Suchergebnisse

Soviet and post-Soviet historians have not paid enough attention to the US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) – the U.S. principal archive that preserves historical documentary sources of national importance. In the United States the history of the National Archives is presented in the works of Wayne C. Grover, Donald R. McCoy, H.G. Jones, Herman J. Viola, Anna Bruner Eales and other authors. The 1940-1950's in NARA's history is one of the most important periods, the time of "maturing and gaining self-awareness", which the author intends to explore in this article. NARA, established in 1934, tried to represent itself as a very important state agency. During World War II, NARA received a significant number of historical documents of the federal executive departments for storage, executed thousands of requests from civilian and military government agencies, popularized historical documents in order to reinforce a sense of patriotism, created thousands of security copies, let their premises to important military defense offices, made important steps to save documents of the occupied countries. Due to the services, rendered by archivists to the U.S. Army and Navy, NARA got the title of "National Defense Agency." Immediately after the war, the Second Archivist of the USA Solon J. Buck suggested creating the International Council on Archives and the UNO Archives. Prominent American archivists Waldo Gifford Leland, one of the founders of (NARA) the National Archives, Chairman of the Committee on Conservation of Cultural Resources, Collas G. Harris, the head of an Archives committee on protection against the hazards of war, Vernon D. Tate, the head of NARA photo archives department, Philip M. Hamer, the Records Control Officer NARA contributed to the development of the records' saving methods during the war. Ernst Posner, a scholar and lecturer at the American University, headed of the project on compilation of guides of archives in Germany, Italy and many occupied countries. The guides were created in order to save the repositories and documentary treasures they contained. Under the leadership of Philip M. Hamer the staff of the National Archives prepared "Guides to Records of World War II" for print. Consequently, archivists believed they were able to prove the value of archives as a strategic state informational resource that preserves nation's historical documents and provides government institutions with important retrospective information. However, in the postwar years, the government made decisions unfavorable for further development of the National Archives. Before and during the war an extraordinary number of documents in need of appraisal and disposal were accumulated in federal departments. In 1943 Congress issued the «Records Disposal Act» which demanded institutions to submit schedules of records, allocated for destruction to the U.S. Archivist. However, the devising of schedules progressed slowly. In 1945 amendments to the Act were adopted, which authorized the Archivist of the United States to compile mandatory General schedules. In 1946 President Harry S. Truman signed EO 9784 "Providing for the More Efficient Use and for the Transfer and Other Disposition of Government Records". This order required the departments of the executive branch to implement records management programs, and made NARA responsible for control and coordination in the area of the records management. It seemed that the measures taken to resolve the problem of appraisal and records management were sufficient. In 1947 the Commission on the Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government was established in the U.S. government, headed by the former U.S. President Herbert Hoover. Although Hoover declared that the reorganization was necessary for management simplification, clarity of the executive branch of power's policies, according to the Constitution of the United States, the real purpose of reorganization was the executive branch's attempt to take over all possible functions of governance, strengthening the status of major federal departments and cost savings. A special group was created as a part of the Commission. Its task was to survey the records management in federal agencies and provide recommendations for its improvement. Emmett J. Leahy led the group. He suggested the creation of a Federal Records Administration, incorporating it as a component of the National Archives and all the repositories, that stored non-current federal government documents, and passing a law to coordinate formation, storage, management and destruction of records procedures, appointing a person responsible for records management in each department, developing and implementing the relevant standards and regulations. However, the only Leahy's proposal the members of the Hoover Commission realized concerned NARA association with the General Services Administration (GSA), the office, responsible for ensuring the operation of public institutions and their buildings, transport and so on. The Third Archivist of the USA Wayne C. Grover (1948-1965) directed his own suggestions to the Hoover Commission, in which he appealed against the decision to establish a new Administration and insisted that NARA was able to successfully perform the functions of records management on its own. Opponents criticized Leahy for the narrowness of the aim he pursued: the problem of reducing the quantity of records and saving space for their storage. They made hints that he was more concerned with how to "sell" his idea to the Commission, than the communal benefit. They also pointed out the lack of alternatives and the uncertain status of the National Archives. Their fears were justified. On June 30, 1949 «Federal Property and Administrative Services Act» (PL 152) concerning federal property and administrative services was adopted, according to which all government records were declared federal property, centralized management was entrusted to GSA, which the National Archives and Records Service (NARS) was subjected to. With a few exceptions, the law passed in 1949 ensured that all the U.S. Archivist's responsibilities were passed to the head of GSA. Archives lost its authority as an independent government agency, and even changed its name from NARA to NARS. This resulted in the inability of the National Archives to conduct independent policy in the field of archival affairs and to control human resources and finances, which adversely affected the further development of the Archives. In 1953 U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961) intended to politicize the post of the Archivist, to remove W.C. Grover from the office and appoint a politician. In 1965 Grover resigned because of a conflict with GSA regarding Archives funding cuts. Before that he had written a letter to President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969) with a request to reestablish the National Archives into an independent agency. For 25 years the conflict between the GSA and NARS had been developing into a state of "war" in which, fortunately for American Archivists, they achieved a victory, returning not only the name but also the independence and rights to the Archives in 1985. Changes in the archives legislation concerning U.S. Archives in the 1940s – 1950s improved the records management in federal agencies: General and specific schedules were introduced, the activities of institutions in the field of records management were regulated, the rules for records disposition were established, retention periods were determined, destruction procedures were standardized, federal records centers were founded. Institutions were freed from aggravating work with noncurrent records, receiving an opportunity to transfer them to temporary repositories, appraisal and subsequent disposal in records centers. Activities of federal agencies in the area of records were subjected to centralized management, coordination and control by NARS. In fact, NARS powers were increased with the right to the records management programs control of the life cycle of documents from the formation in an institution until the final disposition. This was a significant step forward in comparison with the situation in the first half of the XX century. It ensured systematic acquisition of records of historical value by NARS and prevented the loss of valuable documents. Assessment of the guidelines given to the government by Hoover Commission is not high. The National Archives as an independent agency of the executive branch could have implemented its tasks in the field of records management on its own without unnecessary complications. Instead, it was held "captive" for 25 years (in the words of American Archivists) by the GSA and worked under pressure of an unresolved conflict which was time and energy consuming for the archivists. The examined period in the history of the National Archives of the United States (1940-1950's) was important both in terms of archives' achievements in practicing their trade and in terms of understanding their role as archivists. American archivists managed to prove to their federal departments the importance of transferring documents to be stored in the Archives and showed department heads that the Archives are a federal agency, which guarantees and reliably ensures the safety of government records and information as well as institutions' services. Later on, the heads of federal agencies had no doubts about the wisdom of submitting records to the NARA. Archives' informational activities didn't focus solely on executing state civilian and military agencies' requests, but on actively popularizing historical documents among officials, military men and citizens too. Actions, intended to popularize historical documents, helped to form a positive image of archives in the community. For the United States it was of great importance as American citizens as taxpayers assess the necessity of an institution's existence in terms of its cost justification. Activities of American archivists had a positive impact on the safety of occupied countries' documents. Contribution to the salvage of documents of other countries positively influenced the perception of the United States as one of the founders of the International Council on Archives by the international archival community. Decisions taken by the U.S. government in the postwar years were positive as a whole. Firstly, a strict records management system was implemented in federal agencies. The problem of appraisal and temporary storage of records was solved. Second, the loss of National Archives status as an independent public entity, which negatively reflected on all of the Archives' activities until 1985, taught archivists a lesson. Archivists realized that their mission was not to be clerks, who perform routine paperwork, but as guardians of history. W.C. Grover commented on this in his farewell letter to the staff of the Archives: «These missions, as I have repeated many times, are important. They are at the center of man's effort to preserve and carry forward civilization itself. "The written word endures" - at least such portions of the word as we archivists decide are worth preserving! It is a worrisome and responsible task, but I can't think of a nobler one in this rather uncivilized era we find ourselves». It took years for archivists to overcome the resistance of politicians and government officials, return an independent status to the Archives, eliminate the threat of politicization and turn archival branch into a separate independent public system. This does not mean that the U.S. archival branch and National Archives today operate without problems, but they experienced a period of "maturing and gaining self-awareness", which allowed archivists to move on to a new level of perception and representation of themselves and their role in State and society. ; Освещена история Национального архива США в период Второй мировой войны и первые послевоенные годы, усилия архивистов, направленные на организацию экспертизы ценности и обеспечение сохранности документов департаментов федерального правительства, популяризацию исторических источников; деятельность первой и второй Гуверовских комиссий, изменения законодательства в отраслях архивного дела и управления документацией в США в 1940-1950-х гг. Особенное внимание уделено статусу Национального архива США как самостоятельного органа исполнительной ветви власти и стратегического информационного ресурса государства ; Висвітлено історію Національного архіву США у період Другої світової війни та перші повоєнні роки, зусилля архівістів з організації експертизи цінності та забезпечення збереженості документів департаментів федерального уряду, популяризації історичних джерел; діяльність першої та другої Гуверівських комісій, зміни законодавства у галузі архівної справи та у сфері управління документацією у США у 1940-1950-х рр. Особливу увагу приділено статусу Національного архіву США як самостійного органу виконавчої гілки влади та стратегічного інформаційного ресурсу держави

The twentieth century (characterized by the gruesome and haze of horror of two World Wars, the Cold Wars-CW, dictatorships, civil wars, genocides, etc.) has seen a great transformation in warfare but to the expense of the innocent civilians and yet in the full view of regulatory internationally recognized war-laws. So, if at one point in history, civilian populations hardly suffered war directly, the order of the state of affairs has now changed. Many civilians perish simply because warlords so desire; extremes of violence, killings and destruction of property is predominantly preferred. As if that is not enough, the indifference of the majority of the public in tranquil zones of the world towards the fate of the civilians in zones under by fire kind of provide implicit licenses to violence planners to do whatever it takes to "win". Consequently, great numbers of survivors are seen trying to escape from situations of assured death to that of probable death. It is against this background that we feel moved to take on this dissertation. Bearing in mind the generally complex and challenging contemporary conflicts that acutely breeds volatile security environments (for civilians), our thesis is that there needed to be an increased, noteworthy and continued applicable innovation of approaches to civilian protection. To be precise, as a strategy to sustainable peace, we have aspired after a world where the United Nations Peacekeeping Department (UNPKD) is not singly considered the sole custodian of the concept of civilian protection but (based on contexts and cases) as one but a leader among other stakeholders (local and foreign) able and ready to contribute to the common-pool of operational arenas. Thinking about these other stake holders, we have in this work stood by those that: firstly, move towards more civilian-centered operations that are; secondly, carried out by (a mixture of grassroots and international) unarmed civilians by means of; thirdly, engages nonviolent approaches and practices that in themselves anticipate the basic constituents of successive bottom-up Peacemaking (PK) and Peacebuilding (PB) in the hic et nunc of their Peacekeeping (PK) initiatives and applications. All these basics, in our view, do not just add up to drawing a continuous line that intersects the just mentioned Three Approaches to Peace (PK, PM, PB) coined by Johan Galtung way back in 1975; they also open avenues to sustainability. The thesis is taken on through three different parts; each subdivided into two chapters. With due attention to intrastate contemporary violent conflicts, the first part tries to demonstrate the reason why in PK there has been indeed need for rethinking the protection of civilians (PoC) and/or for enriching the methods until now employed in bringing it about. In the first chapter of the part, we kind of gave a sketchy attention to the historical journey that the patterns of violent conflicts in relation to the fate of non-combatants have made. It emerges that, unlike in the past, the pattern of contemporary violent conflict, especially with reference to the CW (especially in third-world countries) and post-CW periods, have become severely complex to handle. Wars have continued and proved to be very hot especially on the populations on the periphery; on those who are minimally directly concerned with and honestly ignorant of its objectives. In the period in question, these innocent men, women and children are more than ever struck hard not just by its direct consequences but also the indirect ones and their hopes are constantly put at the brink of mere survival and of the grave. Mores so the lucky ones who manage to escape these snares, continue to unwaveringly hope for bread, freedom, justice and peace, instead of iron that kills and destroys. In chapter II of the same part, looking at the commitments borne by the UN right from its early years in keeping, initially, the interstate and successively also the intrastate peace (of those tormented by reign of violence and terror), we acknowledge the strides gradually taken along the years. These strides has better late than never embraced a multidimensional point in time where civilian protection counts as a primacy. Accordingly, we recognize that the UN military PK is certainly capable of reducing the level of tension in conflicts but we also negated that, by so doing, it is able to guarantee a durable peace not only because of the application of the non-peaceful means which is limited to separating the conflicting parties but also because it lacks the strategic concern of fostering an active citizenship which is a basic ingredient to democratic populace. In Part Two, we have concentrated on the vision and the peculiar picture of the practitioners of the alternative way, particularly; the Nonviolent Peaceforce (NP) which operates on a benchmark of bottom-up strategic empowerment of local civilian unarmed and nonviolent efforts by international unarmed and nonviolent civilians to protect civilians, prevent, reduce and stop violent conflicts. The first chapter of this second part begins by singling out some of the nuts and bolts (Like: The centrality of sustainability; strategic, local and multilevel capacity and relational empowerment and mediation for peace; conflict transformation as the adequate language; nonviolence and nonpartisanship as a philosophy) that make Unarmed Civilian Protection (UCP) stands out faithfully to the above stated aspirations. Without giving importance to the chronological specifics and with a particular reference to the assessment of the practicality of the project that, on a later date, would organizationally become the NP, an extensive attention is paid to the vicissitudes that surrounded the founding of this UCP protection agency and especially to the foundations of the formative elements entailed. Chapter II does not only build on the findings and stimuli of Chapter I, it supersedes it and makes real a new and distinct reality. Herein, a unique place is devoted to the formative components reserved to the practitioners as a strategy for guaranteeing the competencies and high professionalism needed for the successful execution of field strategies attached to the NP UCP objectives, principles, key methods and practices. Through the analysis of the UCP Training Course entitled "Strengthening Civilian Capacities to Protect Civilians; A joint UNITAR- Nonviolent Peaceforce online Course" the chapter tries to show how the activities of the organization intrinsically flow from its very being; from elements which define it. And this is illustrated in how the very life of the NP UCP is blended with its formative spirit and content; a sort of transformative training that seeks to promote transformative operational frameworks that applicable to situations and contexts. The third part of the work is an applied one. It is dedicated to our chosen case study, namely, NP's intervention in the longtime violence-stricken Republic of South Sudan; in a country which (Thomas Hobbes would say) has once again reverted to its natural state; a harsh reality of hand to mouth living and a never ending search for sustenance in an ambiance virtually challenging to change. In chapter I, the pragmatic implementation of NP UCP in strengthening the local civilians' capacity, security and sense of safety in situation of violent conflict is marked out. Here, some concrete instances of this intervention are presented to exemplify the claim that a multiple base of actors (UCPs, the inviting civil society and/or local NGOs of an UCP presence and local partners) can sustainably and strategically provide the PoC work that for a long time was and is still largely entrusted to the military. And at the end of the day PK, PM, PB resources are considered to consist in not only financial and material supports, but also, and (in the same way) importantly, the socio-cultural resources of the affected people. And in this way people in conflict settings are seen as resources rather than recipients. Even though we evidently confirmed that the alternative way counts exceptionally big in strategically promoting, developing, and implementing sustainable unarmed civilian PK as a tool for preventing, reducing and stopping violence and protecting civilians in situations of violent conflict, we also acknowledge that it is not without challenges. These are actually what chapter two of the part extensively dwells on. The second chapter is instead dedicated (at length) to looking at the challenges that NP faces not only with regard to its missions lands but also in general. We have gone about this in the form of a comprehensive assessment and in some humble recommendations are advanced. Among these challenges we have particularly paid attention to issues like: The meager UCP funding and the dominant top-down mentality; the violent bully character of some major world power wielders; the need for more practitioners to carry out UCP; the dynamicity and complexity of conflict nature as a challenge; conflict prevention challenges like delays in capturing the signs of time so as to effectively intervene; the presence of spoilers as a challenge; the challenge of effective sustainable credibility. Recommendations proposed include among others: Investing in systematic reflections on the extent of the progress and failures so far registered in efforts to involve the UN, regional bodies and other donor agencies or individuals in the cause of NP (UCP) and reflecting on the philosophy that underpins the reasons why financial assistance to UCP and NP in particular is founded; more emphasis on the already existing engagement with political leaders and other influential people and embarking on popular campaigns to propagate a concretely evidenced knowledge of the feasibility of the alternative way, instituting and investing in "School Project" (dedicated to preferably to high schools) within the NP Advocacy and Outreach office and insisting on the positives of volunteers' contribution; enriching a little more the content of the just elaborated online UCP training course; etc. Hereafter, the general conclusion of our dissertation will be drawn. A profound acknowledgement of the UNPK pivotal role with its actual multidimensional fronts in PK basically intended as PoC specifically in the contemporary intrastate violent conflicts. It is also observed that, thanks to the appropriate blending of local and international capacities giving priority to the former, UCP's strategic approach to PK (which is not limited to the PoCs but is also anchored to preventing, reducing and ending not just those that are already on but also lays for standing up to the future possible ones) could be counted on. Thus far, it is on one hand, admissible that, despite all the challenges that there may be, NP (UCP) mechanisms is already proffering a great deal to this end, and on the other, it is evident that it can and should still do more. The ability of its interventions to stand the test of time and to stand up to the future conflicts (i.e. its sustainability) resides in a time which is not yet at hand and in the continuous involvement and inventiveness of many. As per now, if the Italian proverb "Il buongiorno si vede dal mattino" (Meaning: You can tell how something will go by how it begins) holds, then it is, up till now, realistic to count on NP as one of the most outstanding Bottom-up UCP organizations in the PoC in (selected) contemporary violent conflict situations. All that is needed is the building and the consolidation of international interest and support for UCP that presents the hope and reality of alternatives to over dependence on armed intervention; alternatives that chances the revitalization of local communities and the restoration of the social fabrics and capital of the affected people.

