherche, se voulait cohérente et pertinente à la nature observable et pratique d'une compétence culturelle. Ainsi, quatre cas référant à la manifestation de la compétence culturelle d'infirmières formatrices dans quatre programmes de formation infirmière de quatre pays différents ont formé l'échantillon de cas (N=4). Des entrevues individuelles semi-structurées auprès d'infirmières formatrices (n=18), des questionnaires socio-démographiques (n=18), des questionnaires post formation auprès d'apprenantes (n=34), des textes (n=53) puis, des notes de terrain (n=36) ont été analysés. Dans une première phase d'analyse intra-cas, la démarche d'analyse qualitative (descriptive, explicative et temporelle) proposée par Miles, Huberman, et Saldana (2014) et des statistiques descriptives ont été utilisées. Puis, dans une deuxième phase d'analyse inter-cas, les données qualitatives ont été analysées dans une approche descriptive interprétative de Thorne (2016). Des analyses statistiques descriptives, des coefficients de corrélation de Spearman et un test non paramétrique de Kruskal-Wallis, à partir des questionnaires post formation auprès d'apprenantes (n=34), ont été rigoureusement comparées aux analyses qualitatives pour ainsi dégager une synthèse holistique mixte intégrée des résultats de l'étude. Résultats. La synthèse mixte a permis de condenser vingt-deux ressources internes et externes mobilisées et combinées dans trois constats innovants et explicatifs de la compétence culturelle manifestée chez les infirmières formatrices franco-canadiennes : 1) S'engager et être reconnue dans un mandat universitaire infirmier; 2) Résoudre une pluralité des réalités par une conception franco-canadienne des savoirs infirmiers; et 3) Établir un environnement d'apprentissages simultanés. De manière holistique, la compétence culturelle s'est manifestée dans quatre situations professionnelles, particulières et récurrentes, soit 1) l'expression de l'identité professionnelle infirmière, 2) la confrontation d'une pluralité de savoirs; 3) la négociation des conditions structurelles, et 4) l'interprétation d'enjeux historiques et socio-politiques. Discussion. Cette recherche met en lumière des contributions empiriques et théoriques. Premièrement, la construction d'un environnement d'enseignement-apprentissage dans une approche franco-canadienne2 de formation universitaire en sciences infirmières en contexte international francophone ne permet pas d'assurer une égalité et une justice sociale en formation infirmière. Deuxièmement, les résultats ont révélé que la compétence culturelle manifestée suppose le besoin d'une compréhension des subtilités des contextes politiques et sociaux qui influencent la formation infirmière dans un rehaussement de programmes universitaires. La compétence culturelle manifestée implique aussi des relations de pouvoir potentielles ou avérées des formatrices/apprenantes. L'intégration de la définition d'une compétence de Tardif (2006) au modèle conceptuel de Campinha-Bacote (2010a) a permis d'identifier un nouveau modèle pour explorer la manifestation de la compétence culturelle des infirmières formatrices en contexte international francophone. Les résultats de cette étude démontrent que le modèle de Campinha-Bacote (2010a) est bien insuffisant pour le développement d'une compétence culturelle en formation. Ils sont pertinents non seulement pour la formation infirmière initiale, avancée et continue, mais aussi pour la théorie et la recherche, la pratique en formation infirmière, ainsi que, le politique, la gestion et l'organisation de la formation et des soins de santé. ; Introduction. Since the European reform of higher university education License-Master-Doctorate (LMD), various international Francophone alliances and partnerships between university institutions created mobility opportunities and international collaborations for nursing educators, students and clinicians. This increase in international mobility has provoked a reflection on nursing educators' cultural competence as a solution that promotes quality and equity of education in international and culturally diverse