La Educación Inclusiva es un enfoque emergente en todos los países como respuesta a las profundas brechas de inequidad social, los factores de exclusión, segregación y discriminación en los contextos educativos. Aún persisten barreras que impiden que muchos niños, niñas y jóvenes no asistan o abandonen la escuela, o bien concluyen su escolaridad, pero no logran los aprendizajes básicos para una convivencia social plena. El postulado central es la educación como un derecho humano fundamental y por ello se debe brindar una educación de calidad para todos con equidad. Por esta razón la educación inclusiva se conceptualiza desde cuatro ámbitos; el primero como proceso que busca la transformación de la escuela para responder a la diversidad; reconocer que cada niño es único y especial. El segundo desde componentes de participación, permanencia y logro de los aprendizajes. Lo importante no es estar en la escuela sino participar y aprender en ella. El tercero está vinculado a la atención de los niños y niñas en situación de vulnerabilidad o marginación por factores como la discapacidad, pertenecer a alguna minoría étnica o lingüística, ser migrante, o presentar alguna condición de privación sociocultural, entre otros. El cuarto está orientado a la identificación y remoción de las barreras para el aprendizaje. Por otra parte, el profesor es un elemento clave para la consolidación de la inclusión y el desarrollo de ambientes para el aprendizaje. Sin embargo, es claro que los profesores deben desarrollar nuevas competencias que les permitan responder a este paradigma. Existen diversos planteamientos que buscan conceptualizar y caracterizar la formación inicial y continúa de los profesores, entre ellos están los propuestos por la Agencia Europea para las Necesidades Especiales y la Inclusión Educativa, la UNESCO, y otras organizaciones internacionales. En México, a partir de la administración federal 2013-2018 estableció las bases para que el sistema educativo mexicano fuera inclusivo y en consecuencia y generó transformaciones importantes para lograrlo. Sin embargo, no hay una propuesta en términos de formación de profesores para la inclusión; es decir que cuente con las competencias profesionales básicas que permitan ser agentes de cambio en nuestro país. No cabe duda que la escuela enfrenta nuevos y diversos desafíos en términos de avanzar en la consolidación de una educación de calidad con equidad; que brinde oportunidades para todos, impulse nuevos modelos pedagógicos con características orientadas a la sustentabilidad, la ciudadanía global y el reconocimiento de la diversidad como componente normal. Con los objetivos de mi tesis doctoral me propuse ofrecer una respuesta al vacío que existe en la formación de docentes para la inclusión, que exige nuevas competencias profesionales, como son el tener una conceptualización precisa, promover políticas, prácticas inclusivas; nuevos modelos de relación entre los profesionales de la educación a través de la colaboración, generar ambientes para el aprendizaje, brindar atención a la diversidad de sus estudiantes, entre otros. Promover también nuevas formas de gestión y diversas formas de enseñanza. El propósito fue conformar una propuesta de innovación que incidiera en la trasformación de la formación inicial de docentes. Los resultados esperados de esta investigación fueron: Conformar un marco de reflexión teórica para conceptualizar la educación inclusiva y los retos que representa para los sistemas educativos. Ofrecer diversos modelos de formación de docentes y la necesidad de contar con un profesor inclusivo que promueva la educación inclusión a través de un programa para la formación inicial de profesores. De igual manera marcar un referente para posteriores investigaciones sobre educación inclusiva y formación de docentes. ; The Inclusive Education is an emerging approach in all countries as a response to deep social inequality gaps, factors of exclusion, segregation and discriminations contexts. There are still barriers that prevent many children and young people do not attend or drop out of schools, or conclude their schooling, but fail the basic learning for a full social life. The central tenet is education as a fundamental human right and because of that all must provide quality education with equity. For this reason the inclusive education is conceptualize since four areas; the first as a process oriented to transform the school for to respond the diversity, recognizing that each child is unique and special. The second correspond to the concern about the participation, permanence and achievement of the learning process. The important thing is not to be in school but to participate in it. The third is linking with the attention of children in vulnerability condition or marginalization for disabilities, to be part of ethnic or linguistic minority or migrant or to have a social deprivation, among others. The four is oriented to the identity and remove the barriers for learning. On the other hand, the teachers are an essential key for promote the inclusion and learning developments, but nevertheless needs to have new competencies for to respond to the new approach. At this time there are proposals oriented to support the teacher education in terms of in service and ongoing teachers from diverse international organizations as a European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, the UNESCO and others. In México, the Federal Government 2013-2018, established the foundation about the inclusive education for all Mexican Educational System, but at this time the Teacher Education Programs do not yet contemplate the formation of inclusive teachers, that is to say with the core professional competencies for to be factors of change in our country. Without doubt the schools have new challenges in term of quality education with equity, offering opportunities for all, promoting new pedagogic models oriented to sustainability, the global citizen and the recognizing the diversity as a normal element. The purposes of my dissertation I decided to offer a response to the vacuum that exists on teacher training for inclusion, which requires new skills, such as having a precise conceptualization, promote policies, practices inclusive; new models of relationship between professionals of education through collaboration create environments for learning, providing attention to the diversity of their students, among others, also to promote new forms of management and various forms of teaching. The purpose was to create a proposal for innovation that meets in the transformation of initial teacher training. The results expected from this research were: form a theoretical framework to conceptualize the inclusive education and the challenges it poses to the educational systems. Offer different models of teacher training and the need of having an inclusive teacher that promotes inclusive education through a program for initial formation, similarly is a reference point for further investigations. ; Tesis Univ. Jaén. Departamento de Pedagogía. Leída el 5 de abril de 2019.
Issue 16.4 of the Review for Religious, 1957. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Reh ious JULY 15, 1957 St. ~John of the Cross . Sister'Mary St. Rose R~vitalizing Our Spiritual Life . Harold F. Cohe. Departure After Temporary Profession . . .Joseph F. Gallen AIIocution Concerning Tertianship . pope plus- Book Reviews Questions and Answers Roman Documents VOLUME 16 NUMBER 4 RI::VII::W FOR R LIGIOUS VOLUM/~ 16 JULY, 1957 NUMBER 4 CONT£NTS ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS: DOCTOR OF DIVINE LOVE-- Sister Mary St. Rose, S.N.D . 193 REVITALIZING OUR SPIRITUAL LIFE-- Harold F. Cohen, S.J . 211 DEPARTURE FROM RELIGION ON THE EXPIRATION OF A TEMPORARY PROFESSION--Joseph F. Gallen, S.J . 215 FONTI FIFE . 223 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS~R. F. Smith, S.J . 224 ALLOCUTION CONCERNING TERTIANSHIP-- Pope Pius XII . 236 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 240 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS-- Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 241 REVIEW OF CATHOLIC CHURCH MUSIC . 249 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 19. Bows at Benediction . 250 20. Recourse Against Exclusion from Profession . 250 21. Seasonal Prefaces . 251 22. Ordinary Confessor and Cases Reserved in the Institute . 251 23. Occasional Confessor and Jurisdiction for One Other Woman. 252 24. Occasional Confessor Only for Professed and Novices . 252 25. Transfer to Another Monastery . 253 26. Using School Section of Minor Cloister for Community During Vacations . 254 27. Restoration of Solemn Vows in Monasteiies of Nuns . 255 28. Mass To Be Said on a Ferial Day . 256 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1957. Vol. 16, No. 4. Published bimonthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J.; Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1957, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis 18, Missouri. St. dbhn ot: the Cross Doctor ot: Divine Love Sister Mary St. Rose, S.N.D. THE name of St. John of the Cross sometimes elicits a strange reaction: a gentle, modest man.who sincerely pre-ferred oblivion-to power, solitude to lecture hall, and peace to self-justification or defense of the major work of his life, he seems to cause a kind of recoil; perhaps an awe-inspiring viril-ity beneath the disarming serenity, is sensed even after the lapse of almost four hundred years; perhaps to too many he is the Doctor of the Nothing rather than the Doctor of Divine Love. Born Juan de Yepes in the little village of Fontiveros, just thirty miles north of Avila, in 1542, of relatively poor artisans, he was moved at seven years of age, after the death of'his father, to Medina del Campo, where his mother had better pros- . pects of supporting her small family. John early showed such aptitude for study rather than for crafts that he became the prot~g~ of Don Antonio Alvarez de Toledo and, while work-ing in the hospital of his patron, studied till he was nineteen at the Jesuit college in Medina. At twenty, he entered the Order of Carmel, was professed a year later, and studied arts and theology for three yea~s in Salamanca, where one of the four leading universities of the time was located. Ordained in 1567, he met St.'_Teresa_in the same year and was persuaded to abandon his desire to become a Carthusian in favor of help-ing initiate a restoration of the primitive Carmelite rule. Together with the rather impractical but fervent Fra~ Antonio and his five clocks, he planted in a miserable hut in Duruelo the seedling which eventually developed into the Dis-calced Carmelites. Eight happy years of peaceful spiritual and intellectual maturing were followed by a year as professor in the Discalced College of the University of Alcala and by five years in Avila, where as confessor of the hundred nuns of the 193 SISTER MARY ST. ROSE Review for Religious Incarnation, to which St. Teresa had been forced to return as prioress, he wrought a miracle of reformation. But the peaceful years were over; the. Mitigated Carmelites, increasingly embittered by the success of the reform, forcibly seized John on December 3, 1577, and, when their efforts to induce him to abandon the reform were fruitless, flogged and imprisoned him, first at Avila and later--after a confirma-tion of the sentence by the General, Tostado--at Toledo. In a six by ten, windowless cell, during eight and a half months of .bread, water, and fish, with almost daily floggings and no change of clothing, he etched in his own soul the masterpiece of cooperation with God's grace of which we get echoes in his-poems, begun even during his imprisonment, finished and de-veloped later into those unique commentaries which have earned for him the supreme doctorate of the Church itself in the science of mystical theology. Escaping from his prison on August 15, i578, he went south into Andalusia, stopped at Beas, where the lovable Anne of Jesus was prioress, and where he began for 'the devoted nuns his oral commentary on .the "Spiritual Canticle." At Monte Calvario, where he spent eight months recuperating, he began the .4scent o[ Mount Carmel and the Dark Night, finish-ing them, as well as the S/~ir.itual Canticle and the Living Flame o[ Love, during six years as prior in Granada. This was a relatively quiet interlude before the final storm. By a Bull of Gregory XIII in 1580, the Discalced had been separated from the Calced, and the ambitious Doria had been made general of the former. John was' his vicar-general till the chapter of 1591, in which he opposed the revocation of the'Teresian constitutions and other drastic alterations. Sent after the chapter to La Pefiuela as a simple friar and a virtual exile, he experienced the cruel trial of defamation to such an extent that his friends feared that he, even as his old associate. Gracian, would be expelled in disgrace from the order. But the purification was to be of another kind. He fell ill of fever 194 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS and erysipelas and was sent for medical attention to Ubeda, where the prior had an old score~a pievious reprimand--to settle with him; fobd, medicin.e, visitors, all were denied John or given grudgingly till the intervention of the provincial brought relief--but too late. At midnight on December 14, 1591, John diedl true to his name and like ihe God-man he had so loved~ unknown, suffering, disgraced, abandoned. Guide to the Highest Sanctity To those of us who, inspired at first perhaps by curiosity. about this reputed mystic of mystics, persist in cultivating his friendship, he reveals himself as one of the most human and tender of saints, a corisummate psychologist, a master theo-logian, an uncompromisi.ng guide to the highest sanctity. To prove this assertion from his works would be a relatively easy but decidedly lengthy task. My aim is more modest but still sufficiently ambitious, perhaps even presumptuous: to show from his most logically constructed work, the Ascent of Mount Carmel and its sequel, even its integral part, the D'ark Night, how he responds to the age-old longing of a soul in love with God for a sure road and a swift road to the embrace of the Divine Lover. But first to consult a recent Baedeker for a panoramic view: The end of man is the vision of God-~or, perhaps more ac-curately, to glorify God and enjoy Him forever.~ . . . It is easier to intoxicate people's minds with a desire for contemplation than it is to persuade them of what is required before that gift can be received. ¯ . . Briefly it may be said that the gift of contemplation will always be given to. those who make themselves poor enough in spirit and pure enough in hear~ to receive it. Let me hasten to add, in line with the masteri of the spiritual life, that this poverty of spirit and purity of heart call for detachment but not violent asceticism . But if physical austerities are relativel~ of little importance, what is of fundamental importance is the mortification of self; that is to say, the eli~nination of self-will, self-interest, self-centered think-ing, wishing, and imagining. May I suggest that contemplation-- often conceived of in too intellectualist terms--is nothing else but the realization of God's presence and of our utter dependence on Him. The contemplative is simply one. who sees the divine-human situation as it is. Hence the contemplative state is essentially pas- 195 SISTER MARY ST. ROSE Review for Religious sive; that is, an alert passivity by which we are, in varying degrees of clarity, aware of God--both as transcendent above His creation and immanent within it . The impediments are whatever concentrates our thoughts on the ego--vices, obviously; but also self-centered virtues. Self-for-getting love is of course the key--that agape of the New Testament. This does not mean an anxious striving after God, but letting Him work His wil! in us; imitating God's love for us by a correspondent compassion toward our neighbor, loving the unlovable . When a man can from his heart realize that the only thing that makes sense is that he shall submit to God's invasion of his own little world, on the principle that if God's kingdom is to come then 'my kingdom must go, he will then be as near to the state of contemplation as makes no difference.~ The Nature of Infused Contemplation Now this is the theory, succinctly put by a modern theo-logian. Before we clothe this skeletal outline with living flesh, it may be advisable to take sides in the controversy about the precise nature of infused contemplation, for itis fatally easy to read one's own views into St. John's words. Without at-tempting to justify my choice, I turn. from the position main-tained by Father Reginald Garrigou-LaGrange, O.P., to that of Father Elmer O'Brien, S.J., and Father Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, O.C.D. The former puts the matter neatly: I can find no positive reason for asserting that God's sanctify-ing presence must, in the laws of grace, eventually rise above the threshold of spiritual consciousness (except, of course, if one holds for a materialistic concept of grace), and on the other hand the burden of witness in the Christian tradition is against it.'-' The latter, in a passage worth quoting at length for its clarity and charity, has this to say: We have seen how, from the teaching of St. John of the Cross, it follows that the activity of the contemplative gifts of the Holy Ghost may be either hidden or experimental. Both forms are proper actuations of these gifts, which proceed from one and the same principle but are distinct as regards the effect they produce in the subject which receives them. Sometimes they are perceived, some- 1 Graham, Aelred, O.S.B, and others, "Infused Contemplation as the Nor-mal Development of the Life of Grace and the Virtues," Proceedings of the Ninth ~l'nnual Convention (Catholic Theological Society of America, 1954). 203-205. ¯ 2 Ibid., 221. 196 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS times not, but the soul is always really a~ted upon b~, the gifts and hence there is real infusion. The speculative theologian, who is not directly considering the different form~ which this divine action may take in different souls and at different periods of the spiritual life, will easily give the name of infused contemplation to every form of contemplation in which the action of the gifts intervenes. The Teresian mystical teaching, on the other hand, which distinguishes two modes of divine action, will give the name of acquired to the contemplation resulting from the hidden action which assists the soul's activity, and reserve the name infused for the contemplation in which God makes Himself pei'ceived. Hence the term infused contemplation takes on a different meaning in.the different schools of spirituality.~ With this background and with the prospect of an ex-perienced, intrepid, compassionate guide, we are ready to put on our seven-league boots and take the hand of St. John. He charmingly suggests this procedure in his St~iritua/ Canticle." "And, to the end that this thirsty soul may come to find her Spouse and be united with Him through union of love in this life, so far as she may, and allay her thirst with this drop that can be tasted of Him in this life, it will be well, since the soul asks this of her Spouse, that we should take her hand on His behalf and answer her by showing her the surest place where He is hidden, so that she may surely find Him there with the perfection and pleasure that is possible in this life, and thus may not begin to roam about vainly in the tracks of her companions.''~ With little more than a thread of comments as road signs, I shall let St. John speak for himself. And first, his motive, purpose, and outline of the journey as given in ./lscent o/: Mount Carmel." "It is sad to see many souls to whom God gives both favor and capacity for making progress, remaining in an elementary a Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, O.C.D., St. John o/ the Cross (Newman Book-shop, Maryland, 1946). 95. 4 Peers, E. Allison, tVorks of St. John of the Cross (Burns, Oates and Wash-bourne Ltd., 1934). All the quotations throughout the remainder of the article are taken from this two volume work. Because of the extent of the quoted mat-ter, quotation marks rather than reduced type will be used from this point to the end. 197 SISTER MARY ST, ROSZ Review for Religious stage of communion with God, .for want of will, or knowledge, or becatise there is none who will lead them in the right path or teach them how to get away from these beginnings. ",Wherefore, to the end that all, whether beginners or proficients, may know how to commit themselves to God's guid-ance, when His Majesty desires to lead them onward, we shall give instruction and counsel, by His help, so that they may be able to understand His will, or, at the least, allow Him to lead them . "For a soul to attain to the state of perfection, it has ordinarily first to _pass through two principal kinds of night, which spiritual persons call purgations or purifications of the soul; and here we call them nights, for in both of them the soul journeys, as it were, by .night, in darkness. "The first '~ight or purgation is of the sensual part of the soul, which . . . will be treated in the first part of this book. And the second is of the spiritual part; of this . . . we shall treat likewise, in the second and the third part, with respect to the activity of the soul; and in the fourth part, with respect to its passivity. "And this first night pertains to beginners, occurring at the time when God begins to bring them into the state of con-templation; in this night the spirit likewise has a part, as we shall say in due course. And the second night or purification pertains to those Who are already proficient, occurring at the time w'-h~n God desires to set them in the state of union with God. And this latter night is a more obscure and dark ~and terrible purgation, as we shall say afterwards." Night of the Senses Good pedagogue that he is, St. John believes not in goad.s but in stimulants for the arduous uphill climb; speaking of the yearnings of love which' are the effects of generosity, he con-tinues: 198 Ju~, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS ~ "In order to conquer all the desires and to deny itself the pleasures which it has in everything, and for v)hich its love and affection are wont to enkindle the will that it may enjoy them, it would be necessary to experience another and a greater enkindling by another and a better love, which is that of its Spouse; to the end that, having its pleasure set upon Him and deriving from Him ~ts strength, it should have courage and constancy to deny itself all other things with ease." In earnest he begins the stripping of all impediments from the sensitive appetites: "He that loves a creature becomes as low as is that ~reature, and, in some ways, lower; for love not only makes the lover equal to the object of his love, but even subjects him to it. Wherefore in the same way it comes to pass that the soul that loves anything else becomes incapable of pure union with God and transformation in him. All the being of Creation, then, compared with the infinite ~Being of God, is nothing. And therefore the soul that sets its affections upon the being of creation is likewise nothing in the eyes of God, and 'less than nothing; for, as we have said, love makes equality and similitude, and even sets the lover below .the object of his love . The soul that. is ravished by the graces and beauties of the creatures has only supreme misery and unattractiveness in the eyes of God. Any soul that makes" account of all its knowledge and ability in order to come to union with the wisdom of God is supremely ignorant in the eyes of God and will remain far removed from that wisdom. [In summary,] as long as the soul rejects not all things, it has no capacity to receive the spirit of God in pure transformation . . . [for the philo-sophical reason that] as in natural generation no. form can be introduced unless the preceding, contrary form is first expelled from the subject, which form, while present, is an impediment to the other by reason of the contrariety which the two have between each other; even so, for as long as the soul is sub- 199 SISTER MARY ST." ROSE Review for Religious jected to the sensual spirit, the spirit which is pure and spiritual cannot enter it." But to prevent the appalling error of Stoicism, he care-fully distinguishes involuntary movements of the appetites from voluntary: "It is true that all the desires are not equally hurtful, nor do they equally embarrass the soul . . . for the natural desires hinder the soul little, or not at' all, from attaining to union, when they are not consented to nor pass beyond the first move-ments-- that is, all those wherein the rational will has had no part, whether at first Or afterward--and to take away these-- that is, to mortify them wholly in this life--is impossible . "The other voluntary desires, whether they be of mortal sin, which are the gravest, or of venial sin, which are less grave, or whether they be only of imperfections, which are the least grave of all, must be driven away every one, and the soul must be fre~ t:rom them all, howsoever small they be, it~ it is to come to this complete union; and the reason is that the state of this. divine union consists in the soul's transformation, accord-ing to the will, in the will of God, so that there may be naught in the soul that is contrary to the will of God, but that, in all and through all, its movement may be that of the will of God alone . "Although a person .who suffers them (natural desires which are not voluntary, and . . . thoughts that go not beyond the first movements, and other temptations to which the soul is not consenting) may believe that the passion and disturbance which they then cause him are defiling and blinding him, it is not so; rather they are bringing him the opposite advantages. For, insofar as he resists them, he gains fortitude, purity, light, and consolation, and many blessings, even as our Lord said to St. Paul that virtue was made perfect in weakness." When our eagerness to start is hardly to be restrained, he gives us the road map at last. How strongly suggestive it is of 200 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS the tantum quantum "of St. Ignatius; indeed, that simple but infinitely challenging Ignatian norm permeates all the detailed directions by which St. John implements the ltscent's 'famous Chapter Thirteen. "First, let him have an habitual desire to imitate ~hrist in everything that he does, conforming himself to His life; upon which life he must meditate so that he may know how to imitate it, and to behave in all things as Christ would behave. "Secondly, in order that he may' be able to do this well, every pleasure that presents itself to the senses, if it be not ¯ purely for the honor and glory of God, must be renounced and completely rejected for the love of Jesus Christ, who in this lifd had no other pleasure, neither desired such, than to do the will of His Father, which He called His meat and drink . "For the mortifying and calming of the four natural pas-sions, which are joy, hope, fear, and grief, from the concord and pacification of which come these blessings, and others like-wise, the counsels which follow are of'the gr~test help, and of great merit, and' the source of great virtues." .~ Night of the Spirit Then follow the famous counsels for which all the world remembers St. John and which he concludes with the singing words, a refrain to haunt one's soul: "When thou thinkest upon anything, Thou ceasest to cast thyself upon the All. For, in order to pass from the all to the All, Thou has to deny thyself wholly in all. And, when thou comest to possess it wholly, Thou must possess it without desiring anything. For, if thou wilt have anything in all, Thou hast not thy treasure purely in God." Turning now his attention to the spirit of man, St, John shows that the.intellect is purified by faith; the memory, by 201 Si~TER M.~Y ST. ROSE Review for Religious hope; the will, by ~harity. He begins with the definition, the necessity, and the danger of not living by faith; then, be-cause of .the special difficulties of this stage of the venture, he presents a clear view of the goal. "Faith, Say the theologians, is a habit of the soul,, certain and obscure. And the reason for its being an obscure habit is that it makes us believe truths revealed by God Himself, which transcend all natural light, and exceed all human under-standing, beyond all proportion . In the same way [as a partially blind man], a soul may lean upon any knowledge of its own, or any feeling or experience of God; yet, however great this may be, it is very little and far different from what God i.s; and, in going along this road, a soul is easily led astray or forced to halt, because it will not remain in faith like one that is blind, and faith is its true guide . And thus a soul is greatly impeded from reaching this high estate of union with God when it clings to any understanding or feeling or imagina-tion or appearance or will or manner of its own, or to any other act or to anything of its own, and cannot detach and strip itself of these . "Here I treat only of this permanent and total union ac-cording to the substance of the soul and its faculties with re-spect to the obscure habit of union: for with respect to the act, we shall explain later, with the divine favor, how there is no permanent i~nion in the faculties, in this'life, but a transitory union only . When fhe soul rids itself totally of that which is repugnant to the divine will "and conforms not with it, it is transformed in God through love. God cbnlmunicates Himself most'to that soul tliat has progressed farthest in love, namely, that has its will in closest conformity with the ~vill of God. And the soul that has attained~ complete conformity and likeness of will is totally uni~:ed and transf6rmed, in God super-naturally . But the. soul that attains not to such a measure of purity as is in conformity with its capacity never attains 202 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS true peace and satisfaction, since it has not attained to the possession of that detachment ~and emptiness in its faculties which is required for simple union." Returning. to his concern for the cleansing of the under-standing by faith, he breaks into a cry of anguish over those who will never take seriously our Saviour's counsel to deny themselves utterly and, hence, will never reach the gbal in this life. I quote only the concluding words of a long passage: '~Herein they become spiritually enemies of the cross of Christ; for true spirituality' seeks for~ God's sake that which is distasteful rather than that which is delectable; and inclines itself rather to sufl:ering than to. consolation; and desires to go without all blessings for God'g sake rather th~n to enjoy sweet' communications', knowing that" this is to follow Christ and to deny oneself, and that the other is perchance to seek oneself in. God, which is clean contrary, to lox~e.'~' All kinds of knowledge other than faith are relatively use-~ less: "The farther the soul progresses. !n spirituality,, the .re. ore it ceases from the operation of the faculties in particular acts, for it becomes more and more occupiedin one act. that.is gen-eral and pure;.and thus the faculties that were journeying to a place whither the soul has arri;ced cease to Work, even as the feet stop and cease ~o move when their journey'is over . And, as such so~uls know not the mystery of this new experience, the idea comes to them that they are being idle and doing noth-ing; and thus they allow themselves not to be quiet, but endeavor to meditate and reason. Herice they are filled with aridity and affliction, because they seek ~to~ find sweetness where it is no longer to be found.' . St. John ~hen gi~es the signg by; which We may know whethe~r we have' reached this point in our progress, signs too frequently, reproduced for me to quote them here." Then, after examining one by on'd'the various natural' and supernatural kinds' of kriowl- 203" SISTER MARY ST. ROSE Review for Religious edge which the soul may receive and from which it should detach itself, he comes at last to the intuition of naked truth, aboutJwhich he becomes almost lyrical: "And these lofty manifestations of knowledge can only come to the soul that attains to union with God, for they are themselves that union; and to receive them is equivalent to a certain contact with the Divinity which the soul experiences, and thus it is God Himself who is perceived and tasted therein. And, although He cannot be experienced manifestly and clearly, as in glory, this touch of knowledge and delight is nevertheless so sublime and profound that it penetrates the substance of the soul . . . for such kinds of knowl.edge savor of the Divine Essence and of eternal life . And I say not that the soul should behave in the same negative manner with regard to these apprehensions as with regard to the rest, for . . . they are a part of the union, towards which we are directing the soul; to which end we are teaching it to detach and stril5 itself of all other apprehensions. And the means by which God will do this must be humility and suffering for love of God with resignation as regards all reward; for these favors are not granted to the soul which still cherishes attachments, inas-much as they are granted through a very special love of God toward the soul which loves Him likewise with great detachment." To the purification of the memory, St. John gives detailed attention, concludes with a powerful paragraph, and then focuses the major portion of Book III of the ~sc~'nt on the will. Purgation of Memory and Will "Hence, the more the soul dispossesses the memory of forms and things which may be recalled by it, which are not God,. the more will it set its memory upon God, and the emptier will its memory become, so that i~ may hope for Him who shall fill it. What must be done, the:,, that the soul may live in the perfect and pure hope of God is that, whensoever these distinct images, forms, and notions come to it, it must not re~t in them, but must turn immediately to God, voiding the memory of them entirely, with 2O4 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS loving-affectioh. It must neither think of these things nor don-sider them beyond the degree which is necessary for the under-standing and performing of its obligations, if they have any con-cern with these. And this it must do without setting any affection or inclination upon them, so that they may produce no effects in the soul . "We should have accomplished nothing by the purgation of the understanding in order to ground it in the virtue of faith, and by the purgation of the memory in order to ground it in hope, if we purged not the will also according to the third virtue, which is charity, whereby the works that are done in faith live and have great merit, and without it are of no worth . The st~:ength of the soul consists in its faculties, passions, and desires, all of which are governed by the will. Now when these faculties, passions, and desires are directed by. the will toward God, and turned away from all .that is not God, then the strength of the soul is kept for God, and thus the soul is able to love God with all its stiength. And, to the end that the soul may do this, we shall here treat of the purgation from the will of all its unruly affections . These affections and passions are four, namely: joy, hope, grief, and fenr." Apparently St. John intended to give instructions concern-ing each of these passions in their impact on the will and every good to which the will of man is attracted. He did not complete the project; yet even the truncated treatise is a masterpiece of analysis of all the subterfuges by which we seek ourselves instead of God.