Una emergencia es una situación imprevisible que requiere de acciones de respuesta para minimizar posibles daños humanos y materiales. La gestión de emergencias consiste en un conjunto de actividades para la mitigación, preparación, respuesta y recuperación de una situación de emergencia que involucra a agencias gubernamentales, organizaciones no gubernamentales, comunidades de voluntarios, comunidades de práctica, el sector privado y los ciudadanos. Durante las 4 fases de la gestión de emergencias se requiere una comunicación constante entre las personas y organizaciones afectadas e involucradas con el objetivo de coordinar acciones de respuesta, informar de actividades llevadas a cabo, conocer el estado de la situación y dar asistencia a solicitudes de ayuda, entre otras. Las Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones (TIC) proporcionan los mecanismos para dar soporte al intercambio, almacenamiento, procesamiento y distribución de la información generada en este contexto. Los medios sociales establecen un canal de comunicación complementario para habilitar una participación activa de los ciudadanos en la gestión de situaciones de emergencia. Uno de los medios sociales más utilizados son las redes sociales, que permiten a los usuarios compartir información de manera textual o multimedia con una red de contactos, así como valorar, responder o compartir un contenido publicado de manera sencilla a través de páginas Web, aplicaciones de escritorio y aplicaciones móviles. En los últimos años, las redes sociales han generado un interés en constante aumento con respecto a su utilización por agencias gubernamentales durante la gestión de situaciones de emergencia, con el objetivo de hacer más eficiente la comunicación e interacción entre los ciudadanos, las comunidades y el personal de las agencias gubernamentales involucradas. Se considera que las redes sociales pueden ser utilizadas como un canal de comunicación bidireccional que permita la publicación y monitorización de información. Sin embargo, se han identificado dificultades y carencias para la utilización eficiente de las redes sociales por agencias gubernamentales en este contexto. Los problemas principales son: (1) escasez de recursos humanos y tecnológicos para llevar a cabo una actividad constante durante todas las fases de la gestión de situaciones de emergencia; (2) una sobrecarga de la información generada, en especial durante las fases de respuesta y recuperación de una situación de emergencia específica; y (3) la desconfianza en la veracidad de la información, debido a contenido falso y rumores que se suelen generar alrededor de una situación de emergencia. Para ayudar a resolver estos problemas principales identificados, se define un conjunto de 16 requerimientos específicos de las agencias gubernamentales para la utilización de las redes sociales en la gestión de situaciones de emergencia. Estos requerimientos están basados en la literatura, en particular en 3 estudios de investigación llevados a cabo con personal de las agencias gubernamentales, y un estudio de la actividad y el comportamiento de las agencias gubernamentales en la red social Twitter durante una situación de emergencia real. En esta tesis doctoral se describe el diseño y desarrollo de una arquitectura tecnológica que tiene como objetivo facilitar la utilización de las redes sociales por agencias gubernamentales como un canal de comunicación bidireccional durante situaciones de emergencia a partir del cumplimiento de los requerimientos identificados. Esta arquitectura está compuesta por un modelo de datos y un lenguaje de procesos para el almacenamiento y procesamiento de la información generada en las redes sociales durante la gestión de situaciones de emergencia. La base de la arquitectura desarrollada es un modelo de datos común e interoperable entre las distintas plataformas de redes sociales. El modelo de datos se define utilizando un diagrama de clases UML que toma en cuenta la estructura general de las redes sociales más comunes utilizadas actualmente y la estructura necesaria para almacenar los datos relacionados con el cumplimiento de los requerimientos de las agencias gubernamentales. Con el objetivo de proporcionar interoperabilidad, se incluye un esquema de datos utilizando el lenguaje estándar XSD que describe las clases, atributos, operaciones y relaciones de los elementos del modelo de datos. El segundo componente principal de la arquitectura es un lenguaje de procesos que permite la incorporación de módulos de procesos que cubren las necesidades de las agencias gubernamentales en este contexto. Los procesos se definen utilizando la notación BPMN (Business Process Modeling Notation) que describe las tareas, eventos, datos, mensajes y contextos involucrados en el cumplimiento de los requerimientos de las agencias gubernamentales. Los procesos incluidos pueden definirse como componentes reutilizables que llevan a cabo una tarea o actividad específica relacionada con el uso de las redes sociales en la gestión de situaciones de emergencia. Para medir el desempeño de la arquitectura desarrollada, se lleva a cabo una evaluación analítica compuesta por 2 estudios complementarios: (1) evaluación del cumplimiento por parte de la arquitectura desarrollada de los requerimientos identificados; y (2) comparativa del cumplimiento de los requerimientos con respecto a un conjunto de herramientas existentes de sindicación y agregación de contenido y la arquitectura. La evaluación demuestra que la arquitectura proporciona los mecanismos tecnológicos para el cumplimiento de los requerimientos identificados que ayudan a resolver los problemas principales de la utilización de las redes sociales por agencias gubernamentales en la gestión de situaciones de emergencia, en comparación con las herramientas generales existentes de sindicación y agregación de contenido. A partir del diseño y desarrollo de la arquitectura tecnológica en esta tesis doctoral, se proporciona una solución que facilita la utilización de las redes sociales por las agencias gubernamentales en la gestión de situaciones de emergencia, a través del cumplimiento de los requerimientos específicos de las agencias gubernamentales que ayudan a resolver los problemas principales de escasez de recursos humanos y tecnológicos, la sobrecarga de la información generada y la desconfianza en la veracidad de la información recibida. ; An emergency is an unexpected situation that requires response actions to minimize possible human and material damage. Emergency management is a set of activities for mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery of an emergency situation that involves governmental agencies, non-governmental agencies, communities of practice and volunteers, the private sector and citizens. During the four phases of emergency management, a constant communication is required between people and organizations affected and involved to coordinate response actions, inform about activities being performed, know the status of the situation and respond to help requests, among others. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) provide mechanisms to support the exchange, storage, processing and distribution of the information generated in this context. Social media provides an additional communication channel to enable active participation from citizens in emergency management. One of the most used social media platforms are social networks that allow users to share information in a textual or multimedia way with a user network, and to assess, respond or share a published content through the use of Web pages, desktop and mobile applications. In recent years, social networks have generated an increasing interest for their use by government agencies for emergency management in order to make more efficient the communication and interaction between citizens, communities and staff of government agencies involved. In general, social networks are considered as bidirectional communication channels that allow the publication and monitorization of information. However, some difficulties and shortcomings have been identified for the efficient use of social media by government agencies in this context. The main problems are: (1) limited human and technological resources to enable a continuous activity in social networks during all phases of emergency management; (2) an overload of information generated, especially during the response and recovery phases of an emergency event; and (3) distrust in the accuracy of the information, due to false content and rumors that usually appear during an emergency situation. In order to help solving these identified problems, a set of 16 specific requirements is defined for the use of social media by government agencies in emergency management. These requirements are based on the literature, particularly in 3 research studies conducted with personnel of government agencies, and a study of the activity and behavior of governmental agencies in Twitter during a real emergency event. In this thesis is presented the design and development of a technological architecture that aims to facilitate the use of social media by government agencies as a bidirectional communication channel during emergencies based on the fulfillment of the requirements identified. This architecture consists of a data model and a process language for the storage and process of information generated in social networks during emergency management. usually appear during an emergency situation. In order to help solving these identified problems, a set of 16 specific requirements is defined for the use of social media by government agencies in emergency management. These requirements are based on the literature, particularly in 3 research studies conducted with personnel of government agencies, and a study of the activity and behavior of governmental agencies in Twitter during a real emergency event. In this thesis is presented the design and development of a technological architecture that aims to facilitate the use of social media by government agencies as a bidirectional communication channel during emergencies based on the fulfillment of the requirements identified. This architecture consists of a data model and a process language for the storage and process of information generated in social networks during emergency management. viii The basis of the architecture developed is a data model interoperable between the various social networking platforms. The data model is defined using a UML class diagram that considers the overall structure of the most common social networks currently used and the structure needed to store information related to the fulfillment of the requirements of government agencies. In order to provide interoperability, a database schema is created using the XSD standard language for describing the classes, attributes, operations and relationships of all the elements in the data model. The second component of the architecture is a process language that allows the incorporation of process modules that meet the needs of government agencies in this context. The process language is defined using the BPMN notation (Business Process Modeling Notation) and describe the tasks, events, data, messages and contexts involved in meeting the requirements of government agencies. The processes included are defined as reusable components that perform a specific task or activity related to the use of social media in emergency management. To assess the performance of the architecture, an analytical evaluation is carried out that consists of two complementary studies: (1) an assessment of the fulfillment by the architecture of the requirements identified; and (2) a comparative between a set of existing syndication and aggregation tools and the architecture with respect to the fulfillment of the requirements identified. The evaluation demonstrates that the architecture provides the technological mechanisms to fulfill the identified requirements in order to help solving the main problems of the use of social media by government agencies in emergency management, in comparison to existing syndication and aggregation tools. The technological architecture designed and developed in this doctoral thesis provides a solution that facilitates the use of social media by government agencies during emergency management through the fulfillment of specific requirements identified in this context that help solving the main problems of limited human and technological resources, information overload and distrust in the information received. ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ciencia y Tecnología Informática ; Presidente: Jesús Hilario Canós Cerdá.- Secretario: Telmo Agustín Zarraonandía Ayo.- Vocal: Víctor Amadeo Bañuls Silvera

Ham Operators Provided Crucial Services by John Bray The waters of the Levisa Fork of the Big Sandy were rising in Pikeville. By six o'clock on the even ing of Monday, April 4, they were approaching flood stage - at 2 1/2 feet per hour. It wasn't a slow spreading over the banks as in flat lands, but a raging torrent moving mobile homes and all else in its path. Hams - amateur radio operators - are communicators. Partially we do it because we like to talk, but also because we are able to provide emergency communications, both within a disaster area and from it to the outside world. So, shortly after dark early Monday evening, several hams and people who wanted to assist set up a communications net- work within the city of Pikeville. Messages had to be relayed within the city as well as from ·the city to the outside world. The threat of telephone and electricity going out had already been considered. Communications were established between the Civil Defense and Red Cross headquarters in the Court House, a location at Pikeville College, ·a mobile unit, and two units which served as relays when necessary. Involved in this initial action were Denver Matney (WA4NOG), an employee of the post office in Pikeville; me-John Bray (WB4WKP). Assistant Dean of Students at Pikeville College; Willana Call (WA4RNOL a resident of Pikeville; and Bobby Pickelsimer (WB4GEL). They were assisted by Dixie Wehrheim, a Pikeville resident who normally works with children who have special sight problems. Initially, this network was worked through a two-meter repeater in Pikeville. A repeater is a device which automatically re-transmits signals at high power and from a great height, giving much greater range to mobile units transmitting at low power. This network served as Pikeville's only link to the outside world (as far as we know) through hams in Prestonsburg whose short wave stations were still operational. This worked fine until the power went off sometime between 2 and 4 a.m. Tuesday at the repeater site (WDHR-FM). At that time, Pikeville's last connection to the outside world was severed. I managed to drive to the top of Peach Orchard Hill and transmit a message describing conditions in Pikeville during Monday night and into Tuesday morning so that other amateurs in Prestonsburg could notify Civil Defense and Red Cross personnel in Frankfort and Louisville. Tuesday through Sunday are a blur of 20-22 hour days glued to a ham radio, transmitting emergency messages for Civil Defense, Red Cross and others. One. of the first things we did was to arrange for cots, blankets, pillows, sheets, food and medical supplies to be brought to the Science Building at the college. It had immediately been turned into an emergency shelter for townspeople as well as a food center for college employees whose homes were under water. We radioed for insulin to be delivered to people at the Pikeville College shelter. We arranged to get a girl in isolated Phelps to a hospital; her life expectancy would have been three to four hours had she not been transported - she had a ruptured appendix. Another person at Phelps had a stroke and radio communications got him to a hospital; his life expectancy would have been one to three hours otherwise. On Tuesday Pikeville College arranged a place and support facilities for us to set up a medium-power, high-frequency (short wave) station using my equipment. An antenna was strung up between the Pikeville College Administration Building and a dogwood tree. Matney operated the short wave link to the outside world, while I maintained the VHF, two meter links to various emergency headquarters in Pike County. Dixie Wehrheim acted as message coordinator for the hundreds of cOmmunications coming in and going out. Denver and I didn't leave the station for over fifteen hours on Tuesday. Willana Call helped in both parts of the station, serving as a two-meter person and a big rig operator. This was after the water had risen past her house. On Wednesday, several hams were airlifted from Owensboro, Kentucky, to serve as relief operators and to set up a station at Kermit, West Virginia. Others were flown in from Central City, Kentucky, to set up an emergency communications amateur radio station at Phelps, Kentucky. As of April 12 this was still the only communication Phelps had with the rest of the world for medical emergencies and supplies. Steve Morgan (WB4NHO) and Charlie Lott (WB4ANL) came to Pikeville while Mike Galyon (WA4SFR) and Bill Robinson (WA4KPE) went to Phelps. Dick Wyatt (WA4YPI) and his son David volunteered to drive in from Falmouth, Kentucky. The group of local and other hams provided emergency communications almost around the clock from the station at Pikeville College through midnight on Sunday, April 10 (Easter Sunday), when fairly reliable telephone communications had been reestablished. As they managed to get back on the air, other area hams gave their services. Tom Osborne (WA4MNM), Herschell Tackett (K4NLY) and Cordell Damron (K4BGQ) provided links to the outside from Robinson Creek, Virgie and Little Creek. While 0llive Justice (WB4CTV), Jim Hoskins (W4MVU) and Doug Wright (WA4GCX) helped link up Pikeville with Civil Defense and Red Cross, Bruce Olin (WB4FBB) served as one of Elkhorn City's links to both Pikeville and the outside. For most of Tuesday and Wednesday Jack Reeves (WB40WE) of Melvin , Kentucky, was Pikeville's only connection to the telephone system via ham radio. Many other hams helped - Roger Boyd (WA4LIG) served as a mobile unit, Pat Gugliotta (WB4NBC) contributed his two-meter radio for use at Civil Defense headquarters, and many others that I'm just too exhausted to try to think of - worked long, hard hours to help. I apologize to anybody I've forgotten. Funny things happened, too. A national guard jeep's antenna cut our antenna in half Friday morning, leaving us off the air for five hours. I can remember being told Saturday that it wasn't Wednesday. At the end we were all approaching physical exhaustion. But it was a good feeling, too. In at least five cases we had provided the communications necessary to save lives in medical emergencies, and knew we had provided necessary emergency communications services no one else would have been able to provide. A large round of thanks should go from us and the residents of Pike County to those radio amateurs who left their homes and jobs for our week of greatest trial and came voluntarily to Pikeville and other locations in the county to help with their communications skills. Unlike military units and other professional social service workers, these people do not get paid by anyone for what they do; it is truly a labor of love. The other important labor of love that kept many people going throughout the week was borne by Pikeville College. We could never have provided emergency communications services had the college not given us food, coffee, a location and runners to deliver messages. Even when its own employees were suffering loss of personal possessions and the college was bearing up under the devastation of its own housing and academic facilities, the people of the college reached out to help others, and allowed us to help others through the assistance they provided us. The flood of 1977 is over; its ramifications will probably be heard throughout the Big Sandy Valley for another twenty years. To say I was glad to be a part of it all somehow doesn't sound quite right. But I'm thankful I could help; it made me proud to be a ham and happy to be alive. (PHOTO) Hundreds of homeless made their way up Elm Street to Pikeville College for food and shelter. Tolzman (from page 6) Tolzman's schedule changed entirely on Monday evening, April 4. As people moved furniture and pe rsonal belongings out of the path of the muddy Levisa Fork and evacuated their homes, Tolzman decided to stay on the job through the night. For those of us who are now "authentic flood victims," helplessly watching the water rise into out homes soon became frustrating . Many people with in the city proper (on the town side of the three bridges that cross the river into Pikeville) climbed the hill to the Science Building at Pikeville College. Little did we realize that the hill would be our home for days to come. Dean Tolzman and crew provided cold cuts and coffee for everyone. They also prepared ice chests, coffee pots and soda pop for the patients from Mountain Manor Nursing Home who arrived during the night. "The electricity went off in the dining room and none of the stoves or anything would operate after 1 a.m.," Tolzman remembered. "We fixed cold cuts, coffee, pop and such until 4:30 Tuesday morning. We moved to the Bear's Den at 6 o'clock. The Bear's Den still had electricity for some reason. We transported the meat slicer and supplies from the dining room to the Den. I had a grill and a french frye . We scrambled eggs on the grill served coffee, juice, milk and dry cereal from about 6 to 10:30 a.m. We also fixed eggs, oatmeal, soup and things for the old people over in the Science Building and carried them over to the people." The rest of Tuesday, Tolzman served sandwiches and pork and beans, working continuously until midnight. At that time the electricity came back on and the operation was moved back to the cafeteria. Tolzman has a total of 21 employees, including 5 students. On Monday and Tuesday all of them were stranded out of town except for Joyce Robinson. According to Tolzman she worked continuously without sleep from 6 a.m . Monday (when she came on for her regular Monday shift) until sometime Wednesday evening. Several other employees came back as soon as they could get into town. Tolzman , whose wife Sarah is head resident of Condit Hall at Pikeville College, is the father of three sons, ages five years, two years and two months. He saw snatches of his family du ring the first few days after THE FLOOD. Providing food services for the Red Cross shelter in the college's Science Building and helping provide meals for other Red Cross shelters located throughout the area was a nonstop responsibility. Tolzman had plenty of volunteer help. Many people at Pikeville College stuck wit h him for hours - Gary Thrash, assistant administrator of the mining technology program; Alma Culton, associate professor of religion ; Russell Patterson, chairman of the Music Depart- ment Phyllis Dayer, instructor of French; students Reina Trusty, Denise Burgy, Fred Frederick, Rayanna Reeves, and John Morris; and Lukie Alemayeheu, wife of economics instructor Tsehai Alemayeheu. ARA Food Services and Pikeville College can be proud of Dean Tolzman. His decisions were timely and sensitive. The tremendous human needs that had to be met. His leadership produced an unhurried, warm atmosphere of friendly service at a time when others would have been barking orders and aggravating an already confused, tense situation. The personal sacrifice of time, sleep, energy and resources made by Tolzman and his people made it possible for all of us to retreat to the calm of the cafeteria and get away from the devastation outside. Would that we could all react so sensibly and selflessly .