contexts. To our knowledge, no such studies have been published to date on the cultural competence manifested by nursing educators through teaching immersions in international French-speaking contexts. Purpose. This study aimed to better understand how the cultural competence of French-Canadian nursing educators manifests itself during experiences of sharing knowledge in nursing science in an international French-speaking context. Framework. A reference framework has fostered an anchoring in the science of nursing education, integrating the components of the definition of a competence from Tardif (2006), the model The Process of Cultural Competence in Mentoring by Campinha-Bacote (2010a) and the Relational inquiry approach of Doane and Varcoe (2015; 2021). Method. A multiple case study with mixed convergent-type method (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018) in a pragmatic (Morgan, 2007) research approach is consistent and relevant to the observable and practical nature of cultural competence. Four cases of French-Canadian nursing educators' cultural competence manifestation through four nursing education programs from four different countries formed the case sample (N = 4). Semi-structured individual interviews with nursing educators (n = 18), socio-demographic questionnaires (n = 18), texts (n = 53) and then field notes (n = 36) were analyzed. In intra-case analysis phase, the qualitative approach (descriptive, explanatory and temporal) proposed by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) and descriptive statistics were used. Then, in an inter-case analysis phase, the qualitative data were analyzed in an interpretive descriptive approach by Thorne (2016). Descriptive statistical analyzes, Spearman correlation coefficients and Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric test, from post training questionnaires with learners (n = 34), were rigorously compared to qualitative analysis to merge an integrated holistic mixed synthesis of results for the entire study. Results. The mixed synthesis made it possible to condense twenty-two internal and external resources mobilized and combined in three innovative and explanatory findings of the cultural competence manifested in Franco-Canadian nursing educators: 1) Commit and be recognized in a nursing university mandate; 2) Resolve the plurality of realities through a Franco-Canadian conception of nursing knowledge; and 3) Establish an environment of concurrent learning. Holistically, French-Canadian nursing educators' cultural competence is manifested in four professional, specific and recurring situations of: 1) expression of the nursing professional identity, 2) confrontation of a plurality of knowledge; 3) negotiating structural conditions, and 4) interpreting historical and socio-political issues. Discussion. This research shed light on empiric and theoretical contributions. First, a construction of a teaching-learning environment in a French-Canadian approach to university nursing education in Francophone international contexts is insufficient to ensure equality and social justice in nursing education. Second, the results revealed that isolated cultural competence implies the need for an understanding of the intricacies of the political and social contexts that influence nursing education in an enhancement of academic programs. Cultural competence is also learned from the potential or proven power relations of the trainers/learners. The integration of the definition of a competence of Tardif (2006) in the conceptual model of Campinha-Bacote (2010a) made it possible to identify a new model to explore the manifestation of the cultural competence of nursing educators in international French-speaking contexts. The results of this study show that the model of Campinha-Bacote (2010a) is quite insufficient for the development of cultural competence in nursing education. They are relevant not only for initial, advanced and continuing nursing education but also for theory and research, practice in nursing education, as well as political actions, management and organization of education and health care.