__:_ The general truth W]~l~--which he prefaced his treatment will serve as a summary: "This truth is that the will must never rejoice save only in that which is to the honor and gloi:y of God; and that the greatest honor we can show to Him is that of serving Him according to evangelical perfection; and anything that has naught to do with this is of no value and profit to man." 205 SISTER MARY ST. ROSE Review for Religious The Dark Night St. John abruptly ended the Ascent, having completed only half of what he had promised, the t~o purgations "with respect to the activity of the soul," of the sensual part and of the spiritual part of the "soul. The two purgations "with respect to its passivity" he reserved for treatment in his Dark Night, a work considered his especially original .contribution to~ my~stical theol-ogy. In it he tharks clearly the point of departure, th~ neces-sity, thd general conspectus, and the signs that the soul is ready f6r this'last and most trying part of its ascent tO" perfect uniofi with God. "Into this dark night souls begin to enter when God draws them'forth from the state of beginners--w~hich is the state of those that meditate upon the spiritual roadmand begins to set them in the state of progressives--which is that of,those who are already contemplatives--to the end that, after passing through it, they may arrive at the state of the perfect, which is that of divine union of the soul with God . ¯ "However greatly the soul itself labors, it~ ~annot actively purify itself so as to be in the least degree prepared for the divine union of perfection of love, if God takes not its hand and purges it not in that dark fire, in the way and manner that we have to describe. "The night of senseis common and comes to many; these are the beginners; and of this night we shall first speak. The night of the spirit is the portion of very ~few, and thes~e are they that are already practise.d and profi.cient,~ of whom we shall treat hereafter . "For the making of this distinction ['between aridities from the night of the sensual desires and from sins and imperfec-tions] I find that there are three principal'signs. The first is whether, when 'a soul finds no pleasure or consolation in the things of God, ~it also fails to find it in any thing" created; for, as God sets the soul in this dark night to' the end that He may 206 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS quench and ~purge its sensual desire, ~He allows it not to find attraction or sweetness in anything whatsoever. . . The sec-ond sign whereby a man may believehimself to be experiencing the said purgation is. that ordinarily the memory is centered upon God, with painful care and solicitude, thinking that it is not serving God, but is backsliding, because it finds itself without sweetness in the. things of God, . . The third sign . . is that the soul can no longer meditat~e or reflect in its sense of the imagination, as it was wont, however much it may endeavor to do so." St. John assures us that if we follow the procedure he suggests in the Dark Night we shall surely receive the prom-ised fruits, which to any one who has not experienced them sound" like cold comfort. "What they must do is merely to leave'the soul free and disencumbered and at rest from all knowledge and thought, troubling not themselves, in that state, about what they shall think or meditate, but Contenting themselves with no more than a peaceful and loving a~tentiveness toward God, and in being without anxiety', without the ability and without desire to .have experience of Him or to perceive Him . "This is the first and principal benefit caused by this arid and dark night of contemplation: the knowledge of oneself and of one's misery . And the smallness of this self-satis-faction, together with the soul's affliction at not serving God, is considered and esteemed by God as greater than all the con-solations which the soul formerly experienced and the works which it wrought, however great they were, inasmuch as they were the occasion of many imperfections and ignorances." For fear we should consider ourselves aimost at our jour-ney's end, St. John disillusions us gently but firmly, tells the nature of the dark night of the spirit through ~ which we must grope, its effects, and its distinctive characteristic, and at last reveals to us th~ consummation of our~ quest. 2O7 SISTER MARY ST. ROSE Review for Religious "These proficients have two kinds of imperfection: the one kind is habitual; the other actual. The habitual imperfec-tions are the imperfect habits and affections which tfave re-mained all the time in the spirit, and are like roots, to which the purgation of sense has been unable to penetrate. The dif-ference between the purgation of these and that of this other kind is the difference between the root and the branch, or be-tween the removing of a stain which is fresh and one which is old and of long standing. For, as we said, the purgation of sense is only the entrance and beginning of contemplation leading to the purgation of the spirit, which, as we have like-wise said, serves rather to accommodate sense to spirit than to unite spirit with God. But there still remain in the spirit the stains of the old man, although the. spirit thinks not that this is so, neither can it perceive them; if these stains be iaot re-moved with the soap and strong lye of the purgation of this night, the spirit will be unable to come to the purity of divine union . "This dark night is an inflowing of God into the soul, which purges it from its ignorances and imperfections, habitual, natural, and spiritual, and which is called by contemplatives in-fused contemplation, or mystical theology. Herein God secretly teaches the soul and instructs it in perfection of love, Without its doing anything, or understanding of what manner .is this infused contemplation . "And when the "soul is indeed assailed by this divine light, its pain, which results from its impurity, is immense; because, when this pur~ light assails' the soul, in order to expel its im-purity, the soul feels itself to be so impure and miserable that it believes God to be against it, and thinks that it has set itself up against God . The second Way in which the soul suffers pain is by reason of its weakness . . . for sense and spirit,-as if beneath some immense and dark load, are in such great .pain and agony th. at the soul would find advantage and relief in 208 July, 1957 ST. JOHN OF THE CROSS death . The third kind of suffering .~. results from the fact that two other extremes meet here in one, namely, the Divine and the human . As a ~result of this, the soul feels itself to be perishing and melting away, in the presence and sight of its miseries, by a cruel spiritual death . The fourth kind of pain is caused in the soul by another excellence of this dark contemplation, which .is its majesty and greatness, from which arises in the soul a consciousness of the other extreme which is in itself, namely, that of the deepest poverty and wretchedness: this is one of the "chiefest pains that it suffers in this purgation . "For spiritual things in the soul have this characteristic, when they are most purely spirit.ual, that, when they are trials, the soul believes that it will never escape from them, ~and that all ~its blessings are ndw over, as has been seen in the passages quoted; and when they are spiritual blessings, the soul believes in the same way that its troubles are now ove.r, and that bless-ings will never fail it . "In the midst of these dark afflictions, the soul feels itself to be keenly and acutdy wounded in strong divine love, and to havea certain realization and foretaste of God . It some-times comes to pass that this mystical and loving theology, as well as enkindling the will, strikes and illumines the other faculty also--that of the understanding--with a certain divine light and k-fiowledge, so delectably and delicately that it aids the will to conceive a marvelous fervor, and, without any action of its own, there burns in it this divine fire of love, in living flames, so that it now appears to the soul a living fire by reason of the living understanding which is given to it . Thus the pres-ence of God is felt, now after one manner, now after another. ¯ . . That dark love cleaves to the soul, causing it a most watch-ful care and an inward solicitude concerning that which it must do, or must not do, for His sake, in order to please Him. It will consider and ask itself a thousand times if it has given Him 209 SISTER MARY ST. ROSE cause to be offended; and all this it will do with much greater care and solicitude than before . For here all the desires and energies and faculties of the soul are recollected from all things else, and its effort and strength are employed in pleasing God alone . After this manner, b'y this mystical theology and secret love, the soul continues to rise above all things .and above itself, and to mount upward to God. For love is like fire, which ever rises upward with the desire to be absorbed in the center of its sphere." But prose is a poor vehicle now. Even St. John stops trying to finish the Dark Niyht. To the Spiritual Canticle or the Living Flame of Love we must turn for the epitha-lamium of God. and the soul: "My love is as the hills, The lonely valleys clad with forest trees, The rushing, sounding rills, Strange isles in distant seas, Lover-like whisperings, murmurs of the breeze. "My love is hush-of-night, Is dawn's first breathings in the heaven above, Still music veiled from sight, Calm that can echoes move, The feast that brings new strdngthmthe feast of love." and "O living flame of love That, burning, dost assail My inmost soul with tenderness untold, Since thou dost freely move Deign to consume the veil Which sunders this sweet converse that we hold." Revit:alizing Our Spiri!:ual Lit:e I-larold I::. Cohen, S.J. WE MUST be struck, at least occasionally, by the difference between ourselves and what our religious institutes would have us be, and by the difference between ourselves and those of our brothers in Christ whom the Church holds up as models of sanctity, and finally, by the difference in the fruit produced by our saints and that produced by ourselves. Per-haps in our more serious moments we ask ourselves the reason for this. We may answer that God gives more grace to some than to others and let it go at that. But then we are not being honest with ourselves, for whatever the measure of God's grace, our own correspondence to that grace can give us serious concern. The answer is not difficult to state--it is difficult to admit. The reason we lack sanctity and fruitfulness in the apostolate is that we are not united with God. We are not the men of prayer, recollection, and study,that God wants us to be. We try to ser~,e two masters, God and the world. We turn, as if mag-netized, to the distraction of-TV, radio, sports, movies, and magazines--and we have to admit that these things withdraw us from silence and recollection in God. We all know, of course, that these things are not only not sinful, but a moderate use of them is helpful to us. But in seeking a solution to our own-lack of high spirituality and consequent weak apostolate, we certainly should give serious consideration to just how moderately we use them. For if we find that instead of being men of faith who have cut ourselves away from creatures by poverty and. self-denial, exuding the fragrance of Christ to all we come in contact with, we are men given over to our own ease and comfort, with more interest in picture magazines than hungry, poorly housed human beings; that we who profess as our purpos~ in life the salvation of souls are more interested in watching a 211 HAROLD F. COHEN Review for Religious game on TV than hearing confessions, more interested in cock-tail parties than visiting the sick~if we find these thi,ngs, we must admit that we lack .moderation in our use of legitimate diversions, and that now, no longer, a means, they have become an end in themselves. Once we realize that we are not united with Goc~, and that at least one of the causes is our effusio ad exteriora, we might again ask ourselves, "Why?" Have we lost the secret of sanc-tity of the saints? Or are we living in an age that necessar!ly precludes doing great things for Christ? Certainly we started off seeking union with God in the beginning of our religious life--the trouble is that having learned our lessons in the noviti-ate, we have let our vivid ideals grow dull with the passage of time. A new set of ideals has replaced them subconsciously, the ideal of the "good" priest or religious: faithful (more or less) to spiritual exercises, at least in the beginriing of his change-over, he none the less .frequently enjoys himself at the entertainments of externs; and he over-emphasizes the "breaks" affor_ded by his institute, freely partaking of '~the good things of this world," push-ing far to the back of his mind the crucified Christ. " Of course he loves Christ; he can even tolerate the idea of a crucified Master, but His cross is fast becoming to him, as to the world of which he is a part, something hard to understand. Nights are not a time of prayer, study, and apostolic labo~, but for "neces~'ary" relaxation. The hungry souls waiting for the bread he alone can give them are still waiting. _ How can we get back to our novitiate ideals of prayer, self-sacrifice, and' hard work for God? How can we get back to them in a practical way? Here a litany of meang opens before us. I will suggest only one, but one that'is the means of re-vitalizing our spiritual life. It is a return to serious prayer. "He who abides in Me and I in him, he it is that b:ears much fruit. For without Me you can do nothing" (John 15:4). If we daily share the intimacy of our divine Friend, His pres-ence can't help but have its effect on us. But if we are to 212 July, 1957 REVITALIZING OUR SPIRITUAL LIFE share this,intimacy, our prayer must be serious¯ We often-- or perhaps less--put in our daily time of prayer; yet few would dare call themselves men of prayer. We are not making con-tact. The vitalizing grace of the Vine is not flowing into the ¯ branches, and consequently we bear little fruit. The juncture, the point of union, is closed up. To establish the contact with Christ. our thirsting souls need, we have to make prayer our primary interest. Once we truly are making a serious effort in prayer, God will show us what changes have to be made in our lives, and He will give us the grace to make them. When we respond to these graces, our prayer takes on its deepest meaning: "Thy will be done," His will for our own shedding of self to put on the generosity of Christ, to put afide comforts to dedicate ourselves to the salvation of the souls He died for. Once. we are in this state of self-dedication, God usually eases with His consolations the difficulties of prayer. For after all, as Father Boylan s6 well points out in his Difficulties in Mental Prayer, our main difficulty in prayer is that we are afraid to come face to face with God because we are not doing His will in some way or another. For our prayer to reach this full flowering, we have to do the spade work of daily effort. And here is the crisis, for our wills are weak. It is.a decision we must all make--to give up the pleasures of long nights to get up in the morning and down on our knees--or to live in a lethargy that can look only with concern to the day of accounting before the divine Shepherd, who sees His sheep dying of hunger because we would not feed them. Once the decision to pray seriously is made, we have to take the means to make our decision effec-tive: the preparation of points the night before, and hardest of all, the excluding of all the distracting thoughts that crowd into our minds at night and in the morning. (With regard to points, choosing a good book is a problem; the Gospels; the Psalms, and the Imitation are good stand-bys. New matter 213 HAROLD F., COHEN isn't necessary every day, for the same over a period of time often supplies all the spiritual food we need. Sometimes a book isn't at all necessary for determining the actual matter of the meditation, "for we simply can jot down a few thoughts that occur to us and fill in the remaining time by reading.) " In the moining we have to have the grim determination to stick at it despite the difficulty and not to consent to any dis-tractions. The final point is a check-up afterwards to see how it has gone, why thdse points helped, why I did or didn't do well, etc. We often neglect this; so it is good to recall that those wiser than we have suggested--or prescribed--it and that it is the means to progress in prayer. Before concluding, I would like to make three pertinent remarks. (1) A daily reading from the Gospels, if only one or two incidents, at the beginning of spiritual reading or points will be helpful in bringing about contact in prayer, bringing before us as it does Jesus in all His attractiveness. (2) There is no subject like the Passion of Christ to stir up our love and gratitude and zeal. (3) Some make no progress in prayer be-cause they have gotten all they can out of meditation and affective prayer. They need that simpler form of prayer, called by spiritual writers the prayer of simplicity. This prayer is described by Tanquerey in The Spiritual Life, and more at length by Lehodey, o.C.S.O., in Tke I~ays of Prayer and Pou-lain, s.J., in Tke Graces of Interior Prayer. The time has come" for the~e souls to slow down their rowing and start letting out their sails. To conclude, then, our weak interior life and poor apos-tolate are~ due mainly to a lack of serious prayer. Once we begin to pray in earnest and grow in friendship with Christ, He will give us the graces to lead a life united to Him and to pass on our love and enthusiasm to others. It is one of the promises of His Heart to make tepid souls fervent. What better time to remind Him of His promise than in our daily prayer? 214 Depart:ure From Religion on t:he I::xpira!:ion ot: a Temporary Prot:esslon ,Joseph F. Galleh, S.,J. 1. Definition. On the expiration of any temporary profession, e. g., of one, two, or three years, a religious is free to leave his institute; and the institute, for just and reasonable causes, may exclude the religious from making any further profession, i. e., a renewal of temporary vows or perpetual profession. An exclu-sion is not a dismissal. Dismissal in canon law is verified only by an expulsion during the. time of the vows. An exclusion is an expulsion at the expiration of the vows. Therefore, the canoni-ca~ norms on dismissal do not apply to an exclusion. In its nature, an exclusion is not so much an expulsion of a member but rather a refusal to admit to further profession and a judgment and decision that a subject in a probationary period of the reli-gious life does not possess a vocation at least for the particular institute) 2. Leaving. The religious has no canonical or moral obligation to remain. The code explicitly asserts his canonical freedom to leave (cc. 575, § I; 637). He is also morally free to leave, since no law of God commands him to remain in a life of counsel on the expiration of his vows. A moral obligation would arise only accidentally and in cases that are not very practical, i. e., if one had vowed to remain in religion or intended to leave because of a sinful motive.: Furthermore, in practically all these cases there would be a sufficient reason for a dispe~nsation or commutation of the private vow; find in the instance of the 1Cl¢. Bastien, Directoire Canonique, n. 607, 1-2; Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 194, note 10; D'Arnbrosio, /ll~ollinaris, 4-1931-124. zCf. Goyeneche, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 5-1924-86-93; Schaefer, De Religidsis, n. 1519; Geser, Canon Law Governing Communities o/ Sisters, n. 1072. 215 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religion, s sinful motive, there would rarely be lacking also morally good and, at least in some cases, even compelling motives for such a religious to leave. The religious is not obliged to obt~iin the consent or approval of his superior of his intention to leave, but prudence would practically always demand that he consult his superiors or a prudent confessor concerning so important a decision. 3. Exclusion. (a) Competent superior. Canon 637 leaves to the constitutions the determination of the superior competent for exclusion. The constitutions of lay congregations .usually assign this right to the superior general with the consultive vote of his council, but a few demand the deliberative vote. A small number of constitutions give this power to the provincial or higher superiors either alone or with the consultive or, less fresluently, the deliberative vote of the council. If the consti-tutions contain no determination, the competent higher superior is the one who has the right to admit to the profession from which the religious is excluded. Since exclusion is merely the denial or correlative of admission to profession and admission require~ at least a consultive vote (c. 575, ~ 2), it would be more in conformity with the code for this higher superior to consult his council. Such consultation is not strictly obligatory, since canon 637 treats exclusion separately from admission and does not .impose any vote of a council. The same principle applies in a monastery of nuns to the superioress and the vote of her council or chapter when the matter of exclusion is not determined in the constitutions. No particular process is prescribed by the code for the decision oi~ exclusion. Since exclusion is merely the .negation of admission to profession, it is part .of the delibera-tions or decision on admissibn to the profession in question. A few authors state the eviden~ fact that canon 637 does not reserve exclusion to a higher superior and conclude that the constitu-tions may.assign this right to a local superior. Howev.er, this is not the practice of constitutions nor does it seem to be in con-formity with the evident nature of an exclusion, which is a re- 216 July, 1957 DEPARTURE AFTER TEMPORARY PROFESSION fusal of admission. Canon law reserves admission to profession to higher superiors (c. 543). (b) Sufficient reasons for exclusion. Evidently the sufficient reasons are those that render the, subject either certainly finsuited or only dubiously suited for admission to the profession in. ques-tion. It is permissible but not obligatory to grant a renewal or prolongation of. temporary vows in the latter case provided there is solid hope that certain suitability will be attained by the renewal or prolongation. The doctrine of many authors that the judg-ment of the sufficiency of the reasons for exclusibn is left to the conscience of the competent higher supe. rior is evident from the fact and law that the judgment of the suitability for a profession appertains to the competent higher superior (c. 543). The code expresses this principle of suitability in canon 637 by demanding merely just and reasonable, not serious'or grave, reasons for an exclfision. In judging the sufficieficy of the ~easons, the general good of the institute is to be considered above" that of" ~he indi-vidual. The following are the particular sufficient reasons usually listed by authors by way of example: the lack of a religious vocation or of a firm and constant vocation; serious doubts as to the general suitability of the subjecf for the religious life; inepti-tui: ie for the work of the institute, even if fully known to ~uperiors before profession, whether the ineptitude arises from~ a lack of general ability, intelligence, ol appl;c.ation, from ~i defect of pru-dent jtidgment, laziness, negligerice; or from culpable or inculp-able causes; if it is. foreseen'that th~ subject will be only a' very mediocre religious, will be tepid, careless in the spiritual life, or worldly; those who are habitually negligenh careless, or tepid in religious observance, even though not in gerious matters, and wh6 have refused to correct their conduct; those who cause serious discord in the community; those who will find community life very. difficult and will make it difficult for others; and when it-is foreseen that the subject will be rather harmful than ~usefu! to the institute. An exclusion without a just and reasonable motive 2~17 JOSEPH F. GALLEN Review for Religious is a sin against charity and the law of the Church but it is not unjust nor invalid. In the very few institutes that have only temporary vows or in which the prescribed temporary profession is longer than six years, it is the more probable and common opinion that after more than six years in temporary vows merely just and reason-able causes do not suffice for exclusion but serious and' culpable reasons joined with incorrigibility are necessary. The argu. ments for this opinion are that canon 642, § 2, appears to liken a tem-~ porary profession beyond six years to perpetual vows and that it seems inequitable to exclude one who has been so long in religion for merely just and reasonable causes.3 (c) Ill Health. Ill health is a sufficient motive for exclusion only if it is proved with certainty that it had been contracted and fraudulently concealed or dissimulated before the first profession of temporary vows (c. 637). The same principle is true of dismissal (c. 647, § 2, 2°). Ill health is therefore not a sufficient motive for exclusion if it was contracted after the first profes-' sion or if it was contracted before this profession but was then known to the superior or, if unknown, was not fraudulently con-cealed or dissimulated before the first profession. The fraud must be proved with certainty. It is sufficient that the fraud have been committed by anyone who had the obligation of mani-esting th~ illness, i. e., the religious, his parents, or guardians.4 Lack of ability for the duties of the institute is not a suffi-cient reason for exclusion if it is the result of an infirmity that was not fraudulently concealed or dissimulated before first profes-sion, since What is true of sickness is also to be affirmed o.f the consequences of sickness. Such a religious may be counselled and 3D'Ambrosio, 05. cit., "4-1931-124-28; Vermeersch-Creusen, l!l~itome luri~ Canonici, I, n. 795; Creusen, Religious Men and IVomen in the Code n. 331, 2; Jombart, Tra",t "e de Dro"*t Canot*'*que, I, n. 903, 6; Jone,. Commenta"'r m" m *n C'od*- cem luris Canonici, I~ n. 560; Schaefer, 01b. cit., n. 1523; Sipos, En~t~iridion luris Canonici, 333. 4 Goyeneche, De Religiosis, 194. 218 ~ July, 1957 DEPARTURE AFTER TEMPORARY PROFESSION persuaded to leave religibr[ ~oluntarily 0~'~o transfer to the class of lay brother or sister. The principle with regard to ill health is true also of ail-ments such as hysteria and neurasthenia. Superiors, without using constraint, may counsel and persuade all such persons t6 leave religion voluntarily) If they will not leave, their ailment and conduct can constitute a serious problem. If their improper or strange conduct certainly or probably has its source in the ail-ment, they may not be excluded; if the malady is certainly only a pretext for such conduct, they may be excluded. Frequently at least, they should be taken to a specialist and may be sent to an institution for the care of such patients. The case may be presented with all its circumstances to the Sacred Congregation of Religious.6 These difficult cases make evident the care and decisiveness superiors should exercise in admission to the pos-tulanc); and noviceship and in dismissing unsuitable subjects dur-ing these periods of probation. The master of novices should promptly consult higher superiors concerning even probable man-ifestations of such conc~mons. Since canon 637 permits an exclusion for ill health only if it was fraudulently concealed before first profession, a novice may not be admitted to temporary profession as an experiment and on the condition that he will be excluded at the end of tem-porary vows if his health does not improve.6 (d) Insanity. The Sacred Congregation of Religious replied on February 5, 1925, that a religious could not be excluded from an institute because of habitual and complete insanity (total lack of use of reason), whether temporary (curable) or perpetual 5 Cf. Berutti, De Religiosis, 325. o Cf. Jombart, Revue des Communaute's Reli#ieuses, 5-1929-200-201; Bastien, o1~. cit., n. 631, 6. ~ Cf. Bastien, 0~. cir., 450, note ~. SCreusen, 0p. cir., n. 331, 1; Jombart, Trait[de Droit Canonique, I, n. 903, 5; Coronata, lnstitutiones luris Canonici, I, 838, note 5; Palombo, De Dimissione Religiosorum, 202, Bastien, o~. cir., n. 607, 5; Jone, olb. cir., I, 561; Goyeneche, Quaestiones Canonicae, II, 123-24. 219 JOSEPH F, GALLEN Review for Religious (incurable), contracted after first temporary profession.:' Evi-dently such a religious may not be admitted to a renewal of tem-porary vows or to perpetual p'rofession during the tim~ of his insanity, since he is incapable of a human act. He must be re-tained by the institute and therefore may not be sent away either by exclusion or dismissal. He remains in the same juridical con-dition as at the time he lost his mind; and consequently he has the same rights and the instiLute has the same obligations to him as to any professed of temporary vows. He may be sent to an institution and even to his own family, if the family freely asks or accepts his care. He is still a member of the institute, and the expenses of his support and care are to be borne by the institute unless the family freely accepts them. An absence of more than six months outside any house of the institute do~s not demand the permission of the Holy See in such a case J" If he recovers and is found suitable, he is to be admitted to further profession. Prudence would, practically always demand a pro-longation of temporary vows, and ordinarily such a person is to be advised to leave the institute for his own goodJ~ It is more probable that the time of the temporary profession continues to run during the insanity. From the reply of the Sacred Congre-gation, however, it is also probable that the time of such profes-sion is suspend.ed during the insanity. Even in the former opin-ion, the subject is still a member of the institute and must be retained when the time of the vows has expired. 4. Manifestation of reasons. The religious is to be informed ot~ his exclusion in due time, orally or in writing, by the com-petent higher superior, either personally or through another. The latter should be at least a local superior. Kindness is to be shown to the excluded religious. The code does not oblige the compe- '~ B.ouscaren, Canon La~" Digest, I, 309-10. ¯ ~o gEVtEW FOg gEt.tGIOUS, November, 1956, 290-91. ~ Cf. Maroto, Commentarium Pro Religiosis, 6-1925-177-79; Goyeneche, Quaes-tiones Canonicae, I, 430-31; Coronata, op. cit., I, n. 639; Regatillo-Zalba, De Statibus Particularibus, n. 25 I. 220 July, 1957 DEPARTURE AFTER TEMPORARY PROFESSION tent supdrior to manifdst "tl~e.reasons for ~the exclusion to the religious. This may be done, and some authors counsel it that the religious may institute a recourse to a higher superior or the Holy See if he chooses to do so. The reasons should always be drawn up completely and accurately and retained in the files of the institute so that a replK may be given in the event of a recourse, .par'ticularly of one to the Holy See. 5. Recourse. The code says nothing about a recourse against an exclusion. The religious may institute a recourse to a higher superior or the Sacred Congregation of Religious simply because a religious may always do this against an action of a lower author-ity that he believes to be unreasonable or unjustified. There is no special right either from canon law or the nature of the matter of making a recourse against an exclusion. A recourse to the Sacred Congregation has very little hope.of, success except in the case of a clearly illeg'al exclusion,r' The Holy See evidently knows that by canon law (c. 54J) the competent superior is the judge of the suitabiliW of a subject for profession and conse- .quently of.the sufficiency of the motives for exclusion from pro-fession. It" is equally clear that motives that may not appear sufficient in. themselves are often such when viewed as a whole and joined with observation of the .subje~t. A recourse does not suspend ttie effect of the exclusion. The religious should leave the institfite and put ~ff the religious habit. He may be per-mitted to r~main in a: house of the institute and to wear the habit until i~he recourse is definitively settled. 6. Effects of a voluntary departure and of exclusion. If a re-ligious voluntarily leaves or is excluded at the expiration of a temporary profession, the vows cease. There is no need of a dis-pensation from the vows. The other effects in either case are the same as in secularization, which were explained in the RE'CIF~W FOR RELIGIOUS, September, 1956, 233-36. r2Bastien, op. tit., n. 607, 3; Jombart, Re¢aur des Communaute's Reliyieuses, 5-1929-164. 221 JOSEPH F, GALLEN Review for Religious 7. Moment at which the religious fully departs. The i,mportance of the answer to .this question is that it determines the exact mo-ment in which the religious is freed of his vows, ceases to be a religious, is bound by the diriment impediment of a previous religious profession, and rendered incapable of valid admission to the noviceship of any institute without a dispensation from the Holy See (c. 542, 1°). After such an admission, a noviceship and temporary profession must be made for the full time pre-scribed by the constitutions of the particular institute. The religious fully departs at the moment in which his external and absolute declaration of not making a further profession or the external and absolute declaration of the competent superior of not admitting him to a further profession is joined with the expiration of temporary vows.~3 There are two probable opinions on the moment of the expiration of temporary vows, caused by conflicting interpreta-tions of canon 34, § 3, 5; but either of these opinions may be followed. In the first opinion, the vows expire at any moment on the anniversary day when such a declaration is made or, if made .previously, has not been retracted: Therefore,. if the vows were made for a year, Augut 15, 1956-August 15, 1957, and such a declaration was previously made, the vows expire at midnight of August 14-15, 1957. In this opinion, the sub-ject may depart from the institute at any hour on the anniversary day, i. e., August 15, 1957. If no such declaration has been made, the vows expire at midnight of August 15-16, 1957.14 A second opinion maintains that the vows, when they are not renewed or perpetual profession is not made, never expire before midnight of the anniversary day, i. e., August 15-16, 1957. In this opinion, the subject may depart from the institute at any hour on the day after the anniversary day, i. e., August 16, 1957.1'~ la Cf. Abbo-Hannan, The Sacred Canons, I; 656; Beste, lntroductio in Codicem, 431; Cervia, De Proiessione Religiosa, 110; Coronata, op, cir., I, r~. 639; Goy-eneche, De Reli#iosis, 193; Jone, o,~. cir., I, 562; Schaefer, o,~. clt., nn. 1519-20; Regatillo-Zalba, o/~. cit., n. 250. 