10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 1/6 PROFESSOR ASAO INOUE SELECTED FOR TOP TEACHINGAWARD Home | PRESS RELEASES | Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award Previous  Next  Professor Asao Inoue, an associate professor of English, has beenawarded the top teaching honor at Fresno State. William A. Covino, provost and vice president for Academic A􀃠􎁡airs, namedInoue as recipient of the 2012 Excellence in Teaching Award. The Provost's Awards announced Tuesday, May 1, also honored: Amanda Adams, assistant professor of Psychology, recipient of theFaculty Service Award Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval, professor of Modern and ClassicalLanguages, Gradvuate Teaching and Mentoring Award William Bommer, professor of Management, Research, Scholarshipand Creative Accomplishment Award Bryan Berrett, associate professor of Communicative Disorders andDeaf Studies, Technology in Education Award.       Search . SECTIONS ACADEMICS  CAMPUS &COMMUNITY  RESEARCH  ALUMNI  PRESS RELEASES  FEATURED VIDEOS  NEWS SOURCES Fresno StateMagazine  CommunityNewsletter  Fresno State  The Collegian  Bulldog Blog  ACADEMICS CAMPUS & COMMUNITY RESEARCH ALUMNI ATHLETICS FEATURED VIDEOS  ABOUT PRESS RELEASES MEDIA GUIDE ARCHIVES10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 2/6 Four faculty members received the Promising New Faculty award,recognizing exemplary achievements in teaching, research/creativeactivities and/or service among nontenured, tenure-track faculty. Thehonorees are: Juan-Carlos Gonzalez, assistant professor of Educational Researchand Administration. Elizabeth Payne, assistant professor of Theatre Arts. Jason Bush, assistant professor of Biology. Kim Youngwook, assistant professor of Electrical and ComputerEngineering. Asao Inoue , associate professor of English, receives the Excellence inTeaching Award. He has been at Fresno State since 2007. He approachesthe challenge of teaching high-level writing skills with an innovativepedagogy that emphasizes students' roles in their own education. Hefrequently asks students to evaluate and challenge traditionalinstructional environments and to examine alterna tive teaching methodsthat foster greater individual success. One important aspect of histeaching philosophy is getting students to talk about their writing inrhetorical and re􀃖􍙥exive ways. Inoue's on-campus service includes work asorganizer and facilitator for the Symposium on Remediation in Englishand as a committee member for the Improving Student Writing Initiative,Criterion As sessment Committee. His community service includes work ascurriculum designer, teacher, and program assessment coordinator forUniversity 20 (Academic Reading course), Summer Bridge Program, andthe Educational Opportunity Program. He has active memberships in theCon ference on College Composition and Communication, NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, Asian American Studies Association,Rhetoric Society of America, and Council of Writing ProgramAdministrators. In 2000, he received the Faculty Development SeminarAward. His national hon ors and awards include the Ford FoundationPredoctoral Fellowship for Minorities in 2003. Amanda Adams , assistant professor of Psychology, receives the FacultyService Award. She has been at Fresno State since 2006. Her passion forhelping families who have children with autism drives her to createopportunities for students' development, both as practitioners of appliedbehavior analysis and as researchers that disseminate new knowledge.She has worked tirelessly to develop and secure support for the CentralCalifornia Autism Center (CCAC) on campus. The center pro videsopportunities for students to learn to apply Applied Behavior Analysisprinciples, conduct research, and learn important professional skills.Adams provides important service to the local community by educatingpractitioners who treat autism, families who are a􀃠􎁥ected by autism, andpolicy makers who develop programs and provide 􀃕􍕮nancial support fortreating autism. For four years, she has worked with students to plan and Go Bulldogs  Videos  Social MediaDirectory  10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 3/6 implement Autism Awareness Field Day. She is involved in otherawareness/fundraising events, including the CCAC Gala Fundraiser andannual golf tournament. She is a member of the California Chapter of theAssociation for Applied Behav ior Analysis and received the Provost'sAward for Promising New Faculty in 2009. Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval , professor of Modern and Classical Languagesand Literatures, receives the Graduate Teaching and Mentoring Award. Hehas been at Fresno State since 2000 and has a well-established record ofexceptional graduate teaching. Jiménez-Sandoval has been a driving forcein the development of the Spanish M.A. curriculum, personally developingand teaching 􀃕􍕶ve new seminars for the program. In his teaching, hestresses the basic human emotions of love, despair, and hope. He isdescribed as a proli􀃕􍕣c thesis director and has served on the Spanish M.A.exam com mittee each semester since his arrival. Jiménez-Sandovalbelieves in students' ability to push them selves and excel. His studentshave been accepted to Ph.D. programs at UCLA, Irvine, Berkeley, Stanford,Arizona, British Columbia, and Alberta. He was the recipient of the 2003-04 Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity Award. Through hisexemplary scholarship, he serves as a model of the teacher-scholar tostudents and faculty. His public lectures include the 2005 InternationalCo􀃠􎁥ee Hour presentation on the sacred role of poetry in Aztec culture,and his articles include his recent publication on the canonical Mexicancoming-of-age novel, Las batallas en el desierto William Bommer , professor of Management, receives the Research,Scholarship and Creative Ac complishments Award. He has been at FresnoState since 2008. Bommer uses his research on a regular basis in theclassroom. His research spans a number of topics in the 􀃕􍕥eld of manage -ment and applied psychology. Two primary areas of research for which heis known internationally are the areas of transformational leadership andorganizational citizenship. Widely published, his research is impressive.His work is commonly cited in college texts and is regularly assigned indoctoral-level seminars. In the past two years, he has been the principalinvestigator on three di􀃠􎀠 erent external grants. These grants have totaledmore than $600,000. His work has been used for doctoral training in the􀃕􍕥elds of management, psychology, marketing, education, andmanagement information systems. He also served as the outside experton two di􀃠􎁥erent dissertation committees in Australia. Bryan Berrett , associate professor of Communicative Disorders and DeafStudies, receives the Technology in Education Award. He has been atFresno State since 1998. In 2010, he was one of four CSU faculty to beawarded Sony's multimedia award. Berrett has demonstratedtremendous leadership in the use of technology at Fresno State,particularly in the development of online classes. He has established a10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 4/6 remarkable track record of innovative and practical uses of technol ogy.For example, over the last several years, he has been the recipient ofmultiple Digital Campus grants to convert traditional classes into onlinecourse o􀃠􎁥erings. He coordinates the sign language interpreting program,which now has approximately 30 percent of its coursework o􀃠􎁥ered online.He also has integrated the use of audio and visual multimedia into theAmerican Sign Language computer lab. Most recently, Berrett has beenthe department's leader in converting the education graduate programinto an 80 percent online 20 percent face-to-face format. Promising New Faculty Awards 2011-2012 Juan-Carlos Gonzalez , assistant professor of Educational Research andAdministration, has been at Fresno State since 2009. A skilled professorand scholar, he has fully engaged in service to the university and thecommunity. He serves on multiple editorial boards for peer-reviewedjournals and as a proposal reviewer on a national level. He has beenactive in accreditation activities, chaired the International Committee, andorganized a faculty study trip to Costa Rica. Gonzalez has mentored aMcNair Scholar and worked with the Central California Children's Instituteon research projects. He is an enthusiastic participant in the life of theKremen School and the university as a whole. In addition to his regularcourses, he has taught classes in qualitative research methods and criticalrace theory in education. He has already published four articles andpresented at 23 conferences in the United States. He has also presentedin China and in Mexico. Gonzalez has received numerous awards andhonors, including the Dandoyd Research Award for spring 2012. Elizabeth Payne , assistant professor of Theatre Arts, has been at FresnoState since 2008. A highly tal ented designer, she continues to workprofessionally in theatre in New York and in television, where she hasconsulted on the Conan O'Brien Show. She brings to Fresno State herconsiderable skills in design, teaching, mentorship, and communityoutreach. She is a demanding teacher who has transformed the existingcostume design and technology courses and created new ones, such asCostume History and Design Focus on Film. Seamlessly integrating socialand political issues into her discussion of fashion, she demonstrates tostudents why broad cultural knowledge is crucial to successful designwork. Her classes bring together academics and practical, skill-basedtraining. Payne has also been proactive in generating grants, including aFresno State Enhancing Student Information Literacy Grant, which sheintegrated into her Costume History class. In the area of mentorship, shehas had considerable impact — her door is open to all. She is the recipientof the 2012 Fresno County Board of Education Artist in Residence Grant.10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 5/6 By llarson | May 1st, 2012 | Categories: PRESS RELEASES | 3 Comments SHARE THIS STORY, CHOOSE YOUR PLATFORM!     RELATED POSTS Jason Bush , assistant professor of Biology, has been at Fresno State since2006. Bush has enriched the university environment through his serviceand demonstrated excellence and leadership within the Biol ogyDepartment, the College of Science and Mathematics, and the university,with service on the Cur riculum Committee and the Graduate ScholarshipCommittee. Bush is one of the leading researchers in cancer andproteomic research. He has made 31 presentations since his arrival.Through Dr. Bush's 20 national collaborations, he has been able to extendFresno State resources to develop a broader and resource-richenvironment for his students. He has received $1.5 million in nationalgrants from 􀃕􍕶ve externally funded proposals, including NIH, AmericanCancer Society, Keep-A-Breast Foundation, Susan G. Komen for the Cure,and CSUPERB. Bush was also a co-principal investigator in the $4.5 millionRIMI grant for the development of a research facility in the Central Valley.In addition to ex ternal funding, he has augmented his research with$120,000 in internal grants. He is a consultant and grant reviewer for theSusan G. Komen for the Cure, as well as an active member of theUniversity of California, San Francisco-Fresno Research Group. Youngwook Kim , assistant professor of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, has been at Fresno State since 2008, demonstrating hisdedication to high quality teaching, research and creative activities, andstudent involvement in his research. He has taught a wide repertoire ofundergraduate and graduate courses focusing primarily on highfrequency electronics. Through online methodology, he provides studentswith the opportunity to learn at their own pace. Kim's research focuses onelectromagnetics and the application of Doppler and ultra-wide bandradar systems to human detection applications, such as security,surveillance operations, and search-and-rescue missions. While at FresnoState, he has published several journal papers and six conference papers.His research totals $167,659 in external funding. Currently, Kim ispreparing a proposal on data fusion and target sensing models in wirelesssensor network environments. He is also serving as a grant developmentchair for the Untenured Faculty Organization and is a member of theProfessional Development Committee, the Honors Committee, and theResearch and Grant Review Committee within the Lyles College ofEngineering.10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 6/6 SAÚL JIMÉNEZ-SANDOVALAPPOINTEDINTERIM PRESIDENTOF FRESNO STATE October 28th, 2020 | 0Comments TRANSPORTATIONINSTITUTE RELEASESPROMISINGFINDINGS OFCOVID-19 PUBLICTRANSIT STUDY October 28th, 2020 | 0Comments NURSING MUNIT CONTFREE HEALSERVICES OWEST FRES October 27th, Comments Fresno State News Hub isthe primary source ofinformation about currentevents a􀃠􎁥ecting CaliforniaState University, Fresno, itsstudents, faculty and sta􀃠􎀻;providing an archive ofnews articles, videos andphotos, as well as links tomajor resources on campusas a service to theuniversity community. CONTACT US CALIFORNIA STATEUNIVERSITY, FRESNO 5241 N. Maple Ave. Fresno, CA 93740 P: 559.278.4240 Email Us SECTIONS ACADEMICS  CAMPUS & COMMUNITY  RESEARCH  ALUMNI  PRESS RELEASES  FEATURED VIDEOS  Sign up for theCommunity Newsletter Fresno State NewsArchives Copyright 2012 - 2016 Avada | All Rights Reserved | Powered by WordPress | Theme Fusion       

Käesoleva magistritöö eesmärgiks on autoril välja selgitada, kuidas siseriikliku ja rahvusvahelise transpordiga tegelevad transpordiettevõtted ja veokijuhid peavad kinni kehtestatud tööajamäärustest ja uurida milline on seos tööajamääruste rikkumiste ja veo- või vedukautode põhjustatud liiklusõnnetuste vahel ning kas on seos tööajamääruste rikkumiste ning laonduses ja veonduses toimunud tööõnnetuste vahel. Töö kirjutamise käigus töötas autor läbi veokijuhtide tööaega reguleerivat seadusandlust, Euroopa Liidu Parlamendi ja Nõukogu määruseid, analüüsis mitmete transpordi- ja terviseteadlaste seisukohti erinevate teadusartiklite baasil ning töötas läbi teisi erialaseid kirjandusväljaandeid. Töö käigus analüüsis autor Tööinspektsiooni poolt läbi viidud uuringuid töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete avastatud rikkumiste ja tööõnnetuste osas ning Maanteeameti poolt avaldatud veo- või vedukautode poolt põhjustatud liiklusõnnetuste vahelist seost. Magistritöös võrdles autor Maanteeameti poolt tellitud ja 2004. aastal Tallinna Tehnikaülikooli Arenduskeskuse poolt avaldatud "Töö- ja puhkeaja järgimise uuring Eesti maanteetranspordi ettevõtetes" uurimust ja selle tulemusi käesolevas töös veose veo eest vastutavate isikute ja veokijuhtide seas autori poolt läbi viidud küsitluse tulemustega ning tegi saadud tulemuste põhjal järeldusi. Magistritöö analüüsis uuris autor veose veo eest vastutavate isikute hinnangut veokijuhtide teadlikkusest töö- ja puhkeaja nõuetest ning veokijuhtide teadlikkust maanteetranspordis kehtivatest regulatsioonidest. Läbi viidud küsitluses osales 29 veose veo eest vastutavat isikut ja 27 veokijuhti. Küsitluses osalenud veo ja veose eest vastutavate isikute vastuste läbitöötamisel jõudis autor järeldusele, et veokijuhtide teadlikkust töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete täitmisest võib pidada heaks, ent peamiseks töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete rikkumiseks on autori seisukohalt küsitluse tulemustest lähtuvalt just ööpäevasest sõidu- ja puhkeaja nõuetest mitte kinni pidamine. Veokijuhtide poolt küsimustikule edastatud vastuseid analüüsides jõudis autor samuti järeldusele, et suurem osa veokijuhtidest on teadlikud sõidu- ja puhkeaega reguleerivatest seadusaktidest ning samuti osutus see ka autori järeldustest tulenevalt suurimaks rikkumiseks. Veokijuhid ei pea suures enamuses kinni Euroopa Parlamendi ja Nõukogu määrusega nr 561/2006 kehtestatud nädalasest sõidu- ja puhkeaegadest. Töötervishoiule tähelepanu pööramise ja töötingimuste parandamise osas küsitluste tulemusi analüüsides, jõudis autor järeldusele, et 90% vastanud ettevõtetest pööravad tähelepanu veokijuhtide töötervishoiule ning töötingimuste parandamiseks on ettevõttes rakendanud erinevaid meetmeid. Mitte üheski vastanud ettevõttes ei esine haigestumisi kutsehaigustesse. Tööõnnetusi on juhtunud vastanud ettevõtetest kuues ettevõttes. Surmaga lõppenud tööõnnetusi ei esinenud. Veokijuhtide vastuste tulemustest lähtuvalt on autor samuti seisukohal, et protsentuaalselt enam kui pooltele vastanud veokijuhtidele osutatakse töötervishoiuteenuseid ning samuti on ka veokijuhtide hinnang töötingimuste parandamise osas sama, mis ettevõtetelgi. Veokijuhtide töö- ja puhkeaja määruste eesmärk – parandada veokijuhtide töötingimusi ja võtta arvesse nende töötervishoiu küsimusi – ei ole autori arvates täielikult realiseerunud. Euroopa Parlamendi ja Nõukogu töö- ja puhkeaja määrused on paindumatud, mistõttu põhjustavad nendest tulenevad nõudmised paljudel veokijuhtidel stressi. Täpsed ettekirjutused, millal ja kui palju veokijuhid sõitma ja puhkama peavad, võivad suure tõenäosusega tekitada veokijuhtides sotsiaalset isolatsiooni. Stress omakorda võib olla teiste haiguste riskiteguriks. Töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete avastatud rikkumiste ja veo- või vedukautode põhjustatud liiklusõnnetustevahelise seose ning töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete avastatud rikkumiste ja laonduses ja veonduses toimunud tööõnnetustevahelise seose väljaselgitamiseks viis autor töös läbi korrelatsioon- ja regressioonanalüüsi. Analüüsi tulemusena on autor seisukohal, et töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete avastatud rikkumiste ja veo- või vedukautode põhjustatud liiklusõnnetuste vahel on tugev negatiivne seos. Sellest tulenevalt järeldab autor, et kui kasvab Tööinspektsiooni poolt kontroll töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete täitmise üle, vähenevad veo- või vedukautode poolt põhjustatud liiklusõnnetused. Töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete avastatud rikkumiste ja laonduses ja veonduses toimunud tööõnnetustevahelise seose näitajaid analüüsides jõudis autor tulemusele, et nende vahel on olemas negatiivne korrelatiivne seos. Saadud tulemuste põhjal on autor seisukohal, et kui kasvab Tööinspektsiooni poolt kontroll töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete täitmise üle, vähenevad laonduses ja veonduses aset leidvate tööõnnetuste arv. Võrreldes veose veo eest vastutavate isikute ja veokijuhtide seas autori poolt läbi viidud küsitluse tulemusi 2004. aastal Tallinna Tehnikaülikooli Arenduskeskuse poolt läbi viidud uuringus avaldatud andmetega ja analüüsides Tööinspektsiooni poolt kontrollimisel avastatud töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete rikkumisi, veonduses ja laonduses toimunud tööõnnetusi ning Maanteeameti poolt avaldatud veo- või vedukauto poolt põhjustatud liiklusõnnetusi, leiab autor, et kontrolli töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete täitmise üle tuleks tõhustada. Tagamaks veokijuhtide töö- ja puhkeaja nõuetest kinni pidamine, tuleks kauba saatjatel, tellijatel ja vedajatel teha rohkem omavahelist koostööd. Ettevõtetes peab autori seisukohtade kohaselt pöörama rohkem tähelepanu seadusandlusega kehtestatud veokijuhtide töö- ja puhkeaja nõuetele. Auroti arvates omab see, eriti suurt tähtsust, kuna ettevõte vastutab ka väljaspool liikmesriiki veokijuhi poolt toime pandud eest. Igas ettevõttes on küll veose veo eest vastutav isik, kuid tema ei saa tihtilugu üksi hallata kogu ettevõtet, sellest tulenevalt on autor arvamusel, et nii nagu veokijuhtidel on kohustuslik läbida täiendkoolitused, tuleks seda nõuda ka veokorraldajatelt, et ka nemad oleksid paremini kursis kehtivate töö- ja puhkeaja nõuetega. Tööinspektsioon, Politsei ja Piirivalveamet ning koolitajad võiksid teha suuremat koostööd teavitamaks ja koolitamaks ettevõtteid ja veokijuhte töö- ja puhkeajaeeskirjadest tulenevate nõuete täitmiseks, samuti kontrollimiseks kasutatavate programmide tutvustamiseks ja kasutamiseks. Autor on arvamusel, et kehtivad töö- ja puhkeajamäärused tuleks üle vaadata ja sõnastada nii, et need oleksid üheselt mõistetavad nii kontrollivale ametnikule, tööandjale kui ka veokijuhile. Autor on seisukohal, et korduvate rikkumiste korral, kui neile on pööratud kontrolliva ametniku poolt korduvalt tähelepanu ning jätkuvalt esineb töö- ja puhkeaja nõuete rikkumisi, tuleks rakendada karmimaid karistusmeetmeid. Tähelepanu peaks autori arvates pöörama ka veokijuhtide töökeskkonnale ja tervisele, kuna seda valdkonda Euroopa Parlamendi ja Nõukogu määrus käesoleval hetkel täiel määral ei reguleeri ega kajasta. Põhiline rõhk on pandud eeskätt sõidu- ja puhkeaja reguleerimisele, millega püütakse vähendada õnnetusi raskeveokite ja väsinud veokijuhtidega, ent tagaplaanile on seetõttu jäänud veokijuhtide tervis ja heaolu. Tööandjad, töötervishoiuteenust osutavad asutused, Tööinspektsioon ning Maksu- ja Tolliamet peaksid tagama tihedamat koostööd, tagamaks veokijuhtide pidev tervisekontroll ja saadud tulemusi tuleks ka analüüsida, et vajadusel parendada veokijuhtide töökeskkonda. Riik võiks veokijuhtide tervise ja heaolu ning töökeskkonna parendamiseks loobuda tööandjatele kehtivatest erisoodustusmaksudest hetkel ei saa ettevõtted võimaldada oma töötajatele näiteks sportimist või muid tervist parendavaid teenuseid. ; The purpose of the hereto Master's thesis is to find out how the transportation companies and truck drivers, who are dealing with national and international transportation, follow the working time regulations. Also to find out which is the connection between violation of working time regulations and traffic accidents caused by trucks or traction units and is there a connection between violation of working time regulations and occupational accidents happened in transportation and warehousing. In order to write the Master's thesis, the author had to elaborate with the regulations concerning truck-drivers work and rest time. The author also had to analyze several point-of-views of many health scientists from several scientific articles and elaborate with other professional literature. While writing the Master's thesis, the author analyzed the researches concerning infringements of work and rest time regulations and working accidents published by the Labour Inspectorate and also the connection between the accidents caused by trucks or traction units, published by the Road Administration. The author compared the results of the Tallinn University of Technology research "The research about following the hours of service regulations in Estonian transportation companies," ordered by the Road Administration with the results of the survey carried out among truck drivers and people responsible for cargo transportation and made conclusions based on that. In the Master's thesis the author analyzed the opinion of the people responsible for cargo transportation about the truck driver's awareness of hours of service regulations, and the truck driver's awareness concerning the regulations of road transport. There where 29 people responsible for the cargo transportation and 27 truck drivers who participated in the survey. While elaborating with the answers given by the people responsible for the cargo transportation, the author came to a conclusion that the truck driver's knowledge about the hours of service regulations is good but the main violation of working and rest time is the non-compliance of the daily driving working and rest time regulations. While analyzing the answers given by the truck drivers the author also came to conclusion that although most of the truck drivers know about the regulations of the working and rest time, it is still the main violation. Most of the truck drivers do not follow the working and rest time requirements, regulated with the European Parliament and Council regulation no 561/2006. When analyzing the results of the survey about paying attention to occupational health and improving the working conditions the author concluded that 90% of the responding companies are paying attention to the occupational health of the truck drivers and have applied different methods to improve the working conditions. There have been no cases of occupational diseases in the responding companies. Six of the responding companies said that there have been cases of occupational accidents but none of them were fatal. When analyzing the truck driver's answers the author finded that more than half of the truck drivers who participated in the survey have received occupational health services and the truck driver's opinion about the improvement of working conditions matches with the companies. The purpose of the regulations of hours of service (improvement of working conditions of the truck drivers taking into account their health issues) isn't completely realized. The European Parliament and Council regulations about hours of service are inflexible and causing stress to truck drivers. It is likely that the precise rules when and for how long the truck drivers have to drive and rest, may cause social isolation. Stress, in turn, may be the risk factor for other diseases. In order to find out the connection between the violation of hours of service regulations and traffic accidents caused by trucks and traction units and the connection between the violation of hours of service regulations and the occupational accidents happened in warehousing and transportation, the author carried out a correlation and regression analyzes. As a result of the analyzes, the author came to a conclusion that the connection between violation of hours of service regulations and traffic accidents caused by truck drivers is strongly negative. Hence the author concluded that if the control by Labour Inspectorate over the compliance of hours of service regulations increases, the traffic accidents caused by the trucks or traction units will decrease. After analyzing the connection between the violations of work and rest time regulations and the occupational accidents happened in storage and transport, the author came to a conclusion that there is a negative correlational connection between them. The author came to a result that if the control by Labour Inspectorate over the compliance of hours of service regulations increases the occupational accidents in warehousing and transportation will decrease. When comparing the results of the survey carried out among truck drivers and people responsible for cargo between the results of the research carried out by the Development Center of the Tallinn University of Technology in 2004, analyzing the violations of hours of service regulations discovered by the Labour Inspectorate, analyzing the occupational accidents in storage and transport and analyzing the traffic accidents caused by trucks or traction units what are published by the Road Administration, the author came to a conclusion that control measures over the compliance of hours of service regulations should be intensified. To ensure the compliance of truck driver's hours of service regulations, bigger co-operation is needed between the cargo shippers, orders and carriers. Author thinks that companies should pay more attention to truck drivers hours of service regulations. Author thinks that this is also really important because the company is responsible for the accidents caused by the truck drivers not only inside European Union but also if they happen outside of it. Author's opinion is that stricter punishments are needed in case of repeated violations if they have been noticed by the controlling official. Author thinks that more attention should be paid to truck drivers working environment and health because this is the area that has not been fully reflected and regulated by the European Parliament and Councils regulations. Right now the main focus has put on regulating the hours of service what should decrease the accidents caused by trucks and tired truck drivers but the truck driver's health and wellbeing has been left behind.