L'elaborato, dedicato agli strumenti di prevenzione e repressione della violenza in occasione di manifestazioni sportive, si propone di tracciare un quadro tendenzialmente completo del sistema che l'ordinamento italiano ha predisposto nel corso degli anni per contrastare il peculiare fenomeno della violenza negli stadi. La tesi, dopo una breve precisazione dell'ambito della ricerca, operata tramite la distinzione del concetto della violenza negli stadi (o teppismo calcistico) dalla violenza sportiva, si occupa inizialmente di fornire una ricostruzione storica del fenomeno in oggetto, per poi passare ad un esame di esso in chiave socio-criminologica, prendendo in considerazione sia l'elaborazione scientifica prodotta all'estero (in special modo nel Regno Unito, ma anche in altri Paesi europei), sia gli studi compiuti in Italia, che hanno evidenziato alcune caratteristiche del fenomeno tipiche del nostro Paese. L'elaborato, nella sua prima parte, prima di occuparsi degli aspetti prettamente penalistici (e processualpenalistici) della materia, tenta di offrire, in un'ottica interdisciplinare, una chiave di lettura al fenomeno, utile per individuare successivamente la proporzionalità e la ragionevolezza della risposta che l'ordinamento italiano offre. Successivamente, la tesi prende in considerazione le fonti sovranazionali – in particolare a livello europeo – che sono state emanate allo scopo di dare risposte comuni e armoniche ad un fenomeno non limitato dai confini delle singole nazioni. La strage dell'Heysel del 1985 rappresenta il tragico evento che ha per la prima volta posto all'attenzione sia della Comunità europea sia del Consiglio d'Europa i gravi pericoli che il teppismo calcistico può generare, specialmente in correlazione a grandi eventi; a partire da quel momento si è quindi assistito alla progressiva introduzione di un corpo normativo sovranazionale volto ad uniformare le legislazioni e le prassi dei Paesi europei maggiormente interessati dal fenomeno. Il riferimento a tali fonti è utile, nell'economia dell'elaborato, per verificare se le misure adottate dall'Italia siano effettivamente adeguate agli standard elaborati dall'Unione europea e dal Consiglio d'Europa. La tesi procede poi a descrivere, in modo analitico, la turbolenta evoluzione normativa che ha caratterizzato la legislazione nazionale di contrasto alla violenza in occasione di manifestazioni sportive, evidenziando sia il poderoso sviluppo della prevenzione personale in questo settore, sia l'introduzione di una serie di incriminazioni e disposizioni processuali "differenziate", finalizzate a completare la risposta repressiva al fenomeno; nel descrivere l'evoluzione normativa, sono state sottolineate le criticità che di volta in volta si sono proposte: in particolare, sono state analizzate le varie posizioni dottrinali sviluppatesi nel corso del tempo e sono stati evidenziati i tentativi compiuti dalla giurisprudenza (anche costituzionale) di offrire un'interpretazione della legislazione antiviolenza quanto più coerente e rispettosa dei diritti dell'individuo. L'ultimo capitolo, maggiormente concentrato sulle misure di prevenzione – sia atipiche (come il DASPO), che tipiche – rivolte ai soggetti a pericolosità sportiva, mira infine a far emergere le problematiche specifiche che si sono proposte con riguardo al sistema preventivo della violenza negli stadi, analizzando in particolare le caratteristiche e le criticità della categoria del "pericoloso sportivo", senza tralasciare alcuni dovuti accenni alle più ampie problematiche relative alla pericolosità per la sicurezza pubblica e, ancor più in generale, alla stessa legittimazione e compatibilità con il sistema costituzionale delle misure di prevenzione presenti nell'ordinamento italiano. Nella conclusione della tesi, sono presenti alcune riflessioni in merito all'inquadramento del sistema preventivo-repressivo di contrasto alla violenza dei tifosi all'interno del discusso paradigma del diritto penale del nemico, nonché alcune osservazioni in merito all'esportazione all'interno della realtà urbana (tramite il c.d. DASPO urbano) del modello efficacemente sperimentato nei confronti dei tifosi; vengono infine avanzate alcune proposte di miglioramento dell'attuale legislazione, in primo luogo, per rendere le misure vigenti più rispettose dei diritti dei soggetti che ne sono destinatari e, in secondo luogo, per introdurre un intervento su più livelli, che non trascuri gli aspetti sociali e culturali del fenomeno, e che non sia più sbilanciato sulla repressione e sulla prevenzione di polizia, con l'auspicio che