14 Cf. Vermeersch-Creusen. o~0. cir., I, n. 728, and the authors there cited. ~sCf. Michiels, Normae Generales Juris Canonici, II, 269, and the authors 222 July, 1957 DEPARTURE AFTER TEMPORARY PROFESSION Neither opinion demands tha't the religiotis have actually departed from the institute. In the rare absence of an explicit declaration, a departure from the institute would constitute an implicit declara-tion not to make a further profession. An external and absolute declaration is necessary. If the religious does not renew his vows or make perpetual profession for some time after the expiration, e. g., because of doubts about his vocation or illness, and later wishes to make profession, he may be admitted to the profession. A merely interior, doubtful, or hesitant declaration of not making or excluding from profession does not suffice. The absolute declaration of not making or of excluding from profession may be revoked before the vows have cergainly expired, i. e., at midnight of the anniversary day, August 15-16 in the example given ,above. Neither declaration may be revoked after the ~iows have certainly expired, even if the religious has not as yet left the institute. 8. Departure before expiration. If serious reasons so demand, superiors may permit a religious to leave a day or two before the. expiration of his vows ~rovided he puts off the religious habit and intends to observe his vows until the anni,~ersary day. Such a reason is the difficulty or embarrassment his .presence would cause as profession proximately approaches or on the profession day.~ If so required by urgent reasons, superiors, in virtue of canon 606, § 2, may permit an earlier departure, e. g., two or three weeks. If a much earlier departure is judged necessary, application should be made for an indult of secularization. FONTI VIVE In March, 1957, Fonti Vive, a quarterly Review of Passion Spir-ituality, began its third year of publication in Caravate (Varese), Italy. The varied articles on theological, liturgical, biblical, and mystical sub-jects seek to promote the understanding, contemplation, and the living out in our lives of Christ's Passion. Those readers of gEVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS who are able to read Italian will be interested in this new publication devoted to Passion spirituality. The editor is Reverend Costante Brovetto, C.P., S.T.D. .there cited. ~6 Creusen, op. cir., n. 331, 3. 223 Survey ot: Roman Document:s R. F. SmiEh, S.J. IN THIS article a survey will be given of those docu-ments which appeared in the Acta Al~Ostolicae ,Sedis (AAS) from January 1, 1957, to March 31, 1957. It should be noted that all page references in the present article are to the 1957 AAS (volume 49}, even when th~o document discussed may bear a date from 1956. Christmas Message of 1956 The Holy Father's Christmas message of 1956 (AAS, pp. 5-22) was easily the outstanding doclament published, in AAS during the period surveyed. The document is a long one of some seven thousand words; it is interesting to note that a large part of the message was not actually spoken b~; the Holy Fafher on Christmas Eve, but was merely published in the official text of the message. In the introduction to his message the Holy Father empha-sizes the contradictidn to be found in the twentieth century: On the one hand there is the confident hope, of modern man that he, as author of the second technical revolution~ c~n bring a life of fullness and plenty to all; and on the other hand there is the bitter fact of the long, long years of grief, ruiri, and fear that the modern world has just endured. His Holiness then begins the first of the three parts into which his message 'is divided by remarking't~hat' the above, con-tradiction can be resolved only by a knowledge and acceptance of human reality in all its completeness. From the crib of Bethlehem man can learn the origins/1 goodness and power given to him in paradise; but he also learns the weakness of human nature that was first manifested in the sin of Adam and Eve and that then became the heritage of all later generations. 22_4 ROMAN DOCUMENTS We know, continues the Vicar of Christ, that man's co.ntrol over nature was given him for the benefit, not the endangering, of human society; original sin has not removed man's dominion 6ver the world, but only security in the exercise of that domin-ion. Neither has original sin destroyed man's capacity to shape history, though it is no less c.ertain that after original sin human life is a mixture of confidence and misery, of security and un-certainty, of life and death. At the crib, however, we also learn that Christ is our Redeemer, come to restore man to his divine sonship and to bestow the grace whereby the disorder produced by original sin and by later personal sins can be overcome at least in the interior of man, if not always exteriorly. The Christian then possesses all the elements necessary to overcome the contra-diction of the twentieth cent~ury in his interior life; this, how-ever, gives him no right to excuse himself from contributing to the external solution of .that contradiction. To make such a contribution, the Pontiff adds, the Chris-tian must have a Clear idea of what modern man thinks of sin. Because modern man does not ddmit sin, he attributes the per-verse inclinations of man to a kind of sickness and functional weakness which of themselves are curable. Modern man~the~ awaits the day when a perfecting of human knowledge will allow him to heal all such moral sicknesses. This technological solution to the problem of moral evil completely overlooks the truth that man is a subject of free action--good or bad--and leads to innumerable evil results: softness in education; indul-gence to crime; aversion to even just punishment; the a~tempt to solve social problems not through the consciende and respon-sibility of individuals, but by the' attainment of a greater knowl-edge of the mechanics of social structures. In the second part of his message Piu~ XII says that one of. the bases of the twentiet,h-century[ contradiction onsists in the hope to create a completely_ new society without reference to 225 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious the history that has shaped man. This attitude is the 'result of that technological realism which admits no limits to human power, subjects every reality to a method of technique, and places unlimited confidence in technological know-how. For technological man, the entire world is but a laboratory wherein he treats social life like a machine which he dismantles and then attempts to reconstruct according to his own pre-conceived pattern. It is here that technological man encounters the insur-mountable obstacle of history. For social life has been created slowly through the contributions of many generations; and it is only upon those contributions that new progress can be built. The dynamics of reform must always respect the traditions of society which safeguard human security without destroying the free and personal action of any part of society. The third part of the Christmas message is the one that most drew the world's attention to the Pope's speech. Thd Holy .Father begins this part by noting that while liberty, per-sonal responsibility, social order, and genuine progress are truly human values, they are in their origin religious and divine values. This religious foundation, however, is today being replaced by economic and political explanations which deny all absolute values. The Holy Father then turns to consider l~ractical ways by which world peace can be achieved. First of all, he says, it is necessary that all men of good will unite together against their common enemy who seeks to impose on all peoples an intolerable form of life. Today's situation, says the Vicar of Christ, is clear to all. There can no longer be any doubts about the purposes and methods that lie behind armed tanks, when.these crash through border frontiers and force a people into a life they abhor. No doubt of purposes, or methods can remain, when possibilities of mediation and negotiation a~e dis-regarded and threats are made to use atomic power for the gaining of specific demands, whether or not these demands are justified. 226- July, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS In the present circumstances it is ~ossible to have the case where, after all efforts to avoid it have been useless, war for the purpose of effective self-defense and with the hope of favorable results cannot be considered as illicit. Hence, if in a case of extreme need a. government chosen by free elections decides on defensive precautions and puts into execution the means necessary for. this, such an action is not immoral; and a Catholic citizen cannot appeal to his own conscience to refuse his services or to fail in the duties assigned by law. The Pontiff then considers the United Nations, the first time that he has spoken of this organization at great length. The United Nations, he remarks, intends to secure absolute values in the co-existence of peoples. Still, the recent past has shown that the false realism of self-interest and power has influ-enced not a few of the members of the United Nations, so that cases of destroying the peace have been treated quite differ-ently. It is reasonable to expect that the authority of the United Nations should be felt, at least through its observers, in all those places where"the essential values of man are in extreme danger. It is desirable that nations who refuse the admission of observers and thereby show that their. concept of national sovereignty threatens the very foundations of the United Na-tions should not be permitted the exercise of their rights as members of that organization. Moreover, the United Nations should have the right and the power to prevent every military intervention of one nation into another and to assume through a sufficient police force the safeguarding of order in a nation so threatened. The Holy Father adds that he refers to these defects only because he wishes to strengthen the authority of the United Nations, for i,t is only through such an organization' that the promise to reduce armaments and to renounce the production and use of certain kinds of weapons can be exchanged between nations ~lnder a strict obligation of international law. Like- 227 R. F. SMITH Review for Religion,s wise, only the United Nations can demand the observance of this obligation by hssuming effective control of the armaments of all nations through a systematic and permanent p'rogram of aerial observation. The Holy Father then adds that the acceptance of such armament control is the crucial point of today; in accepting such control, each nation of the world will manifest the sincerity of its will for peace. Pain, Anesthesia, and the Christian On February 24, 1957 (AAS, pp. 129-47), the Holy Father delivered a long allocution in reply to three questions concerning anesthesia which had been submitted td him by the ninth National Congress of the Italian Society of Anesthesi-ology. After an introduction in which the Holy Father gives an appreciative statement of the importance of the anesthetist in modern surgery and describes the history of anesthesia in ¯ modern times, the Pontiff takes up the first question asked of him: Is there a general moral obligation to refuse anesthetics and to accept physical pain in the spirit of faith? Putting aside the case where a Christian must endure pain rather than offend God, Pius XII points out that there is no obligation to accept all suffering and to refuse the use of anesthesia; for man, even after the fall, has the right to dominate the forces of nature and to use all its resources to avoid or. suppress physical pain. On the other hand, for the Christian, suffering is not some-thing merely negative but is associated with the highest religious and moral values; hence, suffering can be willed and sought for even when there is no moral obligation to do so. Moreover, a Christian is bound to mortify his body and to purify himself interiorly; to the extent that this cannot be achieved without physical pain, to that extent the Christian must accept such pain. Outside of that case, hbwever, it cannot .be said that a Christian has a strict obligation to accept pain. The Vicar of Christ then takes up the question from the viewpoint of Christian perfection: Should a Christian accept 228 ROMAN DOCUMENTS physical pain in order that h~ may not put himself in contradic-tion to the ideal proposed to him by his faith? While it is true, the Holy Father replies, that a Christian experiences the desire to accept and even to seek physical' pain in order to participate the more closely in the Passion of Christ, still it is necessary to interpret this tendency in a correct way. When a Christian, day after day, from mo.rning till night, fulfills the duties of his state in life and of his profession, when he keeps the commandments of God and of men, when he prays, loves his neighbor, accepts without murmuring what God sends him, then his life is surely under the sign of the cross, whether physical suffering be present or not, and whether he endures such suf-fering or avoids it by licit means. The acceptance of physical suffering is only one way, among many, of manifesting what is essential: the will to love and serve God in all things. His Holiness then considers the reasons which permit the avoidance of physical pain. All these reasons, he says, can be reduced to a single general principle: pain prevents the attain-ment of higher goods and interests. Pain may be better for a given person in a given set of circumstances; but, generally speaking, the losses which pain provokes force men to defend themselves against it. A Christian will use pain as a stimulant in his ascent towards God, but the application of this principle will always be a personal matter to be decided by the rules of Christian prudence and with the help of an experienced director of souls. In conclusion~ the Holy Father sums up his. answer to the first question under three headings: (1) Anesthesiology in its fundamental principles is not morally wrong, for it seeks to combat forces which from many points of view produce evil effects and prevent greater goods. (2) The physician who accepts anesthesiology is in contradiction neither with the nat-ural moral order nor with the specifically Christian ideal, for hd is seeking, as God Himself orders in Genesis 1:28, to submit 229 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious pain to the power of man. (3) The patient who wishes to avoid or lessen pain can, without disquiet to his conscience, use the means found by this science. Particular circumstances may im-pose another line of conduct; but the Christian ideal of renuncia-tion does not constitute an obstacle to the use of anesthesia, for that ideal can be fulfilled in other ways. The second question submitted to the Holy Father was this: Is the privation or diminution of consciousness and of the use of mail's higher faculties that is induced by narcotics com-patible with the spirit of the Gospel? In other words, does the example of Christ in abstaining from the wine offered Him before the crucifixion mean that a Christian may not accept total or partial loss of consciousness? The Pope begins by reflecting that a human being is bound to conform his actions to the requirements of the moral order; this, however, can be done only by the use of his higher faculties. This is the reason why there is a moral obli-gation not to deprive oneself of consciousness unless there is a true necessity for such deprivation. Hence, one cannot inter-fere with or suppress consciousness merely for the sake of obtaining pleasant sensations and a certain kind of euphoria. In the case of surgery, the Pontiff points out, what the surgeon primarily wishes to secure is the suppression of painful sensation, not of consciousness. Violent pain can easily provoke involuntary and reflex actions which are capable of producing undesirable complications and even fatal cardiac difficulties. The preservation then of psychic and organic equilibrium constitutes for the surgeon and the patient an important objective which only narcosis can effect. In concluding his reflections on the second question asked him, the Holy Father says that from the action of Christ on Calvary it follows that a 'man ought to accept and drink the chalice of pain whenever God desires it. But it doeg not follow that God desires this whenever and wherever suffering presents 230 July, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS itself to a man. Often the acceptance of guffering is not obliga-tory nor a matter of, perfection. Regularly enough there exist serious motives for easing pain and suffering. J~n such cases one can avoid pain without in any way compromising the doctrine of the Gospel. The third question proposed .to the Vicar of Christ was' composed of two parts: (1) Is the use of narcotics licit in the case of .the dying, supposing that such use is medically indi-cated? . (2) May narcotics be used in cases where the' lessening of pain will probably be accompanied by a shortening of life? In reply the Holy Father asserts fhat neither reason nor rdvelation teaches that the dying, more than others, have a moral obligation to accept pain or to refuse to avoid it. Since, how'ever, pain contributes to the expiation of personal sin and to the acquisition of greater merit, the dying have special motives for accepting pain, because their time of merit is draw-ing to a close. These motives, however, must be understood correctly. Growth in.the lo~¢e of God and abandonment to His will do not proceed from the sufferings which a person accepts, but from the intention of the will supported by grace. In the case of many dying persons this intention can be strengthened if their suffering is lessened, for pain aggravates their physical weakness and hence diminishes their moral strength, while the suppression of pain secures organic and psychic relaxation, facilitates prayer, and makes possible a more generous gift of self. If the dying consent to suffering as a means of expiation and a source of merit, then one should not force anesthesia on them. Nor is it always opportune to suggest to the dying the ascetical considerations of expiation and merit mentiQned above, and it should .always be remembered that pain may even be the occasion of new faults. With regard to depriving a dying person of consciousness, one should recall that Christ died in full consciousndss and that the Church's prayers for the dying presuppose that the dying 231 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious person is conscious. Hence, men should not of their own initiative deprive a dying person of consciousness, unless serious motives for such action are present. A dying person, continues the P~ntiff, may not permit or demand anesthesia if thereby he puts himself in a state where he cannot fulfill g~ave obligations which are incumbent on him, such as the making of a will or of going to confession. If in such cases the dying person dema~ads narcosis for which sound medical reasons are present, a physician should not administer it without first inviting the patient to fulfill his duties. If the sick person refuses to do so and continues to demand narcosis, the physician may administer it without being guilty of formal collaboration in the fault committed by the dying man. But if the dying person has performed all his duties and has received the last sacraments, if there are medical reasons for anesthesia, if the correct doses are given., if the intensity and duration of the anesthesia is carefully watched, and if the patient consents, then anesthesia is morally permissible. As to the licitness of using narcotics which will probably shorten life, the Pope warns that in such cases all direct euthan-asia, that is, the administration of narcotics to provoke or hasten death, is illicit, for such action directly disposes of human life. Bt~t when narcotic.s are administered only to avoid intolerable pain for the patient, th~ administration of narcosis is licit if it produces two distinct effects: the cessation of pain on the one hand and on the other the shortening of life. However, there must also be a reasonable proportion between the two effects and it should be ascertained if means other than the depriving of consciousness could achieve the desired result. The Holy Father concludes his allocution by recalling to the minds of his" listeners the infinitely higher and more beau-tiful life to which man is called and which i~ perceptible even here below in those into whom Christ pours His" redemptive 232 Jldy, 1957 ROMAN. DOCUMENTS love, which alone definitively triumphs over both suffering and death. Miscellaneous Matters On February 1, 1957 (AAS," pp. 91-95), the Sacred Con-gregation of Rites issued a decree introducing a number of modifications into the rites of Holy Week as. set forth in a pre-ceding decree of November 16, 1955. Several documents of early 1957 dealt with saints or with processes of canonization. By an apostolic letter (AAS, pp. 61-62) the Roman Pontiff designated the sainted martyrs Clau-dius, Nicostratus, Symphorianus, Castorius, and Simplicius the special patrons of all stone and marble workers. On January 22, 1957 (AAS, pp. 169-71), the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved the two miracles necessary for the beatification of the Venerable Servant of God Mire Marie de la Providence, foundress of the Helpersof the Holy Souls (1825-71). The same congregation (AAS, pp. 40-42; 82-85; 85-87; 88-90) also approved the introduction of the causes of the following servants of God: Mary Lichtenegger (1906-23); Stephen of Adoain, priest and professed Capuchin (1808-80); Sister Frances of the Wounds of Jesus (1860-99); and Joseph Mafianet y Vires, priest and founder of the Sons of the Holy Family and of the Daughters of the Holy Family of Nazareth (1833-1901). On January 13, 1957 (AAS, pp. 43-44) the Sacred Peni-tentiary attached an indulgence of a thousand days to a prayer for C.hristian families composed by the Holy Father on the feast of Christ the King, October 31, 1954. On February 9, 1957 (AAS, pp. 100-101), an indulgence was attached to the recita-tion of the prayer of the Holy Father for religious vocations; the text of the prayer and the details of the indulgence were given in the May, 1957, issue of REVIE~V FOR RELIGIOUS (p. 165). Several shorter addresses of the Holy Father were published in AAS during the first three months .of 1957. Speaking on 233 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious December 16, 1956 (AAS, pp. 68-72), to the second Eucha-ristic Congress of Bolivia, Plus XII said that the Eucharist is the principal means of knowing Jesus Christ, of penetrating oneself with the greatness of His mission, and of feeling the impulse to continue that mission through the priesthood. In a written message to the third general assembly of the Internal tional Federation of Catholic Youth the Pope urged the group to grow in love and' respect for the Church and to deepen their spiritual lives as the necesshry condition for any fruitful apostolate. When he spoke to the council of the International Federation of Catholic Men, the Vicar of Christ pointed out to them that the visible unity of Christians intensely living their faith is in itself a massive apostolate and a vast testimony that obliges all men of good will to salutary reflection. The Holy Father took the occasion of the Italian Mother's Day (AAS, pp. 72-76) to speak on the duty of all adults to secure for all children the possibility of a full physical and moral development. The Association of Catholic Teachers of Bavaria was told by the Pope (AAS, pp. 63-65) that it is against one of the fundamental human rights to force parents to confide their children to a school whose ~eachers are indifferent or even hostile to the religious convictions of the home. In an address to a group of teachers and students from the newly formed Catholic University in Mexico, the Holy Father remarked that their institution was to be a true Catholic University, dedicated to the training of well-educated and outstanding sons of the Church who can constitute the leaders of their country. Five documents issuing from the Sacred Congregation of Seminaries and Universities (AAS, pp. 95-96; 97; 97-98; 172- 73; 173-74) give continued evidence of the growth of intel-lectual activity in the Church. The documents provided for the canonical establishment of the following: a higher institute of pedagogy in the faculty of philosophy of the Pontifical Salesian Athenaeum; a philosophical institute in the faculty of 234 July, 1957 ROMAN DOCUMENTS theology of Angers; a faculty of philosophy in the Pontifical University of Salamanca; a second Catholic University in Brazil; and a faculty of medicine in the Catholic University of Peru. o A set of questions was published (AAS, pp. 150~63) for the use of military vicars in making their triennial reports to the Sacred Congregation of the Consistory. A decree and a set of norms were issued (AAS, pp. 163-69) for the establish-ingo of ecclesiastical tribunals in the Philippine Islands to deal with matrimonial cases of nullity. On January 21, 1957 (AAS, p. 77), the Holy Office answered in the affirmative the ques-tion whether affinity, contracted before baptism, is an impedi-ment for marriages entered upon after the baptism of only one of the parties. The Holy Office (AAS, p. 34) also warned ordinaries and clergy that the Institute of the Apostles of the Infinite Love and the institute Magnificat are not recognized by the Church and are forbidden to the faithful. Norms for the abso-lution of secular "and regular priests in Hungary whose nom-inations to ecclesiastical offices and benefices were not in accord-ance with canon law were published by the Sacred Congregation of the Council (AAS, pp. 38-39). Finally, .the Holy Office by a decree of January 30, 1957 (AAS, pp. 77-78), placed on the Index of Forbidden Books the two following works of Miguel de Unamuno: Del senti~niento trelgico de la vida and La agonia del Cristianisrno, at the same time warning the faithful that other books of the same author contain a a number of matters contrary to faith and morals. (Both of the books mentioned above have been translated into English under the following titles: The Tragic Sense of Life [New York: Dover, 1954]; and The Agony of Christianity [New York: Brewer, 1928]). With this the survey of AAS for January through March of 1957 is concluded; succeeding articles will continue the survey with later issues of AAS. 235 AIIocufion Concerning TerfiansFfip Pope Pius XII Introductory Note According to the the plan of St. Ignatius .Loyola for the training of his sons for the priesthood, there is a short introductory stage called the first probation in which the candidate becomes acquainted with the religious life and superiors with him. Following this intro-duction is the regular novitiate which, together with the first proba-tion, is to l~ist at least two full years and which is also called the second probation. Next come the long years of study and work in the juniorate, philosophy, regency or teaching, aad theology. St. Ignatius realized that such a course could and often would cool the fervor of the novitiate and dim the-spiritual vision of his sons. Consequently, he piescribed at the end of the whole course of forma-tion another period of spiritual discipline which was to last a tea-month year and is called the third probation or, more commonly, the tertianship. During this year the fervor of the earlier years is rekindled and the appreciation of and-attachment to the Society olc Jesus deepened by an intense study of the constitutions. In rather recent years a number of other religious communi-ties have introduced a tertianship period of varying lengths of time. Some other communities are considering whether to require a tertianship of their members. Fr., Larraona of the Sacred Con-gregation for Religious has said that "Rome views with favor the so-called 'third year of probation' " because it "has incalculabl~ advantages" but it "is not in any way imposed by the Sacred Con-gregation" (gEvIEw FOP. RELIGIOUS, November, 1954, 302). In an allocution to the Jesuit instructors (masters) of tertians, March 25, 1956 (AAS) 48(1956)269-72), Pope Pius XII dwells on the purpose and program of a tertianship and the importance and in-fluence of the instructor on his tertians. Moreover, he ~rges the preservation of the tertianship against those who propose arguments against it which reflect a spirit which on at least two other occasions he has labelled the "heresy of action" (cf. apostolic letter on the centenary of the Apostleship of Prayer, June 16, 1944~English ver- 236 AL.LOCUTION ~ONCERNING TERTIANSHIP sion in the Messenger o/ the Sacred Heart, 79(Dec.,1944) 13; exhorta-tion on the priesthood, Menti Nostrae, Sept. 23, 1950, paragraph 60). Because it was thought that the Holy Father's allocution on the ter-tianship would be ot: interest to those already requiring a tertianship as well as to those considering whether to have one, the following translation is given.--James I. O'Connor, s.J. The Allocution Beloved sons now present before Us, members of the curia of the Society of Jesus, and you, especially, instructors of the third probation, summoned to Rome by the very wise zeal of your Father General, who is very dear to Us, We know that your request is so reasonable and restrained that it would suffice for you to receive from Us the apostolic blessing in a public audience. And yet, although pressed at the present time with so great a host of occupations and cares, We still wish to go aside for a little while with you so that opening Our paternal heart, We may give testimony of Our singular good will to your whole illustrious order and especially to you, instructors, to whom has been committed an office requiring great understand-ing and' prudence. You certainly are a most select section of tl~e Society of Jesus, especially since you have been chosen and numbered among those of your members having special authority: "those who possess authority" (cf. Epit. Inst., S.J., p. V, cap. II, n. 340). For you discharge an office of the greatest importance since it pertains to that class of matters which your institute lists as "substantials of the second order" (Ibid., Proem., tit. V, n. 22). That it should be so is very easy~to understand. For this is the highest and final touch to the work and labor extended over a long period of time in forming souls in the ways of religion and piety. If We may so speak, this is another way whereby the spear is returned to the forge before it is used in apostolic warfare. It is during this interval that the young person is exercised in the "school of affection" to develop thor-oughly the special gifts of his soul. Finally, then, he is urged 237 Pxus XII Review for Religious on to very arduous undertakings, namely, to "a greater abne-gation of himself and, as 'far as possible, to continual mortifica-tion in all things" (Exam., cap. IV, n. [1031, p. 59), so that "when they have advanced in these, they mhy the better help on other souls to perfection to the glory of God and our Lord" (Const. cure Dec/ar., p. V, cap. II, n. I). I. This was your 'founder's ingenious and sagacious pur-pose which has been continuously reduced to practice with great progress in the religious life and which was later more and more accepted and imitated by other institutes.as well. Nevertheless, because four centuries have elapsed since this plan dawned upon his mind and was brought into effect, it can happen that to some people of our time it appears less fitting for various rea-sons, e.g., because people of today are prone to act more promptly and hastily or because the needs of the 'apostolate are more demanding than in times past. Ours is the completely opposite opinion, for the great need of our time is an interior religious life distinguished by constancy, soundness, and strength, most especially because the service and good of souls demand better-trained apostles. As a result, the period of tertianship should be considered really sacred, divinely inspired, and fully and justly worthy of every effort to preserve it. For this reason We exhort you to see to it that, when the course of studies has been completed, each and every one without any exception be given this whole year devoted to intense meditation in houses set aside for this purpose, in which, as far as possible, the tests and probations of the novitiate be again undergone and the prescriptions and rules observed to the letter. II. Nevertheless, in the whole ascetical training of the ter-tianship We desire that you direct singular care to the matter of special importance, namely, that you devote mind and effort to obtaining a thorough kr~owledge of your institute and to im-bibing the spirit with which it is imbued (Epit., p. V, c. III, n. 435). Moreover, the very resplendent character of this form 238 July, 1957 ALLOCUTION CONCERNING TERTIANSHIP of religious life is manifest in the golden book of the Spiritual Exercises which time and again We have highly praised. See to it that. your tertians more and more understand, search into, relish, esteem, and love everything contained in those pages: the notes, additional directions, meditations, contemplations, rules. In each matter let them carefully discern what is the underlying reason, its aim, and why it is found in this or that place. Exercise vigilant care that, when the tertianship is com-pleted, they are thoroughly convinced that the Ignatian way and plan must be fully preserved and that nothing which clearly per-tains to its nature is ever to be removed from it. This observ-ance and reverence Will have this special effect, that such prudent safeguards will continue their effectiveness in accomplishing won-ders as they have done in the past, provided, of course, there is no let-up by an inconstant will or a breakdown of moral fibre. III. Finally, dearly beloved instructors,.spare no labor, spare no effort, strive earnestly and pour out prayers to God that what is especially sought in this important period may have a most favorable outcome. For young religious, after they have been set free from. so many years of study, easily fall into the danger of neglecting spiritual matters or of holding them in little esteem because the fires enkindled earlier die down. But if they betake themselves again into the solitude of this retreat and give them-selves over to voluntary bodily chastisement, they not only will regain their early moral strength but will also acquire new strength, increased and steadfast, which will serve them profitably ~ven in the subsequent years of their life. Great will be their incen-tive to the study of devout prayer, to the austerity of life and the restraint of the senses which, with eyes full of wonderment, they behold in you. Your. words, at once a source of light and of fire, will illumine their minds and impart to their souls the sparks of divine flame. For their journey along safe paths you will be guides, clearly and conspicuously prudent, safe and trustworthy, keeping them by warning and exhortation from running after 239 P~us XII doctrines which pertain to Catholic dogma, morality, asceticism, and sociology but which by their alluring novel ideas show a certain false and insidious nature. By means of your characteristic active charity and your lov-able zeal you will discover how to ward off tedium, if it should arise, from your fellow-members, returned from a freer form of life, and how to curb what may be immoderate apostolic ardor in those who now experience in caring for the salvation of souls the sweet consolations of heavenly grace. It seemed to Us fitting to address to you in this audience these words, few and hasty because of the limitations of time. From all parts of the world you have assembled here and soon, when your meetings have come to an end, you will return, .each to his own province. Take with you the special apostolic bless-ing We lovingly impart to you in the present auspicious year in which with public joy you observe the solemn celebration of the glorious passing of your lawgiver and father. 