Introduction: Tradition and Change: Many of the well established Western European pharmaceutical wholesalers are companies with strong local traditions and roots dating back for several decades and more. GEHE Pharma Handel GmbH, one of the top pharmaceutical wholesalers in Germany, was celebrating its 175th birthday in 2010. AAH Pharmaceuticals Ltd., the UK's leading distributor of pharmaceutical and healthcare products, was established in 1923, and Herba Chemosan Apotheker-AG, Austria's largest pharmaceutical service and trading company, was established in 1916 as a cooperative from pharmacists for pharmacists. But having years to add does not equal getting old, as we will see in the course of this study. The times of transformation free eras have long gone, stability is not the norm anymore and the challenges being faced today are completely different. The globalisation of markets and competition has forced and still 'is forcing firms to make dramatic improvements not only to compete and prosper but also to merely survive'. For many reasons, which will be detailed throughout this study, pharmaceutical wholesalers across Europe have been facing the need for improvements to secure sustainability and growth. In addition, 'there has been significant consolidation of pharmaceutical wholesalers in Europe … affecting not only the distribution of market share but also the strategic orientation of the surviving firms'. Healthcare in Transition: Not only within the European Union but also across the entire OECD countries, healthcare is one of the largest industries with a dominant position in terms of job creation and a dynamic force in terms of innovation. Despite significant achievements in the health status of populations, concerns prevail on how resources are used in healthcare and how to guarantee an efficient and effective use of modern medicine. The weight of healthcare expenses in relation to GDP has increased the demand to harmonise internationally different definitions and improve the cross-national comparability of data on healthcare expenses. Consequently, the OECD has developed the 'System of Health Accounts'. This manual provides a common framework and supports the international comparison of healthcare data across countries and over time. A combination of medical progress, demographic changes and shifting social expectations are the major drivers of increasing health expenditures in developed countries. Within the EU-15, spending for healthcare has a significant share in percent of GDP. In 2005, the average healthcare spending in the EU-15 was 8.3% of GDP, leading to an increased dominance of expense controls (Figure 1:Total spending on healthcare in % of GDP (2006)). The pharmaceutical market is an integrated part of the overall healthcare market and driven by innovation and milestone improvements as is the overall healthcare market. The pharmaceutical market is the major reference market for the pharmaceutical wholesale industry. The standing and weight of the pharmaceutical market is expressed in the pharmaceutical quota. The pharmaceutical quota reflects the ratio of pharmaceutical expenses in comparison to the overall expenses for healthcare (Figure 2: Pharmaceutical expenditure in % of total health expenditure (2006)). Pharmaceutical expenditure varies significantly across Europe with a record share of 31.9% of total health expenditure in Hungary. The focus on pharmaceutical spending has become of growing importance, as governments are increasingly facing budget problems in financing healthcare activities for their citizens. The prices of established medicines are generally declining over their life cycle but pharmaceutical spending is triggered by non-cyclical trends, such as increasing life expectancy in industrialised nations and the introduction of new and innovative medicines at increased costs. The global pharmaceutical market will continue to grow and drugs will still be perceived as an efficient method of treatment compared with other types of medical care (Figure 3: Life expectancy in years at birth (2008)). Total spending on healthcare in relation to GDP and life expectancy is still relatively low in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). However, the higher share of spending in pharmaceuticals can be interpreted as reduced spending on other forms of treatment and thereby increasing the importance of pharmaceuticals. Reduced average life expectancy in CEE shows that there is still a need to draw level with the rest of Europe. These trends will ultimately support the growth of pharmaceutical markets but further increase the pressure on local governments to finance additional healthcare. Research Objectives: Pharmaceutical wholesale distribution is an unknown area for the general public, and very often for other players in the healthcare market and politicians too. Little is known about this vital business-to-business link between pharmaceutical production at the beginning and dispensing of drugs at the end of the supply chain. Pharmaceutical wholesale distribution has a long-history in Europe and repeatedly proved to be the most efficient bridge between production and point of sale (PoS) or point of dispensing (PoD). Within the last years, the topic of changes in European healthcare has become of ever growing importance. The pace of change has increased exponentially in some countries. In a functioning healthcare system, pharmaceutical wholesalers are fully embedded and thus significantly affected by a changing environment. Risks and opportunities go hand in hand while governments are changing their policies in healthcare spending, pharmaceutical manufacturers are changing their mode of operating and patients and consumers are changing their ways of receiving or buying pharmaceuticals. The aim of this master thesis is to highlight the role of pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers, to give detailed analyses of an ever-changing healthcare world and map out the most relevant threats and opportunities for European full-line pharmaceutical wholesalers. Structure: This master thesis comprises of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to European healthcare and explains the purpose of this thesis. Chapter 2 focuses on the definition of full-line pharmaceutical wholesalers, the specific functions they hold within the pharmaceutical supply chain, and the value added they provide. Chapter 3 investigates the major trends leading to a changing healthcare environment, evaluating the effects of changing demographic compositions, governments' needs to restrict healthcare spending and the consequences on pharmaceutical wholesalers. Chapter 4 deals with opportunities of growth to sustain the success of European pharmaceutical wholesalers in the long run: strategies for liberalising markets, the creation of value added services, vertical integration and the need to grow outside Europe are on display. Chapter 5, finally, summarises the findings of the master thesis. Data Source: Data for the analysis is mainly based on European drivers of healthcare systems. Analysis on national and corporate level has been included where applicable. Global research data, with a special focus on Brazil, Russia, China and India, has been analysed for the purpose of evaluating growth strategies for pharmaceutical wholesalers outside Europe. The reviewed literature has been published by first-in-class experts in healthcare such as IMS Health, the world's leading provider of market intelligence to the pharmaceutical and healthcare industries, GIRP, the umbrella organisation of pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers in Europe, OECD, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and high-ranking consulting corporations such as Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Roland Berger Strategy Consultants and The Boston Consulting Group. A diverse set of sources was used to provide a comprehensive analysis on changing healthcare markets and the threats and opportunities for pharmaceutical wholesalers.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: 1.INTRODUCTION9 1.1TRADITION AND CHANGE9 1.2HEALTHCARE IN TRANSITION10 1.3RESEARCH OBJECTIVES14 1.4STRUCTURE15 1.5DATA SOURCE15 2.PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALE DISTRIBUTION17 2.1PHARMACEUTICAL SUPPLY CHAIN17 2.2FULL-LINE PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALERS18 2.3SHORT-LINE PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALERS19 2.4FUNCTIONS OF PHARMACEUTICAL WHOLESALERS20 2.4.1Bridging of Distances21 2.4.2Bridging of Time22 2.4.3Quantity Function22 2.4.4Quality Function24 2.4.5Services creating Added Value26 2.4.6Coverage27 3.HEALTHCARE IN TRANSITION29 3.1CHANGINGDEMOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION29 3.2CHALLENGES IN HEALTHCARE FUNDING33 3.3COST-DRIVEN CHANGES34 3.3.1Generic Market Penetration34 3.3.2Price Erosion38 3.4STRUCTURAL ALTERATIONS IN THE PHARMACEUTICAL SUPPLY CHAIN41 3.4.1Direct Deliveries42 3.4.2Public Service Obligation46 3.4.3Certified Supply Chain47 3.5TRANSFORMING HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS IN CEE49 3.5.1The Post-Semaskho Era49 3.5.2Informal Payments and Corruption51 4.SUSTAINABLE GROWTH55 4.1OUTSOURCING55 4.2VALUE ADDED SERVICES58 4.3VERTICAL INTEGRATION59 4.3.1Sweden Abolishes Pharmacy Monopoly60 4.3.2Legislation61 4.4COOPERATION MODELS66 4.5PHARMERGING MARKETS69 5.CONCLUSION73Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 2.1, Pharmaceutical Supply Chain: Although the pharmaceutical supply chain has different peculiarities depending on national legislations and market structures, a general supply chain organisation exists and is to a large extent valid across Europe. Figure 4 shows that the origins of the pharmaceutical supply chain are at the manufacturing level. Pre-wholesaling is a preliminary stage of wholesaling and usually covers the logistics processes that have been outsourced by manufacturers. Phoenix, one of the three large pan-European pharmaceutical trading companies, explains the growing importance of pre-wholesale activities: 'Today, there is not a single country in Europe where it is not in manufacturers' interests to outsource their entire distribution and logistics requirements, whether for drugs, medical products or veterinary pharmaceuticals, to a specialist company operating within an efficient pharmaceutical logistical system. This logistics partner takes over responsibility for distribution to all wholesalers.' In addition to basic logistical services, such as the professional storage and transportation in accordance with legislation and special requirements for handling drugs, pre-wholesalers offer tailor-made solutions to the pharmaceutical industry. Tailor-made solutions include among others the tracking of medicine deliveries, monitoring of temperature, humidity and exposure to light, and country specific packaging and labelling. 2.2, Full-line Pharmaceutical Wholesalers: Distribution of pharmaceuticals is the core business of full-line pharmaceutical wholesalers. They provide the most important link between pharmaceutical manufacturing and the point of sale (PoS) and point of dispensing (PoD). 'The activity of pharmaceutical full-line wholesaling consists of the purchase, warehousing, storage, order preparation and delivery of medicines. Pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers carry and distribute the complete assortment of products in range and depth within the framework set by the authorities and the market to meet the needs of those with whom they have normal business relations. In addition to delivering all medicines in their geographical area of activity on the same day/within less than 24 hours, pharmaceutical full-line wholesalers provide working capital and extended financing services, funding of stock and receivables of pharmacies and health care professionals'. Pharmaceutical wholesalers provide not only state-of-the-art logistics services but also a wide range of value added services to various stakeholders in healthcare. Tailor-made solutions for the pharmaceutical industry are becoming increasingly important and full-service support beyond logistics competencies has long been established for pharmacy customers. Value added services are no longer mere add-ons to the logistics services but are vital competitive assets. Wholesalers are not only creating benefits down-stream in the supply chain but also across the healthcare market including the final consumers of medicines. 2.3, Short-line Pharmaceutical Wholesalers: Another mode of wholesaling is provided by short-line wholesalers, which are the cherry pickers of pharmaceutical wholesaling. Short-liners restrain their product portfolio to a specific range of pharmaceuticals only. Consequently, they benefit significantly from a narrow financially driven product portfolio and slim cost structures. By contrast, full-line wholesalers offer the entire spectrum of medicines in order to guarantee supply and to support the health of the population. Service offers from short-line wholesalers are either minimal or not existing. National governments usually strive to achieve three targets concerning the pharmaceutical supply chain: drug safety, security of supply and quality of supply. Short-line wholesalers cannot guarantee the security of supply as they only provide a narrow range of medicines. Their focus on highly profitable products negatively affects the product portfolio of full-line wholesalers, which need the profitable products to be able to stock and distribute unprofitable medicines. Hybrid costing has been the economic baseline to guarantee the security of supply. To ensure that supply of medicines is guaranteed, several European countries have legally obliged wholesalers to provide the full range of medicines to pharmacies. France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Portugal, Spain and some of the new EU member states have implemented these public service obligations.

From the abstract: Destination image is considered as the key in attracting tourists. This thesis purported to scrutinise whether Berlin's tourist authorities have to consider cultural segmentation when developing marketing strategies relating to the place's image. As an exploratory study, it examined Berlin's image among youths from Arab-Islamic and Protestant European countries and confronted them. In an era that is subjected to globalisation and refers to the global tourist, it is vindicated to pose this question. Various scholars are convinced that the world tourism market may be treated as a homogenous one due to globalisation. However, the literature also provides some opposing bearings and discusses them. It further gives some background information on Berlin as a tourist destination, addresses destination image concerning influential cultural factors and the implications of globalisation on consumer behaviour. Finally, it studies the Arab-Islamic and Protestant European youth cultures in the light of globalisation and possible modifying effects. In response to the objectives of this study, primary research was conducted. It involved both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Field and online surveys enabled the researcher to collect 239 completed questionnaires (103 Arab-Islamic and 136 Protestant European youths). Besides semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were carried out at EF Language School, Bournemouth. Following the completion of the survey, obtained data was entered into SPSS. Frequencies and means were calculated for each variable and several ANOVA tests and cross-tabulations conducted in order to stress destination image's specificity in terms of cultural background. Research findings revealed significant differences between the groups regarding their perception of Berlin. Arab-Islamic youths had a more negative stance towards Berlin than their counterparts. Not only did divergences occur between the groups, but also within the groups. Thus, destination image is culture-specific and may also vary across countries sharing similar cultural backgrounds. Overall, despite the effects of globalisation, cultural market segmentation still remains a vital element for a tourist place such as Berlin where the image management is concerned. The thesis provides recommendations for Berlin congruent with the outcomes and concludes with the provision of recommendations for further research.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Abstractiii Acknowledgementsiv Table of Contentsv List of Tablesviii List of Figuresix List of Appendicesx List of Abbreviationsxi Chapter One: Introduction1 1.1Introduction2 1.2Rationale4 1.3Aims and Objectives5 1.4Definition of terms7 1.4.1Who is meant by ''Protestant European''?7 1.4.2Who is meant by ''Arab-Islamic''?9 1.4.3The youth market10 1.4.4Culture10 1.5Chapter overview11 1.5.1Chapter One: Introduction11 1.5.2Chapter Two: Berlin as a tourist destination11 1.5.3Chapter Three: Literature Review I Destination image11 1.5.4Chapter Four: Literature Review II Globalisation: Its effects on consumer behaviour. Comparing Arab-Islamic and Protestant European Culture.11 1.5.5Chapter Five: Methodology11 1.5.6Chapter Six: Data analysis and findings12 1.5.7Chapter Seven: Conclusion and recommendations12 1.6Summary12 Chapter Two: Berlin as a tourist destination13 2.1Introduction14 2.2Berlin's tourism industry – facts and figures14 2.3Contemporary Berlin as a tourist destination16 2.4Examination of previous image studies on Germany16 2.5Examination of previous image studies on Berlin18 2.6Summary20 Chapter Three: Literature Review I Destination Image21 3.1Introduction22 3.2Defining destination image22 3.2.1Destination image's complexity24 3.3Destination image formation in the pre-visitation stage26 3.4Factors influencing the formation of pre-visitation destination image29 3.5Cultural factors influencing destination image formation32 3.6Summary35 Chapter Four: Literature Review II Globalisation: Its effects on consumer behaviour. Comparing Arab-Islamic and Protestant European Culture.37 4.1Introduction38 4.2The influence of globalisation on consumer behaviour38 4.3Analysis: Arab-Islamic and Protestant European cultures41 4.4Arab-Islamic and Protestant European youth cultures45 4.5Summary47 4.6Literature review: conclusions and research gap48 Chapter Five: Methodology51 5.1Introduction52 5.2Research philosophy52 5.2.1Applied research52 5.2.2Deductive research53 5.2.3Positivism, interpretivism and realism54 5.3Primary research55 5.4Quantitative and qualitative data analysis57 5.5Survey sample58 5.6Questionnaire design59 5.7Pilot questionnaire60 5.8Data analysis61 5.9Research limitations61 5.10Summary62 Chapter Six: Data analysis and findings63 6.1Introduction64 6.2Respondents' profile64 6.2.1Demographic characteristics: Protestant European survey participants64 6.2.2Demographic characteristics: Arab-Islamic survey participants65 6.2.3Demographic characteristics of focus group interviewees and other qualitative data collection methods67 6.3What comes first to your mind, when you think about Berlin?68 6.4Question 4: Functional attributes of Berlin the level of agreement69 6.5Question 5: Psychological attributes of Berlin the level of agreement73 6.6Question 6: Functional holistic picture of Berlin76 6.7Question 7: Psychological holistic picture of Berlin80 6.8How do you rate your overall image of Berlin as a tourist destination?83 6.9Summary87 Chapter Seven: Conclusion and recommendations90 7.1Introduction91 7.2Discussions and conclusions91 7.3Recommendations for further research95 7.4Summary96 Bibliography97 Appendices120Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 2.4, Examination of previous image studies on Germany: The events of the Second World War affect Germany's image even 60 years later. In some countries, Germany is still associated with features of the war and, in the US and Russia, Hitler is the best-known German, for instance. This casts a poor light on present day Germany and, arguably, on its tourism industry and may impinge on foreign people's image of the nation. However, the FIFA World Cup 2006 in Germany induced positive implications on Germany as a tourist destination. Prior to the World Cup, a study of BPB, the Federal Centre for Political Education, revealed that Germany's image was rather moderate in countries, such as the UK and Poland, for example, whereas Germany was already positively regarded in the Netherlands and Denmark. Yet, the World Cup further inspired Germany's image across other countries around the world. In the Anholt Nations Brand Index 2007, which measures the image of countries by considering 6 factors namely tourism, people, culture and heritage, exports, governance and investment and immigration, Germany ranks first, which means a massive improvement over the previous couple of years (GNTB 2008, Hedorfer 2008). Germany could above all score high on tourism and exports as well as on culture and heritage; while, in terms of people, the score was rather low. However, it has overtaken countries, such as the UK, Italy, Canada and France which are well-established tourist destinations. A further image study conducted by the BBC across 22 countries also revealed that Germany's political image was positive within the Western world; however, in Islamic-coined countries, such as Egypt and Turkey, the image was negative. This might be the result of the political situation in the Middle East, because Arabs and other Islam members increasingly consider the Western world as an enemy. Galal et al. allege that, since 9/11, there have been many terrible waves between Arabs and Western people, mainly due to the political situation, which plays a major role in the Arab peoples' image of the West. Although Americans are considered as the main enemy, other Western countries are seen as allies, which might also affect Germany's image in Arabic nations. Al-Hamarneh opposes this notion and claims that Germany has a good image in the Arab world for several reasons. Germany's anti-war policy during the Iraq crisis impressed Arabs and boosted Germany's bilateral relations with Arab nations. Furthermore, 'Made in Germany' is highly appreciated, as it guarantees high quality. Germany is synonymous with high quality, which explains the nation's popularity for medical tourists from the Arab world. However, Germans are also seen as hard-working, innovative, cultivated and helpful people and thus enjoy a good image too. Consequently, Germany seems to enjoy a positive position in the Arab world beyond the political situation. Chapter 2.5,Examination of previous image studies of Berlin: 10 to 15 years ago, Berlin used to be a city in search of an identity, which projected a battered image, also as a result of huge economic problems. Berlin has favourably managed its problems though and, nowadays, is one of Europe's most popular cities for tourists thanks to an image change, not only of Berlin but of Germany as a whole. Although Berlin is still not mentioned in the same breath as Paris, New York or London, it is increasingly perceived as international. For instance, the CW/HB's European Cities Monitor, which ranks European cities by their business importance, repositioned Berlin on rank 8 in 2005, meaning an improvement of 7 places in comparison to 1990. In addition, the Anholt City Brands Index 2005 (cited Clark 2008) ranks Berlin's brand-value within the top ten cities world-wide, which manifests Berlin's enhanced image. Nevertheless, as already mentioned above, Berlin is still not a big player among international cities, which is further visualised by the GAWC. GAWC clusters big cities in three different orders, Alpha, Beta and Gamma. Alpha-cities are defined as the most important world cities, Beta-cities are less significant and Gamma-cities are the least important. New York and London, for example, are Alpha-cities; whilst Berlin is a Gamma-city, which shows that, despite Berlin's recent success in tourism, the city might still not have a world reputation. While places such as London might induce clear images in people's minds around the world, Berlin's image might be more distorted the farther away people live from Berlin and this may affect primary research findings of this thesis. Some scholars assume that images of distant destinations are rather blurred, especially when the destination is not so known. In this regard, Protestant Europeans and Arabs might display varying images of Berlin, simply because the Arabs' image of the city could be blurred, especially where pre-visitation image is measured. As will be examined in 3.2, information sources are major influential factors in the image formation process. Since Berlin's marketing efforts are much higher in Europe than in the Arab world, the likelihood that people's picture of Berlin is clearer among Europeans than it is among Arabs is increased. This is also likely regarding BTM's global marketing strategies. The further away the market is the more focus is put on strategic co-operations, which means Berlin is only represented by third parties in distant places. BTM splits potential source markets into four different groups. Berlin allocates the highest marketing budget to primary markets, while the budget decreases gradually with the lowest budget for basic markets. Consequently, Berlin is much more involved in the UK market, than it is in the Middle East, for example, which might impinge on people's image of the city. Previous image studies identified that Berlin's overall image is positive. Within its source markets (Germany, France, UK, Holland, Poland, and USA), Berlin is especially interesting due to its history, its sound accessibility, its cultural offer, its rich gastronomy and its vivid cityscape. The majority of the respondents also mention Berlin's sound shopping facilities, its multi-cultural ambiance and the great variety of activities as positive attributes, which create an overall pleasant atmosphere for tourists. Altogether, most respondents, including young tourists, perceive Berlin as a young, creative, multi-cultural, hospitable and dynamic city, while a small minority also mention interesting architecture as appealing. Only when considering the attributes of cleanliness and low price levels do a greater number of people disagree. What is more, many tourists are also disappointed to see little of the Berlin Wall remaining, having originally expected more. Habermann et al's image study is appealing for this thesis, as it was based on about 2,000 respondents, of whom about 20 Prozent were under the age of 25. Furthermore, most of them were Germans, Dutch, Americans and British who are representative of Protestant Europe, except for the Americans who are also Protestants. This group exposed slight differences from elder groups in the perception of Berlin, albeit the image was also 'country of origin-specific'. For example, young people evaluated Berlin's friendliness of people and security issues lower than elderly people did, whereas older age groups gave smaller scores to cleanliness, but much higher ones in appreciating Berlin's numerous parks and other green areas. Young people appreciated Berlin's lively nightlife in particular, whereas foreigners were more reserved than Germans. Differences also became apparent in terms of assessing friendliness since Italians evaluated this attribute lower than their counterparts. British and Italians assessed Berlin's price level as favourable, while Americans agreed to a lesser extent.

To analyse and compare the big powers' perspective on a Nordic country seems to require at least as much consideration for their economic as for the political interests. Whilst the British legation was predominantly concerned with Britain's economic interests the German legation focused on political issues. This does not mean that German-Finnish economic relations carried less weight but reflects a different organisation of the German foreign policy establishment and a different perception of mischief. Public opinion in Finland, culture and propaganda figure as secondary issues in both of the legations' sources. Whereas the British were apprehensive of German activity in the North the German conservative minister noted damage to the German image resulting from repugnant Nazi policy at home and abroad. Despite rising continental power German political influence in Finland suffered a substantial setback at the turn of 1936/1937. By the choice of Finnish voters a parliamentary majority on the left was established bringing to power a Centre-Left government and disposing a conservative president. The politics of the new foreign minister, Holsti, were disliked by the disposed Conservatives. The German minister in Finland, von Blücher, immediately adapted the Conservative's negative attitude. He also developed a strong personal aversion against Holsti perverting his reports continuously. Criticising Holsti's initiative to normalise strained relations with the Soviet Union Blücher aligned his position with that of Erkko – a right wing party fellow of Holsti. He had to acknowledge, however, the widely accepted political will to normalise eastern relations. The reports of the legations were characterised by opportunistic distortions. Whereas the British were quick to report a decline in German political influence, the German minister qualified the meaning of the political change in Finland by questioning the stability of the Centre-Left government and Holsti's position therein. The Germans readily acknowledged the weight of Finnish-British notably economic relations. Beyond that acknowledgement there was German frustration with the new Finnish foreign policy that did not always find its way into official reporting. In looking for the information opportune to their interests both legations had no difficulties finding influential Finns that provided the desired assessments of Finland's affairs. Central in the concern of the big powers about Finland was Finnish foreign policy. In spite of an official assertion of an unchanged foreign policy the Finnish prime minister speaking in private labelled the United Kingdom a 'protecting power'. Finns across the political spectrum, even Conservatives who traditionally stood for a close relationship with Germany, also desired a closer relationship with the UK. High-ranking political and weighty English business representatives descended in large numbers on Finland. Blücher, however, saw no sign of a formal political alignment and only acknowledged some concerns regarding future access to Finland's natural recourses. This relaxed attitude must not have been universal since the British legation perceived nervousness and distress among junior members of the German legation. According to indirect evidence the German leadership was disgruntled. The German-Finnish relationship had supporters in both countries including Göring and the grand old man of Finland, Mannerheim. While a rather forced visit of Holsti in Berlin did not solve political contradictions there were other unofficial high-level contacts that tried to alleviate stress in the relations. In observing closely and trying to influence by various means the opinion of ordinary Finns and the capital's elite a rivalry between German and British influence manifested itself. The reports about the official celebrations of the birthday of Finland's revered Mannerheim are an example of the diplomat's scrutiny. Their contrasting depictions and interpretations reveal conscious and unconscious whitewashing stemming sometimes from biased informants. Germany's perversion in the 1930s was initially perceived through the lenses of the inner-Finnish split between conservatives and social-democrats with the latter criticising fascism across Europe vigorously. As German policy became more radical – especially with the endangerment of peace in Europe during the Sudeten-Crisis, the pogroms of 1938 and the occupation of Prague – the conservative parts of the population and politicians were willing to criticise it and did so, though mostly in private. The German minister went as far as possible for a Reich's civil servant in outlining the negative repercussions for Germany's public and also more tangible interests in Finland in reporting to his foreign ministry. This is remarkable in light of previous whitewashing of reports. While there was ever more reason to criticise Germany the concurrent threat of war and entanglement which Finland wished to avoid at any price demanded a more radical interpretation of neutrality. Thus just when criticism of Nazi policy was spreading the government and the media consented to toning down their criticism of Germany in accordance with German diplomatic pressure to that end. Britain's role in the world of rising fascism enjoyed high respect in Finland. British foreign policy and the Finnish population shared the desire for maintaining peace in Europe. Absent from British official reports is how the UK's role in undermining the integrity of another small state – Czechoslovakia – in Munich marred its image temporarily. Germany went further than the UK in actually trying to shape her image in Finland. Propaganda was seen as a substitute for cooler political relations. Speedily transmitted German news items were placed in receptive Finnish conservative newspapers and used by the German minister as a basis for argumentation. Visits of outstanding speakers and the German radio's ordinary broadcasts had an effect limited to a German speaking elite which also proved ambivalent. To reach the general public the German legation promoted military visits. The German propaganda efforts attracted disproportionate attention in the British legation. Events including official German guests were carefully scrutinised and considerable room was devoted to evaluate the German propaganda's motive and effect. German propaganda was not seen as threatening but rather as futile, however. The German minister, on the other hand, was jealous at the strong interest in 'everything English' as compared to the modest efforts of Britain, whose British Council had only recently been founded. The success was disproportionate: promotion of English culture and the advent of Anglo-American cinema attracted a comparatively high degree of interest among the wider Finnish public. The establishment of an Anglo-American share in popular culture became discernible. The crises of 1938, especially the Sudeten crisis, brought about by German policy damaged the German moral reputation but served to increase her political clout also in the North. The League of Nations- and UK-orientated foreign policy of the despised Finnish foreign minister Holsti and came under attack by the still formidable conservative opposition. His position seemed increasingly unstable. A renewed commitment to western values by the Finnish Prime Minister in the run-up to the Sudeten crisis did not save him. The German minister seized upon the political constellation and helped to bring Holsti down. The minister's subsequent euphoria was understandable in light of his long-harboured aversion against Holsti and close relationship with Holsti's successor, Erkko. Such euphoria, however, proved not justifiable. Instead the German minister had to avoid inconsequential criticism of Erkko's anglophile policies as he was told frankly that English desire for increased exports was well founded. The British had no reason to worry. Erkko promised to defend the independence of the Finnish media against German pressure and put all his considerable clout behind supporting Finnish purchase of English goods. The gross predominance of economic issues in British reports is contrasted by the German ministers almost complete disinterest in the issue. British economic difficulties in the thirties made trade a contentious issue that received much more attention than politics. Most noted was the contribution of trade with Finland to the general trade-deficit which seemed enormous considering the size of the countries' respective markets. Meanwhile German-Finnish trade grew in volume while British-Finnish trade stagnated. British industrialists highlighted the unfair methods that Germany employed for steering trade. The possibility of their subsequent demands for protectionism and control of trade being adapted by British politicians frightened Finnish industry. Some British officials were willing to employ scare tactics but diplomats on the ground recognised that the competitive disadvantages were home-grown. However, they eagerly supported their exporters. Pressure was exercised to influence public spending whenever the legation learned about planned acquisitions. Finnish politicians tried to meet such demands although this often meant paying more than for comparable German goods. Diplomats reported correctly that interventions in the public sector worked due to the Finns' willing co-operation. Germany's efforts to secure rights of usage to a Finnish harbour in the polar sea were rejected. The most efficient contact person for economic interventions was the new and more powerful foreign minister to whose the Germans ironically had helped by bringing his predecessor down. Public spending was, however, too small a factor to revert the general trend in favour of German industry. A high frequency of mutual visits by traders and industrialists was a sign of willingness to widen economic relations. They resulted in declarations of good-will but were sometimes overshadowed by protectionist grumbling of English traders. Given a protectionist penchant in the Foreign Office and the difficulty of directing trade by mere declarations of good will the legation did a superb job in preventing conflict. The legation gave its reports a positive spin, alerted their superiors to the sensibilities of Finnish partners and sometimes meditated carefully between British and Finnish parties. A last high-level political visit of a Finnish cabinet minister in Finland passed smoothly in contrast to his visit in Sweden. By virtue of foreign minister Erkko, liked both with the German and the British ministers, Finland was well positioned to avoid being caught in the differences between Germany and the western powers. This ability to stay neutral was put on test in 1939 when Germany offered a non-aggression pact to serve its propaganda aims at a time when no country wanted to be closely associated with her, least of all neutrality-minded Finland. The Finns put Scandinavian unity over adherence to Germany's wishes by declining the offer. The legation could not avoid dissatisfaction at home. At the same time Finnish-British political relations began to suffer from talks on guaranteeing Finland in alliance with the Soviet Union. Finland's vehement opposition was a far more serious concern to the British than the symbolic German pact offer. In analogy to the pattern in dealing with economic relations it was the legation that defended Finnish interests whereas the London Foreign Office argued in favour of the Soviet alliance. Before the German minister could rejoice in the discontent the British created by negotiating with Moscow his own country signed Finland away in the Hitler-Stalin Pact without even informing him. From now on the threat of entanglement in a war forced Finland to heed German demands scrupulously. A purely political analysis is insufficient and economic relations are essential for a comprehensive and proper history of the big powers policy towards Finland in the time between the wars. On the purely political plane German influence grew relentlessly although orientation towards Germany was not desired by the Finnish government. The stronger Germany grew the more its demands for absolute political neutrality had to be heeded. On the other hand, a look at Finnish-British economic relations reveals a squarely pro-British orientation. Germany by contrast was denied access to the Finnish polar sea port of Petsamo. For the UK with its vast trade deficit increased exports to Finland were of paramount importance. Especially the reshaped Finnish government with Erkko as foreign minister directed public expenditure in favour of English industry wherever possible. Even Finnish conservatives who appreciated the value of retaining close ties with Germany were not opposed to expand Finnish-British relations. A comprehensive look at economics, politics and culture makes German pressure on Finland appear like a futile effort to prevent an outdated state of international relations by intimidation and control.