il futuro legislatore non intervenga, ancora una volta, sotto la spinta dell'emergenza. ; The present thesis, dedicated to prevention and repression measures of violence at sporting events, aims to outline a generally complete picture of the system that the Italian legal system has prepared over the years to counter the peculiar phenomenon of fan violence during sporting events (football matches, in particular). The thesis, after a brief clarification of the scope of the research, made through the distinction of the concept of fan violence (or football hooliganism) from sporting violence, is initially concerned with providing a historical reconstruction of the phenomenon, and then moving on to an examination of it in a socio-criminological key, taking into consideration both the scientific elaboration produced abroad (especially in the United Kingdom, but also in other European countries), and the studies carried out in Italy, which have highlighted some characteristics of the typical phenomenon of our country. The paper, in its first part, before dealing with the purely criminal (and procedural criminal) aspects of the matter, attempts to offer, from an interdisciplinary perspective, a key to understanding the phenomenon, useful for subsequently identifying the proportionality and reasonableness of the answer that the Italian legal system offers. Subsequently, the thesis takes into consideration the supranational sources – especially at European level – that have been issued in order to give common and harmonious answers to a phenomenon not limited by the borders of the individual nations. The 1985 Heysel massacre represents the tragic event that for the first time brought to the attention of both the European Community and the Council of Europe the serious dangers that football hooliganism can generate, especially in connection with major events; from that moment on, there has therefore been the gradual introduction of a supranational regulatory body aimed at standardizing the laws and practices of the European countries most affected by the phenomenon. The reference to these sources is useful, in the economics of the report, to verify whether the measures adopted by Italy are actually adequate to the standards developed by the European Union and the Council of Europe. The thesis then proceeds to describe, in an analytical way, the turbulent regulatory evolution that has characterized the national legislation to fight violence at sporting events, highlighting both the powerful development of personal prevention in this sector, and the introduction of a series of "differentiated" indictments and procedural provisions, aimed at completing the repressive response to the phenomenon; in describing the regulatory evolution, the critical issues that were proposed from time to time were highlighted: in particular, the various doctrinal positions developed over time were analyzed and the attempts made by jurisprudence (including constitutional) to offer an interpretation of anti-violence legislation that is as coherent and respectful of the rights of the individual as possible. The last chapter, more focused on prevention measures - both atypical (such as DASPO) and typical - aimed at people with sporting dangers, finally aims to bring out the specific problems that have arisen with regard to the preventive system of violence in stadiums, analyzing in particular the characteristics and criticalities of the "dangerous fan" category, without neglecting some due hints to the broader problems relating to the danger to public safety and, even more generally, to the legitimacy and compatibility with the constitutional system of the prevention measures present in the Italian legal system. In the conclusion of the thesis, there are some reflections on the framing of the preventive-repressive system to combat fan violence within the controversial paradigm of the criminal law of the enemy, as well as some observations on exporting within urban context (through the so-called urban DASPO) of the model effectively tested in relation to fans; Finally, some proposals for improvement of the current legislation are made, firstly, to make the existing measures more respectful of the rights of the individuals that are addressed to them and, secondly, to introduce an intervention on several levels, which does not neglect the cultural and social aspects of the phenomenon, and that it is no longer unbalanced on police repression and prevention, with the hope that the future legislator does not intervene, once again, under the pressure of the emergency.