'And let this be the outstanding fruit of this celebration that the spirit by which you are called by God fo lay hold on the religious life may more and more breathe upon you in greater intensity and ardor. How-ever, these desirable and magnificent gains will deriye their most providential increase from you especially, instructors, and your activity. Finally, may God, the bestower of gifts, bless all of you and each of your tertians. May He bless and bestow plenteous heavenly solace on your most praiseworthy Father General; on the members associated with him in the curia as well as on the whole Society of Jesus to which We are bound by ever sweeter and closer bonds of paternal charity and high esteem. OUR CONTRIBUTORS SfSTER MARY ST. ROSE teaches at Summit Country Day School, 2161 Grandin Road, Cincinnati 8, Ohio. HAROLD F. COHEN is studying at the Colegio Maximo de San Francisco Javier, Ofia (Burgos), Spain. JOSEPH F. GALLEN is profes~sor of canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland. R. F. SMITH is a member of the faculty of St; Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. JAMES I. O'CON-NOR is professor of .canon law at West Baden College,. West Baden Springs, Indiana. 240 t oo1 Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] FAITH AND PREJUDICE AND OTHER UNPUBLISHED SER-MONS OF CARDINAL NEWMAN. Edited by the Birmingham Oratory. Pp. 128. Sheed and Ward, New York 3, New ~York. 1956. $2.50. Faith and Prejudice is a short book containing some hitherto unpublished sermons of Cardinal Newman. It is only the third volume to be published of the sermons Newman preached as a Catholic, and it follows the first two after a gap of seventy~ years. The first seven sermons of the book were preached in the year 1848, three years after Newman joined the Catholic Church. Their style has much of the beautiful simplicity noted ia Newman's youth. The Sunday gospel is the subject matter of these sermons. They are addressed to the congregations of an ordiaary city parish. New-man is especially adept at taking a single thought and dwelling on it with warmth and unction. In the first sermon, for example, his thought could 13e crystallized into the sentence: The omnipotence of God is the reason for our faith and hope. Yet Newman takes this somewhat'cold statement ot: fact, so clothes it in familiar examples from the life of Christ, that it becomes no longer a mere theological thesis but rather a living person asking, "Why, then, are you fearful?" For a man of such tremendous learning Newman shows a remark-able ability to understand the circumstances of everyday life in which his hearers had to live out their Catholicism. His application of theory is both concrete and practical. Thus, in a sermon preached on tl~e first Sunday ofLent, 1848, he points out the need for. the modern age to find its penance in a mortification of the reason and the will. His application of this idea to curiosity is perhaps even more perti-nent to our own day, one hundred years and more after Newman spoke these words: "What a deal of time is lost, to say nothing else, in this day by curiosity, about things which in no ways concern us. I am not speaking' against interest in the news of the day altogether, for' the course of the world must ever be interesting to a Christian from its bearing upon the fortunes of the Church, but I speak of vain curios- 241 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious ity, love of sc~indal,, love of idle tales, curious prying into the private histo# of people, curibsity about trials and offences, and personal matters, nay often what is much worse than this, curiosity into sin. What strange diseased curiosity is sometimes felt about the history of murders and the malefactors themselves! Worse still, it is shock-ing to say, but there is so much evil curiosity to know about deeds of darkness, of which the Apostle' says that it is shameful to speak. ¯ . . Hen'ce this is the way in which we are called upon, with this Lent we now begin, to mortify ourselves[ Let u's mortify our curiosity" (p. 71). Perhaps the most interesting sermon is that preached in 1873 at the opening of a diocesan seminary. The growth of unbelief is the subject, and it must have had a powerful impact on Newman. With a keen eye for what the future would bring, he shows the difficulties which the weakening of Protestantism entails for the Catholic Church. It weakens or removes a common ally in the battle against those God-less men who would destroy Christianity. The preacher also recog-nizes what problems would arise from the growing strength of the Catholic Church in a Protestant country, problems of suspicion, fear, and prejudice. He exhorts the semin'arians to the practice of the presence of God as a powerful means of overcoming an age of un-belief. To this they must add a sound, accurate, complete knowledge of Catholic theology; with these weapons the future priests will be strong for the combat. As a whole; these sermons reflect Newman's confidence in prayer and faith and obedience more than do his university sermons which are pitched on a higher intellectual plane~ The present volume is. a welcome addition to Newman's published works. It is a book whose true worth will only be fully appreciated after repeated thoughtful reading. --J. DOtC~,LD" H,~YES,. S.J. PRINCIPLES OF SACRAMENTAL THEOLOGY. By Bernard Leeming~ S.J. Pp, 690. The Newman Press, Westminster, Mary-land. 1956. $6.75. Father Leeming's book, a treatise on the sacraments in ~general, is written for everyone~whether expert theologian, teacher of religion, or competent layman--who is interested in theology for its own. sake. The author, a vetera'n professor of dogmatic theology /it Heythrop College,. England, has made every effort to be scientific ~iithout being 242 July, 1957 BOOK REVIEWS too technical for the non-theologian. He has spared no pains to facilitate the work of the reader. A detailed table of contents is presented at the outset; the volume is equipped with an impressive index in which each entry carries a symbol to signify the type of reference made; there is a thirty-page bibliography of general titles and of titles, pertinent .to each of the six general sections of the book. These general sections are entitled: The Sacraments and Grace; The Sacraments and the Character; Sacramental Causality; The Institution of the Sacraments; The Sacramental Economy. The sections are further divided into chapters, and the substance of most chapters is presented in a ~oncise "Principle" which summarizes the doctrine defended. These principles are stated and 'defended as regards the sacraments in general, Above all, Father Leeming's treatment is distinguished by its clarity; that is, matters of faith upon.which there can be no possibility of debate are cldarly stated and clearly differentiated from matters in which free discussion is allowed, and the vie.wpoints which Father Leeming defends as more p_robable are presented with notification of the precise value of the opinion proposed. Father Leeming's method is traditional, yet modern. He at-tempts to combine the scholastic method (sketching the whole history of thd question and the various opinions proposed, presenting the declarations of the .Church, stating a thesis and advancing reasons for it, and answering objections) with a modern, critico-historical ap-proach. The treatment is therefore complete; that is~ the author attempts to treat all pertinent questions, and to present all pertinent evidence --from scriptural and patristic sources, from the councils of the Church, and from the writings of orthodox and" heterodox scholars, andient and modern--in full translation, critically presented and care-fully annotated. The exhaustive historical analyses do not leave the impression that the book ig merely reportorial. Though the research is encyclo-pedic and ~scholarly; the author's oi'iginal handling of the anaterial is equally appealing. Father Leeming is of. the opinion that the key to the meaning of the sacraments is found in their connection with the Mystical Body of Christ; and in the section dealing with sacra-mental causality, he develops the :notion that "the effect of the sacraments . . . is to make those, who through them communicate 243 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious with Christ, special cells in the organism of His body." In developing this statement, he suggests a reformulation of the definition of a sacra-ment: "an effective sign of a particular form of union ~vith the Mystical Body, the Church, instituted by Jesus Chiist, which gives grace t'o those who receive it rightly." This viewpoint is also the key to the unity of the book itself, for it is applied to each of the sacraments, it is developed in the areas in which theological discussion is permitted, and it pervades the interpretation of the official sacramental doctrines of the Church. --JAMES J. DAGENAIs,°S.J. THE MASS IN TRANSITION. By Gerald Ellard, S.J. Pp. 387. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. 1956. $6.00. The value of this book is that it is not limited to a presentation of the author's personal views on liturgical reform. Because of its liberal use of official and semi-official documents bearing on liturgical modifications, Father Ellard's present contribution is dispassionfite and to a high degree objective. As a result, one reads with a sense of security that more rhetorical but less solid works on the subject fail to convey. This is not to say that Father Ellard frowns on liturgical reform or that he is indifferent to it. His stated purpos~e in taking what must have been considerable pains to assemble selections from the two hundred or so documents upon which his observations are based is to advance "toward maturity and toward clarity" current ideas on the modification of the Mass. The theme that runs through mist of the book is taken from the ll.ledialor Dei of Pope Pius XII: that the worship of the Eucharist should be the fountain-head of genuine Christian devotion. The various chapters are concerned with the aspects of liturgical modifica-tion that tend to promote this goal. With a short history of de-velopment in the Mass from apostolic times as a background, the succeeding chapters discuss the efforts made, the results achieved, and the difficulties encountered by the Holy See and by lesser interested groups in promoting lay participation in the Eucharistic Sacrifice. chapter each is devoted to the reform of the Breviary and to the recent tendency of many non-Catholic sects to ~lpproach closer to the Catholic form of worship. 244 July, 1957 BOOK REVIEWS While the extensive use 0f documents does not always make for easy .reading, their very bulk and wide range produce an effect that more than justifies the reader's efforts. Through them one experi-ences the tremendous energy which in the past fifty years has set the liturgical reform in motion; and he is assured that this energy and determination, especially as found in the Holy See and the hierarchy, will succeed in fully restoring the Mass to the people in spite of all the difficulties involved. For the reader with a more professional interest in the liturgy Father Ellard's book gathers into one place a rich collection of up-to-date source material. --PAUL F. CONEY, THE SALVATION OF THE UNBELIEVER." By Riccardo Lombardi, S.J. Translated by Dorothy M. White. Pp. 376. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. 1956. $5.00. Father Lombardi's crusading zeal for "a better world" in accord-ance with the social teachings of the papal encyclicals has occasioned much favorable comment in the Catholic press as well as in non- Catholic news journals like Time magazine. His work as professor of ~heology deserves equally favorable comment, and the proof of this is this volume. The book ig written' for all who are Catholic eno~agh to realize that being Catholic means being apostolic and who are educated enough to follow a skillful teacher through 362 pages of reasoning that is pleasingly adorned with quotations from Scrip-ture, St. Thomas Aquinas, Dante, and papal encyclicals. Specifically, this important volume is for high school or higher units of the Catho-lic Students' Mission Crusade, missionary congregations of religious, and for all Catholics who work or pray especially for our non-Catholic contemporaries, the seventeen million Jews, three hundred and twenty million heretics and schismatics, eleven hundred millior~ heathen or unbelievers in the Judaeo-Christian revelation. Father Lombardi studies honestfy and feelingly and with great charity the chances for salvation for this vast multitude as well for the about fifty billion (Ct6ca~/o Tribune, Nov. 25, 1955) human beings who have so far been inhabitants of this earth. On the one hand, by far the majority of this enormous number are not counted in the "little flock" of Christ. On the other hand are the clear words of Holy Scripture, "God our Savior . . . wishes all men to be saved" (I Tim. 2:3, 4). "But my just one lives by faith" (Heb. 10:38). "Without faith it is. impossible to please God. For. he who comes to God must believe thht God exists and is rewarder to those who 245 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religio'us seek him" (Heb. 11:6). Father Lombardi's study of the problem presented to us by these words and by the all but infinite multitude of unbelievers is consoling to our hope, convincing to our reason, arousing to our zeal. The volume would have profitted by a study of Hinduism in at least as much detail as the author gives to the three other very widespread but very much less intellectually organi~zed non-Christian religions which he studies specifically, Confucianism, BuddhiSm,' Islam~ Hinduism's pre-Homeric Vedas and pre-Socratic Upanishads are re-markable (and vastly voluminousI records of the anitna humana naturaliter Ghristiana.in its quest for God.' The prayer of the: Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad (1, 3, 28), '.'From untruth lead me to truth, from darkness lead me'to light, from death lead me to immortali:y!" is perhaps the greatest prayer outside.the sacred world of the Judaeo- Christian revelation, yet so "naturally Christian" is~ the prayer that it might well have been written by Cardinal Newman in his Anglican d.ays as a note to his Anglican hymn "Le.ad, Kindly Light!" If Father Lombardi issues a ndw edition of his volume, the writings which B.dlgi~n Jesuit scholar missioharies Johanns a~nd Dandoy have published on Hinduism can help l~im show his readers still more reason for l~ope .and for zeal than even this admirable edition does. ---' PAUL DENT, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCE~AENTS THE BRUCE PUBLISHING CO., 400 N. Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wiscoiisin. Mother of Fair Love. By Augustine Schroe~ler. Translated by Veronica Kir~land. The medium that the author of this latest life of the Blessed Virgin has chosen ~is the psychological novel. It is a happy choice for it enables her to paint a very vivid picture of our Lady. The book is carefully written anduses tO the full all that scholarship' in various fields has to offer one who would .paint a true-to-life poi'trait of God's most favored creature. Pp. 195. $3.50. An Introduction to' Philosophy. By Daniel J. Suliivan.To master the fundamentals of any subject is usually quite difficult. This is especially true of philosophy and particularly so for those who 246 July, 1957 "~OOK ANNOUNCEMENTS have no scientific background. This book was written with such im dividuals in mind. You will find in it a history of philosophy and a clear exposition of the problems that philosophy labors to solve. The book was the March selection of the Thomas More Book Club. Pp. 288. $3.75. The Catholic Priest in the Modern World, by James A. M~gner, is a very careful analysis of the many problems which 'the priest, and particularly the pastor of a parish, must solve. Pastors, ctirates, and seminarians who read the book will find th;~ time spent on it well spent. There is an adequate index. Pp. 286~ $4.75. Ho!y Week Manual for Servers. By Revo Waiter J. Schmitz, S,S. A copy of this book in the hands of each server should do much to add to the dignity and smooth performance of the compli, cared Holy Week services. Pp. 60. $0.50. Fundamental Marriage Counseling. A Catholic Viewpoint. By John R. Cavanagh, M.D. This is a very complete book on all aspects of marriage counseling and the many problems the counselor has to solve. There are 531 'pages of text, a bibliography of 31 pages, an 8 page glossaryl and a 25 page index. $&00. FIDES PUBLISHERS, 7~44 E. 79th St., Chicago 19, ~llinois. In Father of the Family, by Eugene S. Geissler, we have a con-tribution to sociology. The author, himself the father of ten, writes about the family from the father's point of view interestingly and seriously. The book is recommended ~eading for fathers and mothers of families both actual and prospective. Pp. 157. $2.95. FORDHAM UNIVERSITY PRESS, New York 58, New York. ; Spiritual and Intellectual Elements in the Formation of Sistei~s. Edited by Sister Ritamary, C.H.M. This is the second volume which has grown out of the six regional meetings of the Sister Formation Conference, 1955-56, The first volume bore the" title-The Mind of the Church in the Formation of Sisters and was reviewed in these pages in September, 1956 (pp. 273-74). Part I of the present volume deals with the viewpoin~ of keynote speakers and priest panelists 6n tl'ie spiritual and intellectual elements in the formationof sisters; Part II considers the viewpoint of religious sisters themselves; Part III summarizes replies and comments to questionnaires, while Part.IV deals with communications and commentaries. The reader is im-pressed by the energy and zeal with which the sisters themselves have 247 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious attacked their problems¯ Such zeal and energy cannot but lead to a happy solution. Pp. 261. $3.00. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS, St. Meinrad, Indiana. Pope Pius XII and Theological Studies. Edited by A. Yzermans. In addition to the encyclical letter //umani Generis, there are five addresses of the reigning Holy Father and an introductory essay on "Pius XII and TheologiCal Novelty" by the editor. Pp. 100. $0.50. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminister, Maryland. Methods of Mental Prayer. By Cardinal Lercaro. Translated by T. F. Lindsay. As the title indicates, this book is concerned exclusively with methods of mental prayer. It presents all of the better-known methods and does so objectively. The important thing in mental prayer is, of course, prayer; the method is secondary, yet still important. For if a method does not help you to pray, that method is not for you. You should choose another. With the aid of this .book the choice of a different method becomes easy since so many are listed and described in detail. The book, however, is not recommended for indiscriminate reading by novices, who might easily become confused and overwhelmed by the wealth of material offered. It should prove very helpful to the mature religious and to priests. Pp. 308. $5.75. The Gospel to Every Creature. By Bishop Leon-Joseph Suenens. Translated by' Louise Gavan Duffy. Catholics admire the missionary spirit which sends individuals to the ends of the earth to save souls. Many of them, however, do not realize that they too must be mis-sionaries even though they cannot travel to fields afar;~ tha't they too must labor to bring others to their true home in the Catholic Church. You will find a complete discussion of the missionary vocation as it applies to every individual in the pages of this book. Pp. 163. $3.00. The Angels and Their Mission According to the Fathers of tl~e Church. By Jean Danielou, S.J. Translated by. David Heimann. Devotion to the angels is traditional for Catholics, and for the ma-jority a reality, at least so we hope. It would help if Catholics were reminded more frequently of the role angels play in their lives. They are not so reminded by the books in English that they read. I know oi: only one, and that one was published more than thirty years ago. So the present volume is surely timely and will help to fill a great need. Pp, 118. $2.75. 248 July, 1957 BOOK ANNOUI~CEMENTS Christ, Our Lady and the Church. A Study in Eirenic Theology. By Yves M-J. Congar, O.P. Translated by Henry St. John, O.P. Eirenic theology may be described as that branch of. theology which endeavors to bring back to the unity of one faith our Protestant neighbors. It does so by finding the common ground we share with them, ana!ysing the divergences, and pointing out errors and mis-placed emphasis wherever it may exist. Since the greatest divergence between our Protestant brethren and the Church concerns precisely the Catholic doctrine on the nature of the Church and the place of our Lady in it, this book deals with these topics. Pp. 103. $2.75. Problems in Theology. Vol. I. The Sacraments. By John McCarthy, D.D., D.C.L. This book is a compilation of material that appeared in the section "Notes and Queries" of The Irish Ecclesiastical Record during the past fifteen years. The author and publishers promise a second volume to deal with principles and precepts. There is no index. Pp. 433. $6.75. Problems in Canon Law. By William Conway, D.D., D.C.L. In this volume Father Conway, who has long answered the canonical difficulties of the readers of 7'he Irish Ecclesiastical Record, has col-lected and classified a great many of the practical problems he has received. The publishers announce that this is the first volume of a new series on practical problems in theology and canon law. There is an eight page index. Pp. 345. $5.50. REVIEWOF CATHOLIC CHURCH MUSIC The appearance of a new Catholic periodical is always noteworthy, especially of one devoted to music. The Caecilia appearing in Feb-ruary, 1957, is marked "Volume 85, Number 1"; 13ut it is the first issue of the venerable magazine under the new management of the Society of St. Caecilia, recently revitalized through the efforts of Reverend Francis Schmitt. Father Schmitt has achieved a noteworthy place in the ranks of American Catholic church musicians through his inspiring work with the Boystown choir, with his annual choirmasters' workshop, and now, with the restoration of the Caecilian Society. The "new" Caecilia appears as a quartqrly review devoted to the liturgical music apostolate. Besides editor Schmitt and "editor emeri-tus" Dom Ermin Vitry, O.S.B., the con.tr~butmg editors include: Theodore Marier, Reverend Richard Schule~, James Welch, Reverend Francis Brunner, C.Ss.R., Paul Koch, and R~verend Francis Guentner, S.J. Under such management the journal gives promise of outspoken but scholarly criticism as well as appreciation of current efforts in liturgical music. The address is: Box 1012, Omaha I, Nebraska. 249 Ques!:ions and Answers [The following answers are given by Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor of canon law. at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] --19-- What bows does the priest make at Benediction of the Moit Blessed Sacrament? The priest makes a moderate.bow of the body before rising to put in incense(S. R. C., 4179, 6) and at Veneremur cern'ui and a pro-found bow of the head immediately before and after incensing (S. R. C., 3086, 3) and at Oremus. A moderate bow of the body is a bow of the head accompanied by a slight inclination of the shoulders (S. R. C., 4179, 1). A profound bow of the body is never made while kneel-ing. Cf. J. O'Connell, Benedictionale, 4-5; The Celebration' of Ma~s, 298; De Amicis, Caeremoniale Parochorum, 79-80. 20 Has a religious who has been excluded from renovation of tem-porary vows or from making perpetual profession the right of sus-pensive recourse to the Holy See against the exclusion? No. The contrary impression arises from a confusion of exclia-sion with dismissal. The two are not the same. A dismissal in canon law is verified only by an expulsion during the time of the vows; an exclusion is an expulsion at the expiration of the vows. It is also merely the refusal of admission to a further profession. Therefore, the canonical prescriptions on dismissal do n
De forma general, la medición de productos, investigadores o grupos es un proceso que puede generar tensiones, más aún si se tiene en cuenta que estas mediciones tienen implicaciones económicas e institucionales. El proceso de medición en el caso de la producción académica pasa en primer lugar por enlistar el tipo de productos que pueden dar cuenta de la actividad académica y que pueden ser objeto de indicadores de medición. Así se encuentran dentro de estos productos libros, capítulos en libro, artículos científicos, artículos de divulgación, materiales de intervención psicosocial, patentes, modelos, normas, software, artefactos de intervención social, acciones de apropiación social del conocimiento, participación en escenarios académicos y sociales de los productos de investigación, las acciones de transformación de política pública, como otros productos de innovación social y los procesos de formación asociados a la producción de investigación. Luego, en este proceso de medición es necesario evaluar los productos y esto presenta un alto nivel de complejidad. Por ejemplo, en el caso de los artículos publicados en revistas tienen una evaluación más clara por cuanto los mismos deben pasar por procesos de valoración de pares y además, las revistas visibilizan la calidad mediante el reconocimiento que los investigadores dan a su trabajo expresado en los usos de estos contenidos. En este sentido, una revista con una alta citación de sus contenidos puede generar un indicador de la calidad de los artículos de la misma y los sistemas de información de citación o de descargas pueden darnos indicadores de esta dinámica de evaluación de la calidad de estos productos. Pero esta información no solo es utilizada para valorar los productos sino que además hay estudios que muestran el uso, validez de técnicas, tráfico de videos o impacto de ciertos contenidos sobre una comunidad (Haran & Poliakoff, 2011; Sugimoto et al., 2013; Thelwall, Haustein, Larivière, & Sugimoto, 2013). Por otro lado y con un grado de complejidad mayor, la evaluación de los libros y capítulos en libro no pasan por los mismos sistemas de valoración y edición previa, lo que añade una distancia en términos de calidad percibida. Sin embargo, las editoriales se han dado cuenta hoy por hoy de la necesidad de contar con procesos transparentes y exigentes) de valoración por pares de los contenidos. Es por esta razón que en gran parte de los sistemas de valoración de productos que los artículos y los libros no tienen la misma asignación de valor. La valoración de otras formas de producción como la presentación en eventos académicos o la presentación en medios de difusión puede resultar un poco más difusa, pues no todos los eventos académicos hacen evaluación por pares y los medios de comunicación no necesariamente deciden sus contenidos en relación con la calidad de la investigación si no por las dinámicas mediáticas que se escapan de la dinámica de la valoración académica. No obstante, estas actividades podrían tener una valoración en relación con la difusión y las descargas en la red a este tipo de contenidos y en las citaciones que se hacen de ese contenido no solo en el ámbito académicos, si no social (Thelwall et al., 2013). Además, dado que ha sido un campo creciente, debido a la facilidad en el acceso a la información, se han creado páginas que intentan evaluar los contenidos generados por fuera de sistemas tradicionales de producción textos escritos, como por ejemplo los blogs (Zivkovic, 2011). Por otro lado, otros productos que pueden ser fácilmente valorables son las patentes; por cuanto pasan por procesos de evaluación y reconocimiento de pares. Por el contrario, es un poco más complejo valorar las intervenciones o las innovaciones sociales como las que se expresan en leyes o en documentos de política pública, ya que deberían tener un reconocimiento importante por el impacto que generan en la sociedad. No obstante, las dinámicas políticas no necesariamente toman en cuenta estos contenidos de incidencia social solo por la fuerza de los hallazgos académicos, sino por las consecuencias políticas o económicas de las mismas. En este sentido, informes de política pública o leyes que se logren con base en hallazgos de investigación deberían tener un peso significativo en la evaluación. Por otro lado están productos un poco más complejos de medir como los que están asociados a incorporar resultados de investigación a cambios en las dinámicas sociales en comunidades. Éstos son más difíciles de medir y valorar ya que no es posible dar cuenta de la calidad de los mismos y de sus impactos. Por lo anterior, es claro que estamos ante el reto de encontrar formas de medir su utilidad, impacto y calidad. Los procesos de formación pueden ser evaluados midiendo a los estudiantes en los proyectos y grupos de investigación y en el caso de procesos de formación en doctorado seguramente las tesis de maestría y doctorado pueden dar indicadores, tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Por ejemplo, algunos de estos tipos de productos terminan en libros y artículos en revistas generando más indicadores menos inmediatos. Pero, es necesario pensar el tema por cuanto la formación doctoral en contextos como el colombiano es incipiente y pueden existir centros de investigación que no están orientados a la formación y no podrían dar cuenta de su actividad en esta dimensión. También, es necesario tener en cuenta que estos sistemas de medida deben compararse contra las dinámicas propias de cada una de las áreas de conocimiento. En este sentido, no es lo mismo evaluar los impactos de la biomedicina, que de la astronomía o de las ciencias sociales que de las humanidades. En el caso colombiano la producción de artículos en ciencias sociales registrados en Scopus es grande y está en crecimiento con relación a otras áreas del conocimiento , por lo tanto, no puede compararse si no contra sí misma. Así, las herramientas de contabilizar y visualizar la producción (en este caso Scopus) permiten ver este crecimiento contrario a lo que algunos académicos sin evidencia pueden llegar a afirmar. La estrategia de Scopus de inclusión de revistas de América Latina en forma exponencial y en especial de abrirle la puerta a las revistas de ciencias sociales y humanidades permite dar cuenta de las dinámicas de citación de estos productos en forma cada vez más fiable. Por último y como una forma de recoger en muchos casos la discrepancia ante los sistemas de medición, es necesario que se evalúen los sistemas de ponderación de los productos y los pesos de los mismos. Al igual que las ventanas de evaluación temporal y de las limitaciones de los sistemas de registro, pues las fallas en estos sistemas de registro y ponderación pueden deslegitimar el sistema de valoración. En el caso colombiano, estas fallas, por lo general, han generado desconfianza y el sistema debería definir estrategias de ajuste y de mejoramiento en el proceso hasta que el mismo sea suficientemente robusto y confiable. Otro elemento adicional debería ser el comparar estos modelos de medición entre países (mediciones comparables a nivel internacional) para identificar las debilidades y las fortalezas como los impactos que ellos tienen sobre las dinámicas de producción académica. Con todo lo anterior, lo que sí parece evidente es que no podemos escapar de los procesos de evaluación y que debemos contribuir a mejorar los mismos a estudiar sus impactos y a asegurar la calidad de los mismos, justificando y valorando su uso al interior de la comunidad académica y social. Referencias Haran, B., & Poliakoff, M. (2011). SPORE series winner. The periodic table of videos. Science (New York, N.Y.), 332(6033), 1046–7. doi:10.1126/science.1196980 Sugimoto, C. R., Thelwall, M., Larivière, V., Tsou, A., Mongeon, P., & Macaluso, B. (2013). Scientists popularizing science: characteristics and impact of TED talk presenters. PloS One, 8(4), e62403. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062403 Thelwall, M., Haustein, S., Larivière, V., & Sugimoto, C. R. (2013). Do altmetrics work? Twitter and ten other social web services. PloS One, 8(5), e64841. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064841 Zivkovic, B. (2011). What is: ResearchBlogging.org | The Network Central, Scientific American Blog Network. Scientific American blogs. Retrieved April 16, 2014, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/network-central/2011/10/19/what-is-researchblogging-org/ ; Generally speaking, the measurement of products, researchers, or groups, is a complex process that may give rise to tensions, especially when considering that these measurements have economic and institutional implications. The first step in the measurement process, in the case of scientific output, is to list the type of products that can account for academic activity and that may be subject to measurement indicators. These include books, book chapters, scientific papers, divulgation papers, psychosocial intervention materials, patents, models, guidelines, software, social intervention artifacts, social knowledge appropriation actions, participation in academic and social events with research products, actions of public policy transformation, other social innovation products and the processes linked to the production of research. The next step is to assess those products, which is a very complex matter. For example, clear evaluation criteria are available for journal papers, since they need to undergo peer review and journals transform quality into visibility by taking advantage of the recognition that researchers give to them in terms of citations. A journal with a high citation count can provide an indicator of its quality and information systems can also provide indications of these quality assessment dynamics. This information is not only used to assess products but has also been used in studies about usage, techniques, video traffic or impact of certain contents in a community. (Haran & Poliakoff, 2011; Sugimoto et al., 2013; Thelwall, Haustein, Larivière, & Sugimoto, 2013). On the other hand, and with a greater degree of complexity, assessing books and book chapters do not have the same systems of evaluation and edition, which decreases their perceived quality. Nevertheless, publishing houses have realised that transparent and demanding assessment processes are needed. This is why both assessment systems are not assigned the same value. Giving value to other forms of production, such as presenting in academic events or in general mass media, may be a little more difficult, because not all academic events have peer reviewing processes and mass media do not necessarily choose what contents to publish based on the quality of the research but on their own dynamics, which are completely different from those found in academia. However, these activities could be assessed by using download, diffusion and citation indicators both in academic and social settings (Thelwall et al., 2013). With the associated growth in this field, new websites that attempt to assess the quality of the contents created outside traditional written production settings, such as blogs, have been created (Zivkovic, 2011). Another type of product that can be easily evaluated is patents, since their assessment has a peer reviewing component. Social interventions or innovations expressed in laws or public policy documents, however, are more difficult to assess, despite the important potential recognition they should have due to their impact on society. Political dynamics do not necessarily take into account the research value of these contents despite their social incidence, but also their political or economical consequences. In terms of assessment, reports on public policy or laws based on research findings should have a more significant weight. Even more difficult would be to measure the impact of research findings on social dynamics within communities, since it is not easy to assess their quality and impact. The challenge clearly is to find those ways of measuring usefulness, impact, and quality. Educational processes can be assessed by measuring the performance of students in projects and research groups, and associated documents (master's and doctoral theses), both in the short and long term. Some of these products end up being part of books and journal papers, but the difficulty lies in the weight and maturity of these processes in certain contexts: for example, in the Colombian context, doctoral training is still incipient, and a number of research centres are not geared towards training and could not, therefore, account for their own activity in this dimension. These measurement systems should compare their results within each field of knowledge and taking their own dynamics into account. It is not the same to assess the impact of biomedicine or astronomy or social science, or the humanities. In Colombia, the production in the field of social science recorded by Scopus is strong and growing more than other knowledge areas, and thus cannot be compared against any other field than itself. The tools used to tally and visualise production (Scopus in this case) allow us to observe this growth and counter the arguments of some academics that state otherwise without evidence. Scopus' strategy of covering Latin American journals, and especially of opening its doors to the Social Sciences and the Humanities, enables us to monitor their citation dynamics in an increasingly reliable way. A final step would be to revise the processes of weighting products, the assessment windows and the limitations of recording systems, because failures in these systems and in the weighting process may contribute to reduce the perceived quality of the assessment system. In Colombia, these problems have created a lack of trust in the system, and adjustment and improvement strategies should be implemented until the whole process is robust and reliable. Another element is to compare these models of measuring the performance of countries to identify strengths and weaknesses, along with the impacts on academic output. What is ultimately self-evident is that we cannot seem to escape assessment processes and that we need to contribute to improve them, to enhance their impact and their quality, and to justify and value their use within academic and social communities. References Haran, B., & Poliakoff, M. (2011). SPORE series winner. The periodic table of videos. Science (New York, N.Y.), 332(6033), 1046–7. doi:10.1126/science.1196980 Sugimoto, C. R., Thelwall, M., Larivière, V., Tsou, A., Mongeon, P., & Macaluso, B. (2013). Scientists popularizing science: characteristics and impact of TED talk presenters. PloS One, 8(4), e62403. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062403 Thelwall, M., Haustein, S., Larivière, V., & Sugimoto, C. R. (2013). Do altmetrics work? Twitter and ten other social web services. PloS One, 8(5), e64841. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064841 Zivkovic, B. (2011). What is: ResearchBlogging.org | The Network Central, Scientific American Blog Network. Scientific American blogs. Retrieved April 16, 2014, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/network-central/2011/10/19/what-is-researchblogging-org/