The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ; This is an oral history interview with William Arthur Budge. The interview took place at the Commercial Security Bank in Ogden, Utah. Mr. Budge was an officer of the Commercial Security Bank during the depression years. ; 10p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program William Arthur Budge Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah William Arthur Budge Interviewed by Mack S. Taft circa 1960s Copyright © 2016 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. The working files, original recording, and archival copies are housed in the University Archives. Project Description The Great Depression in Weber County, Utah, is an Oral History Project by Mack S. Taft for completion of his Master's Thesis at Utah State University during the summer of 1969. The forty-five interviews address the Great Depression through the eyes of individuals in several different occupations including: Bankers, Laborers, Railroad Workers, Attorneys, Farmers, Educators, Businessmen, Community and Church Leaders, Housewives, Children and Physicians. All of these individuals lived in Weber County from 1929 to 1941. The interviews were based on what they remembered about the depression, how they felt about those events and how it affected their life then and now. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management This work is the property of the Weber State University, Stewart Library Oral History Program. It may be used freely by individuals for research, teaching and personal use as long as this statement of availability is included in the text. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Budge, William Arthur, an oral history by Mack S. Taft, circa 1960s, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. 1 Abstract: This is an oral history interview with William Arthur Budge. The interview took place at the Commercial Security Bank in Ogden, Utah. Mr. Budge was an officer of the Commercial Security Bank during the depression years. The interviewer is Mack Taft. MT: Mr. Budge, what was your profession at that time? WB: I was working with the Commercial Security Bank. MT: What do you remember concerning that particular period of time concerning banking and the stock market crash, things along this line? WB: Well I don't remember many specific instances but when the stock market crash came, and especially here in Ogden when the Ogden State Bank closed, then of course we had a run on the banks here in Utah. And I can remember here in our own bank I was in the teller's cage at that time, that the people came in and wanted their money and we paid it out just as fast as we possibly could, and we stayed open, we didn't close at the regular banking hours, we stayed open just as long as the people came. And so the first day we went on toward evening before we closed, and then we opened the next day and then the people began to . . . there weren't so many came, and then the people began to bring their money back when they found out that they could get it out. MT: What immediate affect did you feel from the crash of the stock market, if any? Either as a banker or as an individual. WB: Well, I can't say that I did because I was working all the time, and personally, I can't say that it did affect me. MT: Then the stock market crash or the depression itself wasn't of much effect on you at all? WB: No, no, because I was still employed by the bank, so I didn't have to lay off, and it didn't make any particular difference that way as I remember. 2 MT: Before we started the tape you mentioned something about the bank holiday, would you like to mention a little something about that? WB: Well, when it was decided by the government to close the banks, then we had a holiday as I remember, and this was decided by whoever had the authority to make the decision that the banks, when they opened would issue script, and I can remember that for these two weeks, I was signing script for the bank, myself. I was an officer for the bank, and I was signing script for the bank with the idea that when the bank opened, there would be script instead of currency. But as, remember, the President of the United States said that when the banks opened we'll pay currency, which was done, and the script was not used. MT: Do you feel that that was an important move at that time? WB: Yes, very important because it then the people had confidence in the government. Now what I think the people were afraid of, it was feared that the people who had currency would keep it hid up, and this way, by paying currency, it was out in the open again, and people had confidence. Kept it circulating and kept the people's confidence. MT: Were there other banks in this particular locality, other than the Ogden State Bank, that did close? WB: No, not in Weber County, none that I know of. MT: Looking back at that time, do you have any ideas or theory as to why the Ogden State Bank closed, while the others were not closed? WB: Well the only thing that I would think about was that the Ogden State Bank was not meeting the requirements of the State Banking Department, or even the ideas that the Federal Reserve might have concerning them. Course the Ogden State Bank, as I remember then, was not a member of the Federal Reserve. I'm not sure about that, but I 3 don't hardly think they were. So it seems, this is my opinion of course, that the Ogden State Bank was not in compliance with what the State Banking Department was demanding, or thought was right, and therefore it closed. MT: Could you give us a little light on a bank, as to why at that particular time they were vulnerable to runs, as opposed to now. WB: Well, now, any time that a bank closes, people begin to lose confidence, and of course they like to have their money, and therefore, people don't generally study bank situations, they don't study bank statements, even though they're published in the paper I doubt if they study them to see how solvent a bank may be. So if one bank closes it creates a condition that people think well I'd better get my money out from where I've got it. So the bank where I worked, the Commercial Security, the people came for their money. I would say we had quite a run on the bank. I don't know how much we paid out but we took care of everyone that came, and we had sufficient money to do it. MT: How important do you feel it was psychologically to stay open, even after business hours? WB: Well we didn't want to shut the people off; we wanted to show them that they could have their money. So we just stayed open so all the things could be taken care of. And we not only gave them their money, but as I recall, we brought in sandwiches for those that had to wait. MT: Are there any other interesting things that you recall that took place during that time, either humorous or otherwise that people experienced during those years? WB: I can recall that one man who was a big business man here in town, and had a good sizeable bank account, stood up on a platform where the people could see him, that is the 4 people in the lobby, and he said "Now I have a lot of money in this bank and I'm not going to take it out, I'm confident that everything's going to be all right." MT: Those things really helped, didn't they? WB: Well, I think it helped, and then there was no criticism of the people; if they wanted their money, no one said anything of a derogatory nature to them. Of course it took time to pay them because the accounts had to be checked and it took a little time to pay them because they were drawing out large sums of money. Some of these people that had three, four, five, six thousand dollars or more, it took a little time to check the accounts and pay out the checks. MT: It would seem that during that time, it would have been a real set-up for someone to rob and so forth, did you become aware of anything of this nature? WB: Well, I can't remember being aware of anything like that. MT: How old were you in 1929? WB: I was about 45 years old. MT: What were you doing in the church at that time? WB: I was a bishop until 1931. I was bishop of the 7th Ward. MT: Did the people of your ward have a different experience than the ordinary citizen of Ogden? WB: No, I can't recall anything of an interesting nature. MT: Now, there was no church welfare at that time, is that correct? WB: No, we had the church welfare, because I recall we had the church welfare store set up over here on 17th street, so the welfare program was in operation. 5 MT: Nowas I recall, the main church welfare, the church-wide welfare program began along about 1936-is that correct? WB: Yes, that is correct. MT: Now, do you see a measurable difference in things as a result of this? WB: No. I don't recall anything about that. Now, I did say that we had the welfare program while I was bishop, but I should correct that and say that we didn't have any of these welfare programs, or any of the major items until along about 1936, and I was in the Ogden Stake Presidency when that was done.

Issue 10.5 of the Review for Religious, 1951. ; A.M.D.G. . Renew for Religious SEPTEMBER 15, 1951. Christian Heroes . J. Pu~z Joy in Heaven . Richard L. Rooney ¯ PassionisHc SpirH'uallty . Fidells Rice Modesty ¯ ¯ ~ . ,~ .~ . C- A. Herbs÷ Grace o~ Our Vocation . P. De Leffer Communion for O~hers . . Clerence McAuliffe A Vocational Newspaper Questions and Answers Book Reviews ,VOLUME X i' =, NUMBER 5' RI:::VI W FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME X SEPTEMBER, 1951 NUMBER GONTENTS CHRISTIAN HEROES-~3. Putzo S.J . 225 Heroism of Everyday Life . 225 The New Saints ¯ " . ZZ9 The New Beati . 235 JOY IN HEAVEN--Richard L. Rooney, S.3 .2.3.9 PASSIONISTIC SPIRITUALITY--Fidelis Rice, C.P .2.4.1 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 246 MODESTY--C. A. Herbst, S.J . 247 ETUDE SUR LA PAUVRETE. RELIGIEUSE .2.5.2. THE GRACE OF OUR VOCATION---P. De Letter, S.J .2.5.3 COMMUNICATIONS--A VOCATIONAL NEWSPAPER . 260 OFFERING COMMUNION' FOR OTHERS-~Clarence McAuliffe, S.J. 261 MEDICO-MORAL PROBLEMS . 265 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 20. Alienation of Property for $100,000 . 266 21. Alienation of Sacred Objects: Relics, Images, Vessels . . . . 266 22. Extreme Unction before Major Operation .268 23. Letters of Golden Jubilarians . 268 24. Novice Master at Coun~i~ Meeting . ¯ " . 268 25. Communion to Ambulatory Sick . 269 26. Hail Mary's on Feast of Annunciation . 270 I'~EW MEDITATION BOOKS . 270 BOOK REVIEWSw Pastor's History of the Popes; The Love of God and the Cross of Jesus; The Gifts of the Holy Ghost . 273 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 276 BOOK NOTICES . 278 TEN YEAR INDEX OF REVIEW--MAYBE . 280 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, September. 1951. Vol. X, No. 5. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation, Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka. Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Jerome Breunig, S~ J. Copyright, 1951, by Adam C. Ellis, S,J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price]! 3 dollars a year: 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Befoie writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. Christ:ian bleroe It~UR DAYS call for heroic living. The greatness.and diffi: ~ culties of our time are su.cb that no disciple ofo "~hrist.is allowed to remain satisfied with mediocrity." This, saying of Plus XI has often been quoted. The Holy Year was" meant-to stir up Christendom to greater fervor, that it might be an:active, l'eaven for'the much-needed renovation of the world. The numerous beati-fications and canonizations of this last year put beforeus outstandi'ng Christian heroes whose example is meant to stimulate our mediocgity~ Heroism is the test applied by the Church to candidates for .beati-- fication--not a human, stoic heroism, but a heroism inspired by personal love, by charity, and sustained by the Holy Ghost dwellin~ in the soul. At the beginning the typical saint was the ma'rtyr, th.e Christian who had been a witness to Christ by. dying for Him. ,But soon it was realized that, in the absence of persecution.s, there can be an "unbloody martyrdom" by heroic fidelity in liv'ing for Christ, Thus, by the side of martyrs, the names o,~f. outstanding "confes~ors~j came to be added in the martyrology. Heroism always remained the test of genuine sanctity, and the Congregation of Rites, .When studying the cause of'a confessor, has chiefly to discuss the hiroism his virtue. Is there evidence that he possessed in a herbic degree.the theolggical virtues of faith, hope, charity and the cardinal.~ri~tues :of prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude, with the virtues connected with them'? , .' ~ :: " , But what is required for heroic virtue? It is not easy tO dete~ mine thi's notion. Benedict XIV, in his treatise on'the beatification of the servants of God, has given all the elements, but he has:not made the synthesis, and one may say that the notion remained some:~ what indeterminate. This gave rise, 'within the ,Congregatigrl of Rites, to different conceptions of heroic, virtue. This. difference' de-layed the cause of the servant of God, A. Gianelli. The same reason may explain why until this year no child or ado.lescent ever passed the test, for the classical conception insisted 'on "extraordinary,~.' manifestatidns of heroism. There was room for progress 'tow~i'r'ds greater precision and, accor~ding to a recent articl'e by.~a consultor:of 22'5 J. PU~Z Reoieto for Religious the Congregation of Rites, the well-known Carmelite, Father Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, a distinct progress has been made during recent years. (Cf. Etudes Carmelitaines, 1949, pp. 175-88.~ This progress has not only a juridical importance for the process of beatification; it interest~ ascetical theology as well, since all Chris-tians are called to sanctity, and the type of holiness required by the Church for canonization determines the ideal of Christian perfection after which all must strive. T.he true Christian is the saint, and the saints are the standard by which we must guide and judge ourselves. Our imitation of.them must be based on a precise notion of what sanctity-~heroic virtue--consists in. Aqcording to Father Gabriel, the work of elaboration and deter-mination took place chiefly between 1916 and 1922, under the direct inspiration of Benedict XV. It can be followed in the decrees of the Congregation of Rites published on the occasion of the declara-tion of heroic virtue especially in the decrees concerning A. M. Gianelli (AAS, 1920, pp. 170-4)'and 3. N. Neumann (AAS, 1922, pp. 23-6). As a result, we are told, the Church is now in possession of a concept of heroic virtue more synthetic, less complicated and less abstract, more definite and easier to apply. This notion was clearly expressed in 1916 by Benedict XV, when he declared that "sanctity consists merely in conformity with the divine will, expressed in the constant and exact fulfillment of the duties of one's state." Sanctity, as the decree of April 11, 1920, explains, cannot be judged by an abstract standard. The saints cannot be reduced to one type. Heroism will vary according to each one's temperament, state of life, and other circumstances. It will not always show itself by extraordinary or stupendous deeds. For, as the decree' states, "these require a suitable occasion. But such occasions are rare and do not depend on the will of man; persecutions, for instance, plagues, or earthquakes cannot be produced at will. Hence, if holi-ness consisted in such deeds, it would follow that holiness itself does not depend on the will of man--which is absurd." The heroism to which all Christians can aspire is the exact and constant fulfillment of their concrete daily duties. "Comrounia sed non communiter,'" according to the motto of St. John Berchmans, doing common things but uncommonly well. What makes the saint is not the nature of his actions, whether extraordinary or common, important or insig-nificant; what counts is the intensity of his love that rules and in-spires all his actions. 226 September, 195 ! (]HRISTIAN HEROES Such fidelity implies real heroism, for nothing is more difficult to human nature than constancy. To be moved in everything by the will of God only, without being influenced by the ever-active sensi-bility, the sudden movements of the passions, the sense of fatigue, the ups and downs of one's n~oods.---such constancy supposes that the soul is under the perfect domination of the Holy Ghost and totally oriented towards its last end. Father Gabriel wrote in the same article, "If it were not so, if it were not perfectly purified, if other motives distinct from the love of God were still active (they can all be reduced to self-love, the root of all inordinate love of creatures), .then it would inevitably act more than once under the impulse of these motives and thus deviate from the pure fulfillment of the divine~ will." In such a soul "we admire a human nature tbat has reached a singular harmony and perfection--its spiritual forces keeping the sensible fac~lties in docile submission or completely conquering their resistance, so as to realize to perfection the task prescribed to it by the Lord: the perfect fulfillment of His holy will by a total, constant, ~nd generous fidelity to the daily duty." "Such sublime conduct, kept up over a long period, and without failure, is completely above the powers of human .nature left to itself . It alone suffices for evangelical heroism, for it makes man perfect in the way the heavenly ~Father is perfect." (Quoted by Benedict XIV in his treatise on beatification, III, c. 21, n. 10.) ! "'The heroism of the ordinary life has officially received a place by the side of the classical extraordinary heroism," wrote D. Pietro Brocardo. (Cf. Satesianum, 1950, p. 197.) Benedict XV's suc-cessor, the Pope who stressed the universal call of Christians to sanc-i. ,t~ty, often expounded this conception. Sanctity, according to Plus ~KI, is not something "exceptional," it is but the Christian life lived fully and intensely according to each one's vocation. Sanctity is but ~he fullest and richest expression of Christian life. It is the divine perfection proposed to all, from the humblest believer to the gigantic ~gures of hagiography. If not all are called to the same height of ~anctity, yet all are called to sanctity. His most famous pronounce-ment on this topic is his allocution published in Osservatore Romano, ~Jan. 6, 1928, on "the terrible everyday duty," given after the reading bf the decree of the heroic virtue of Brother Benildus, a humble leacher who had spent his whole life in elementary schoo.ls: "A humble servant of God, whose whole life was all modesty hnd silence, all very commonplace and very 'everyday.' But in such 227 Reoiew for Religious an. everyday- life how much there is that is not common! This everyday, always the same, with the same occupations, the same ~;eakness~s, the same miseries, has rightly been called 'the terrible ev'e'ryda3f:' How much strength is required to stand up to this ter-rible, this crushing, this monotonous, this asphyxiating everyday! An. un'c6mmon irirtue is very necessary to perform--not with an all too'° frequent negligence and superficiality but with attention and inner fe'rvbr of spirit--that series of common actions which fill our e'4ceryday life'. 0' "Holy Church is never a more equitable judge and a wi~er teacher of bdlinesk than when she honors these humble lights, so often unnoticed even by those who had the good fortun~ tosee them shine finder their i'er~, eyes. Extraordinary things, great events, magnifi-cei~ t enterprises arouse the noblest instincts: in the commonplace, on the:contrary, that is, in the flat and obscure everyday task, there is nothing exciting or fascin.ating. Yet this is the stuff the life of most men' is made of. How often do extraordinary circumstances present therfiselves in a lifetime? They are very rare, and woe to us if sanc-tity were reserved to extraordinary circumstances! What would the greater part of'~nankind do? For it is certain that all without dis-tinction are called to sanctity." " B'roth~r B~nil~tus was beatified twenty years later, on April 4, 1948. On that occasion Plus XII, too, spoke of the heroism of the ordinary life. Benildus was neither a founder, nor a mystic, nor a miracle-worker; h~.was a,~simple schoolmaster. His only claim to the honors' of the YChurch was his fidelity to duty--to his rules and the daily grind of the school. But such constant fidelity to the details of his di~ty, his radiant charity, his serenity in difficulties could only flow. frorrl a'ddep[and vigorous interior life and habitual union with Goal. ' :. ¯ During th~ Holy Year a variety of saints have been' beatified or e~rmn~zed." Maria Goretti w~s only eleven when she died, but she Was canonized as a martyr. Yet, even this extraordinary form of htroisrd;, the Pope pointed out, presupposes the "ordinary" heroism of the'daily life. Among the new beati is the first adolescent ever t'gised to the altars, Dominic Savio. So far, the youngest confessor ~fioni~ed is S~."Stanislaus; but he was a young man of eighteen ~nd, besides bein~ a religious, his life was out of the ordina.ry, Dominic died before he was fifteen, and his life was the very ordinary s~hool-b'oy life. The criterion of heroic virtue exposed by Father Gabriel 228 September, 1951 CHRISTIAN HEROES ,seems to havi~ made it possible for children and adolescerits to pass the test required for tl~e supreme honors of the Church. The eight saints canonized during the Holy Year of 1950 brought "the total number canonized by Plus XII tO twenty-two. Saints Emily de Rodat and Maria Goretti were also beatified by the present Holy Father. Among the canonized we find seven confessors and one martyr; one bishop, one priest-founder of a religious insti-tute, three foundresses of religious congregations, and three who attained sanctity "in the world": a middle-aged woman, a young woman, and a girl. Four are Italian, two French, one Spanish, and one from Latin America. Five belong to the nineteenth century, while the fifteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries each claim one. St. Jeanne de Valois (1464-1504) Jeanne de Valois, daughter, sister, and wife of kings, seemed to be so high-placed only to be the more cruelly humiliated and cast away. Her birth was a bitter disappointment for King Louis XI who already had a daughter and wanted a son who could succeed him. Misshapen by nature, she was sent away from the court and brought up by strangers. When still a child, she was bound by a political marriage to the young Duke of Orleans who detested her and who, when twenty years later he l~ecame King Louis XII, had his marriage annulled, makin,g of the rejected queen an object of public ridicule. But the greater her disgrace in the eyes of the world, the more clearly stands out her moral nobility and spiritual greatness. The "royal Cinderella," as she has been called, showed no bitterness, no morbid self-pity; she accepted everything with sincere humility, deep love for God and for men (including her husband for whom she never ceased praying and who became one of the best-loved kings of France), and whole-hearted application to the work God had given her. The king, on sending her away, made over to her the duchy of Berry, and during the six remaining years of her life she resided at Bourges, her capital, administering the duchy with such success that she earned from her pebple the title of "the Good Duchess."A'mid 229 J. PUTZ Review [or Religious the splendor of her court she secretly practiced" the most rigorous penances. In 1500 she realized a long-cherished project, the founda-tion of an order'of the Blessed Virgin, the Annqnciade. Its members were to take as their means of sanctification the imitation, the repro-duction of M~ry, by practicing, her "Ten Virtues" as found in the Gospel. She herself, though continuing to rule the duchy, made her religious profession and wore the habit under her worldly d~ess. She completed her work by founding a Third Order, the "Order of Peace,': whpse members, living in the world, were to work for peace and reconciliation. The Order of the Annonciade flourished for centuries, but was almost destroyed by the French Revolution. At ' present it has a half dozen bouses in Belgium, France, and England. When Joan died in her fortieth year she was immediately venerated as a saint. Her cult grew, miracles multiplied, but she was not formally beatified until 1742. Pius XII solemnlY proclaimed her a saint on May 28. In his homily the Holy Father stressed the saint's work for the promotion of peace; in heaven, he said, she continues to pray for the extinction of hate and for fraternal concord, so that the nations may form one great family, striving with united for~es to ensure prosperity and peace for all. On the following day, in an address to the numer-ous French pilgrims, he described the spirituM characteristics of the saint--spirit of faith, devotion to the Mother of Jesus ("an infallible test of the true. Christian"), union with Jesus in suffering--and gave her as an example tO French Catholics, particularly to the women of France "on'whom in the present crisis devolves a mission 9f supreme importance." SI. Mary Ann of Jesus (1618-1645) Born in Quito, Ecuador, of Spanish parents, this Saint of Latin America--"the Lily of Quito"--showed a precocious attraction for the things of the spirit. She took the three vows at ten and lived the live of a solitary in a room of her sister's wealthy home,.leaving it only to go to church and to visit the poor and sick. She practiced heroic austerities and was favored with sublime prayer. In 16~}5, when Quito was visited by earthquakes and a deadly plague, she publicly offered herself as a victim for the sins of the people. The skourge abated, but she was seized with a malady-which put an end to her short but intense life. She was only twenty-six. 230 