Eye health and vision have widespread and profound implications for many aspects of life, health, sustainable development, and the economy. Yet nowadays, many people, families, and populations continue to suffer the consequences of poor access to high-quality, affordable eye care, leading to vision impairment and blindness. In 2020, an estimated 596 million people had distance vision impairment worldwide, of whom 43 million were blind. Another 510 million people had uncorrected near vision impairment, simply because of not having reading spectacles. A large proportion of those affected (90%), live in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, encouragingly, more than 90% of people with vision impairment have a preventable or treatable cause with existing highly cost-effective interventions. Eye conditions affect all stages of life, with young children and older people being particularly affected. Crucially, women, rural populations, and ethnic minority groups are more likely to have vision impairment, and this pervasive inequality needs to be addressed. By 2050, population ageing, growth, and urbanisation might lead to an estimated 895 million people with distance vision impairment, of whom 61 million will be blind. Action to prioritise eye health is needed now. This Commission defines eye health as maximised vision, ocular health, and functional ability, thereby contributing to overall health and wellbeing, social inclusion, and quality of life. Eye health is essential to achieve many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Poor eye health and impaired vision have a negative effect on quality of life and restrict equitable access to and achievement in education and the workplace. Vision loss has substantial financial implications for affected individuals, families, and communities. Although high-quality data for global economic estimates are scarce, particularly for LMICs, conservative assessments based on the latest prevalence figures for 2020 suggest that annual global productivity loss from vision impairment is approximately US$410·7 billion purchasing power parity. Vision impairment reduces mobility, affects mental wellbeing, exacerbates risk of dementia, increases likelihood of falls and road traffic crashes, increases the need for social care, and ultimately leads to higher mortality rates. By contrast, vision facilitates many daily life activities, enables better educational outcomes, and increases work productivity, reducing inequality. An increasing amount of evidence shows the potential for vision to advance the SDGs, by contributing towards poverty reduction, zero hunger, good health and wellbeing, quality education, gender equality, and decent work. Eye health is a global public priority, transforming lives in both poor and wealthy communities. Therefore, eye health needs to be reframed as a development as well as a health issue and given greater prominence within the global development and health agendas. Vision loss has many causes that require promotional, preventive, treatment, and rehabilitative interventions. Cataract, uncorrected refractive error, glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy are responsible for most global vision impairment. Research has identified treatments to reduce or eliminate blindness from all these conditions; the priority is to deliver treatments where they are most needed. Proven eye care interventions, such as cataract surgery and spectacle provision, are among the most cost-effective in all of health care. Greater financial investment is needed so that millions of people living with unnecessary vision impairment and blindness can benefit from these interventions. Lessons from the past three decades give hope that this challenge can be met. Between 1990 and 2020, the age-standardised global prevalence of blindness fell by 28·5%. Since the 1990s, prevalence of major infectious causes of blindness—onchocerciasis and trachoma—have declined substantially. Hope remains that by 2030, the transmission of onchocerciasis will be interrupted, and trachoma will be eliminated as a public health problem in every country worldwide. However, the ageing population has led to a higher crude prevalence of age-related causes of blindness, and thus an increased total number of people with blindness in some regions. Despite this progress, business as usual will not keep pace with the demographic trends of an ageing global population or address the inequities that persist in each country. New threats to eye health are emerging, including the worldwide increase in diabetic retinopathy, high myopia, retinopathy of prematurity, and chronic eye diseases of ageing such as glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration. With the projected increase in such conditions and their associated vision loss over the coming decades, urgent action is needed to develop innovative treatments and deliver services at a greater scale than previously achieved. Good eye health at the community and national level has been marginalised as a luxury available to only wealthy or urban areas. Eye health needs to be urgently brought into the mainstream of national health and development policy, planning, financing, and action. The challenge is to develop and deliver comprehensive eye health services (promotion, prevention, treatment, rehabilitation) that address the full range of eye conditions within the context of universal health coverage. Accessing services should not bring the risk of falling into poverty and services should be of high quality, as envisaged by the WHO framework for health-care quality: effective, safe, people-centred, timely, equitable, integrated, and efficient. To this framework we add the need for