Scientific-technical borrowings are one of those types of scientific support for the work of industrial sectors, whose role in the conditions of exiting the crisis to acquiring the particular importance. Since the mid-1920s, they have become the main how of scientific support for the organization of the development of Ukrainian electric machine-building industry in the context of large-scale electrification of the country. That was due to the need for a quick withdrawal of this industry from the previous crisis in the absence in the Ukrainian SSR of its own scientific support system for the electric machine engineering. The first form of scientific-technical borrowings for the republican segment of the Soviet Union profile industry was the agreement between the State Electrotechnical Trust and the German electrotechnical company Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft on scientific-technical cooperation. The main objective of this act was to achieve at the lowest possible financial cost the fastest possible increase in productivity of the Kharkiv Electromechanical Plant. To do this, it was supposed using the American technologies for the production of electrical machines but implemented them on German technological equipment. Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft was the company that already made such it at the beginning of the twentieth century using the technologies of the General Electric Company. Moreover, in the pre-Soviet period, it made an attempt to hold a similar act at the Kharkiv Electromechanical Plant, which it owned in this time; however it ended in failure due to the revolutionary upheavals that began in Ukraine. Thus, the agreement concluded with the German company was a continuation of the same actions, what itself had begun, but, already in new historical realities. That is, the Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft actions were copied by the Soviet government, however, adapted to the Soviet way of organizing industrial production. Despite the fundamental difference between the latter and the working conditions of the Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft in Germany, the concentration of the parties precisely on the scientific and technical component of the project made it possible to achieve the expected result in full. However, at the same time, Ukrainian electric machine builders focused specifically on the speed of duplication of scientific-technical knowledge missed the opportunity to study the methodology for obtaining them. This became the reason that these scientific-technical borrowings did not become the proper basis for the formation of the scientific component of the scientific-technical potential of the domestic electric machine-building industry. ; Науково-технічні запозичення є одним з тих видів наукового забезпечення роботи промислових галузей, чия роль в умовах виходу з кризи набуває особливої значущості. З середини 1920-х років вони стали основним способом наукового супроводу організації розвитку українського електромашинобудування в умовах масштабної електрифікації країни. Це обумовлювалося необхідністю швидкого виведення галузі з попереднього кризового стану за відсутності в УСРР власної системи наукового забезпечення електромашинобудівної індустрії. Першою формою здійснення науково-технічних запозичень для українського сегменту союзної галузі став договір між Державним Електротехнічним трестом та німецькою електротехнічною фірмою Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft про науково-технічне співробітництво. Головною метою даного заходу стояло досягнення якомога більш швидкого збільшення продуктивності Харківського електромеханічного заводу за мінімальних фінансових витрат. Для цього передбачалося використати американські технології виробництва електричних машин, що втілювалися б на німецькому технологічному оснащенні. Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft була тією компанією, що вже втілила в себе такий прийом на початку ХХст., використовуючи технології General Electric company. Більше того, нею було здійснено спробу здійснити аналогічний захід на Харківському електромеханічному заводі, що належав їй у дорадянські часи. Однак вона завершилася невдачею через розпочаті на українських теренах революційні потрясіння. Таким чином, укладений з німецькою фірмою договір став продовженням нею ж розпочатих дій, проте в уже нових історичних реаліях. Тобто, радянським урядом було скопійовано заходи Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft, але адаптовані до радянського способу організації промислового виробництва. Не зважаючи на докорінну відміну останнього від умов роботи Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft у Німеччині, зосередження сторін саме на науково-технічній складовій проекту дозволило домогтися очікуваного результату в повному обсязі. Проте при цьому українськими електромашинобудівниками, зосередженими на швидкості дублювання науково-технічних знань, було упущено можливість вивчення методології їх отримання. Це стало причиною тому, що проведені науково-технічні запозичення не стали належним ґрунтом формування наукової складової науково-технічного потенціалу вітчизняного електро-машинобудування. ; Научно-технические заимствования являются одним из тех видов научного обеспечения работы промышленных отраслей, чья роль в условиях выхода из кризиса приобретает особую значимость. С середины 1920‑х годов они стали основным способом научного сопровождения организации развития украинского электромашиностроения в условиях масштабной электрификации страны. Это обуславливалось необходимостью быстрого вывода отрасли из предыдущего кризисного состояния при отсутствии в УССР собственной системы научного обеспечения электромашиностроительной индустрии. Первой формой осуществления научно-технических заимствований для республиканского сегмента союзной отрасли стал договор между Государственным Электротехническим трестом и немецкой электротехнической фирмой Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft о научно-техническом сотрудничестве. Главной целью данного мероприятия было достижение при минимальных финансовых затратах как можно более быстрого увеличения продуктивности Харьковского электромеханического завода. Для этого предполагалось использовать американские технологии производства электрических машин, реализуемые на немецком технологическом оборудовании. Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft была той компанией, которая уже осуществила у себя такой прием в начале ХХ века, используя технологии General Electric company. Более того, ею была сделана попытка проведения аналогичного мероприятия на принадлежавшем ей в досоветский период Харьковском электромеханическом заводе, которая закончилась неудачей из-за начавшихся на территории Украины революционных потрясений. Таким образом, заключенный с немецкой фирмой договор стал продолжением ею же начатых действий, однако уже в новых исторических реалиях. То есть, советским правительством были скопированы мероприятия Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft, адаптированные, однако, к советскому способу организации промышленного производства. Несмотря на коренное отличие последнего от условий работы Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft в Германии, сосредоточение сторон именно на научно-технической составляющей проекта позволило добиться ожидаемого результата в полном объеме. Однако при этом украинскими электромашиностроителями, сосредоточенными именно на скорости дублирования научно-технических знаний, была упущена возможность изучения методологии их получения. Это стало причиной тому, что проведенные научно-технические заимствования не стали должной основой формирования научной составляющей научно-технического потенциала отечественного электромашиностроения.
President Obama travelled to Europe this week for a one-day summit of the G-20 in London and a NATO summit in Strasbourg and Kehl. He then went to Prague to deliver a non-proliferation speech, which, with exquisite timing on the part of the North Koreans, came on the same day as that country tested a ballistic missile delivery system over Japan. In both the G-20 and the NATO summit, protestors took to the streets, in some cases becoming quite destructive.Obama's performance in Europe is being debated in the strongest terms in the United States: did he deliver? While many were again moved by his ability to dazzle European audiences, a consensus seems to be emerging that he is coming back home empty-handed. It would be easy to dismiss this divergence of views as politics as usual, with the Republicans criticizing him harshly while his own party lavishes praise on his performance, but it is somewhat more complicated than that: the question today is how much his popularity and charisma translate into getting palpable results that meet US interests.Dominique Moïsi recently commented on the risks of ignoring the dichotomy between Obama's essence (whohe is)and his performance (what he does). For the rest of the world in general, and for Europeans in particular, his electoral triumph has evoked enthusiasm and restored confidence in the resilience and vitality of American democracy, which many had come to doubt. With Obama, the man himself is the message. They like who he is, but will they also like what he does to protect American interests around the world? Changes in foreign policy are often less about grand declarations than they are about alterations in tone, outlook and priorities. However, underlying the rhetoric and the diplomatic dialogue, there are always the nation's interests which are much more immutable than changes in leadership. Obama has already changed the tone and texture of American diplomacy, but transforming the substance of US foreign policy will take much longer and will be much more difficult to achieve.Speaking to a spell-bound audience of French and German students in Strasbourg, France, he urged Europeans to join in a common effort to restructure the global economy and renew the trans-Atlantic alliance. In his cool yet direct way, Obama managed to talk to Europeans in some pretty harsh terms about the strained relationship. He had a difficult message to convey. To soften it, he first confessed America's own hubris: "In America there is a failure to appreciate Europe's leading role in the world. Instead of celebrating your dynamic union.there have been times when America has shown arrogance and been dismissive and even derisive."Then it was Europe's turn:"…But in Europe there is an anti-Americanism that is… casual but that can also be insidious…there have been times when Europeans choose to blame America for much of what is bad…these attitudes have become too common. They are not wise. They do not represent the truth. They fail to acknowledge that America cannot confront the challenges of this century alone but that Europe cannot confront them without America."He then reminded them that Islamic extremism is a threat to Europe as much as it is a threat to the United States. He pointed out some changes his administration has already made to bring it more in line with international sentiment: the closing of Guantánamo, the outlawing of torture, abandoning the use of the terms "enemy combatant" and "the war on terror." "America is changing but it cannot be America alone that changes," he said. He pledged a united front to tackle the Afghanistan war, the Palestinian conflict and the global crisis. Now it is up to Europe to do more, he implied.His speech brought applause from the crowd at several instances. Unfortunately, he was less effective in obtaining what he wanted from European decision-makers. This led pundits here to comment acidly that while Obama's aura and Michelle's grace are both national assets, they are not enough to persuade allies to do what is in the American interest. His harshest critics in the US said that in order to conquer their sympathies, Obama deferred to the European agenda and conceded too much: his mea culpa about American arrogance was too much for the opposition party to swallow. The truth is that he had two very difficult cases to make: first he had to persuade European leaders to increase their fiscal stimulus to 2% of their GDP; then he had to coax them into contributing more troops to the Afghan war. He was rebuffed on both fronts.On the economic front, it was a demand Europeans were not ready to make, given that, unlike the US, these social democracies already are financing large welfare states. Also in contrast with the US, Europe still has room left to use monetary policy to stimulate their economies. However, Obama was successful in starting to rebuild frayed relations not only with Europe but also with Russia and China. The G-20 communiqué contains several important steps toward strengthening international financial regulation, and it includes a directive to triple the IMF resources to 750 billion dollars to help distressed countries as well as a new trade finance initiative of 250 billion by the World Bank. An extra 100 billion in aid for the poorest countries will be raised from capital markets rather than the embers themselves. For a one-day summit, this is indeed progress: Obama is moving the ball down the line without turning it over to the other side. Later down the road, if and when the global economy needs further stimulus, he will be in a good position to make the case for more.In the case of NATO, his success was even perhaps more modest: he got a token increase in European troops for Afghanistan, but these are temporary only and will be deployed to train Afghan police and military, not in a fighting capacity. However, Obama used the forum to redefine America's intention there in much narrower terms, away from the unrealistic goal of establishing a Jeffersonian- style democracy and towards a new focus on rebuilding relations with the native population and containing Al Qaeda. He is also going to travel to Turkey next, to assuage fears in the Muslim world about American intentions toward them.In spite of the new commitment to increase the numbers of boots on the ground, it is clear that the Europeans are looking for an exit strategy in Afghanistan and that Americans, now more than ever, own that war: Obama is increasing the number of troops from 35.000 to 68.000 and has widened the theater of operations to include Pakistan. It is undoubtedly now an American war, a decision that may haunt him for years to come.The lost irony here is that Europeans have been very strident in opposing American unilateralism in Iraq, but when asked for a multilateral effort in Afghanistan, this one being the "legal" war that was approved by the UN Security Council, their response is a tepid 5,000 troops with no permission to engage, only to train Afghan military and police. Europe today has neither the stomach nor the resources for any type of war.In Prague, Obama outlined his vision for a world free of nuclear weapons. He warned that the non-proliferation regime is breaking down and called for a global summit on nuclear security. He said he hoped to negotiate a new treaty to end the production of fissile materials. On the deployment of a missile defense system in Eastern Europe, he opened two big loopholes: he said the US will deploy it "if it is effective" and "if Iran does not change its behavior." This is a major change of policy from the Bush years. It was very well received by the Russians but Obama will be severely criticized if his efforts to change the course in Iran fall flat, which is the most likely scenario.Ironically, while Obama's Prague speech on non-proliferation focused on preventing Iran and North Korea to develop nuclear weapons and delivery systems, Pakistan, a US ally, is not only a nuclear state itself, in possession of around five dozen nuclear weapons, but has a pathetically weak government that lacks the most rudimentary capacity of a modern state: it cannot control its own territory, its institutions are shaky and it is therefore very close to becoming a failed state. For now, it seems that the administration's best bet is to take a minimalist posture of what success here would look like: setting the bar for victory in the region lower, for example to the more modest goals of denying Al Qaeda safe havens and preventing the total collapse of both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Otherwise, the US runs again the risk of being trapped in a quagmire with no end in sight.The greatest paradox of the present world crisis is that among steep criticism of the American model and proposals to "rethink the American paradigm", the rest of the world is still looking to the United States to save them. No other power or world order is emerging to take its place and there is immense yearning and expectation that Obama will deliver a miracle and restore growth, prosperity and order around the world. However, under the new reality of dispersion of power, which is already becoming the defining trait of the 21st century, conflicts will at best be managed by concerted action among allies, but no longer solved by the absolute power and domination of the United States.Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
Wie kann man in digitale Kulturen intervenieren? Wie eingreifen in soziale, politische und ökonomische Kontexte und wie technologische Bedingungen und Infrastrukturen verändern? Diese Fragen kreisen über den sich in Herangehensweise und inhaltlicher Schwerpunktsetzung stark unterscheidenden Beiträgen des 2017 erschienenen SammelbandesInterventions in Digital Cultures, herausgegeben von Howard Caygill, Martina Leeker und Tobias Schulze. Der Titel verrät, welche zwei zentralen Begriffe hier abgetastet und befragt werden: Intervention und digitale Kultur. Beide dienen den Leser*innen als Orientierungshilfe, sich in der Perspektivenvielfalt der Beiträge nicht zu verlieren. Die Einleitung gibt eine vage Vorstellung davon, wie die Herausgeber*innen Intervention und digitale Kultur zusammendenken. Es wird davon ausgegangen, dass Interventionen auf der einen Seite den Infrastrukturen digitaler Kulturen unterliegen, diese aber auf der anderen Seite zugleich mitkonstituieren. Bei der Herausarbeitung dieses wechselwirkenden Moments der gegenseitigen Beeinflussung setzt das Buch an. Beide – digitale Infrastruktur und Intervention – werden mit der hier als Schlüsselbegriff verstandenen 'resilience' gedacht, die zum einen die technologischen Angebote selbst zu Agent*innen macht und damit die Performativität beider, der Infrastrukturen sowie der Interventionen, nochmals betont. Zum anderen wird die selbstreferenzielle Komponente hervorgehoben, da weder die infrastrukturellen Angebote noch die auf den Plan gerufenen Interventionen als lösungsorientiert verstanden werden. Vielmehr konstituieren sie ein System von Adaptionen und verweisen auf weitere Aktivitäten. Die wechselseitige Bedingtheit führt wiederum zum Paradox, dass Interventionen in die infrastrukturelle Umgebung digitaler Kulturen eingebunden sind. Folglich ist jeder Eingriff in diese Strukturen immer auch eine Bestätigung dieser, ein "feeding, unwillingly, the whole-earth-data-network" (S. 15). Das Buch hat nun den Anspruch zu überprüfen, in welcher Weise widerständige Praktiken dann überhaupt noch möglich sind. Auf methodischer Ebene ermöglicht dieses Fragen, Interventionen genealogisch einzubetten und die Konzepte und Diskurse dahinter neu zu denken. Schlüsselbegriffe wie 'resilience' unterliegen hierbei sinnigerweise keiner eindeutigen Definition, sondern sind bewusst offengelassen, um allen in den Band eingebetteten Zugängen Raum zu geben. Entsprechend fragen die Autor*innen bzw. Interviewten dann auch aus ganz unterschiedlichen Perspektiven danach, wie Interventionen als Störfaktor eines Systems fungieren, wann sie jedoch in ebenjenes System eingespeist und damit "ad absurdum" (S. 88) geführt werden. Nicht alle Beitragenden beziehen sich explizit auf digitale Kulturen; eine Historisierung zieht sich als Schlüsselkomponente durch viele Herangehensweisen. Zugrunde liegt dabei das Verständnis von Interventionen als "activities that engage in social and political contexts […] hoping to interrupt critical situations and ultimately change social, economic, or technological conditions" (S. 11). Dennoch geben die Herausgeber*innen keine klare Definition, sondern sehen den Band als ein "experiment in fostering thinking in ambivalences" (S. 139), was allein aufgrund der vielfältigen Zusammenstellung der Beiträge durchaus gelingt. Der erste Beitrag, ein Interview mit Fred Turner, stellt sogleich in einem historischen Vergleich das angeblich Neue in 'New Media' auf den Kopf. Turners These bezieht sich weniger auf eine technische, mehr auf eine gesellschaftskonstituierende Ebene, indem er Attribute wie egalitär, kollaborativ oder basisdemokratisch nicht allein dem digitalen Zeitalter zuschreibt, sondern Ideen eines gleichberechtigten Mediengebrauchs bereits in der us-amerikanischen Kurator*innenszene der 1940er-Jahre als Gegenentwurf zu "one-to-many media" wie das Radio oder die Zeitung (S. 23) sieht. Auch das problematische Demokratieverständnis hinter dieser 'unsichtbaren' Kuration ("some people know what is good for mankind better than others", S. 26) sieht Turner bereits dort begründet. Entsprechend warnt er davor, Interventionen mit künstlerischen Mitteln bereitwillig und unhinterfragt als kollaborativ zu verstehen, ohne ihre politisch relevante Geschichte mitzudenken. In der Frage, wie sich diese historiografische Betrachtungsweise auf aktuelle künstlerische Interventionen in digitalen Kulturen übertragen lässt, wird dieser Freiheitsanspruch von Turner wieder aufgegriffen. Denn die Imagination der 1940er- und 1950er-Jahre "as free in that world" findet sich in zahlreichen Versprechen sogenannter Sozialer Netzwerke wieder. Doch analog dazu müsse auch jetzt wieder der Gedanke an freie, bedingungslose Entscheidungen kritisch hinterfragt werden, denn: "I am free, but I am free in terms that are constantly being negotiated and set for me invisibly by managers, who work for states and companies" (S. 38). Turners Lösungsvorschläge sind insbesondere hinsichtlich des darauffolgenden Beitrags von Mitherausgeber Howard Caygill brisant. Denn während hier eine konstitutionelle Einmischung auf staatlicher Ebene denkbar wird, um die Macht des Oligopols digitaler Unternehmen zurückzudrängen, zeichnet Caygill die historische Entwicklung digitaler Netzwerke aus militärstrategischer Sicht nach. Bezugnehmend auf Carl von Clausewitz' posthum veröffentlichtes Werk Vom Kriege fokussiert Caygill seine Betrachtungen auf die Fragestellung nach der Bedeutung von strategischer Intervention ("strategic intervention", S. 47). Die von ihm beschriebene Ausgangslage ist die Forderung seitens staatlicher Mächte nach dem alleinigen Vorrecht auf Geheimhaltung und Informationsbeschaffung (insbesondere über digitale Medien, hier "the Internet"), was zwingend den Verzicht dieses Anspruchs seitens der Zivilgesellschaft nach sich zieht (vgl. S. 47). Zwar leugnet Caygill die schon frühe Entwicklung eines non-hierarchischen, dezentralisierten Netzwerkes nicht, doch betont er die Bestrebungen um Verschlüsselung und geheime Datenverfolgung sowie Informationsübertragung, die einer egalitären Nutzung von vornherein widersprach und das Internet als "an arcanum or space of secrecy [Herv. i. O.] " (S. 54) kennzeichnet. Alexander R. Galloway untersucht im Gespräch mit Martina Leeker die ambivalente Rolle der algorithmischen Bestimmung, die digitale Infrastrukturen offen und verschlossen zugleich erscheinen lässt. Die Frage bezüglich Interventionen richtet sich folglich nach den Möglichkeitsbedingungen widerständiger Praktiken innerhalb dieses ambivalenten Zustands (vgl. S. 62). Konträr zu Caygill sieht Galloway im Digitalen durchaus einen Raum für politischen Widerstand und spricht sich für "electronic civil disobedience" aus, dem durchaus nicht ganz unproblematischen Leitsatz folgend: "The Power isn't in the streets anymore" (S. 63). Konkrete Lösungen sind für Galloway sogenannte 'ad hoc networks', die außerhalb kommerzieller oder staatlicher Vermittlerpositionen funktionieren (S. 68). Widerständige Praktiken sind dabei als langfristige Projekte angelegt. Ein Gedankengang ist dabei besonders interessant: Obwohl digitale Kommunikation bereits auf Kürze und Schnelllebigkeit beruht, fordert Galloway diese weiter zu verkürzen und damit ein "network without data" zu konzipieren (S. 67), da lokal ohne weitere Vernetzung und Datenabgriff ausschließlich von Gerät zu Gerät kommuniziert werden könnte. Bezüglich der vieldiskutierten Algorithmen hinter digitalen Kulturen betont Galloway den Umstand, dass diese auf bestimmten Weltanschauungen basieren. Um ihre uniforme Darstellung zu durchbrechen, schlägt er vor, eben andere Perspektiven einzuschreiben, wie z. B. eine feministische und eilt damit Wendy Hui Kyong Chuns Betrachtungen voraus. Im Vordergrund stehen auch in ihrem Beitrag die technologischen Bedingungen von Intervention in digitalen Kulturen. Chun spricht sich allerdings dafür aus, Interventionen auf allen Ebenen zu suchen: "from hardware, protocols, software, and user interactions to how these are embedded in various economic and social systems and imaginaries" (S. 76). Damit ist sie die Erste des Bandes, die die Bedingungen digitaler Kulturen sowie das mögliche Eingreifen in diese multiperspektivisch betrachtet. Nicht neu, aber dennoch innovativ ist, technologische Infrastrukturen als Gewohnheiten ("habits") zu betrachten, denn dies eröffnet die Möglichkeit algorithmische Medien mit dem Prinzip der Homophilie zu denken. Homophilie nämlich ist es, was nach Chun die technologischen Strukturen und in weiterer Folge auch das Nutzer*innenverhalten beeinflusst und kennzeichnet. Eine Um- und Neugestaltung dieser Infrastrukturen könne nur über interdisziplinäre Zusammenschlüsse funktionieren, die der Gefahr entgegenlaufen, selbst Teil des Systems zu werden, in das eingegriffen werden soll (vgl. S. 83). Ulrike Bergermann wiederum bezieht sich in ihrem Artikel auf analoge Interventionen im Politischen, die sie als Eingreifen in eine laufende Sache, ein Stoppen, Innehalten, also als Blockade und Störfaktor versteht, der sich Fluidität und gleichbleibender Bewegung widersetzt. Ihr Beispiel betrifft das sogenannte 'human mic', eine Kulturtechnik ("social technologies", S. 88 und 95) des Protestes aus den 1970er-Jahren, die in der Protestbewegung Occupy Wall Street (OWS) im Herbst 2011 wieder aufgegriffen wurde. Bergermann versteht die Nutzung des human mic als neue politische Ästhetik eines Netzwerks von "human/technologies/imaginary" (S. 91). Bezugnehmend auf Nancys Konzept des Mitseins ("being-with"), stellt sie die Frage, welche Kollektivitäts- und Vereinzelungsstrategien darin hervortreten. Wenn Sein nur als Mitsein gedacht werden kann, steht die human mic-Bewegung vor der Herausforderung, ihre Behauptung "We are the 99 %" (S. 96) zu verteidigen: Formierungen wie die Gruppe POCupy legen offen, dass "[n]ot everybody had equal access to the human mic" (S. 98), was hier insbesondere für people of color zutrifft, die in der OWS-Bewegung größtenteils keine oder nur wenig Repräsentation finden. In dieser Weise muss nach Bergermann Nancy neu gedacht werden: "Interventions need mi-lieus insofar as re-thinking any space has to take into account how to connect in an unhierarchical manner, how this would be barred through supposedly antecedent structures, and how to approach the task of de-learning to put oneself first in line of perceiving and reasoning" (S. 100f.). Mit Steve Kurtz findet man wohl die techno-pessimistischste Perspektive des Bandes: Veränderungen hin zu weniger staats- oder ökonomiebedingter Überwachung hält er heutzutage für utopisch. Ähnlich wie Galloway vertritt Kurtz die Meinung, dass eine digitale Kommunikation ohne Metadaten – aus technischer Sicht – durchaus im Bereich des Möglichen und Umsetzbaren liegt, allerdings an den demokratiefeindlichen Strukturen des Kapitalismus scheitert. Eine systemimmanente Zäsur würde eine "reconstruction of the digital infrastructure" (S. 119) erfordern, die jedoch längst nicht mehr durchsetzungsfähig sei. Kat Jungnickel nutzt im abschließenden Beitrag des Bandes für ihre historiografische Arbeitsweise eine Anlehnung an die ANT, um über Interventionen zu sprechen. Ihr Fallbeispiel umreißt das Aufkommen des Fahrradfahrens im viktorianischen England und dessen Bedeutung für weibliche Mobilität, die durch die Bekleidung entweder ermöglicht oder eben verhindert wurde. Den Fokus auf "socio-technical systems and practices" richtend, die so weit in den Alltag integriert sind, dass sie selten bewusst wahrgenommen werden, eröffnet Jungnickel zumindest methodologisch neue Sichtweisen auf Interventionen in Bezug auf Körperlichkeit und Technologie, denn "the more mundane and trivialized something is, the more important its role probably is in daily life" (S. 126), entfernt sich jedoch von den titelgebenden digitalen Kulturen vollends. Die Stärke des Buches ergib sich sicherlich aus ihrer inter- und transdisziplinären Zusammenstellung: Theoretiker*innen der Philosophie, Politischen Theorie, Medienwissenschaft und Soziologie stehen im Austausch mit Aktivist*innen, woraus eine Methodenvielfalt entsteht, die wiederum die Ambivalenz von Interventionen veranschaulicht. Dieses Zusammenspiel bewusst nutzend, führen die Herausgeber*innen denn auch kein geringeres Ziel an, als die Konzeption eines "critical and practical guide for future interventions" (S. 17). Was diesen Band schlussendlich besonders interessant macht, sind also weniger die einzelnen Beiträge, die bereits aufgrund ihrer Kürze oft an der Oberfläche verbleiben. Doch der gegenseitige Bezug der Beitragenden aufeinander, ohne in einen tatsächlichen Austausch zu treten, stellt sich bei genauerer Betrachtung als enorme Bereicherung für interdisziplinäre Forschung im Bereich der Medienkultur- und Politikwissenschaft heraus. Während auf der einen Seite mehr staatliche Kontrolle des digitalen Kommunikationsbereichs (Turner) als Ausweg des ökonomisch bedingten Trackings betrachtet wird, wird dieser Gedanke im nächsten Beitrag (Caygill) aus historiografischer Perspektive hinsichtlich der Militarisierung digitaler Infrastrukturen, die Geheimhaltung, Verschlüsselung und Überwachung der Zivilgesellschaft impliziert, kritisch hinterfragt. Exitstrategien wie die bewusste Verweigerung digitaler Vernetzung (Galloway) finden ihren Gegenpol in der Herausarbeitung von Interferenzen zwischen unterschiedlichen Realitätsebenen, die digitale Kulturen eben nicht in einen virtuellen Raum abgrenzten, sondern Konsequenzen der digitalen Infrastrukturen auch auf den nicht-digitalen Bereich übertragen sehen (Caygill, Chun, Kurtz). Konzepte wie die des Habituellen und der Homophilie (Chun) werfen Fragen zu Kulturtechniken der politischen Intervention wie die des 'human microphone' auf, das als basisdemokratisches Mittel der Verschmelzung des Einzelnen und der Vielen gefeiert wird, aber zugleich als Repräsentation und Verbreitung nur einer Stimme/Meinung dient und damit durchaus ausschließend wirkt (Bergermann). In dieser Weise treten die Beiträge in einen imaginierten Diskurs (denn keiner der Beiträge bezieht sich tatsächlich und namentlich auf andere Artikel oder Interviews) und werfen mehr Fragen auf als sie Antworten geben können. Damit werden vielfältige Perspektiven und Denkweisen eröffnet, die eine hohe Anschlussfähigkeit mit sich bringen und die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Komplexität des Gegenstandes lenken. Denn so inflationär der Begriff der Interventionen auch gebraucht wird, zeigt dieser Band dennoch auf, wie notwendig und erkenntnisreich eine weitere Beschäftigung mit diesem hinsichtlich digitaler Kulturen ist. Die reflexive Methode muss als großer Mehrwert betrachtet werden, da sie in ihrer rhizomatischen Denkweise produktive Leerstellen und Denkanstöße bietet, statt dem Imago allgemeingültiger Theorien zu verfallen. Demnach wird der Anspruch "thinking in ambivalences" (S. 139) der Herausgeber*innen durchaus erfüllt.