September, 1~51 CHRISTIAN HEROES She was beatified by Plus IX in 1853. In 1946 "the Parliament of Ecuador declared her a "national heroine." Her canonizatiorl, the last of the Holy Year, took place on July 9.In his homily the Holy Father stressed three aspects, of her life: (1) immaculate purity; (2) ardent charity, which she practiced towards every misery, spir-itual and material: when she was powerless to help, she tried to obtain help from God by prayer, expiation, the offering of her life; (3) extraordinary austerity, inspired by the desire to expiate the sins of men. She offered herself as a~victim for the salvation of others. This question of mortification needs special stres.sing in the mod-ern world, the Pope said. "Not all, especially nowadays, understand this kind of penance; not all esteem it as they should. Many of our contemporaries despise it or neglect it. Yet we should know that for our fallen nature penance is absolutely necessa.ry. Unless y.ou do pena.nce you will all perish. Indeed, nothing heli3s more efficaciously to conquer our passions and to subject our natural instincts to the control of reason. And when we have won a victory over ourselves it is sweet to exp'erience a divine joy which surpasses' al'l earthly pleasures." In his allocution to pilgrims the following day, the Pope re-marked that we "who. live in the full light of the deyotion of the Sacred Heart may well admire the holy intuitions of this innocent victim who, at the beginning of .the seventeenth century, was led to make of reparation the centre of her spirituality." St. Vincent Strambi (1745-1824) St. Vincent Strambi was one of the great bishops and upholders of the Church's independence in the face of totalitfirian rulers. After being ordained a priest in 1767 he was received into the Passionist Congregation by St. Paul of the Cross himself. He was a great preacher of missions and director of souls (among his penitents was the Blessed Anna Maria Taigi) and filled high offices of authority in his order. In 1801 he was, much against his will, appointed bishop of Macerata and Tolentino by Plus VII. He administered his dio-cese with the zeal of another Charles Borromeo. Preoccupied chiefly with the formation of the clergy and the diffusion of religious in-struction, he brought about a religious renewal among priests and laity. When he refused to take the oath of. allegiance to the ustirping regime established by Napoleon he was expelled from his diocese in 231 J. PUTZ Review for Religious 1808 until the fall of the Emperor in 1813. In 1823 he resigned his see and died soon after in Rome, where Pope Leo XII had made him his confidential adviser." In the midst of his intense activity and the vicissitudes "of his life he never relaxed anything in the austerity of his private life. He was beatified, in 1925 and canonized on June 11, 1950. In his homily the Holy Father made an application to the countries where the Church is being oppress, ed by the secular power: "The Church can be attacked, she cannot be conquered . If under the present difficulties--which in some countries seem graver than those referred to above--some souls are disconcerted, wavering, or anxious, they should remember the promises of Jesu~ Christ and try to imitate the invincible fortitude of this saint as well as. his other virtues." St. Anthony Claret (1807-1870) St. Anthony Claret was another great priestly figure of the nine-teenth century. Born at Salient in the north of Spain, he practiced for a tired his father's trade of cloth-weaving, but eventually was able to follow his heart's desire and join the seminary of Vicb. After his ordination in 1835 and a few years of pa.rish work, he conse-crate'd himself with extraordiriary success to ~he preaching of missions and retreats throughout Catalonia. His zeal inspired other priests, and in 1849 he founded the Congregation of MissioriarySons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, commonly kno.wn.as the Claretians. The same year he was sent to Cuba as Archbishop of Santiago, to b~ing about there a much-needed reform: In this post of exceptional diffi-culty he achieved considerable results, though several attempts were made on his life. After seven years he was recalled to Spain to become the confessor of Queen Isabella II. In the revolution of 1868 he was banished from his country. He attended the Vatican Council where he spoke eloquently for the definition of papal infalli-bility. Soon after, .on Oct. 24, 1870, he died in France. Besides preaching some 10,000 sermons, h~ was an ardent apostle of the press. He wrote 120 books and pamphlets (144 volumes), founded religious libraries, and promoted the diffusion of good literature. He was beatified in 1934 and canonized on May 7, 1950. The work of this powerful apostle is carried on by the Cl~iretians who in 1949 celebrated their first centenary. They count at present Over 4,000 members in 24I establishments all over "the world. Their chief work is education, missions and retreats, and the aposfolate of 232 September, 1951 CHRISTIAN HEROES the press. In Rome they ~un the Poliglotta Press and edit the Corn-mentarium pro religiosis et missionariis. St. Emily de Radar (1787-1852) .' At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the French Revolu-tion and the long wars that followed it bad accumulated in France and Europe immense miseries, spiritual and material. Then Provi-dence raised up numerous saints who, impressed by the needs of their time, devoted themselves to remedy them. Rarely in the history of the Church do we find so many religious institutes springing up every-where, dedicated to the prac.tice of various v~orks of corporal and spiritual mercy. In this providential reconstruction women had a prominent share, and this explains why among the saints beatified or canonized by Pius XII there ale so many religious foundresses of this period. Emily de Radar was beatified by Plus XII in 1940 and canon-ized by the same on April 23, 1950. Born of an aristocratic family, she was brought up by pious parents but passed through a period of worldly frivolity and religious indifference. Converted during the Holy Year of 1804, she decided to consecrate'her life to the service of God. After trying several religious institutes, her visits to the poor made .her realize the great need for Catholic schools: She immedi-ately set to work: she had found her vocation. With three other young women she opened a school, and thus the Congregation of the Holy Family was started. Today it has over 200 houses in Europe and South America--schools, orphanages, hospitals. The H01y Father, in his homily, stressed the precious services rendered by reli-gious institutes of women: "When we consider the admirable enterprises of this saint, when we remember what her congregation and the other religious institutes --almost innumerable--have accomplished, we cannot but proclaim that the Church and civil society as well owe very much to all these religious women. If we did not have them, if God by His heavenly inspiration did not continually and in every century raise them up, if He did not sustain them by His help, who could fill their place? Let all, then, learn to praise them as they deserve, to help them as they can . And may the religious zealously and strenuously strive to live up to their lofty vocation." Saints Bartolomea Capltanio and Catherine Gerosa (1807-1833) (1784-1847) , Bartolomea Capitanio and Catherine Gerosa founded together 233 the Italian Sisters of Charity, after the model of St. Vincent de Paul's Sisters of Charity. Bartolomea began her apostolate at fourteen, teaching, little children. Soon her simple and strong personality drew to her, as to their mother, the young, the poor and afflicted of her little town of Lovere. Seeing the need to organize the ever-increaging work she joined forces with another saintly worker of the same town, Catherine, who was twenty years her senior and had already opened a hospital for the sick poor. Bartolomea died a few years later, at the early age of twenty-six. Her spiritual notes and instructions, as well as a considerable number of her letters, have been published. She left the young institute to the care of Catherine (who had ~dopted the name of Vincenza), an extremely bumble woman, yet an efficierit worker and able organizer. During the fourteen years she had still to live, the congregation continued to expand 'rapidly Today it counts nearly 9,000 religious in some 500 houses. Barto-lomea' was beatified in 1926; Vincenza in 1933T.hey w~re canon-ized together on May 18, 1950. St. Maria Gorettl (1890-1902) No canonization war received with greater enthusiasm than that of the humble village girl who died for the preservation of her purity The ~tory of her martyrdom is. known to all our readers. Her popu-larity and the speed of her promotion to the highest honors of the Church ha~e been equalled or surpassed in modern times only by the Little Flower of Lisieux. Her cause was introduced in 1938 and concluded in 1945. The solemn beatification took place on April 27, 1947, and she was canonized three years later, on June.-24, 1950, forty-eight years after her death. " (Teresa of Lisieux died on Sept. 30, 1897, was beatified on April 29, 1923, and canonized on May 17, 1925. Aloysius Gonzaga was beatified fourteen years after his death, bu~ another' centu.ry passed before be was canonized.) In spite of her youth, Maria was capable of heroism, and this heroism showed itself also in the pardon accorded to her miarderer on her' deathbed and in. the superhum~t'n patience during the extremely painful operation by which,the doctors tried to save her, withou~ putting her to .sleep,. D.ur!ng those tWO. long., hours Mary never complained but kept invoking the help of the" BlEssed Virgin. For .sush :heroism, the Holy F,a.ther point.e~d 6ut.in his allocution, the 23~, September, 195 I. CHRISTIAN HEROES courageous child had prepared herself by the daiIy practice of the virtues of her state: "It is true that it is above all purity that sho~e in Maria Goretti's martyrdom, but with it. and in it the other Christian virtues tri-umphed as well. In that purity there was the most evident and sig-nificant affirmation of the perfect control of the soul over matter. In that supreme heroism, which cannot be improoised, there was the tender, obedient," and active love for the parents, self-sacrifice in the hard work~of every day, poverty accepted in an evangelical spirit and sustained by trust in Providence, religion embraced tenaciously, deepened ever more, ~ssimilated as a treasure of life and nourished by the flame of prayer; the fervent desire of ~lesus in the Eucharist, and finally--the crown of charity--the heroic pardgn accorded to the murderer. All this forms a rustic garland, so dear to God, of country flowers which adorned the white veil of her First Com-munion and, shortly after, her martyrdom." The beatifications of the Holy Year, like the canonizations were eight in number. The total of those beatified by Pope Plus XII at the end of 19~0 is now'fifty-two; this includes the twenty-nine Chinese martyrs. Among those beatified during the Holy Year we find one priest, one boy, and six foundresses of religious institutes: two Spanish, two Italian, and two French. All except one belong to the nineteenth century. Blessed Vincen~ Pallo~f~ (1795-f850). Vincent Pallotti was the apostle of Rome at a difficult period of histo~-y.-After his ordination and a double doctorate at the Sapienza, he started his apostolate among students and it soon became clear that Rome possessed a holy priest. He was made confessor of Propaganda College, the English College, the Roman Seminary. On all of them his influence was deep. But his preferences were for the poor and the workers; he opened professional and agricultural schools and pro-moted t?ade unions. His zeal embraced the whole world and every" need, spiritual and material. For this "universal" object he founded the Society of the Catholic Apostolate (a society :of" priests and Brothers living in common without public vows, commonly known ,235 J. PUTZ Reoieu~ for Religious as the Pallottines) and the Sisters of the Catholic Apostolate. He took a special interest in the conversion of England and sent to that country some of his best men. He realized, more than a century ago, the immense possibilities and the necessity of the lay apostolate, and Pius XI called him a "pioneer and precursor of Catholic Action." This bold and far-sighted planner was a man of incredible humility, considering himself an obstacle to the progress of the Church and accepting without a word the most cruel humiliations. He always kept his predilection f.0r the poor, giving them even his own clothes. He died of a pleurisy contracted as a consequence of giving his mantle to a destitute man. Today 3,550 Pallottines and 2,900 Sisters of the Catholic Apos-tolate continue the saint's w.ork in many countries. Vincent's beati-fication was the first of the Holy Year; it took place on Jan. 22, exactly 100 years after hi~ death. A few days later the Pope pointed out "this great sacerdotal figure" as an example to parish priests and preachers. His sermons, he said, were always directed to the ur~uro nec.essarium; his confessional was eagerly sought after and surrounded with extraordinary effects of grace, "May his spirit be renewed in every one of you and infuse into your apostolate that .irresistible glow of love which the doubting, uncertain, and suffering men of today need so much." Blessed Marla-Soledad Torres y Acosta (1826-1887) Maria started her apostolate of charity in a squalid quarter of Madrid. With her h'elp the parish priest opened a hospital for. the ¯ poor. Eventually she had to take charge of the whole work, which she stabilized and perpetuated by founding a religious congregation, the Servants of Mary. Her institute during her lifetime spread from Spain to South America. At present it counts some 1,600 members. She was beatified on Feb. 5, 1930. Blessed Vincenta-Maria Lopez y Vicuna (1847-1890) Vincenta was born of an aristocratic Spanish family. Sent to Madrid for her higher education, she became interested there in the charitable Work of her aunt who, shocked by the difficulties and dangers of the lives of domestic servants, had opened a home for them. Vincenta refused a brilliant match arranged by her father and 236 Se'ptembe¢, 19:51 CHRISTIAN HEROES took the vow of chastity. After her father's death she used her con-siderable fortune.to develop her work of social assistance. To further extend it she founded the Daughters of Mary Immaculate for the protection of young women. At'present they number, nearly 2,000 members in various countries. Their hostels for domestic servants, working-girls or students provide for the material and spiritual wel-fare of well over 30,000 young women. She was beatified on Feb. 19, 1950. Blessed Paola-Elizabeth Cerloli. (1816-1865) Like Vinc~nta she was bor~ of a noble family in Northern Italy. But at nineteen, not feeling called to the religious life, she followed the wish of her parents and married an old widower,Count Buzecchi, forty years her senior. After the death of her husband and three children she was then tl~irty-eight--she consecrated her time and income tO assisting the poor peasants and farmhands of the sur-rounding country. In 1857 she started a religious community, the Sisters of the Holy Family of Bergamo, for the care of orphans and morally abandoned children. In 1950 this institute counted some 300 members. The saint was also instrumental in founding a simi-lar institute for men, the Priests of' the Holy Family. The brief of canonization compares her with St. Joan de Chantal, an angel in four states of life, girl, wife, widow, and religious. She was beatified on March .19, 1950. Blessed Maria ~e Mattias (1805-1866) Maria was born in the diocese of Gaeta. When she was seven-teen, she attended a mission preached by the Blessed Gaspar del Bufalo, a friend of Blessed Vincent Pallotti and founder of the Mis-sionaries of the Most,Precious Blood. The holy preacher to whom she opened'her soul recognized her great gifts and entouraged her to take up the apostolate of Christian education. She began by gath-ering the little children in her parental home, and in 1834 she founded.a convent and a school. This was the beginning of the in-stitute of the "Adoratrici" of the Most Precious Blood, which today has 215 houses in Italy and 172 in other parts of the world, with some 2,000 members. She was beatified on Oct. 15, 1950. Blessed Anne-Marie Javouhey (1779-1851) The child of a farmer of Burgundy, she grew up amid the horrors 237 J., PUTZ Reaie~a [or Religious of the French Revolution, sometimes risking her life. in order to hide and assist priests. At nineteen she vowed perpetual Chastity and re-solved to dedicate her life to the education of children and the care of the sick. As other girls joined her in the work she c~nceived the plan of her new congregation, the Sisters of St. Joseph, called "of Cluny" from the place of the mother house. Soon she made founda-tions in mission countries, Africa, Pondicherry, French Guiana, and others. A woman of remarkable energy and intrepid enterprise' (King Louis Philippe said admiringly, "Madame Javouhey, that's a great man"), she frequently visited her missions, worked for the abo-lition of slavery and for the organization of public services in the colonies. From the start she realized the necessity of forming an indigenous clergy, and in order to accelerate the work she brought to France the first Negro candidates for the priesthood. Today the Sisters of St. Joseph are found in every part 'of the world, working in schools, hospitals, leper asylums, and other institutions. She was beatified on Oct. 15, 1950. Blessed Marguerite Bourgeo~ys (1620-1700) This blessed takes us back to the seventeenth century and to the great period of ~he Canadian missions. John de Brebeuf was mar-tyred in 1649. The Ursuline missionary-contemplative Marie de l'Incarnation died in Quebec in 1672. Margaret, who had first tried the contemplative life with the Carmelites and the Poor Clares in her native France, found bet vocation when .the Governor of Montreal came to France and tried to find a teacher for the children of the French garrison of Ville-Marie. She offered her services and in 1653 reached Montreal, where she .began bet apostolate by teaching the catechism and visiting the sick in their huts. In 1658, with some companions whom she bad brought out from France the previous year, she founded the congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal, which became an important educational factor for the whole of Canada and. since 1860, for the United States (at present 5,680 members). Margaret, "schoolmistress and itinerant mis~iorlary,;' opened mission schools ff;r Indian girls, many of whom became zealous Sisters in the institute. Thus, as the Pope remarked in his address to Canadian pilgrims, she realized among the "savage" Huron girls what St. Francis de Sales had dreamt of for France, a congrega-tion of non-cloistered "secular daughters." She was beatified on November 12, 1950. 238 September, 1951 JOY IN HEAVEN Blessed Dominic Savlo (1842-1857) Blessed Dominic, beatified on March 5, is the Benjamin of the confessors raised to the altars, since he was not quite fifteen when he died, The son of a modest but deeply Christian family, he very early showed a special earnestness and resoluteness in his piety. His First Communion, which he made at seven, .definitely set his will towards the goal of sanctity. In 1854 be was received by Don Bosco into the oratorio of Turin. Here~ under the saint's direction, and fos-tered by special graces, his spiritual life developed rapidly; but after two ~,ears a sickness obliged him to return to his home, where he died a few months later. His life was written by Don Bosco him-self. The decree declaring the heroism of his virtues was published in 1933. The beatification of this youthful masterpiece of divine grace--grace to which he corresponded heroically--will no doubt encourage new studies on the nature of sanctity and .especially of children's sancti~j'. [EDITORS' NOTE: The foregoing article is reprinted with permissi'on from The Clergy Montfily, a magazine published in India.] Joy in I-le ven Richard L. Roone}', S.J. "I,"HE Archangel in charge of the recording angels had called a | meeting of the guardians of religious. They were met in his skyey office high above the battlements of heaven. "Quite frankly, Angels, my aide~ are alarmed about this whole business," he was telling them. "The number of 'kicks,' complaints, criticisms and 'crabs' that l)hey have to record for religious is prepos-terous. They're even wondering if these human creatures will be satisfied and happy and content even here in heaven! They have found one hope, however. They feel sure that Purgatory will take all the 'kick' out of these kickers. You Gufirdian Angels do a grand job keeping your charges living up to their vows and observing the larger phases of religious life. It is time, nevertheless, that you went to work on this complaining business. It may relieve their human ,239 RICHARD L. ROO~EY feelings to 'crab' 6r to criticize. It doesn't add to God's glory or to their own merit however. So please, now, to business." The guardians, your own among them, filed out of' .the office and winged earthward. They came, each of them equipped with ques-tionnaires like the following. How would you answer them if your Angel Guardian put one before you during your next examen? 1. Do you find yourself complaining quite often? 2. What (or who!) is your p, et peeve? 3. Do you "kick" about the weather, the c~ll or the room you have, the house you are'in, the food you are. served, the work you have been assigned? 4. Do you ever "crab" about superiors or their directions? 5. Have you a few kindred souls with whom you get together to talk over the way things would be done if you were in charge of them ? 6. Do you firm., and vocalize about it. that the community is a pretty dull, or annoying lot? 7. Are you heaping up a pretty severe judgment for yourself by judging others . . . and that right severely? 