services to be environmentally sustainable. Universal health coverage is not universal without eye care. Multiple obstacles need to be overcome to achieve universal coverage for eye health. Important issues include complex barriers to availability and access to quality services, cost, major shortages and maldistribution of well-trained personnel, and lack of suitable, well maintained equipment and consumables. These issues are particularly widespread in LMICs, but also occur in underserved communities in high-income countries. Strong partnerships need to be formed with natural allies working in areas affected by eye health, such as non-communicable diseases, neglected tropical diseases, healthy ageing, children's services, education, disability, and rehabilitation. The eye health sector has traditionally focused on treatment and rehabilitation, and underused health promotion and prevention strategies to lessen the impact of eye disease and reduce inequality. Solving these problems will depend on solutions established from high quality evidence that can guide more effective implementation at scale. Evidence-based approaches will need to address existing deficiencies in the supply and demand. Strategic investments in discovery research, harnessing new findings from diverse fields, and implementation research to guide effective scale up are needed globally. Encouragingly, developments in telemedicine, mobile health, artificial intelligence, and distance learning could potentially enable eye care professionals to deliver higher quality care that is more plentiful, equitable, and cost-effective. This Commission did a Grand Challenges in Global Eye Health prioritisation exercise to highlight key areas for concerted research and action. This exercise has identified a broad set of challenges spanning the fields of epidemiology, health systems, diagnostics, therapeutics, and implementation. The most compelling of these issues, picked from among 3400 suggestions proposed by 336 people from 118 countries, can help to frame the future research agenda for global eye health. In this Commission, we harness lessons learned from over two decades, present the growing evidence for the life-transforming impact of eye care, and provide a thorough understanding of rapid developments in the field. This report was created through a broad consultation involving experts within and outside the eye care sector to help inform governments and other stakeholders about the path forward for eye health beyond 2020, to further the SDGs (including universal health coverage), and work towards a world without avoidable vision loss. The next few years are a crucial time for the global eye health community and its partners in health care, government, and other sectors to consider the successes and challenges encountered in the past two decades, and at the same time to chart a way forward for the upcoming decades. Moving forward requires building on the strong foundation laid by WHO and partners in VISION 2020 with renewed impetus to ultimately deliver high quality universal eye health care for all.

Capitalism has imposed a dynamic of multiple forms of violence in the Global South, particularly since the last decades of the 20th century, with the onset of neoliberalism and as the Washington Consensus settled. This package of measures promoted mainly by the Bretton Woods institutions, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, was a turning point in economic policies and led the way to the consolidation of the current context of neoliberal globalisation. This article takes this macroeconomic panorama as a starting point to analyse the current violence that keeps the Latin American peoples subordinated in what Johan Galtung identifies as "the conjunction between the cultural violence of the mainstream economic theory and the structural violence of the mainstream economic practice" (2003, p. 211). Among these many forms of violence, perpetrated from an extractivist, Eurocentric, colonial and patriarchal point of view, this analysis will focus on the ones generated when accumulation by dispossession (Harvey, 2005) practices are involved and how these transform indigenous territories in Latin America. It is in this context where the transnational corporations' practices of accumulation by dispossession, reflected in megaprojects, and the indigenous world-views clash. Adopting Rocío Silva's concept, these are "ecoterritorial" conflicts: conflicts that arise from the use and management of territories, understanding territory as a holistic concept that covers the social, cultural, economic and spiritual relations that compose them (2017). In this sense, we aim to extract from the opposition of these two antagonistic world visions: on the one hand, the modernity paradigm, with an extractivist modus operandi based on the neoliberal discourse; and, on the other hand, the indigenous world-views, which fight on a daily basis to build different realities and forms of organisation. This approach takes into account perspectives like ecofeminism, which will shed light on the interdependence between territories and bodies as vulnerable spaces, and Jason W. Moore's world-ecology paradigm, which will allow reading megaprojects as yet another product of capitalism that systematically exploits human beings and nature at the service of accumulation. The historical debate on the concept of development also adheres itself to this clash of world views. The objective is to present alternatives to the current mainstream model of development, which is based on a Western approach and works as a new form of colonialism. In opposition to "the ghost of development" (Quijano, 2000), alternative notions to the conventional discourse pose