Pupils with special needs in the Luxembourg national education system (Arthur Limbach-Reich, Justin J. W. Powell): As in other European countries, special needs education moves between exclusion and inclusion in Luxembourg. The Luxembourg Education Act of 1881 introduced for the compulsory schooling for all children first the time. In so doing, the law excused children with recognized impairments from this obligation, although the State gradually opened institutions dedicated to these children with special needs. This exclusion, later segregation from mainstream education, was strongly criticized in the late 1950s and 1960s. Then special classes were set up and specific institutions were created with the aim of providing support to these children. Yet not until 1973 did education become compulsory for all children, including those with disabilities – rather late by European standards. Whereas the establishment of special schools and special education classes was interpreted as progress (although late in coming relative to the neighboring countries), criticism became heated at the continued separation of 'normal' from 'non-normal' children. This criticism contributed to the Integration Act of June 1994, which had the goal of the widespread inclusion of all children in regular classes. At the national level, the care of SEN children in mainstream schools since 2009 has been monitored by multi-professional teams (équipes multiprofessionnelles) following the introduction of a new fundamental school law. However, if the skills base defined in the Education Act is not achieved, referral to special education (éducation différenciée) remains as a general option. Another obstacle to school inclusion is turning out to be the legal limitation of a maximum of eight years in primary school. In recent years, totals of between 700 to 850 children per year were classified as SEN children, corresponding to a percentage of about 1.4% to 1.8%. Statistically, at least three facts exemplifying inequalities demand enhanced attention. First, two thirds of SEN children in Luxembourg are male and this trend is increasing. Secondly, we observe that up to three fifths of these SEN children do not have Luxembourgish nationality. And thirdly, it must be noted that only two out of five SEN children are actually integrated into mainstream classes. The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities commits governments to the legally enforceable development of inclusive education systems to global standards – also in Luxembourg. Overall, despite awareness-raising, no fundamental change in special education and school integration in Luxembourg is discernible as a consequence of the ratification of the UN Disability Rights Convention. ; Schülerinnen und Schüler mit besonderem Förderungsbedarf im luxemburgischen Bildungssystem (Arthur Limbach-Reich, Justin J. W. Powell): Wie in anderen europäischen Ländern bewegt sich die sonderpädagogische Förderung in Luxemburg zwischen Ausgrenzung und Teilhabe. Das luxemburgische Schulgesetz von 1881 führte zum ersten Mal die allgemeine Schulpflicht für alle Kinder ein. Dabei befreite aber das Gesetz körperlich behinderte Kinder von dieser Pflicht, wobei der Staat nach und nach Institutionen eröffnete, die sich diesen Kindern mit besonderem Förderungsbedarf widmeten. Diese Exklusion bzw. Separation vom Regelschulwesen wurde in den späten 1950er und den 1960er Jahren stark kritisiert. Daraufhin wurden Sonder- oder Spezialklassen eingerichtet und spezifische Institutionen geschaffen, die der Förderung der Kinder dienen sollten. Erst 1973, im europäischen Vergleich eher spät, wurde die allgemeine Schulpflicht auf alle Kinder, also auch jene mit Behinderungen, ausgedehnt. Während die Einrichtung der Förderinstitutionen und Förderklassen als (später) Fortschritt gedeutet wurde, entzündete sich die Kritik an der noch immer bestehenden Trennung von "normalen" und "nicht-normalen" Kindern. Dieser Kritik trug das Integrationsgesetz aus dem Juni 1994 Rechnung, das die weitgehende Integration aller Kinder in einer Regelklasse zum Ziel hatte. Auf nationaler Ebene wird die Betreuung von Kindern mit pädagogischem Förderbedarf in der Regelschule seit 2009 mit der Einführung eines neuen Grundschulgesetzes von einem multiprofessionellen Team (équipe multiprofessionnelle) wahrgenommen. Dennoch bleibt bei Nichterreichung der im Schulgesetz formulierten Kompetenzsockel die Überweisung an die Éducation Différenciée als generelle Option bestehen. Als weiteres Hemmnis der schulischen Inklusion erweist sich die gesetzliche Begrenzung der maximalen Verweildauer von 8 Jahren im Grundschulsystem. Insgesamt wurden in den letzten Jahren zwischen 700 und 850 Kinder pro Jahrgang als Kinder mit besonderem Förderbedarf eingestuft, was einem Anteil von ca. 1.4 % bis 1.8 % entspricht. Statistisch betrachtet fallen dabei drei Sachverhalte besonders auf. Erstens sind in Luxemburg zwei Drittel der Kinder mit offiziellem Förderbedarf männlich, wobei die Tendenz steigend ist. Weiter fällt auf, dass bis zu drei Fünftel dieser Kinder mit offiziellem Förderbedarf nicht die luxemburgische Staatsangehörigkeit besitzen. Und drittens muss festgestellt werden, dass nur zwei von fünf Kindern mit offiziellem Förderbedarf tatsächlich in den Regelklassen integriert sind. Mit der UN-Konvention über die Rechte von Menschen mit Behinderung wird die Entwicklung inklusiver Bildungssysteme allerdings zur globalen Norm, staatlichen Verpflichtung und zum einklagbaren Recht – auch in Luxemburg. Wirft man einen zusammenfassenden Blick auf die sonderpädagogische Förderung und schulische Integration in Luxemburg, so lässt sich eine grundlegende Veränderung nach Inkraftsetzung der UN-Behindertenrechtskonvention noch nicht erkennen. ; Les élèves à besoins éducatifs spécifiques dans le système éducatif luxembourgeois (Arthur Limbach-Reich, Justin J. W. Powell): Comme dans d'autres pays européens, l'éducation répondant à des besoins spéciaux se situe au Luxembourg à la frontière entre l'exclusion et l'inclusion. La loi luxembourgeoise sur l'enseignement de 1881 introduit pour la première fois l'obligation scolaire pour tous les enfants, tout en dispensant les enfants physiquement handicapés de cette obligation. Par la suite, l'Etat mettait en place progres- sivement des établissements qui s'occupaient spécifiquement de ces enfants à besoins spécifiques. Cette exclusion ou mise à l'écart des enfants par rapport aux structures scolaires ordinaires a été fort critiquée à la fin des années 1950 et au cours des années 1960. Ainsi, des classes particulières ou spé- ciales ainsi que des établissements spécifiques ont été créés dans le but de promouvoir les enfants. Ce n'est qu'en 1973, relativement tard donc en comparaison avec les autres pays européens, l'obligation scolaire a été étendue à tous les enfants, y compris les enfants atteints d'un handicap. Alors que la mise en place d'établissements et de classes spécialisés a été considérée comme un progrès (quoique tardif), la critique a continué à se heurter à la distinction faite entre des enfants « normaux » et des enfants « non-normaux ». Cette critique a été prise en compte par la loi sur l'intégration de juin 1994 qui avait pour objectif d'intégrer dans la mesure du possible tous les enfants dans des classes ordinaires. Au niveau national, les enfants à besoins pédagogiques spécifiques sont pris en charge à l'école ordinaire par une équipe multi-professionnelle depuis l'introduction, en 2009, d'une nouvelle loi sur l'école fondamentale. Si les seuils de compétences définis dans la loi sur l'ens- eignement ne sont pas atteints, le transfert vers l'éducation différenciée reste néanmoins une option générale. L'inclusion scolaire est en outre entravée par le fait que la loi prescrit une durée maximale de huit ans pour la fréquentation de l'enseignement fondamental. Au cours des dernières années, entre 700 et 850 enfants ont été classés chaque année comme présentant des besoins éducatifs spé- cifiques, ce qui correspond à un taux de 1,4 % à 1,8 %. Au niveau statistique, il convient de relever trois particularités. Tout d'abord, au Luxembourg les deux tiers des enfants à besoins spécifiques recensés officiellement sont de sexe masculin, la tendance étant à la hausse. Ensuite, il faut souligner que près des trois cinquièmes de ces enfants ne sont pas de nationalité luxembourgeoise. Et, troisièmement, il importe de constater que seuls deux enfants sur cinq ayant des besoins spécifiques sont réellement intégrés dans des classes ordinaires. Avec la Convention des Nations-Unies relative aux droits des personnes handicapées, le développement de systèmes éducatifs inclusifs constitue désormais une norme globale, une obligation de l'Etat et un droit opposable – également au Luxembourg. Un regard récapitulatif sur l'éducation répondant à des besoins spéciaux et sur l'intégration scolaire au Luxembourg montre cependant qu'il n'y a pas encore eu de changement fondamental, suite à l'entrée en vigueur de la Convention des Nations-Unies relative aux droits des personnes handicapées.
Der vorliegende Artikel versteht sich als Kritik an der im "Psychotherapie Forum" verfolgten Politik des Qualitätsmanagements und damit der Objektivierung und Standardisierung seelischer Phänomene. Die hier gewählte Betrachtungsweise geht aus der Psychologie C. G. Jungs hervor und steht der "Archetypischen Psychologie" nah. Meine Gedanken fußen auf einer phänomenologisch-metaphorischen Betrachtung unseres Zeitgeistes. Ich versuche zu zeigen, daß das moderne Effizienzdenken der Meßlatte und dem Komparativ verpflichtet ist und denselben Prinzipien untersteht, die in der Magersucht vorherrschend sind. Es stellt sich die grundsätzliche Frage, inwiefern dieses Denken, das in Wirtschaftskreisen seinen berechtigten Platz haben mag, in Psychologie und Psychotherapie sinnvoll ist. Es geht letztlich um die Frage nach Wesen und Anliegen der Psychologie.Schlüsselwörter: Zeitgeist, Effizienz, Komparativ, Standardisierung, Fitness, Fortschritt, Magersucht, Qualitätsmanagement, Phänomenologie, Seele. ; The article below is to be understood as a critical review of the policy of quality control as pursued by "Psychotherapy Forum"; a quality control, which objectifies and standardizes phenomena of soul. The point of view taken by the author has its origin in the psychology of C. G. Jung and is close to "Archetypal Psychology". My thoughts are rooted in a phenomenological-metaphorical view of our Zeitgeist. I intend to demonstrate that modern considerations of efficiency are indebted an committed to the gauge and the comparative and thus subject to the same principles that predominate in anorexia. The fundamental issue is whether this kind of thinking, which has its rightful and relevant place in economics, makes sense for psychology and psychotherapy. In essence, it is a question of the nature and purpose of psychology.Keywords: Zeitgeist, efficiency, comparative, standardization, fitness, progress, anorexia, Magersucht, quality control, phenomenology, soul. ; Le présent article se réfère au Psychotherapie Forum no. 4, vol. 3, 1995, dans lequel plusieurs auteurs réclament avec insistance "une garantie et une gestion de qualité en psychothérapie". Il n'est possible de mettre en œuvre une politique de gestion de qualité que si l'on objective et standardise les phénomènes psychiques, c'est-à-dire si l'on fait de "l'âme" une quantité mesurable. Dans la perspective soutenue ici, qui se fonde sur la psychologie de C. G. Jung et se situe près de la "psychologie archétypique", je considère que cette objectivation et standardisation ne conviennent ni à la nature ni aux visées de la psychologie.Ma réflexion s'articule en trois volets: sa première partie est consacrée à une description métaphorico-phénoménologique de l'esprit de notre époque. Je tente de montrer que l'homme moderne vit presque exclusivement sous le signe du "comparatif : aujourd'hui, tout vise à être meilleur, plus beau, plus rapide, plus blanc, ou meilleur marché. Le principe de la comparaison mesurable est omniprésent, ce qui implique également que nous nous consacrons entièrement à la standardisation, et donc à la squelettisation des phénomènes.La standardisation telle qu'elle est pratiquée actuellement fait que nous sommes dominés par un principe d'ordre qui, entretemps, se suffit CL lui-même. Ce principe peut être amplifié à un point qui semblait jusqu'à maintenant incroyable, dans la mesure où le contenu perd une bonne partie de son importance et où l'on se désintéresse de toute résistance, de toute force d'inertie pouvant servir de frein - les caractéristiques d'une chose, par exemple. Aujourd'hui, progrès signifie: avancer toujours plus vite dans le même contexte. Il implique ce que Paul Virilio nomme la "stagnation frénétique" et qui peut être représenté par l'image de l'hélice tournant à vide. Il s'agit de ce que l'on appelle la "capacité à fonctionner comme une machine", du type de comportement auquel l'art kinétique applique des expressions telles que "fonctionner sans fonction", "vitesse pure", "vitesse totale" et qu'il persifle en élaborant des machines tournant à l'infini, sans aucun rapport avec leur contexte.Fonctionner comme une machine, être réduit à ses éléments de base - au squelette, se répéter de manière stéréotypée, être mis au comparatif: au moment de chercher une métaphore pour qualifier l'attitude moderne, l'image de l'anorexie vient à l'esprit. Je tenterai de montrer dans la deuxième partie de ma réflexion ce que j'entends par là. En tout cas "anorexie" ne se réduit pas au trouble de l'appétit. Le phénomène de la perte de poids observée en surface recouvre une attitude et une manière d'être qui l'accompagne et qui est définie par le degré auquel les choses peuvent être mesurées, comptées, par leur efficacité et leur valeur effective, par la régularité, par leur mise au comparatif, bref, par une rationalité décharnée. L'anorexie vise 0. réaliser toutes les valeurs qui donnent le ton de la vie moderne. Je ferai une brève digression et décrirai la journée d'une femme anorexique pour montrer cet aspect en détail.La troisième partie de l'article est consacrée au concept de "qualité". J'y mentionne le fait que ce concept, tel qu'il a été défini par l'ISO (l'International Standard Organization) et transféré au domaine de la santé par l'"Institute of Medicine", ne représente pas le pôle contraire de "quantité": "La qualité de l'offre se mesure au degré auquel les prestations de santé contribuent à produire les résultats souhaités auprès d'individus ou de groupes de population." (Psychother Forum 1995, p. 187). Cette définition fait de la "qualité" comme de la "quantité" des quantités mesurables, au lieu de les considérer comme des caractéristiques ou des propriétés spécifiques, qu'il ne serait pas possible de comparer. La qualité est plutôt "la caractéristique qui rend adéquat pour une visée, une tâche, une exigence données" (Psychother Forum 1995, p. 187). Ce que 1a gestion de qualité doit nous permettre de réaliser est une psychothérapie au format Din-A4. La manière d'être de l'anorexie, telle qu'elle est présentée brièvement dans notre digression, doit servir de modèle, en psychothérapie également. La question de l'âme n'est plus posée. Il devient évident que l'âme est comparable au corps et que, comme le corps parent de la machine, elle doit être entretenue. Elle est devenue un objet qui peut et doit être analysé, systématisé, réparé, rénové et conservé.A la fin de l'article, cette approche est contrastée avec celle de la psychologie archétypique, qui tente de tenir compte du fait "qu'à la différence de l'objet de l'observation empirique le phénomène psychologique constitue depuis toujours un tout incluant l'objet que nous observons et la vision guidant notre observation de cet objet" (Giegerich, 1994, p. 11).Dans ce sens, la psychologie devient la discipline qui pose la question de la dimension psychique de tout notre vécu. Elle est la discipline qui doit se charger d'identifier les aspects anorexiques de notre époque. "Identifier" ne veut pas dire nager avec le courant de l'époque et y collaborer. Il s'agit de s'arrêter un instant et de poser la question de savoir ce que les valeurs actuelles, savoir la domination du comparatif, signifient d'un point de vue psychologique. Cette fascination du comparatif, cette anorexie du 20e siècle contient une nostalgie du paradis, cette même nostalgie venue de la nuit des temps qui incitait les Guarani brésiliens à danser pendant des jours - "dans l'espoir que le mouvement perpétuel allégerait leurs corps et leur permettrait de s'envoler vers le ciel" (Eliade 1973, p. 131, notre traduction). C'est une même nostalgie qui pousse les jeunes adeptes du techno moderne à passer leurs week-ends danser aussi vite que possible, soutenus par la drogue ecstasy.
Non Communicable Diseases (NCDs) continue to elevate in the western pacific regions, including Vanuatu. Much efforts have been made in reducing the disease burden, however the challenges remains due to certain sociocultural behaviours, globalization, and urbanization which promotes unhealthy lifestyles such as eating lifestyles (unhealthy diet), physical inactivity, harmful use of alcohol and tobacco use. All these contributing factors tends to give rise to common risks for the intermediate factors such as raised in blood pressure, raised in the level of glucose in the blood, the unhealthy lipid profiles, and obesity.Comparing this disease in low-income countries and high-income countries it seem that the rate of NDC are higher in low-income countries, more specifically the countries in the western pacific regions. Even that there are few South East Asian countries such Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, and Cambodia which were also regarded as having high mortality rates of NCD (1). According to the profile in 2008 it was estimated that it's the western pacific region that has more of the effect, showing more than a quarter of the 36 million deaths were due to NCD alone.Furthermore it continue to states that the trend will continue to increase by 15% between 2010 and 2020, meaning an estimation (from baseline) from an elevation of up to 44 million deaths will be cause by NCD alone (1). And if we divide the figures up it will then show that the highest proportion will be from the Western Pacific regions, of 12.3 million of deaths, while South-East Asian regions on the other hand is estimated to reach 10.4 million. This is also supported by a report on economic-cost of NCD in the Pacific Island countries which states that NCD is already a challenge in the Pacific, leading to account for 70% or more of the deaths. And the most common cause is of cardiovascular disease, which accounts for between 29% and 38% of death from all other causes (2). In Vanuatu NCD is in the top 10 disease agenda due to fast escalating trend, and similarly are Cardiovascular diseases, including diabetes and hypertension. According to the reported it was estimated that 18% of deaths were due to circulatory heart diseases (7).Another study been conducted in 2008 showed a record of 0.5% and 0.3% deaths were respectively caused by NCD in male and female. The current daily tobacco smoking as a form of behavioural risk factor constitute of 12.3%, where 21.3% in male and 3.1% in female. Additionally from the study record it showed that males are more risks than female in having high blood pressure above normal. This is supported by showing 44.5% of males in the study have raised blood pressure, while female on contrary have 39.1% raised blood pressure. Other contributing factor in the metabolic risks factors are overweight and obesity. From the study it showed that 21% of both male and female are overweight, while 34.2% is of obesity (3).From the findings we have to know that there are unprecedented changes in our environment – cultural, economic, physical, political and social – pose new risks and threats to health. And from most reports and future focus it is predicted that NCD will continue to elevate globally, whether it is urbanization and the built environment, severe air pollution, climate change, unregulated marketing of tobacco and other harmful food products, or easy access to nutrient-poor and calorie dense food (4). In some countries, for instance Vanuatu still accepts more imported and processed food and is predicted to upscale further should the climate conditions such as the current El Nino continue to place threats on garden crops. There is additionally a weak monitoring on food regulations on imported food products and where most labelling are in languages. Lack of proper laboratory analysis of the content against the labelling is another contributing factor. Thus it is imperative that leaders in both Government and related Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) find innovative solutions to complex health challenges in ever-changing common practices and environments. Only then will the population be safe and healthy from the disease. On the other hand we have to understand that at each developmental stage of life, human beings exhibit different vulnerabilities and are exposed to different risks, placing them more vulnerable to contracting those diseases.According to WHO report in 2008 on prevention and control of non-communicable diseases (Annex 1-B) (5), in year 2000 the WHO's Member States adopted a global strategy for prevention and control of NCDs during the fifty-third World Health Assembly. The Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health was endorsed in 2002. In 2003, the WHO launched the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, and this treaty came into force in 2005. Even that in 2008 the Member States endorsed the Action Plan for the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of non-communicable Diseases at the Sixty-first World Health Assembly. And the Regional Committee for the Western Pacific called for action to combat non-communicable diseases and their related risk factors in specific resolutions. There are also various regional action plans related to NCD prevention and control (e.g. Regional Plan for Integrated Prevention and Control of Cardiovascular Diseases and Diabetes for the Western Pacific Region 1998–2003, Tobacco Free Initiative Regional Action Plans 2000–2004 and 2005–2009, Plan of Action 2006–2010 for the Western Pacific.Declaration on Diabetes, and the Regional Strategy to Reduce Alcohol-related Harm) were developed over the past decade, sharing a focus on policy and planning, surveillance, health promotion and clinical prevention. Furthermore WHO developed a Pacific Framework for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases in 2007 to serve as a guide in addressing NCDs among Pacific island countries and areas, and this framework was adopted by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). Augmenting these action plans and frameworks is a Region-wide interest and commitment to fostering health systems change, particularly in relation to the prevention and control of NCDs. In November 2007, the WHO-supported meeting on "Strengthening Health Systems to Improve Chronic Disease Prevention and Control" culminated in a set of recommendations for reducing the health burden from non-communicable diseases through health systems improvements. The Western Pacific Regional Action Plan for NCDs is a collaborative effort by the WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific and Member States to establish a shared vision and strategic actions to reduce the NCD burden (5).However despite of all these developed global and regional framework, strategies, planning, and action plans it is still recognized that countries still have less capacities and some are still at different stages of progress in the fight against non-communicable diseases. Therein it is suggested that more plenary discussions, consultations, and a support networking collaborations be established between the Government and private sectors, including the partners and associated stakeholders, and the affected communities. Moreover the Regional Action Plan also aims to operationalize the objectives of the Global Action Plan within the Western Pacific context, thereby adding value through concrete and relevant guidance. In other words the member states need to reconsider and rectify these further to be able to absorb perfectly into the country settings and the environmental contexts. Vanuatu on the other hand has also the capacity to address and respond to NCDs as it has its funding available for Cardiovascular diseases, NCD treatment for control, prevention and health promotion messages, and NCD surveillance and M&E. Additionally the health reporting system also includes information on screening of patients at health peripheries, NCD cause specific –morbidity, and the risks factors. Further to that the country has an integrated or topic-specific policy, programme, and action plan which is currently operational for these mentioned NCD diseases, including Alcohol, unhealthy diet, overweight, and obesity. Physical inactivity and Tobacco were other areas that the policy and action plan covers (1).Furthermore the member states need to strictly consider and implement WHO global NCD action plan which is a road map from 2013 to 2025 (6). In the road map are six global objectives that clearly states to make prevention and control of NCDs a priority, strengthening national capacities and leaderships, reduce modifiable risks factors, promote high-quality research, and finally is to monitor the impact and the trend of the disease. Additionally are nine major and more specific targets along the road map towards 2025. These are to be able to establish 80% availability of affordable technology and medicine to treat NCDs, ensuring that at least 50% of the patients receive preventive therapy for heart attacks and stroke, be able to pause the rise in diabetes and obesity, at least a 30% drop in sodium chloride (salt) intake, a 10% reduction in the harmful in the use of alcohol, to at least also receive 25% drop in premature death of people age 30-70 from cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes, or chronic respiratory diseases, be able to reduce 10% in the prevalence of insufficient physical activity, reduce by 30% in tobacco use, and finally is to drop by 20% in the prevalence of high blood pressure (6). All these can be adopted and implemented strategically and effectively only when adequate resources such as adequate human resource, access to appropriate technology at all levels of implementations, adequate financial support, good working collaborations with partners and NGOs, including the communities, other associate stakeholders such as community leaders, and a very motivated and action-oriented personals are in place. Moreover is the health systems, political commitment, good network with shop entrepreneurs, and private sector that can contribute in the prevention and promotion of these mentioned health lifestyles.It is therefore strongly believed that unless all these are identified and notified then will there be some changes expected, and thus meet most of the target indicators as stated in the 2013-2025 target objectives.