81 There is a lot of sense in the little poem: Two men looked through prison bars; One saw mud, the other sad2 stars. Well, what do you see in the rest of us most of the time? 9. Do you accept the ordinary pin-pricks of daily religious life without grumbling? (Remember you are an especially selected member of a thorn-crowned Head.) i0. Can you put all of ydur words and remarks, both within the community and to externs, on the paten of tomorrow's Mass and know that they will be acceptable to God? After scanning the above you may find that it will be a good thing to take your particular examen off such undisturbingly im-practical generalities as humility or charity at large and particularize it at least on keeping a strict guard over your "kicking" tongue. If so, go to it! The best of success to you! Know that you will be a delight not only tO your. fellow religious but to the saints and angels and God Himself as well! 240" Passionist:ic Spiri!:uali!:y' Fidelis Rice, C.P. IN THE INFINITE 'reaches of eternity, within the secret council of the Godhead, the Wisdom and Love of God decreed that all of creation should reflect in.a unique way the ineffable perfections of God. Because God is absolutely infinite--that is, without any limits whatever--no creature could ever exhaust the divine imitabil-ity. Since the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, the Word, is the Exemplar of all that is, iherefore each creature is called upon in its own distinct way to teA1 us a little more. about the vastness, the goodness, and the perfection of the Word. "All things were madd by Him, and without Him was made nothing that was made." In the realm 6f souls our reflection of the divine holiness is to be accomplished by a participation in the Christ-Life. For each soul is predestined from all eternity to manifest in time the eternal Holiness which is God. There is a uniqueness, then, in the destiny of each soul. "Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Who" has blessed us with spirftual blessings in heavenly places, in Christ. As He chose us in Him, before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and unspotted in His sight, in charity." (Ephesians, 1:3, 4.) Here the great Apostle reveals to us that our holiness is planned and designed in eternity, but according to the pattern of Christ. We are all called to mirror the holiness of the Word, but each soul in a different way. There is, then, a wondrous blending of unity and multiplicity in the pattern of holiness. Christ is one, the unique model of all holiness. But because of the limitations of our nature, because of our very creaturehood, each one of us will reflect the holiness of Our Lord in a so.mewhat different way, just as various artists in painting the same subject will use a varying contrast, a difference of light and shadow, greater or less use of chiaroscuro, until the completed can-vases, while basically the same, will manifest vast differences. ¯ So it is that in the various religious orders and societies, approved by the Church, there is a difference of pattern in the design for holi-ness, although, all are dedicated to the one supreme objective--the perfect imitation of Christ. The essential spirit of each religious order is imparted, first of 241 FIDELIS RICE Retaieto for Religious all, by the founder of the institute. Plus XI clearly states that the various founders of religious institute~ were guided in a special way by the Holy Spirit, who seeks alway,s to communicate to the Mysti-cal Body.of Christ the graces purchased by His precious death upon the cross. "For what else did these most illustrious men do in founding their institutes, but obey the inspirations of God? There-fore, let their followers show forth in themselves those characteristic traits which the Founders imprinted upon their several Institutes. Let them not fail in this." ("Unigenitus"; A.A.S., Vol. XVI, p. 133.) The key, therefore, to essential Passionistic spirituality is to ,be found in the life and work of Saint Paul of the Cross, and Passion-ists can be called "Passionists" only insofar as they adhere to his teachings and to his spirit. ° It was the unique genius of Paul of the Cross to combine in one Rule the best features of two apparently contradictory or opposing states of life. For he willed that his religious should cherish and foster the contemplative observance of choir monks, centering all in the liturgical, prayer of the Office, while at the same time fulfilling the sublime vocation of a missionary apostolate. In the mind of Paul of the Cross, missionary activity should flow spontaneously, from the life of prayer, thus verifying the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas that the function of the apostolate is "tradere contemplata aliis"--"to'give to others the fruits of contemplation." Because the consuming passion of the life of St." Paul of the Cross was love for the sufferings of 2esus Christ, he wanted his religious to share, in a special way, in the redemptive sacrifice of Christ. That is, the Passionist vocation is in a special way a vocation to a life of reparation. The inmost spirit of the Passionist Rule is the spirit of solitude, penanee, poverty, and prayer. In unforgettable language Saint Paul of the Cross described the spirit of his institute in a cir-cular letter which he sent to his religious for the Feast of Pentecost, May 2nd., 1750. "Most beloved Sons, you are dead, and your life is hidden with Christ in God. Therefore, as dead to all that is not °God, r~main in the most perfect detachment from all created things, in true poverty of spirit, and in detachment from sensible consola-tions. Assisted by the most holy grace of ,lesus, direct all your zeal to this end--to be recollected in interior solitude; then you will become true adorers of the Sovereign Good in spirit and in truth . Never withdraw from the holy Wounds of Christ, but ever strive 242 September, 1951 PASSIONISTIC SPIRITUALITY more and more that your souls become hidden in and entirely pene-trated by them." (Letters: Vol. IV, p. 226.) Saint Paul of the Cross was one of the most privileged of mys-tical souls with which God has endowed the Church, but his very mysticism bore the unique character of his vocation. For although he received the grace of the "transforming union" or "mystical mar-riage"-- the highest grace of mystical prayer--at a very early age, yet for over fifty years thereafter he continued in the profound suf-ferings of the Dark Night of the Soul, a fact which Father Garrigou7 Lagrange, O.P., calls almost unique in the lives of the saints. Because Paul of the Cross was a master of prayer, it is not to be wondered at that he should insist upon a spirit of constant prayer. for his followers. In his Rule .he states in the very first chapter that "Prayer is one of the chief objects of our Congregation." The Passionist Rule, as it is observed in our monasteries in the United States today, prescribes, beside the Divine Office, two hours of mental prayer each day--an hour in the morning, and an hour in the eve-ning. Including the time that is devoted to the Divine Office; the Passionist, in the daily routine of his monastic day, spends close' to five hours in prgyer. One of the features of Passionistic prayer is the observance of the night office, for Passionists rise ea, ch morning at two o'clock to chant Matins and Lauds before the Blessed Sacrament. This observ-ance lasts one hour, and the religious retire again at three, to rise once more at dawn for Prime and Tierce. This nocturnal observance is one of the cherished ~xercises of the penitential spirit bequeathed by Saint Paul of the Cross to his sons. In order that the spirit of prayer might always be preserved in the Congregation, Saint Paul prescribed most riggrously that Pas-sionist monasteries be built always in places of solitude, and with every safeguard that the spirit of solitude be not violated nor intruded upon. Hence, even when built in the heart of large cities, there must always be sufficient acreage for gardens and privacy for the solitary walks prescribed by rule. Many of our 'American "monasteries are now surrounded by teeming residential sections, but when they were built they stood alone, in the midst of solitude. The cities have come to the monasteries, but because of the wise prescriptions of the Rtile the spirit of solitude is still safeguarded. However, the spirit Of the Passionist Congregation is also a spirit of apostolic activity. As the present Superior General, Most Rev- 243 FIDELIS RICE Review for Religious erend Albert Deane, C.P., wrote in a recent circular letter to the Con-gregatio, n: "On the day it would cultivate the contemplative life ex-clusively, the Congregation would cease to be what 'our Holy Founder instituted. Nor could he be said to be a good Passionist, who without legitimate cause would'omit to do what he could to attain the apostolic end of our Congregation, although under the p.retext of better caring for his own salvation. His religious profes-sion demands otherwise of him." In this ~ame document, our Most Reverend Father General has beautifully epitomized the heart of the Passionistic spirituality: "For our spirit, dearest Sons, can be likened to a'pyramid, made of the spirit of prayer, penance, and the apostolate, but held together by the fire of devotion to Christ suffering, having no other apex to which the ~exalted Passionist life converges than our configuration to Christ Crucified, whom we must preach by word and by example: 'We preach Christ and Him Crucified.' This is what the words say which we carry engraven over our hearts; this reminds us, if perhaps we sometimes forget, of our very name itself, for we are popularly called 'Passionists'.',' . The primary work of the Passionist Congregation, then, is a reflection of its inner'spirituality--the preaching of popular mis-sions, and retreats to the clergy and religious, as well as to the laity. Passionists conduct no schools, except for the education i~f their own subjects. They engage in parish work only as an exception, and for clearly defined needs in a particular locality. They are above all, preachers of the Passion of 3esus Christ. To this end they take a special vow to promote in the hearts of others, devotion to the Pas-sion of oresus Christ. They do, however, engage in foreign mission work, and they are likewise working among the colored in the South. Saint Paul of the Cross was a staunch advocate of enclosed re-treats for the laity. Cherishing, as he did, the wonderful advan-tages of holy solitude, it is not surprising that he would wish to share these advantages and blessings with the laity. And so he wrote into his Rule the prescription that in each monastery rooms should be provided for lay retreatants. In most of our American monasteries we have special retreat houses for men, and a flourishing retreat movement is an integral part of our Passionist family life. Because Paul of the Cross was consumed by the love of Jesus Christ Crucified, he burned with the desire to bring the riches of His death to the souls of men. He was profoundly aware of the 244 September, 1951~ . PASSIONISTIC SPIRITUALITY meaning of the priestly vocation, and realized fully that a p~iest must always communicate to the Mystical Body 6f Christ the life purchased by the sufferings of Ouk Lord. But he knew, too, that the most fruitful apostolate is that which is the overflow of prayer, rather than a substitute for it. Hence it was that no matter how gifted a missionary might be, no matter how eloquent on the mission-platform, and no matter how great the demand for his services, Saint Paul of the Cross rig- . orously required that each missionary spend a suitable portion of.the year in the solitude and quiet of the monastery. Although far wise to reduce this to a mathematical formula, the founder of the Passionists imposed upon superiors and missionaries alike the obli-gation to. preserve always in the Congregation this time of with-drawal each year from the exhausting round of activity. The demands for our services have grown with the years, and no fixed calend,a'r tan be drawn up which governs the exact details, but our superiors still strive faithfully and sincere!y to arrange the schedule for-each mis-sionary, so that he may spend a sufficient amount of time.withih the mona.stery each year. Saint Paul of the Cross was profoundly con-vinced that "one Religious who is a. man of prayer and lover of solitude will bring forth more spiritual fruit from the ministry than a thousand others who are not such." (Letters, Vol. III, 418.) .,. The Passlonlst family circle is made up of three groups: tl~e priests, the students or clerics, "and the lay brothers. ¯ In most of our American monasteries all three groups are found, for most of our monasteries are also houses of study, or seminaries in which young men are preparing for the priesthood. Our lay brothers, a shitable time after the profession of their perpetual vows, are admitted to }ecreation with the priests; and the recreation is common ~f(;r these two groups. The students remain always in a separate r~creation. The day's horarium.is divided bet.ween prayer and study. The day is spent in silence, except for the two brief recreation periods each day. Three days of fast and abstinence are .observed each week-- Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday. During the entire time of Ad-vent and Lent, Sundays included, abstinence from meat is the rule within the monastery. Paul 6f the Cross does not want his sons to forget that t,hey must bd men of penance. For this reason, too, san-dals are worn on the bare feet, and a ro.ugh woolen h.abit is worn the year round. The Passionistic ideal;" then, is to share as intimately as possible 245 FIDELIS RICE. o in the sublime virtues which shone, forth so re~splendently on Cal-vary. It is the vocation proclaimed so sublimely by Saint Paul the Apostle in his Epistle to the Colossians: "Who now rejoice in my sufferings foF you, and fill up those things that are wanting of the sufferings of Christ in my flesh, for His body, which is the Church." (Colossians, 1:25.) So it was that that other P~ul, Paul of the Cross, sought to instill into his followers a burning love for the Crucified, a love which would make them conform their own lives by penance, solitude, prayer, and poverty, to the ideals of Calvary, that they might go forth to preach the glories and the ignominies of the Cross of Jesus Christ. The r~assionist spirit might be summed up in one word, "Stau-rosophy," for "stauros" is the Greek word for the Cross.; ,The sons of Paul o'f the Cross must remain ever absorbed by the wisdom or the "philc~sophy" of the Cross. Wisely has the Church selected the Introit for the Mass on the Feast of St. Paul of the Cross: "Christ0 confixus sum cruci." . "With Christ I am nailed to the cross." (Ga-latians, 2:19.) No other words of Sacred Scripture could epitomize more simply the ess.dntial spirit of this great lover of the Crucified, and of the form of life which he has bequeathed to his sons, who wear that habit of mourning first shown to Paul of the Cross in vision, by the Mother of God, when she told him to founc~ an order whose members would devote their lives to mourning for the sor-rows of Her Son. OUR CONTRIBUTORS F1DELIS RICE, writer and missionary, is on the mission band at St. Joseph's Passionist Monastery, Baltimore, Maryland. J. PUTZ, the editor Of Clergg Month-lg and author of Mg Mass, and P.DE LETTER, a recent contributor to American ecclesiastical journals, teach at St. Mary's theologate, Kurseong, India¯ RICHARD L. ROONEY is on the Queen's Work staff and editor of Action Now. C.A. HERBST and CLARENCE MCAULIFFE are o£ the faculty of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, . , : PLEASE NOTE CAREFULLY The sul~scripfion pHce of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is now: $3.00"per year for" Domestlc.end ,Canadian subscriptions; $3.35 per yeer for all for~icjn subscrip-fio'ns. For further de~'ails please see inside back cover. 246 Modesty C. A. Herbst, S.J. ~4 ~t man's looks betray him: a man of good sense will make him-self known to thee at the first meeting; the clothes he wears, . the smile on his lips, his gait~ will all make thee acquainted with a man's character" (Ecclus. 19:26, 27. Knox version). This' is the Holy Spirit's description of modesty. Following His directive, St. Thomas teIIs us that this virtue is concerned with "the movement and actions of the body; that all of them, those gone through in fun as well as the serious ones, may be decent and proper." (Summa Theologica, 2-2, q. 160, a. 2.) Dress is also included. The cardinal virtue of temperance controls pleasure coming from food, drink, and ' sex, the most difficult things. Modesty, a part of temperance, takes care of the lesser. A subordinate in the hierarchy of authority takes ~in hand the little things. Modesty is therefore not at all the s~me thing' as chastity or purity, as many quite commonly presume, though it may be more or less connected with it. Not one's interior only but one's exti~rior, too, must be con-formed to the .norm of right reason. The easy and evident way for u_s to strive to achieve this is "to imitate Christ. "We must look with the eyes of the soul on that wonderful leader 'beautiful above the sons of men' in the ordinary dress He wore at home . Erect of body and with perfect composure His gait was neither too hurried nor too slow. There was nothing soft or effeminate, not.hiog childish or lackadaisical about Him. Neither could anything gloomy or exasperating be seen in Him, nor was there any assumed gravity. He was not singular nor finicky. His Whole being breathed sweetness, joy, kindness, majesty." (Le Gaudier, De Perfectione Vitae Spirit-ualis, Pars IV, caput xviii.). "Jesus began to do and to teach," first to tellus by His exampl~ how tb act, only later by His words. Our exterior modesty should be, as His, for the glory of God. "So let your light shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father who is in heaven." It should make us more like God. "God cre~ ~ted man to his 6wn image: to the "image of God he created him." Man's likeness to God is, of course, in the soul, in his interior sanc-tity, but that interior dignity and perfection should shine forth, so 247 ¯ C. A. HERBST Reoeiw [or Religiou~ to speak, in the ,modesty of his exterior as through a beautiful and translucent garment, or as the rays of the sun make a cloud all silver and gold. That "image of God" ou.ght somehow to be mani-fested in the body. "Because man's body alone of all the animals on earth is not bowed down to the ground but so made that it can better contemplate the heavens, it can justly be said' that it is made more t6 the image and likeness of God than the bodies of other animals, as Augustine says. But this must not be understood to mean that the image of God is in man's body but that the very form of. the human body represent.s the likeness of God in the soul like a trace." (S. Th., 1, ,q. 93, a. 6.) The importance of modesty in the life of a religious can hardly be overestimated. One is forced to this conclusion from reading the masters of the spiritual life and by noting the Christian tradition through the centuries. The statement made by St. Ambrose in this matter is a classic. "Modesty must be preserved in our very move-ment, carriage, and gait. Our habit of mind is reflected in our body. "Thence the real man hidden away in the heart, the light-headed 6r careless or turbulent man or, on the contrary, the more serious or steady or more upright or more mature man can be ascertained. The motion of the body, therefore, can be called the voice of ~he soul." (De Of Kciis, I, 18.) St. Bernard says: "Modesty is the greatest of orn~ments in reli-gious, especially in the young. This is so true that if they do not cherish it there is little hope of their becoming good or virtuous . Lack of external composure in the body is a sign of an indevout mind." (Ad Quid Venisti?, xvii.) Knowing how very closely bod~r and soul are united we are not surprised to hear Hugh of St. Victor say: "As of a wandering mind are born disordered move-ments of the body, so when the body is brought under discipline the soul is made strong. Little'by little the mind within is brought to rest when under the watchful eye of dis.cipline its disorderly move- "ments are not allowed to flow to the exterior." (Delnstttuttone' " " Novitiorum, X.) So exterior modesty m.akes even a greater contri-bution to the soul than it does to the body. St. Vincent Ferrer'thought that a warrior of Christ could never free his soul from disorder if he did not first endeavor to rid his body of what was unseemly. From all of which it would seem to be clear why modesty is so much emph.asized in the beginning of the re!igious life: modesty of action and, incidentally, "modesty of words," which 248 Septernber~ 195 l MODESTY is silence. Even a beginner.can superimpose upon himself external order in the blessed hope that from it will come to him an array of spiritual goods. For it is easier to bring one's exterior under subjec-tion than one's interior. Mqdesty has a great apostolic value. St. Basil says that a virgin should "be seen by those who n~eet her to be such in habit and gait and every movement as to reflect the likeness of God. The eyes of those who behoId her should be incited to modesty and their mind instructed in virtue. They.should hold that sight in honor and, as I have said, show deference to and revere that image of God. As pictures of' satyrs make one laugh and as sad pictures fill the mind , with sorrow . so a virgin, since she is the picture--nay, the very reproduction--of purity, should even if merely seen raise the thoughts of those who behold her up to God . Avirgin, therefore, should be very careful to reproduce in herself the divine image in all t.hings." (Patrologia Graeca, 30, 714-715.) St. Francis of Assisi was most eloquent by his modesty. "It is told ofthe blessed St. Francis that he said one day to his companion, ~'Let us go to preach,' and so went out, took a turn in the city, and returned home. His companion said to him: 'BUt father, are v~e not preaching?' 'We have already preached,' he answered. That sedate-ness and modesty with which they, went through the streets was a very good sermon; it moved people to devotion and to contempt of the world, to compunction for their sins, .and to the raising of their hearts, and desires to the.things of the next world. This is a sermon in action, more effectual than one in w6rd.". (Rodriguez, Practice of Perfection and Christian Virtues, II, x, 1.) The very sight of the young Saints Aloysius, Stanislaus, John Berchmans, and Gabriel of the Sorrowful Mother raised men's hearts to God. The gr.eat in-fluence for good of the pr.ayerfuI, recollected, and modest bearing of those who love God is but another striking instance of "actions speaking louder than words." That is why St. Ignatius said: "And hence it will follow that, considering one another, they will increase in devotion and praise our Lord God, whom every one must strive to acknowledge in another as in His image." (Constit. S.d., P. III, c. i, n, 4.) .The beginner must practice modesty, and by doing so he exer- Cises himself in many virtues. But modesty is also the mark of the perfect. A well-ordered exterior shows great interior'perfectlon. The man who has achieved this has already made great'prggr.ess. One 249 C. A. HER,BST Reveiu~ for Relig:ous who habitually and gracefully has his exterior under control has gone far in the direction of self-mastery. If one has to be mortified to be decent, as our novice master used to say, what constant mortifi-cation and vigilance must be necessary .to put on the modesty of Christ. For this, persevering and almost heroic self-conquest is neces-sary. In this connection it might be well to remark that if we put ourselves through the discipline and took all the pains from a super-natural motive to put on modesty, which is the etiquette of God's ch.ildren, that the children of .the world do to don good manners in public and social life, our merit would i~deed be surpassing great and our spirit of sacrifice supreme. "And they indeed that they may receive a corruptible crown; but we an incorruibtible one" .(I Cor. 9:25). But then, "the children of this world are wiser in their generation than the children of light" (Luke 16:8). Founders of religious orders have given special directives, "rules of modesty," for regulating external deportment. As those given by St. Ignatius of Loyola even now influence many thousands of reli-gious, it might be well to give some of them here. "All must be exactly careful to guard the gates of their senses (especially their eyes, their ears, and their tongue) from all disorder, and preserve themselves in peace and true internal humility, showing it in silence when it is to be kept, and when they have to speak, in the circum-spection. and, edification of their words, in the modesty of tbelr coun-tenance, gravity of their gait and whole carriage, without any sign of impatience or prided' (Constit. S.d., P. III, c. 1, n. 4.) "In all out-ward actions there should appear modesty and humility, joined with religious gravity. The bead should not be turned this way and that way lightly, but with gravity, when need shall require; and, if there be no need, it must be held straight, with a little inclination forward, without leaning on either side. For the most part, they should keep their eyes dowfi, neither immoderately lifting them up, nor casting them now one way., now another. Wrinkles on the forehead, and still more on the nose, are to be avoided, that there may appear out-wardly a serenity which may be a token of that which is interior. The whole countenance should show cheerfulness rather than sadness or any less moderate affection. The lips must neither be too much. shut nor too much open. The pace should be moderate, without any notable has,.te, unless necessity should require it; in which case, however, a care of decorum should be had. In fine, every gesture and movement should be such as to give edification to all men." (Rule~ 250 September, .MODESTY or: Modesty.). St. Paul says in another connection: "When I was a child,. I °spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child. But, when I became a man, I put away the tlSings of a child" (I Cor. 13: 11).'A child must hear and see and taste and smell and touch every-thing. But when he grows up he is willing to put away the things of a child--nay, is eager to. We can hardly imagine a grown-up going on playing with his toys. A man loses taste for such things. So is one as he becomes spiritually mature gradually weaned away, as he attains to th~ full stature of Christ, from the surface pleasure of the senses and the allurements of sense satisfaction. This is the more true the more he grows to relish the things of God. Then the curious ears and roving eyes and anything unbecoming in the countenance. carriage, and gait of childhood give place to that maturity and serenity proper to men and women at horhe with their Father the King. The practice of modesty is not only for religious propriety, or edification, or mortification, or to foster recollection, or to make pos-sible and encourage spiritual development and high interior activity. It is also to keep, our soul from becoming sick or maimed by venial sin or perhaps even killed by mortal sin. "Death is come .up through our windows" said the prophet (Jer.°9:21). St. Bernard comment~: "Death enters our windows when, with prying eyes and itching ears. we insist upon administering to ourselves the deadly cup of distrac-tion." (Sermo 24 in Cantic.) And St. Ambrose: "Who, midst so many bodily passions, midst so many snares of this world, can go along safe and undefiled? The eye sees: the mind is perverted. The ear bears: our attention is drawn away. We sm~ll something: our thoughts are 9bstructed. The lips drink: sin enters in. We touch" something, and we are inflamed with desire." (De Fuqa Saeculi, cap. 1.) That is why Christ, so mindful of human, weakness, instituted for the very end of life a special sacrament for the removal of the re-mains of sin contracted through seiase experience. At the last anointing the priest places the~holy oil "'on the eyes because of sight, on the ears because of hearing, on the nostrils because of smell, on the mouth bedauseof taste and speech, on the hands because of touch, on the feet because of Walking" (Council of Flore~nce, Decretum pro .Arrnenis) saying: "By this holy anointing and.by His most tender mercy may the Lord forgive you whatever guilt you have con- 251 C. A. HERBST tracted." St. Thomas explains: "This sacrament was instituted to" heal us. For a bodily cure we do not take medicine that will restore the whole body but those parts in which the root of the disease lies~ So the sacramental anointings should be made only on those parts where is found the root of the spiritual sickness." (S. Th., Suppl. q. 32, a. 5.) In conclusion, let us listen.again to a few words from that great master of the spiritual Jife, St. Bernard. "With the brethren be re-served, gracious, modest, affable, gentle, and on your guard. Be .strict with yourself but not in such a way as to be a nuisance to others . Every gesture and word, your way of acting, look, gait should be characterized by modesty and reserve. Let there appear nothing con-ceited or stilted in you, no boldness or anything overbea.ring . As the fear of the Lord puts order into a man's lif~ and prepares his whole interior for blessedness, so modesty brings his exterior under subjection. You should not become so familiar with anyone as to be completely forgetful of propriety in his presence." (Ad Quid Venisti?, xvii.) After all, "we are made a spectacle to the world, and to angels, and to men'~ (I.Cor. 4:9). And His Divine Majesty is always pres-ent, too. "In him we live, and move, and are" (Acts 17:28); ETUDE SUR LA PAUVRETE RELIGIEUSI: The Sisters of Providence (Les Soetirs de la Providence) in Montreal have "trans-lated into French six articles on poverty which appeared in the REVIEW FOR RELI-GIOUS and published them in a booklet. The articles are: "M~y Religious Buy and Sell" (V, 50) and the "Gifts to Religious" series by Adam C. Ellis, S.J.; and 'The Spirit of Poverty" (VIII, 35) by" Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. The "Gifts" se-ries includes: "The Simple Vow of Poverty" (VI, 65), "Common Life and Pe-culium" (VII, 33), "Personal versus Community Property" (VII, 79, and "Some Practical Cases" (VII, 195). Copies of the booklet, called Etude sur la Pauvret3 2eliqleuse, may be obtained from P~ovidence Mother House, 2311, rue Ste-Cath-erine Est, Montreal 24, P.Q., Canada. Cost: 40 cents per single copy; 35 cents in dozen lots or more. ¯PLEASE NOTE C~AREFULLY The subscription price of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is now: $3.00 per veer for Domestic end Cenedian subscriptions: $3.35 per year for ell foreign subscrip-tions. For further deteils pleese see inside beck cover. 