different realities to build, like the Buen Vivir and Vivir Bien proposals. These epistemologies of the South assert that developmentalism has reached its limits and alert of the devastating consequences of driving indigenous territories into the market economy as exploited subjects: exactly what megaprojects usually intend to do in these lands. Against this background, ecoterritorial conflicts have become one of the main challenges for Latin America in the 21st century and, in them, it is possible to see the asymmetry between the actors engaged in struggle. This asymmetry is reflected, on the one hand, on transnational corporations' impunity and, on the other, in the criminalisation of the indigenous peoples' resistance. As Boaventura de Sousa Santos says, in the current neoliberal system, "the only option that doesn't exist is a way out of this market" (2014, p. 17). In front of what looks like a non-option, this article will approach those resistances woven from the social movements, from below, and it will do so by taking as an example the case of the Mayan Train: the flagship megaproject of the president of Mexico, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, for the southeast of the country. The aim is to highlight the promised false development that supposedly comes with this project within the framework of the so-called Fourth Transformation, which, in spite of the aura of its socially beneficial character, is perpetuating the neoliberal approach of former Mexican governments. The ecoterritorial conflict generated by the Mayan Train, which has aroused opposition from social and indigenous movements, will reflect the above-mentioned clash of visions and will demonstrate the advance of extractivist borders. This is due to, among other aspects, the violation of human rights like the right to consultation of the ILO Convention 169, which has constitutional status in Mexico. Opacity has characterised the Mayan Train's project from the beginning and it has sown the seeds of uncertainty before the indigenous communities. Mexico is obliged to consult them in accordance with international standards, although conditions have clearly have not brought this about. Lastly, the text will try to expand the focus to see the Mayan Train together with other larger projects. From this viewpoint, this train would only be a part of the ambitious plan of the Mexican Government for the territorial reorganisation of the southeast of the country, which has not been industrialised like other areas of Mexico. This perspective will be implemented with the help of critical cartographies, which will interrelate the Mayan Train with projects like the Trans-Isthmian corridor, the Sembrando Vida programme, or the Special Economic Zones, among others. These megaprojects, which in addition to the profits that are generated for transnational corporations who are awarded them, and to the dispossession processes that communities will suffer, are going to define human mobility in the South border of Mexico as a buffer in-between for migrations directed to the United States. What is more, they will show Mexico as a laboratory country of the international trade agreements ratified by the Government of Mexico that have enabled the expansion of megaprojects in the country. Indeed, transnational corporations have found Mexico to be a paradise for expansion since 1980, when the State's role in economic activity started to diminish -especially since the beginning of the millennium when the presence of transnational companies started to increase-. An increase that reflects the need of capitalism for the relentless appropriation of borders "in order for the wheel of accumulation to keep spinning" (Molinero and Avallone, 2016, p. 33). ; Al amparo de la globalización neoliberal, actualmente los procesos de despojo transforman de manera recurrente territorios indígenas en América Latina. En este artículo, se propone analizar la oposición que se da entre estas prácticas de acumulación por desposesión de las empresas transnacionales (ETN) y las cosmovisiones de los pueblos originarios a través del análisis de los conflictos ecoterritoriales. Tomando el concepto de Rocío Silva Santisteban, se trata de conflictos que nacen de la pugna por el uso y gestión del territorio, entendiendo territorio como concepto holístico, donde interaccionan múltiples violencias. El objetivo de este artículo será desgranar el choque entre estas dos visiones antagónicas del mundo de la mano de perspectivas como la ecología-mundo de Jason W. Moore, que permitirá leer los megaproyectos como un producto más del capitalismo que explota sistémicamente seres humanos y naturaleza al servicio de la acumulación, o el ecofeminismo, que aportará luz a la interdependencia entre territorios y cuerpos como espacios vulnerables. Asimismo, se tomará como ejemplo el caso del Tren Maya, el megaproyecto estrella del actual presidente de México, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, para evidenciar el falso desarrollo que promete la obra ferroviaria para el sureste del país en el marco de la llamada Cuarta Transformación. A través de este conflicto ecoterritorial, que ha despertado la oposición de movimientos sociales e indígenas, se plasmará este choque de visiones y se corroborará el avance de las fronteras extractivas gracias, entre otros aspectos, a la vulneración de derechos humanos como el derecho a consulta del Convenio 169 de la OIT. Por último, el artículo invitará a mirar el Tren Maya desde una mirada de las cartografías críticas, que lo interrelacionarán con proyectos mayores y que revelarán México como un país laboratorio de los tratados de comercio internacional que han propiciado la expansión de megaproyectos en el país.