Background Sustainable United Nations (SUN) is an initiative of UNEP that coordinates operational activities and supports different UN organizations in their efforts to implement the UN climate neutral strategy and environmental management systems (EMSs). The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Swedish EPA), with its long experience of working with international standards for EMS and coordinating and guiding 190 government agencies in their environmental management systems work, is supporting the work of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) by advising the SUN team and building the capacity of UN entities to establish and maintain EMSs. The Swedish EPA - UNEP partnership (2014-2018), funded by Sida, is laying the foundations for the future mainstreaming of environmental management in UN. These efforts are focusing on the environmental impacts of internal management offacilities and operations1. A broader process hosted by the UN Environment ManagementGroup (EMG) encompasses both environmental and social impacts and expands the scope beyond facilities and operations to include programmes and projects. Collaboration with the EMG Secretariat is therefore an integral part of the partnership. An important issue for the donor is the gender perceptive, which should also be taken into consideration whenever relevant, when implementing and maintaining an EMS. One of the main purposes of the United Nations (UN) is to help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy,and to encourage respect for each other's rights and freedoms2. For the UN tosucceed in its purposes and to be a credible organization, it needs to account for its environmental impact, reducing risks and unintended negative impacts and maximizing benefits to people and their environment. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were endorsed by the General Assembly in September 2015. These will function as a common basis for the work of all UN organizations. Implementing an EMS will provide UN agencies with a documented, systematic and transparent tool to motivate, track and report on progress over time, whilst working towards the internalisation of the environmental dimension of the SDGs in their management processes in a systematic manner. Purpose The purpose of the stocktaking exercise was to provide an overview of the current status of environmental management systems of different UN organizations, to make sure future activities in the Swedish EPA - UNEP partnership build on existing work, and to reach a better understanding of how to introduce EMSs to the UN system. Based on the findings made, the stocktaking exercise provides recommendations for improvements. Methodology The experts at the Swedish EPA, in collaboration with the SUN team and the sustainability focal points in the UN EMS Working Group, have conducted a stocktaking exercise on the stage of development and implementation of EMSs across the UN system. The stocktaking exercise report references EMS requirements under accepted international standards such as ISO 14001:2015, and is based on the Swedish EPA experts' experiences and findings in the field. Knowledge of the UN status quo on EMSs was obtained through reviews of documentation from a selection of UN organizations and UN bodies, and information from IMG focal points. Conclusions The stocktaking exercise shows that many UN organizations work actively on environmental issues both at corporate management level and in their programming. The results from a minor EMS survey conducted in April 2015 reflect that the majority of the responding organizations are in the initial stage of the EMS implementation. Given that the UN is governed by many Member States and driven by a political process, decision-making takes long time. There are a number of constraints under which the UN operates, particularly the many stakeholders with varied interests, which could make it difficult to secure a consensus around environmental measures. Implementing an EMS gives an opportunity for UN organizations to contribute to the One UN initiative for a more coherent and efficient delivery. The One UN reform is focused on more coherent programmes, strengthened accountability, monitoring and evaluation, and improved outcomes. An EMS directly supports this effort by providing a systematic and uniform approach to improved control, efficiency and reporting. EMS in UN organizations can bring many benefits. Implementing an EMS gives an opportunity for the UN organizations to demonstrate that they have relevant policiesand systems in place to satisfy the environmental requirements from stakeholders. The General Assembly has signalled expectations of the UN to walk the talk on sustainability measures, while environmental requirements are becoming a precondition for funding from donors such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF). EMS in UN organizations represents an opportunity to mainstream environmental considerations in policies, strategies, projects and programmes. Literature studies, experience from Swedish EPA's guidance to public agencies, and discussions with members if the EMS working group as part of the stocktaking exercise, confirms that it is very important for the implementation of any EMS to ensure that senior management and staff are all involved in its development and implementation. Experience from the work in guiding 190 public authorities in Sweden has shown that when organizations include both operations and facilitates, and programmes and projects in their EMS, it will engage the senior management and the staff to a greater extent, and the understanding of an EMS in the daily work will increase. A properly functioning environmental management system results in improved management of natural resources and identified cost efficiencies such as improved management of electricity, fuel and travel3, and could free up funding for applying the mandated objectives of the various missions of the United Nation organizations. Recommendations The main recommendations for creating proper institutional conditions to implement an EMS are described below. They are described according to best practice, with the purpose to limit the environmental impact, speed up the implementation of EMS and to reduce the costs for the implementing organizations. Each recommendation must be undertaken within a context of respect for the institutional obligations arising from other policies, such as policies on gender and indigenous peoples. These together may form the approach to internalising sustainable development principles in UN corporate management. The recommendations are not given in a specific order of priority since they are connected to each other. Literature, discussions with members of the EMS working group, and the earlier experience of the Swedish EPA experts, confirms that the leadership, the involvement of staff and the integration of the EMS in the existing management structure, is crucial for a successful EMS implementation within the UN. Certain core functions should be managed on a common UN-wide basis, to streamline and coordinate efforts, and to avoid duplication of efforts and costs. This brings advantages such as economies of scale and a coherent way of working with sustainability issues in the spirit of the One UN reform. According to best practice, the UN system is recommended to adopt the following activities, through a permanent central coordination: Develop the existing central EMS support, by increasing the number of training activities, and the exchange of experience between the organizations, for achieving more powerful synergies Identify how the Sustainable Development Goals, and also standards for best practice on social responsibility, can be tools and the next steps for the UN organizations for working in a systematic manner with both environmental and social issues. Make sure that competence in environmental law is available to support UN organizations. Provide and encourage the use of coherent and common EMS guidelines and voluntary templates customized for the UN, e.g. for initial environmental review and for developing internal environmental objectives. Develop EMS indicators that the UN organizations should report on centrally and to their governing body, and accelerate the work with the four endorsed sustainability indicators (GHG gases, water use, waste management and environmental training). Coordinate internal environmental audits between the UN organizations, by supporting the auditors with regards to training and sharing experience. The internal auditors could audit each other's organizations. Consider how the EMS support may be extended from environmental aspects in operation and facilities to environmental aspects in policymaking, programming and projects. Develop how the gender perspective could be integrated in a logical structurefor an EMS based on the PDCA-cycle (Plan, Do, Check and Act). Through the work of SUN and the IMG on Environmental Sustainability, many of the above mentioned steps are already well underway. At the end of the stocktaking exercise report, a mapping of existing networks and teams working with environmental sustainability within the UN can be found. Also actions taken concerning internal environmental sustainability, such as strategic plans and major projects, are described, together with a timeline over internal commitments on environmental sustainability within the UN system. According to best practice, each UN organization is recommended to adopt the following activities: Conduct a SWOT4 - or PESTLE5 - analysis, to reach a better understanding of the factors that impact the EMS and the environmental context in which the organization operates. Show how the demands from relevant stakeholders have been internalized into the organization's own policy, strategic documents and at the operational level. Include environmental objectives and environmental performance measures in the "Senior Manager's Compact". Make the support from senior management visible, by sponsoring an initialenvironmental review, adopting an environmental policy, ensuring organization- wide communication of the environmental work and endorsing internal environmental objectives. Integrate both environmental objectives and action plans in existing strategic documents and activity plans. Make sure that the allocation of resources, not least human resources, for the EMS is an integrated part of the ordinary budget process already in place. Improve the monitoring and management of significant environmental aspects. Complement possible emergency management systems already in place, with procedures for environmental consideration. Integrate environmental risks and opportunities considerations in existing risk management, and evaluate possible changes in the EMS, such as a revised list of significant environmental aspects. Ensure appropriate competencies to be able to conduct regular evaluations of adherence to environmental compliance obligations. Conduct regular environmental audits and environmental management reviews. Include sustainability considerations in purchasing and procurement, which can have an impact on the enabling of a green economy. Develop the work to continuously identify nonconformities and taking corrective action in the environmental work, and integrate it in the existing handling of nonconformities for other areas, such as quality, conformity with project procedures etc. Describe the results of the monitoring and evaluation of the environmental performance in an annual sustainability report, used for communication with donors, UN staff, and other stakeholders, to ensure the mechanism for accountability and transparency within the UN. Have a tolerant and encouraging culture, where identified nonconformities are found to represent opportunities for improvement, and have well- functioning communication channels for the exchange of experiences, all to accomplish continual improvement.
The Agbiotech Bulletin Volume 5 Issue 1 January 1997 Published by AG-WEST BIOTECH INC. Code Number:NL97003 Sizes of Files: Text: 48.9K Graphics: No associated graphics files Biotech Discovery Will Boost Oilseed Industry Researchers at the National Research Council's Plant Biotechnology Institute (PBI) in Saskatoon have discovered a genetic modification capable of increasing the oil production of rapeseed by up to 25 per cent. Developing High Erucic Rapeseed The discovery resulted from efforts to increase rapeseed's erucic acid content by adding a yeast gene. The erucic acid content was increased, but overall oil content in the seeds also rose by 25 per cent. Industrial Uses of S.H.E.A.R. Erucic acid and its derivatives, now obtained mainly from H.E.A.R. Brassica napus varieties, are widely used in the chemical industry, where they are considered environmentally friendly and a renewable resource. The main use of the oil is in the manufacture of plastic films, where the derivative erucamide is used as an anti-block, slip promoting agent. More recently erucic acid derivatives have been used in the manufacture of low-calorie food additives and coatings. Substantial Economic Implications Worldwide demand for erucic acid is expected to increase from about 40 million pounds in 1990 to 75 million pounds by 2010. Over the same time frame, demand for the derivative behenic acid is expected to triple to about 102 million pounds. News Ag-West President Resigns Dr. Bill Riley has resigned as President of Ag-West Biotech Inc. and as General Manager of ICAST effective January 5, 1997. Feed Centre Cements Chinese Contacts Four University of Saskatchewan researchers visited China recently to strengthen ties between the Saskatchewan and Chinese feed industry. Red Williams, Phil Thacker, Vern Racz, and David Christensen all of the Department of Animal and Poultry Science lectured at the First International Feed Industry Conference held in Beijing and took part in the official opening of the Ministry of Agriculture Feed Industry Centre (MAFIC) and its new headquarters building. Foiling Aluminum Intolerance Researchers at Agriculture Canada's Lacombe Research Centre are combing oat genetic resources in search of varieties with tolerance to the aluminum found in acidic soils. Fast method of detecting E. coli A seven-hour method of detecting Eschericha coli in food has been developed by Cornell University researchers. E. coli is a food-borne bacteria that causes hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome, two problems that can be deadly to children and elderly adults. Wild genes boost rice yield Also at Cornell, plant breeders have discovered genes in wild rice species that may help boost production of some of the world's major agricultural crops. Transgenic Cotton Has "Polyester" Fibres Researchers at Agracetus of Middleton, Wisconsin report the development of a transgenic cotton with some of the properties of polyester. .and Colours Meanwhile, a patent for transgenic colour changes in cotton has been issued to Calgene of Davis, California. Retrovirus-like components identified in corn genome Every living organism has a genome the DNA in each cell's nucleus which includes the active genes that determine the organism's characteristics. However, genes make up only a tiny percent of the genetic material in a cell, begging the question, "What are all those other things?" Scientists find way to eliminate junk genes Purdue University scientists Thomas K. Hodges and Leszek Lyznik have found a way to reduce the guesswork and errors in genetic engineering. The technology, which has been licensed for commercial application to Plant Genetic Systems, could speed the delivery of biotech-derived crops, and possibly even benefit human gene therapy. Scientists Narrow Search for Genes that Starve Worms Scientists at the Agricultural Research Service and Mississippi State University are making progress in their efforts to modify corn to express genes that can "starve" leaf-eating fall armyworms. Transgenic Blue Carnations Commercialized Florigene of Melbourne, Australia will be selling its transgenic blue "Moondust" carnations in Europe and Japan later this year. Regulatory Copyright Law Could Affect Research International treaties being proposed by the World Intellectual Property Organization could inhibit common uses of published research. Events Going Public CIBC's Knowledge-Based Business Unit will be jointly sponsoring a seminar on Taking Your Technology Company Public on Thursday, January 23, 1997. Biopesticides and Transgenic Plants A conference on Biopesticides and Transgenic Plants: New Technologies to Improve Efficiency, Safety and Profitability will be held January 27-28, 1997 in Washington, DC. Direct Seeding Direct Seeding: The Economic Advantage is the theme of The 9th Annual Meeting, Conference, and Trade Show of the Saskatchewan Soil Conservation Association. It will be held February 12-13 at the Saskatoon Prairieland Exhibition, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Farm Animal Genetics Canadian Farm Animal Genetic Resources at the Crossroads: Crisis or Opportunity? is the topic of an International Speakers Forum planned for February 27-28, 1997 at Le Chateau Cartier in Aylmer, Quebec. Animal Biotech Beijing The Beijing International Conference on Animal Biotechnology will be held June 11-14, 1997 at the China Agricultural University in Beijing, China. Brassica '97 The International Society for Horticulture Symposium on Brassicas and the Tenth Crucifer Genetics Workshop will occur in Rennes, France from September 23-27, 1997. BIOTECH '97 The National Biotechnology Network will be holding BIOTECH '97 in Toronto from March 11-13, 1997 at the Toronto Marriott Eaton Centre Hotel. ABIC '98 Planning is underway for the Agricultural Biotechnology International Conference 1998 (ABIC '98) which will be held June 9-12, 1998 in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Trends Depressing News Proponents of something called Kondratieff Wave cycles have come out with some depressing future trend forecasts. US Tops Canada in Biotech Support US authorities provide more support for biotech than their Canadian counterparts, laments an article appearing in the Ontario Farmer. Tide Turning For Biotech in Germany According to an item in the journal Science, surveys indicate that 60 per cent of Germans want their country to play a leading role in the development of the European biotech industry. Alliances Ontario Farmers Form Alliance for Biotech R&D A farmer initiated alliance to develop agricultural biotechnology has been formed in Ontario. Ontario Agri-Food Technologies brings together players ranging from the Ontario Federation of Agriculture, growers associations, and the Ontario Cattlemen's Association; to the universities of Toronto, Queen's, Waterloo, and Guelph; to major agricultural companies such as Monsanto, DuPont, Ciba, and Cyanamid. Tech Transfer Beef Development Centre To Facilitate Tech Transfer Years of discussion and planning among Saskatchewan's beef industry, government, and beef researchers has resulted in an innovative concept becoming a reality. Finance AgriBioTech Is Roundup Ready AgriBioTech has licensed Roundup Ready soybean technology from Monsanto, enabling it to market soybeans under its own AgriBioTech label. PGS/AgrEvo Deal Sign of the Times An article in Nature Biotechnology points to the acquisition of the biotech company Plant Genetic Systems by the agri- chemical giant AgrEvo as a key example of the growing value of innovative, patented plant biotechnologies. DE Gains Control of Mycogen DowElanco has bought a controlling share in Mycogen Corp. According to the Wall Street Journal, the purchase is a move to block Monsanto's bid for the agbiotech company. Monsanto To Spin Off Chemicals The directors of Monsanto Co. has approved a plan to spin off its chemical business to existing shareholders, leaving behind the company's more profitable agbiotech, pharmaceutical, and food ingredient business. Issues Biotech Controversy Boon to US Company The European controversy over transgenic crops has been a boon for Genetic ID, a US company that markets a test able to detect genetic alterations in corn and soybeans. European Food Labelling Dismissed as Ineffective Greenpeace has dismissed the European Parliament's move to label transgenic foods as ineffective. Greenpeace believes the move does not go far enough because some biotech-derived foods are exempted. South Africa Considers Biotech Regulation The South African Department of Tourism and Environmental Affairs has released a Green Paper on Biodiversity which also considers the potential environmental impacts of biotechnology in that country. Attitudes Biotechnology, Agriculture and Our Future: A Student's View (The following essay is by Kathryn Gustafson of Macoun, Saskatchewan. Gustafson, who attends Estevan Comprehensive School) Resources Feednews Feednews is the quarterly newsletter of the Feed Resource Centre located at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. It carries news and information about international feedstuff markets, opportunities for value-added processing of Saskatchewan feed crops, and developments in animal nutrition. ULearn Centre Offers Ag Resources The ULearn Centre of the Extension Division of the University of Saskatchewan offers a wide range of print material and software to support on-going agricultural education and research. Progrid-TA^R Technology Assessment Progrid is a proprietary methodology for measuring the technical and commercial readiness of technology ventures and products. It is based on the experience of major Canadian technology-intensive corporations, supplemented with the track record of small and medium-size enterprises in bringing new products and services to the market place. Genome Workshop Report The report of the 1996 ISAG Comparative Genome Workshop in Tours, France is now available on the Web. Just click on "Comparative Mapping" and choose whatever format you prefer. People Watch Brandon Research Centre Dr. Karl Volkmar and Dr. Al Moulin have recently transferred to the Brandon Research Centre of Agriculture Canada. IBAC The Industrial Biotechnology Association of Canada recently elected its Board of Directors for 1997. We Welcome Your Input The AgBiotech Bulletin welcomes submissions of news, ideas and articles from subscribers. Information about new developments at your company or institution, notices about new products or resources, or observations about events and opportunities affecting the agbiotech industry will be considered for publication. Credits: The Agbiotech Bulletin is published 12 times per year on behalf of Ag-West Biotech Inc. by Westcross House Publications, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7K OR1.
The purpose. Critical social philosophy of education strives to provide a radical critique of existing models of education in the so-called Western models of democracy, creating progressive alternative models. In this context, the proposed integrative metatheory, which is based on classical and modern sources, concepts, aims for a comprehensive understanding and reconstruction of the phenomenon of education. One of the main tasks in the sphere of education's democratization today, therefore, is to bring to education the results of restructuring and democratization of the society, to reflect changes in conditions of life and thinking, experience and transformation of subjectivity in the context of the technological revolution and globalization. Methodology. The critical social theory, which developed in the framework of contemporary neo-Marxism, indicates the need for a thorough analysis of society, however, unlike other theoretical concepts and research programs in order to analyze not a fixation and a statement of the existing social givens. On the contrary, critical analysis of society involves the identification of existing antagonistic, alienating factors that distort public communication.The subject of social analysis is the whole sphere of human and non-human nature, which interacts a person depend on it, the whole system of relations between society and nature, society and man, which is covered by the historical practice of conscious – "praxis". The representative of "pure science" isn't the learning, research subject. He is a public a person, which is the totality of all social definitions included in society and its constituent individuals. For such a "total subject" Object of interest is not something external; on the contrary, the latter appears as a product of his own activity. The scientific novelty examines trends in educational institutions and models of globalizing society in the context of our particular relationship of education and society, man and the state, and processes. The research and systematic analysis of neoliberal reforms at the level of society in general and education in particular are conducted. It examines substantive, structural and functional characteristics of the concept of «critical social philosophy of education» in the context of institutional tendencies of social life, as well as forms and possibilities of its methodological application. It consider a model of «critical social philosophy of education», as embodied in the programs of social development and learning, which are primarily designed to teach people how to lead an independent and original research themselves, society and knowledge systems. However, it is proved that the models and programs should not be cut off from any individual and the collective system of moral and social values, theoretical and applied training, nor from further use of the acquired values, norms and skills in everyday life, science, or in production, sphere of all social institutions. Conclusions. Critical philosophical, educational, pedagogical-psychological surprisingly theory, its models and concepts seek to redefine public and private and the public mind. Based on these grounds, in the future, it allows philosophy of education to develop a more inclusive philosophical vision of education, to apply directly to the problems of democratization and changes in social relations in the direction of equality and social justice in the field of education. The point of view of socio-philosophical and philosophical-еducational, pedagogical-psychological, normative understanding and social critics also requires the use of active efforts in the reconstruuction of education and society, the social vision of what education and human life can be and what their specific limitations in existing societies. ; Цель. Критическая социальная философия образования стремится обеспечить радикальную критику существующей модели образования в так называемых западных моделях демократии, создавая прогрессивные альтернативные модели. В этом контексте предложена интегративная метатеория, которая основываясь на классических и современных источниках, концепциях, стремится к комплексному пониманию и реконструкции феномена образования. Одна из основных задач в сфере демократизации образования сегодня, таким образом, заключается в том, чтобы привлечь для образования результаты перестройки и демократизации общества, отразить изменения в условиях жизни и мышления, опыт и трансформации субъективности в контексте технологической революции и глобализации. Методология. Критическая социальная теория, разработанная в рамках современного неомарксизма, указывает на необходимость основательного анализа общества, однако в отличие от других теоретических концепций и исследовательских программ, целью анализа не является фиксация и констатация существующей социальной данности. Наоборот, критический анализ социума предполагает выявление существующих антагонистических, отчуждающих факторов, которые деформируют общественную коммуникацию. Предметом социального анализа является вся сфера человеческой и нечеловеческой природы, с которой взаимодействует человек зависит от нее, вся система взаимоотношений общества и природы, общества и человека, которая охватывается исторической сознательной практикой – «праксисом». Познающим, исследовательским субъектом не является внеобщественный представитель «чистой науки». Им является человек общественная, которая представляет собой тотальность всех социальных определений, входящих в общество и составляющих его индивидов. Для такого «тотального субъекта» познавательный объект не является чем-то внешним, не им сформированным и возложенным; напротив, последний предстает как продукт его собственной деятельности. Научная новизна. Рассматриваются тенденции образования и модели институтов глобализирующегося общества современности в контексте особенности взаимоотношения образования и социума, человека и государства, процессов. Осуществляется исследование и системный анализ неолиберальных реформ на уровне общества в целом и образования в частности. Исследуются содержательные, структурные и функциональные характеристики концепции «критической социальной философии образования» в контексте институциональных тенденций общественной жизни, а также формы и возможности ее методологического применения. Рассматривается модель «критической социальной философии образования», воплощенная в программы общественного развития и обучения, которые прежде всего призваны научить людей вести самостоятельное и оригинальное исследование себя, социума и системы знаний. Вместе с тем обосновывается, что эти модели и программы не должны быть оторваны ни от индивидуально-коллективной системы нравственных и социальных ценностей, теоретико-прикладного обучения, ни от дальнейшего применения приобретенных ценностей, норм и навыков в повседневной жизни, науке или на производстве, в сфере всех социальных институтов. Выводы. Критическая философская, образовательно-воспитательная, педагогико-психологическая общественноориентированная теория, ее модели и концепции стремятся по-новому определить общественный и индивидуальный и общественный разум. Опираясь на эти основания, в перспективе это позволяет философии образования развиваться для разработки более инклюзивного философского видения образования, чтобы обратиться непосредственно к проблемам демократизации и изменения социальных отношений в направлении равенства и социальной справедливости в сфере образования. С точки зрения социально-философского и философско-образовательного, педагогико-психологического, нормативного понимания и социальной критики также необходимо применение активных усилий по реконструкции образования и общества, социального видение того, какими образование и жизнь человека могут быть и каковы их конкретные ограничения в существующих обществах. ; Мета. Критична соціальна філософія освіти прагне забезпечити радикальну критику існуючої моделі освіти в так званих західних моделях демократії, створюючи прогресивні альтернативні моделі. У цьому контексті запропонована інтегративна метатеорія, яка засновуючись на класичних і сучасних джерелах, концепціях, прагне до комплексного розуміння і реконструкції феномену освіти. Одне з основних завдань у сфері демократизації освіти сьогодні, таким чином, полягає у тому, щоб залучити для освіти результати перебудови і демократизації суспільства, відобразити зміни в умовах життя і мислення, досвід та трансформації суб'єктивності у контексті технологічної революції і глобалізації. Методологія. Критична соціальна теорія, розроблена в межах сучасного неомарксизму, вказує на необхідність ґрунтовного аналізу суспільства, однак на відміну від інших теоретичних концепцій і дослідницьких програм, метою аналізу не є фіксація і констатація існуючої соціальної даності. Навпаки, критичний аналіз соціуму передбачає виявлення існуючих антагоністичних факторів, що відчужують і деформують суспільну комунікацію. Предметом соціального аналізу є вся сфера людської і нелюдської природи, з якою взаємодіє людина чи залежить від неї, вся система взаємовідносин суспільства і природи, суспільства і людини, яка охоплюється історичною свідомою практикою – «праксисом». Пізнавальним, досліджувальним суб'єктом не є позасуспільний представник «чистої науки». Ним є людина суспільна, яка репрезентує собою тотальність усіх соціальних визначень, що входять у суспільство і складають його індивідів. Для такого «тотального суб'єкта» пізнавальний об'єкт не є чимось зовнішнім, не ним сформованим і покладеним; навпаки, останній постає як продукт його ж власної діяльності. Наукова новизна. Розглядаються тенденції освіти та моделі інститутів глобалізованого суспільства сучасності в контексті особливості взаємовідношення освіти і соціуму, людини і держав. Здійснюється дослідження і системний аналіз неоліберальних реформ на рівні суспільства загалом і освіти зокрема. Досліджуються змістовні, структурні і функціональні характеристики концепції «критичної соціальної філософії освіти» в контексті інституційних тенденцій суспільної практики, а також форми і можливості її методологічного застосування. Розглядається модель «критичної соціальної філософії освіти», втілена в програми суспільного розвитку і навчання, які перш за все покликані навчити людей провадити самостійне і оригінальне дослідження себе, соціуму і системи знань. Водночас обґрунтовується, що ці моделі і програми не мають бути відірвані ані від індивідуально-колективної системи моральних і соціальних цінностей, теоретико-прикладного навчання, ані від подальшого застосування набутих цінностей, норм і навичок в повсякденному житті, науці чи на виробництві, у сфері усіх соціальних інститутів. Висновки. Критична соціальна теорія і концепції критичної соціальної філософії освіти вказують на необхідність ґрунтовного аналізу суспільства, однак на відміну від інших теоретичних концепцій і дослідницьких програм, метою аналізу не є фіксація і констатація існуючої соціальної даності. Навпаки, критичний аналіз соціуму передбачає виявлення наявних антагоністичних чинників, що відчужують і деформують суспільну комунікацію. Предметом соціального аналізу є вся сфера людської і нелюдської природи, з якою взаємодіє людина залежить від неї, вся система взаємовідносин суспільства і природи, суспільства і людини, яка охоплюється історичної свідомою практикою – «праксисом». Пізнавальним, дослідницьким суб'єктом не є поза суспільний представник «чистої науки». Ним є людина громадська, яка являє собою тотальність усіх соціальних визначень, що входять у суспільство і складових його індивідів. Для такого «тотального суб'єкта» пізнавальний об'єкт не є чимось зовнішнім, не їм сформованим і покладеним; навпаки, останній постає як продукт його власної діяльності.
The purpose. Critical social philosophy of education strives to provide a radical critique of existing models of education in the so-called Western models of democracy, creating progressive alternative models. In this context, the proposed integrative metatheory, which is based on classical and modern sources, concepts, aims for a comprehensive understanding and reconstruction of the phenomenon of education. One of the main tasks in the sphere of education's democratization today, therefore, is to bring to education the results of restructuring and democratization of the society, to reflect changes in conditions of life and thinking, experience and transformation of subjectivity in the context of the technological revolution and globalization. Methodology. The critical social theory, which developed in the framework of contemporary neo-Marxism, indicates the need for a thorough analysis of society, however, unlike other theoretical concepts and research programs in order to analyze not a fixation and a statement of the existing social givens. On the contrary, critical analysis of society involves the identification of existing antagonistic, alienating factors that distort public communication.The subject of social analysis is the whole sphere of human and non-human nature, which interacts a person depend on it, the whole system of relations between society and nature, society and man, which is covered by the historical practice of conscious – "praxis". The representative of "pure science" isn't the learning, research subject. He is a public a person, which is the totality of all social definitions included in society and its constituent individuals. For such a "total subject" Object of interest is not something external; on the contrary, the latter appears as a product of his own activity. The scientific novelty examines trends in educational institutions and models of globalizing society in the context of our particular relationship of education and society, man and the state, and processes. The research and systematic analysis of neoliberal reforms at the level of society in general and education in particular are conducted. It examines substantive, structural and functional characteristics of the concept of «critical social philosophy of education» in the context of institutional tendencies of social life, as well as forms and possibilities of its methodological application. It consider a model of «critical social philosophy of education», as embodied in the programs of social development and learning, which are primarily designed to teach people how to lead an independent and original research themselves, society and knowledge systems. However, it is proved that the models and programs should not be cut off from any individual and the collective system of moral and social values, theoretical and applied training, nor from further use of the acquired values, norms and skills in everyday life, science, or in production, sphere of all social institutions. Conclusions. Critical philosophical, educational, pedagogical-psychological surprisingly theory, its models and concepts seek to redefine public and private and the public mind. Based on these grounds, in the future, it allows philosophy of education to develop a more inclusive philosophical vision of education, to apply directly to the problems of democratization and changes in social relations in the direction of equality and social justice in the field of education. The point of view of socio-philosophical and philosophical-еducational, pedagogical-psychological, normative understanding and social critics also requires the use of active efforts in the reconstruuction of education and society, the social vision of what education and human life can be and what their specific limitations in existing societies. ; Цель. Критическая социальная философия образования стремится обеспечить радикальную критику существующей модели образования в так называемых западных моделях демократии, создавая прогрессивные альтернативные модели. В этом контексте предложена интегративная метатеория, которая основываясь на классических и современных источниках, концепциях, стремится к комплексному пониманию и реконструкции феномена образования. Одна из основных задач в сфере демократизации образования сегодня, таким образом, заключается в том, чтобы привлечь для образования результаты перестройки и демократизации общества, отразить изменения в условиях жизни и мышления, опыт и трансформации субъективности в контексте технологической революции и глобализации. Методология. Критическая социальная теория, разработанная в рамках современного неомарксизма, указывает на необходимость основательного анализа общества, однако в отличие от других теоретических концепций и исследовательских программ, целью анализа не является фиксация и констатация существующей социальной данности. Наоборот, критический анализ социума предполагает выявление существующих антагонистических, отчуждающих факторов, которые деформируют общественную коммуникацию. Предметом социального анализа является вся сфера человеческой и нечеловеческой природы, с которой взаимодействует человек зависит от нее, вся система взаимоотношений общества и природы, общества и человека, которая охватывается исторической сознательной практикой – «праксисом». Познающим, исследовательским субъектом не является внеобщественный представитель «чистой науки». Им является человек общественная, которая представляет собой тотальность всех социальных определений, входящих в общество и составляющих его индивидов. Для такого «тотального субъекта» познавательный объект не является чем-то внешним, не им сформированным и возложенным; напротив, последний предстает как продукт его собственной деятельности. Научная новизна. Рассматриваются тенденции образования и модели институтов глобализирующегося общества современности в контексте особенности взаимоотношения образования и социума, человека и государства, процессов. Осуществляется исследование и системный анализ неолиберальных реформ на уровне общества в целом и образования в частности. Исследуются содержательные, структурные и функциональные характеристики концепции «критической социальной философии образования» в контексте институциональных тенденций общественной жизни, а также формы и возможности ее методологического применения. Рассматривается модель «критической социальной философии образования», воплощенная в программы общественного развития и обучения, которые прежде всего призваны научить людей вести самостоятельное и оригинальное исследование себя, социума и системы знаний. Вместе с тем обосновывается, что эти модели и программы не должны быть оторваны ни от индивидуально-коллективной системы нравственных и социальных ценностей, теоретико-прикладного обучения, ни от дальнейшего применения приобретенных ценностей, норм и навыков в повседневной жизни, науке или на производстве, в сфере всех социальных институтов. Выводы. Критическая философская, образовательно-воспитательная, педагогико-психологическая общественноориентированная теория, ее модели и концепции стремятся по-новому определить общественный и индивидуальный и общественный разум. Опираясь на эти основания, в перспективе это позволяет философии образования развиваться для разработки более инклюзивного философского видения образования, чтобы обратиться непосредственно к проблемам демократизации и изменения социальных отношений в направлении равенства и социальной справедливости в сфере образования. С точки зрения социально-философского и философско-образовательного, педагогико-психологического, нормативного понимания и социальной критики также необходимо применение активных усилий по реконструкции образования и общества, социального видение того, какими образование и жизнь человека могут быть и каковы их конкретные ограничения в существующих обществах. ; Мета. Критична соціальна філософія освіти прагне забезпечити радикальну критику існуючої моделі освіти в так званих західних моделях демократії, створюючи прогресивні альтернативні моделі. У цьому контексті запропонована інтегративна метатеорія, яка засновуючись на класичних і сучасних джерелах, концепціях, прагне до комплексного розуміння і реконструкції феномену освіти. Одне з основних завдань у сфері демократизації освіти сьогодні, таким чином, полягає у тому, щоб залучити для освіти результати перебудови і демократизації суспільства, відобразити зміни в умовах життя і мислення, досвід та трансформації суб'єктивності у контексті технологічної революції і глобалізації. Методологія. Критична соціальна теорія, розроблена в межах сучасного неомарксизму, вказує на необхідність ґрунтовного аналізу суспільства, однак на відміну від інших теоретичних концепцій і дослідницьких програм, метою аналізу не є фіксація і констатація існуючої соціальної даності. Навпаки, критичний аналіз соціуму передбачає виявлення існуючих антагоністичних факторів, що відчужують і деформують суспільну комунікацію. Предметом соціального аналізу є вся сфера людської і нелюдської природи, з якою взаємодіє людина чи залежить від неї, вся система взаємовідносин суспільства і природи, суспільства і людини, яка охоплюється історичною свідомою практикою – «праксисом». Пізнавальним, досліджувальним суб'єктом не є позасуспільний представник «чистої науки». Ним є людина суспільна, яка репрезентує собою тотальність усіх соціальних визначень, що входять у суспільство і складають його індивідів. Для такого «тотального суб'єкта» пізнавальний об'єкт не є чимось зовнішнім, не ним сформованим і покладеним; навпаки, останній постає як продукт його ж власної діяльності. Наукова новизна. Розглядаються тенденції освіти та моделі інститутів глобалізованого суспільства сучасності в контексті особливості взаємовідношення освіти і соціуму, людини і держав. Здійснюється дослідження і системний аналіз неоліберальних реформ на рівні суспільства загалом і освіти зокрема. Досліджуються змістовні, структурні і функціональні характеристики концепції «критичної соціальної філософії освіти» в контексті інституційних тенденцій суспільної практики, а також форми і можливості її методологічного застосування. Розглядається модель «критичної соціальної філософії освіти», втілена в програми суспільного розвитку і навчання, які перш за все покликані навчити людей провадити самостійне і оригінальне дослідження себе, соціуму і системи знань. Водночас обґрунтовується, що ці моделі і програми не мають бути відірвані ані від індивідуально-колективної системи моральних і соціальних цінностей, теоретико-прикладного навчання, ані від подальшого застосування набутих цінностей, норм і навичок в повсякденному житті, науці чи на виробництві, у сфері усіх соціальних інститутів. Висновки. Критична соціальна теорія і концепції критичної соціальної філософії освіти вказують на необхідність ґрунтовного аналізу суспільства, однак на відміну від інших теоретичних концепцій і дослідницьких програм, метою аналізу не є фіксація і констатація існуючої соціальної даності. Навпаки, критичний аналіз соціуму передбачає виявлення наявних антагоністичних чинників, що відчужують і деформують суспільну комунікацію. Предметом соціального аналізу є вся сфера людської і нелюдської природи, з якою взаємодіє людина залежить від неї, вся система взаємовідносин суспільства і природи, суспільства і людини, яка охоплюється історичної свідомою практикою – «праксисом». Пізнавальним, дослідницьким суб'єктом не є поза суспільний представник «чистої науки». Ним є людина громадська, яка являє собою тотальність усіх соціальних визначень, що входять у суспільство і складових його індивідів. Для такого «тотального суб'єкта» пізнавальний об'єкт не є чимось зовнішнім, не їм сформованим і покладеним; навпаки, останній постає як продукт його власної діяльності.
The word "asbestos", that means unquenchable, is used for a group of silicate minerals occurring with a fibrous habit, belonging to the serpentine and amphibole families. According to the Italian Legislation (D.L. 15/08/91) the six fibrous silicates defined as asbestos are: chrysotile, amosite and crocidolite (fibrous varieties of grunerite and riebeckite, respectively), anthophyllite, tremolite and actinolite. These minerals are made up of incombustible, chemically stable, inert, phono-absorbing, flexible and tensile fibers. The chemical and physical properties of asbestos made it, in past decades, one of the most important inorganic materials for industrial uses and technological applications. At the end of the 1950s the correlation between exposure to asbestos and development of pleural mesothelioma and bronchogenic carcinoma was established. Since the last decades, asbestos health hazard is considered not only an occupational problem, but also a potential environmental hazard. As a consequence, in most western countries, the current legislation imposed severe laws to regulate the use of potentially asbestos-bearing rocks and soils. The pathogenicity of the asbestos fibers has been considered to be due to one or more of the following factors: i) the fibrous habit (a mineral is defined as fibrous when its length/diameter ratio is greater than 3:1); ii) chemical-mineralogical factors (fiber type, chemical composition, surface reactivity); iii) the biopersistence. These factors are interconnected: in fact, the fiber dimensions influence its surface reactivity, fiber composition controls its biopersistence and biopersistence is associated to the fiber habit. Though the six asbestos minerals are considered as equally dangerous for the human health, recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that crocidolite, amosite and tremolite are clearly more dangerous than chrysotile. In the Western Alps fibrous minerals mainly occur in the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites. This work is part of a multidisciplinary project entitled "Asbestos hazard in Western Alps", goaled at studing occurrence, environmental hazard and possible inactivation of fibrous minerals in the Western Alps. This project, financially supported by the Assessorato all'Ambiente of Regione Piemonte, was coordinated by the Interdepartmental Centre "G. Scansetti" (Università di Torino). The open questions from which this work was born are: i) Which fibrous minerals occur in the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys? ii) Where these minerals occur? Which are the genetic conditions that influence their growth? iii) In which percentage the fibrous minerals are present in the serpentinite rocks? On the basis of these open questions, the Thesis has been organized in 6 chapter. •Chapter 1 – The six minerals defined as asbestos are presented; their potential patogenicity and the deseases correlated to the asbestos exposure are briefly discussed. •Chapter 2 – The geological setting of the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites is briefly discussed, with special attention to the metamorphic evolution of the Ultramafic Lanzo Massif and of the Internal/External Piemonte Zone. •Chapter 3 – The topic of this chapter is the mineralogical and chemical characterization of the fibrous minerals occurring in the analysed serpentinites, i.e. serpentine minerals (chrysotile and antigorite), balangeroite, diopside, tremolite and carlosturanite. For each fibrous mineral, the crystallographic structure and optical properties are reported, and the chemical composition and vibrational properties (FTIR and Μ-Raman spectroscopy) are discussed in detail. From these data it is evident that a rapid and unambiguous identification of fibrous minerals requires the combined use of several analytical techniques, particularly the optical and electron microscopy and the micro-Raman spectroscopy. •Chapter 4 – This chapter is dedicated to the petrological study of the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys, which has been carried out mainly by means of optical and electron microscopy, and Μ-Raman spectroscopy. In the first part of the chapter, the serpentinization processes are briefly discussed and the serpentinite microstructures and the metamorphic paragenesis are described in detail. The second part of the chapter is dealing with the metamorphic veins occurring in the serpentinites. The mechanisms by which a fibrous vein may form are firstly considered; the five generations of metamorphic veins recognised in the serpentinites are, then, described in detail and some hypotheses for their genetic conditions are suggested. The metamorphic P-T path estimated for the serpentinites on the ground of microstructural observations and thermobarometric data, is discussed in the light of Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) and P-T diagrams, calculated with the pseudosection approach. •Chapter 5 - This chapter concerns the problem of the quantitative determination of the fibrous minerals in the rocks. In the first part, the traditional techniques used for the quantitative estimate of asbestos in solid materials are presented, i.e. fiber count at SEM or TEM, X-ray powder diffraction and IR spectroscopy. In the second part of the chapter two new methods are proposed. The first one is based on the use of FTIR spectroscopy for the quantitative asbestos estimate in a chrysotile + antigorite mixtures. The second is based on the image analysis of SEM images combined with micro-Raman spectroscopy. This last technique gives both quantitative and morphological informations. •Chapter 6 – In the final chapter, the main results obtained, the still open questions, and the future perspectives are summarized and briefly discussed. ; Le mot "asbeste" (incombustible) est utilisé pour indiquer un groupe de silicate à habitus fibreux, appartenant aux familles des serpentines et des amphiboles. Selon la législation italienne (D.L. 15/08/91), les six silicates fibreux définis comme asbeste sont: le chrysotile, l'amosite et la crocidolite (variétés fibreuses de la grunérite et de la riébeckite), l'anthophyllite, la trémolite et l'actinolite. Ces minéraux sont constitués de fibres incombustibles, chimiquement stables, inertes et flexibles. A cause de leurs propriétés chimiques et physiques, les asbestes ont été considérés comme les plus importants matériaux inorganiques en vue d'applications industrielles et technologiques. À la fin des années 50, on découvrit la corrélation entre l'exposition à l'asbeste et le développement du mésotéliome pleural et du carcinome. Depuis quelques décennies, le risque asbeste n'est pas considéré comme seulement confiné au cadre professionnel, mais également en tant que risque potentiel pour l'environnement. Par conséquent, l'actuelle législation impose des lois sévères pour la réglementation de l'utilisation des roches et des sols potentiellement porteurs d'asbestes. Le caractère pathogène des fibres d'asbeste est associé aux facteurs suivants : i) faciès fibreux (un minéral est défini comme fibreux si le rapport longueur/diamètre est plus grand de 3 :1) ; ii) facteurs chimiques et minéralogiques (types de fibre, composition chimique, réactivité de surface) ; iii) la bio persistance. Ces facteurs sont interconnectés car les dimensions de la fibre influencent sa réactivité superficielle, la composition de la fibre contrôle sa bio persistance et la bio persistance est aussi associée au faciès de la fibre. Dans les Alpes Occidentales, les minéraux fibreux sont concentrés dans la Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrès à méta-ophiolites. Cette étude fait partie d'une projet multidisciplinaire intitulé « Le risque asbeste dans les Alpes Occidentales », visé à l'étude de la présence, du risque et de la possible inactivation des minéraux fibreux dans les Alpes Occidentales. Ce projet, financé par l'Assessorato all'Ambiente de la Regione Piemonte, a été coordonné par le Centro Interdipartimentale « G. Scansetti » de l'Université de Torino. Cette étude se fonde sur les questions suivantes : i) Quels sont les minéraux fibreux dans les vallées de Susa et de Lanzo ? ii) Où ces minéraux sont-ils concentrés ? Quelles conditions génétiques contrôlent leur croissance ? iii) Quel est le pourcentage les minéraux fibreux dans les serpentines? Sur la base de ces questions, cette thèse a été organisée en six chapitres : •Chapitre 1 – Les six minéraux fibreux définis comme asbeste sont présentés et leur potentiel pathogène est discuté. •Chapitre 2 – La Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrés à méta-ophiolites est décrite brièvement. •Chapitre 3 – Ce chapitre traite de la caractérisation minéralogique et chimique des minéraux fibreux reconnus dans les serpentinites étudiées, c'est-à-dire des minéraux du groupe des serpentines (chrysotile et lizardite), la balangéroïte, le diopside, la trémolite et la carlosturanite. Pour chacun de ces minéraux sont présentées la structure cristallographique, les propriétés optiques, la composition chimique et les propriétés vibrationnelles (Μ-Raman et FTIR). •Chapitre 4 – Ce chapitre traite de l'étude pétrologique des serpentinites des vallées de Susa et de Lanzo, réalisée par microscopie optique et électronique, et spectroscopie Μ-Raman. Dans la première partie, les mécanismes de la serpentinisation sont présentés et les microstructures des serpentinites sont décrits en détail. Dans la deuxième partie, les cinq générations de veines métamorphiques reconnues dans les serpentines sont décrites en détail et des modes de formation sont proposés. La trajectoire P-T estimée pour les serpentinites, sur la base des observations microstructurales et des données thermobarométriques, est discutée à la lumière des diagrammes Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) et P-T, calculés grâce à la technique des pseudosections. •Chapitre 5 – Ce chapitre traite du problème de la détermination quantitative des minéraux fibreux dans les roches. Dans la première partie, les techniques traditionnelles pour la détermination quantitative de l'asbeste dans le matériel solide sont présentées. Dans la deuxième partie, deux nouvelles techniques sont décrites en détail. La première est basée sur la spectroscopie FTIR appliquée à une mélange de antigorite + chrysotile. La deuxième sur l'analyse des images SEM (BSE) associée à la spectroscopie micro-Raman. •Chapitre 6 – Il s'agit du chapitre de conclusion, où sont brièvement discutés les résultats, les questions encore ouvertes et les perspectives futures de ce travail.
The word "asbestos", that means unquenchable, is used for a group of silicate minerals occurring with a fibrous habit, belonging to the serpentine and amphibole families. According to the Italian Legislation (D.L. 15/08/91) the six fibrous silicates defined as asbestos are: chrysotile, amosite and crocidolite (fibrous varieties of grunerite and riebeckite, respectively), anthophyllite, tremolite and actinolite. These minerals are made up of incombustible, chemically stable, inert, phono-absorbing, flexible and tensile fibers. The chemical and physical properties of asbestos made it, in past decades, one of the most important inorganic materials for industrial uses and technological applications. At the end of the 1950s the correlation between exposure to asbestos and development of pleural mesothelioma and bronchogenic carcinoma was established. Since the last decades, asbestos health hazard is considered not only an occupational problem, but also a potential environmental hazard. As a consequence, in most western countries, the current legislation imposed severe laws to regulate the use of potentially asbestos-bearing rocks and soils. The pathogenicity of the asbestos fibers has been considered to be due to one or more of the following factors: i) the fibrous habit (a mineral is defined as fibrous when its length/diameter ratio is greater than 3:1); ii) chemical-mineralogical factors (fiber type, chemical composition, surface reactivity); iii) the biopersistence. These factors are interconnected: in fact, the fiber dimensions influence its surface reactivity, fiber composition controls its biopersistence and biopersistence is associated to the fiber habit. Though the six asbestos minerals are considered as equally dangerous for the human health, recent epidemiological studies have demonstrated that crocidolite, amosite and tremolite are clearly more dangerous than chrysotile. In the Western Alps fibrous minerals mainly occur in the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites. This work is part of a multidisciplinary project entitled "Asbestos hazard in Western Alps", goaled at studing occurrence, environmental hazard and possible inactivation of fibrous minerals in the Western Alps. This project, financially supported by the Assessorato all'Ambiente of Regione Piemonte, was coordinated by the Interdepartmental Centre "G. Scansetti" (Università di Torino). The open questions from which this work was born are: i) Which fibrous minerals occur in the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys? ii) Where these minerals occur? Which are the genetic conditions that influence their growth? iii) In which percentage the fibrous minerals are present in the serpentinite rocks? On the basis of these open questions, the Thesis has been organized in 6 chapter. •Chapter 1 – The six minerals defined as asbestos are presented; their potential patogenicity and the deseases correlated to the asbestos exposure are briefly discussed. •Chapter 2 – The geological setting of the Piemonte Zone of Calcschists with meta-ophiolites is briefly discussed, with special attention to the metamorphic evolution of the Ultramafic Lanzo Massif and of the Internal/External Piemonte Zone. •Chapter 3 – The topic of this chapter is the mineralogical and chemical characterization of the fibrous minerals occurring in the analysed serpentinites, i.e. serpentine minerals (chrysotile and antigorite), balangeroite, diopside, tremolite and carlosturanite. For each fibrous mineral, the crystallographic structure and optical properties are reported, and the chemical composition and vibrational properties (FTIR and Μ-Raman spectroscopy) are discussed in detail. From these data it is evident that a rapid and unambiguous identification of fibrous minerals requires the combined use of several analytical techniques, particularly the optical and electron microscopy and the micro-Raman spectroscopy. •Chapter 4 – This chapter is dedicated to the petrological study of the serpentinites from the Susa and Lanzo Valleys, which has been carried out mainly by means of optical and electron microscopy, and Μ-Raman spectroscopy. In the first part of the chapter, the serpentinization processes are briefly discussed and the serpentinite microstructures and the metamorphic paragenesis are described in detail. The second part of the chapter is dealing with the metamorphic veins occurring in the serpentinites. The mechanisms by which a fibrous vein may form are firstly considered; the five generations of metamorphic veins recognised in the serpentinites are, then, described in detail and some hypotheses for their genetic conditions are suggested. The metamorphic P-T path estimated for the serpentinites on the ground of microstructural observations and thermobarometric data, is discussed in the light of Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) and P-T diagrams, calculated with the pseudosection approach. •Chapter 5 - This chapter concerns the problem of the quantitative determination of the fibrous minerals in the rocks. In the first part, the traditional techniques used for the quantitative estimate of asbestos in solid materials are presented, i.e. fiber count at SEM or TEM, X-ray powder diffraction and IR spectroscopy. In the second part of the chapter two new methods are proposed. The first one is based on the use of FTIR spectroscopy for the quantitative asbestos estimate in a chrysotile + antigorite mixtures. The second is based on the image analysis of SEM images combined with micro-Raman spectroscopy. This last technique gives both quantitative and morphological informations. •Chapter 6 – In the final chapter, the main results obtained, the still open questions, and the future perspectives are summarized and briefly discussed. ; Le mot "asbeste" (incombustible) est utilisé pour indiquer un groupe de silicate à habitus fibreux, appartenant aux familles des serpentines et des amphiboles. Selon la législation italienne (D.L. 15/08/91), les six silicates fibreux définis comme asbeste sont: le chrysotile, l'amosite et la crocidolite (variétés fibreuses de la grunérite et de la riébeckite), l'anthophyllite, la trémolite et l'actinolite. Ces minéraux sont constitués de fibres incombustibles, chimiquement stables, inertes et flexibles. A cause de leurs propriétés chimiques et physiques, les asbestes ont été considérés comme les plus importants matériaux inorganiques en vue d'applications industrielles et technologiques. À la fin des années 50, on découvrit la corrélation entre l'exposition à l'asbeste et le développement du mésotéliome pleural et du carcinome. Depuis quelques décennies, le risque asbeste n'est pas considéré comme seulement confiné au cadre professionnel, mais également en tant que risque potentiel pour l'environnement. Par conséquent, l'actuelle législation impose des lois sévères pour la réglementation de l'utilisation des roches et des sols potentiellement porteurs d'asbestes. Le caractère pathogène des fibres d'asbeste est associé aux facteurs suivants : i) faciès fibreux (un minéral est défini comme fibreux si le rapport longueur/diamètre est plus grand de 3 :1) ; ii) facteurs chimiques et minéralogiques (types de fibre, composition chimique, réactivité de surface) ; iii) la bio persistance. Ces facteurs sont interconnectés car les dimensions de la fibre influencent sa réactivité superficielle, la composition de la fibre contrôle sa bio persistance et la bio persistance est aussi associée au faciès de la fibre. Dans les Alpes Occidentales, les minéraux fibreux sont concentrés dans la Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrès à méta-ophiolites. Cette étude fait partie d'une projet multidisciplinaire intitulé « Le risque asbeste dans les Alpes Occidentales », visé à l'étude de la présence, du risque et de la possible inactivation des minéraux fibreux dans les Alpes Occidentales. Ce projet, financé par l'Assessorato all'Ambiente de la Regione Piemonte, a été coordonné par le Centro Interdipartimentale « G. Scansetti » de l'Université de Torino. Cette étude se fonde sur les questions suivantes : i) Quels sont les minéraux fibreux dans les vallées de Susa et de Lanzo ? ii) Où ces minéraux sont-ils concentrés ? Quelles conditions génétiques contrôlent leur croissance ? iii) Quel est le pourcentage les minéraux fibreux dans les serpentines? Sur la base de ces questions, cette thèse a été organisée en six chapitres : •Chapitre 1 – Les six minéraux fibreux définis comme asbeste sont présentés et leur potentiel pathogène est discuté. •Chapitre 2 – La Zone Piémontaise des Schistes Lustrés à méta-ophiolites est décrite brièvement. •Chapitre 3 – Ce chapitre traite de la caractérisation minéralogique et chimique des minéraux fibreux reconnus dans les serpentinites étudiées, c'est-à-dire des minéraux du groupe des serpentines (chrysotile et lizardite), la balangéroïte, le diopside, la trémolite et la carlosturanite. Pour chacun de ces minéraux sont présentées la structure cristallographique, les propriétés optiques, la composition chimique et les propriétés vibrationnelles (Μ-Raman et FTIR). •Chapitre 4 – Ce chapitre traite de l'étude pétrologique des serpentinites des vallées de Susa et de Lanzo, réalisée par microscopie optique et électronique, et spectroscopie Μ-Raman. Dans la première partie, les mécanismes de la serpentinisation sont présentés et les microstructures des serpentinites sont décrits en détail. Dans la deuxième partie, les cinq générations de veines métamorphiques reconnues dans les serpentines sont décrites en détail et des modes de formation sont proposés. La trajectoire P-T estimée pour les serpentinites, sur la base des observations microstructurales et des données thermobarométriques, est discutée à la lumière des diagrammes Μ(Ca2+/Mg2+)-Μ(SiO2) et P-T, calculés grâce à la technique des pseudosections. •Chapitre 5 – Ce chapitre traite du problème de la détermination quantitative des minéraux fibreux dans les roches. Dans la première partie, les techniques traditionnelles pour la détermination quantitative de l'asbeste dans le matériel solide sont présentées. Dans la deuxième partie, deux nouvelles techniques sont décrites en détail. La première est basée sur la spectroscopie FTIR appliquée à une mélange de antigorite + chrysotile. La deuxième sur l'analyse des images SEM (BSE) associée à la spectroscopie micro-Raman. •Chapitre 6 – Il s'agit du chapitre de conclusion, où sont brièvement discutés les résultats, les questions encore ouvertes et les perspectives futures de ce travail.