252 The race ot: Our Vocal:ion P. De Letter, S.J. [EDITORS' NOTE: In the March number of this year the author of "Why Do They Leave?" concluded the article with an inspiring section headed "Why Do We Stay?" In the present article Father De Letter's analysis of the grace of our voca-tion forms something of a theological counterpart and complement to the latter question. He points out the different graces included in the grace of vocation, namely, the grace of state, the grace of perseverance, the grace of progress, the grace of keeping the rules, and the grace of supererogation. He next gives the solid theological basis for trust in the grace of vocation and concludes by describing God's part, the actual graces of light" and strength, and ours, the conditions for our 'trust. "I will put great trust in the grace of my vocation," wrote St. John Berch-roans among the first of his watchwords. It is of this gr~ice of vocation that Father De Letter writes.] ~i~/JE 'OFTEN HEAR or read about the grace of our religious W" vocation. No doubt we often thank Our Lord for this most precious 6f His gifts. Wi~at exactly is it? Spiritual au-thors use the phrase in a twofold sense, first as the free divine gift by which God calls to the religious life, and secondly as the special helps of grace which enable religious, who have followed the divine call, to meet the demands of their state and to persevere in it till death. 'The second meaning, that of the special helps, of the grace of our vocation will be used. This grace is a reality of our everyday life.,If we allow it to play its part to the full, it may and does make a difference for our own pe£sonal interests and for the souls for whom we labor. For this reason it is well worth studying more closely what the grace of vocation implies and what is the basis of our trust in it. Then it' will be self-evident how we should exploit this God-sent treasure. Grace of State All religiogs, we are told, are offered and receive the grace proper to their vocation. As any other Christians, those who are called to a definite state of life with its definite purpose are offered by the Lord the graces necessary to pursue ,effectively the end of their vocation. This is true both of the general l~urpose of every religious life, which is to seek after Christian perfectioia.or holiness, and of the specific end of each particular order or congregation. Grdce of" Perseuerance in God's Friendship ¯ First'of all, religious are offered and, unless they'wilfully refuse, ~.ctual!y recei~re the actual graces needed to remain permanently on the path thatleads to perfection, "that is, to persevere in sanctifying grace. 253 P. DE LETTER Review for Religious These graces are needed. Theologians commonly teach that without the help of God's grace no one can maintain himself in His friend-ship, because fallen human nature is weak and inclined to evil. But these graces are always offered, theologians reassure us, to all who sincerely endeavour to 'please God and to preserve His love and friendship. And why? Because God's love is faithful: He does not allow to be sr~atched from His hands those who sinqerely desire to be His. If that is the case for all Christians in the state of grace, then it is more true for those whom a special divine call ~lestines for an ever growing perfection of grace. Religious, therefore, m~y count in a special way, by virtue of their very state in life, on the fidelity of the Giver of all graces. He enables them day after day and hour after hour throughout their religious life to avoid every grievous fault. Grace of Progress There is more than that. It is the fundamental duty of state for religious to advance continually in grace and perfection. That again is not possible without the help of God's grace. Our faith teaches us,. infallibly, that no good work for heaven can be performed with-out God;s gracious help. If that is so, and if religious grow in grace precisely by the works of virtue ' (and the reception of the sa.crame,nts, which grace enables them to do properly), then we must say that their Fathe~ in heaven, who is Love, cannot expect them to do thes~ works and not give them the needed help which He alone can give. That is why religious have and receive the graces necessary for the good works that are to lead them on to perfection, the goal of their vocation. ' Grace of Keeping the Rules and Obeying What are these good works? They are, naturally, commanded by the specific end of each religious institute. Concretely, they are laid down in the rules and constitutions: these outline the particular manner in which a religious vocation is to work out its ideal of Christian perfection, These laws and ways, therefore, differ for different institutes.' Hospital sisters, teaching religious, and contem-platives, are not expected to labour for perfection by exactly the same good works. Their respective rules point out to them "by which paths they are'to draw nearer to God. To follow these pathh ~nd no other, each one in the particular.office that is assigned him by the inst.itu, te and. in the community where obedience placed him, .is pnmista.kably the du.ty of state of. every re, ligious. And so all.~e.li- 254 September, 1~ 1 THE GRACE OF OUR VOCATION gious are offered each day the necessary grace to keep the rules and-fulfil their office: because fidelity to these duties is the concrete way for them to advance towards perfection and fidelity is not possible without these graces. Not every Christian, theologians teach, is at all times offered the grace needed for good works which are not of precept but are supererogatory, because, there is no clear indication that God's will demands these works from them. Only for such good works as are certainly willed by the Lord may we expect His grace to be guaran-teed. But the case of religious is a special one. Though the good ~works demanded by their rules are not, genera'lly speaking, strictly of precept (not at any rate when the religious laws do not bind under pain of sin) and are therefore in a true sense supererogatory, yet the very nature of religious rule implies that God clearly wills those works. His good pleasure and desire is expressed in the rules. By that very fact He also guarantees to ~eligious the necessary graces, ;¢¢ithout which they would be unable to comply with His good pleasure. , This conclusion applies equally to the acts of virtue which obedi-ence to superiors imposes on religious. Commands of religious supe-riors generally (exception being made for orders given in virtue of holy obedience, in whicJ~ the vows are involved) bring to their sub-jects the same kind of obligatiofi as the rules impose. As such, therefore, they do not bind under sin; yet they express to us unmis-takabl~ y the divine wishes. Religious receive the necessary actual graces for obeying the orders of their superiors as they do for keeping the rules. Though these acts of virtue, because not imposed under sin, are supererogatory in the strict sense of the word, yet they are, for religious, guaranteed as possible by the grace of their vocation. "Grace for Supererogatory Acts of Virtue There are additional virtuous actions which are not demanded of religious by rule nor by orders of superiors, but to which, they believe, a special inspiration of the Hgly Ghost invites them. Such good works, for example, extra .acts of mortification, or prayer, or humility, or kindness, are altogether free in the sense that no rule nor direction of obedience imposes them. These are not immediately covered by the grace of the religious vocation. To them will apply the teaching of theologians about supererogatory good works: not unless the invitation of God's grace be sufficiently proved genuine and ?eliablecan they count on His special help to follow up these inspira- 255 P. DE LETTER Review for Religtous tions. It should be added, however, that religious are, from their very state of. life, more opeh to these special invitations of grace. Why?" Because their fundamental duty of state is to aspire after perfection, and not all particulars that appertain to the practice of perfection are or can be determined by the rules or by obedience. Accordingly, religious need these special inspirations. Other things being equal, there is a greater probability that in the case of religious these inspirations of grace are genuine and reliable. To that extent and in that 'indirect way they also belong to the grace of the voca-tion. At this juncture the task of the spiritual director comes in to provide rehglous with sufficient guarantee that allows them safely to follow up these interior invitations. Without this sanction the danger of self-delusion would be real. That danger is excluded from all that falls within clearly known duty. Herein religious may and must depend on it that grace will not be wanting them, if only they themselves are not wanting to grace. Why is it so? Whai: is the dogmatic and theological basis of our trust in the grace of o.u.r vocation? Doctrinal Basis of Our Trust We have already hinted at the intrinsic reason why the grace of our vocation includes all the particular graces needed to fulfill our duties according to the rules and constitutions and the commands of the superiors. It is the following. God cannot command the impos-sible, because of His infinite wisdom and lo,;,e. Of religious He asks a constant strivin~g after perfection: that is the meaning of the reli-gious vocation. They find the concrete way to strive for perfection detailed in the laws of their institutes and the directions of their supe-riors. But to do all that is involved in keeping the rules and in obeying, many good works are needed which no man, religious not excepted, is able to do without the help of grace.: For two reasonsi both because these virtuous actions require a faithful effort which after original sin is not possible for long without grace; and because these acts are supernatural and of their very nature suppose the super-natural help of grace. If then God expected religious to live up to the demands of their vocation and did not at the s~me time give them ~he necessary graces, He would be demanding the impossible. Dogmatic Foundation The. ultimate foundation of this conclusive proof is nothing less than the highest possible authority on revealed truth: ,the infallible 256' ,September, 1~51 THE GRACE OF O~JR VOCATION teaching of the Church. The Council of Trent defined that it is not impossible for men to keep God's commandments; it condemned the contrary assertion of the Lutherans as heretical doctrine (DB 828). In St. Augustine's words the Council explained how men can, in spite of fallen nature's weakness, have the moral strength to do what God commands: "When He commands, He admonishes you to do what you can and to ask for help to do what you cannot, and He helps so that you can" (DB 804). Later. the Church condemned another heretical proposition of dansenistic pessimism which stated that "just men cannot keep some precepts of God even though they wish and try to do so, with the strength they now have; and the graze which would enable them to keep those commandments is also lacking" (DB I092). An infallible teaching, therefore, guarantee, s that we have the necessary graces to keep the commandments. That teaching aimed directly at those divine precepts which oblige under pain of sin, particularly of mortal sin. It may also be extended, though this conclusion is no longer infallible, to divine commands in a less strict serise of the word: to those expressions of the divine will which, though not binding under sin, .yet certainly manifest His desire ind. good pleasure. The Church's Authorit~I This latter is the case, as we well know, of the ordinary religious rules. We have a guarantee for it in the Church's approval both of religious life in general and of the particular religious institutes. The ¯ Church's sanction of the state oflife lived accordin'g to the three evangelical counsels is found in her age:old practice, which dates back td the early Cbristlan centuries, of approving and encouraging tbe monastic institute and the ascetical life. At the time of the Refor-mation it led to an infallible pronouncement, again at the Tridentine Council, by which she declared that the state of viriginity or celibacy is preferable to the state of Matrimony (DB 980). As to the appro-bation of particular institutes, theologians today are agreed in saying that in the solemn approval of religious orders the doctrinai judg-ment that the religious orders,, are apt means to reach Christian per-fection is covered by the Church's infallibility. In the less solemn .confirmation of other religious institutes, the Church's authority in-' volved is not the big.best; yet. that.approval also shares, according.to .the. degree, of the authority" that gives it, in the same fundamental guar.ant~.e:.of truth which is divine. Accordi,ngly? Catholic theology ¯' 257 P. DE LETTER Review for Religious is unanimous, in declaring that the obligation for religious to work for perfection according to the pattern designed in their respective laws is, because of the Church's approbation, the'clear expression of God's will for them. "On this doctrinal foundation rests the teaching of theologians who, like Suar~z, hold that the grace of a religious vocation includes the spe.cial supernatural aids required to live up to the ideal which is proposed to the religious by their institute. He wrote: "Since all ap-proved religious orders are deservedly regarded as founded by the special Providence of God, there is no doubt that each enjoys a'spe-cial divine assistance proportionate to its vocation, and hence greater in proportion as its institute is more exalted and difficult and organ-ized for the greater service of God and the more far-reaching good of the Church" (Rel. S.J., I, 6, 9). What holds good for reli-gious orders as a whole, also applies to the members. The graces of their vocation which effectively enable them to pursue the end of their institute are the concrete expression of the divine assistance that flows from God's special Providence over them. Religious, therefore, are building .their trust on the safe rock of Peter when they firmly believe in the grace of their vocation. More-over, does not the experience of the religioh~ life come to teach them that the Lord does not disappoint that trust? When and in the measure that they are faithful to their calling, they find out what these graces of our vocation mean in practice. Graces of Light and Strength As actual graces in general, so the graces of our vocation are of two kinds which, more often perhaps, are found together rather than isolated. First there is light for the mind, generally more affective and practical" than purely sp~e~uiative and cold (for they are meant to lead to action), by which the meaning and reality of the religious ideal, duties, privileges, favors, appear more clearly, more appealingly, and more exaltedly worthwhile. These' actual graces of light, on occa-sion standing out very markedly, at other times more dim yet really present, give a deeper and new understanding of the rules, of the ideal of poverty; chastity, obedience, of the community life and of our daily tasks of education, missionary work, medical charity, sacred "ministry so that the good works by which religious strive after sand-tity. take on their deep, often hidden, meaning. Together with that light goes a grace of strength and courage for'the will and heart, 25'8 September, 1951 THE GRACE OF OUR VOCATION tempering and steeling one"s whole moral an~ spiritual structure, actually enabling religious to live according to their light. These graces of fortitude, patience, and ability, make Jrpossible to keep up ¯ the effort for progress, and bravely and gladly to accept and take up the small and on occasion bigger crosses involved in the faithful ful-filment of their daily duties. These graces of strength, at times ex-perienced more forcibly, at other times, perhaps more commonly, perceived in humble and dim faith, smoothen the path towards per-fection which often is rough and always uphiIl. The remembrance of these graces received in the past is a precious confirmation" of Our faith and trust in the grace of our vocation. Condition of Our Trust That faith and trust is rightly ours on one condition: that we do, sincerely and hum.bly, what in us lies to answer the graces we receive. There is little need to insist on the first and foremost part in this cooperation with grace which we may take for granted, namely, that we live in the state of sanctifying grace. Progress in grace supposes the st'ate of grace. Unless the substance of the spiritual life be there, we cannot expect further grace~ for progress. These graces, according to the ordinary rule of Divine Providence, are usually given in proportion to oui" fidelity in accepting and answering them. One way of showing this desire of receiving and exploiting those graces is our faithful and insisting prayer for them. According to the hint of the Council of Trent we quoted above, our asking for graces may well be the condition for receiving them. We may even count on the abundant divine aids guaranteed by the grace of our vocation if we sincerely and generously trade for spiritual profit with those we receive. No doubt even then no one can vouch for it that he will never fail God's grace, even though grace does not fail him. We know it too well, human frailty remains in religious as well. And we need not be surprised at our daily faults of weakness which, we may confi-dently hope, involve but little guilty negligence. Provided. only we know how to exploit those very failings to deepen humility and a sense of our need of prayer and trust in the Lord, they do not seri-ously impair our fidelity to grace. Our desires and deeds continue then to express our sincere gratitude for God's great gift, our call to the religious life. Then we may and must always count on the grace of our vocation. 259' A Vocational Newspaper [Contact, a bright, four-page, two-year-old vocational newspaper from the arch-diocese of Boston, may be of interest to readers of the REVIEW who are not ac-quainted with it. The following description was written by a staff member of the publication. For further information write to: Director of Vocations, Room 622, 185 Devonshire St., Boston, M~,ss. ED.] Maintaining that "Personal contact between an interested priest or religious and a good potential candidate becomes the only real vocation program," Father Francis A. Barry, director of vocations in the Boston archdiocese, thought that a vocational newspaper might provide a natural occasion for conversation or 'even extended talks on religious vocations. The paper was given the significant name: Contact. Experience has shown the idea was a 'good one. Contact, a monthly during the school year, began publicati.o.n in October, 1949. His Excellency, the Most Reverend Richard J. Cushing, Archbishop of Boston, the founder of the special vocational program, is the adv.isory editor. The editor is Father Barry. He is assisted by eight associate, a makeup, and ten contributing editors. The latter include diocesan and religious priests, Brothers, and Sisters who write columns, features, reviews, and editorials. His Excellency financed the project during its initial year. The religious orders and congregations having houses in the archdiocese shared the major ex-pense since then. , Distributed gratis" to pupils of parochial or other Catholic schools, from the seventh grade through the senior year in school as well as to Sunday schools, rectories, and seminaries, the circulation now tops 50,000." Increased solely by ~ear-say advertising, the mailing li~t now re'aches out to thirty-one s.tates, the Philippine's, Cuba, Italy; France and Canada. The italicized, three-column, colored logotype carries the triple message: Information, Inspiration, and Action. To attract the young people's attention, each issue is printed with bright color spots, ac.cording to the season or month. Adjacent to some of the standing heads appears a small portrait of the editor of the column, showing his religio.us habit ahd giving his name and address. Feature pictures and action shots of'the apostolate of teaching or social service highlight each issue. Provocative headlines dot the pages: It Seems to Me . Horizons, Meet. some religious com- 260 September, 1951 COMMUNION FOR OTHERS ~nunity, Looking Out . thought from the seminary or the novi-tiate, Do You KnoW?, Parents" Column, and Around tile Diocese. Parochial high school reporters keep copy flowing to the desk of the editor of the last-mention~ed column. Contact reiterates the words of His Holiness, Pope Pius XII: "This vcJcation, thisloving call makes itself heard in manydifferent ways, as many as the infinite variety of accents in which the Divine Voice may speak: irresistible invitations, affectionate and repeated promptings,gentle impulses."--SISTER MARY REGINA, S.S.,J. Offering Communion t:or.Ot:hers Clarence McAuliffe, S.3. SISTER LOUISA sat placidly at her desk filling out the spiritual bouquet. It was the community's gift to Sistdr Mercedes who was to make her p~ofession next day. Sister Louisa was adding her contribution to the various specified good works-- rosaries, s{ations, visits, penances,, aspirations, Masses, Communions. It was an easy and congenial task and she contributed generously. But when she had finished, she found a question e.ngaging her mind,. a question she had never asked herself before. She had added five to the total of Commuriions to be offered for Sister Mercedes. 3ust what did it mean to offer Communion for somebody else? She ~had been doing it for many years. Her relatives and friends were always pleased when she told them that she would offer her Communion for them. Yet she had to confess now that she really did not know what she meant wh'en she told them that'she would offer her Communion for their intention. Many religious besides Sister Louisa have been puzzled by the same question. Nor is its answer easy to find. The purpose of this article is to clarify what we mean when we tell others that we are going to offer our Communion for them. It is important to remember that Communion produces certain effects that are inalienable. For instance, Communion automatically increases sanctifyin~ grace and most probably has the power,to con-fer more of this grade than any other sacrament. We do not transfer 261 - CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Ret~ieto for R'eligious any of this to others when we offer our Communion for them. Again, the increase of active love for Go~t and our neighbor which is the .special effect of the Eucharist and which depends on the fervor of our thanksgiving, is not surrendered by offering Communion for somebo~ly else. So too, the strength to resist temptations, the cooling of disordered feelings, since these are special though secondary effects of Communion and depend also on the fervor of one's thanksgiving, are incommunicable. The same is t6 be said of the additional right to a glorious bodily resurrection which is acquired by the worthy reception of Communion. Finally, the remission of venial sins which results automatically from Communion, if the recipient has sincerely revoked all wilful attachment to them, cannot be transferred to any other person. From all this it is ~lear that the principal benefits accruing from the Lord's Table remain with the communicant. In fact it might appear that no spiritual gifts remain which can lend real meaning to our promise to offer Communion for somebody else. But there are. When we ~o to Holy Communion we ordinarily do extra praying and a certain ambunt of mortification. We make a suitable prepara-tion and thanksgiving. We also fast beforehand. Now we all know that prayer and fasting are subjective acts of virtue, ~nd when made by a person in the state of grace, they have a three-fold value in the sight of God. For the sake of brevity, the theologians use tbre'e tech-nical words to express this three-fold efficacy. They say 'it is "meri-torious, satisfactbry, and impetrative." What they mean is that every act of virtue wins more sanctifying grace (meritorious efficacy), removes some temporal punishment (satisfactory), and pleads with God for spiritual and temporal favors (impetrative). In addition, therefore, to the sanctifying grace which comes spontaneously from each Communion, a person also gets more sanc-tifying grace from his acts of virtue elicited before and after receiving the sacrament. Since we can never give one iota of sanctifying grace, no matter by what means it is acquired, to another person, it is evi-dent that the grace proceeding from these acts of virtue at Commun-ion time is also retained by the communicant. However, the satisfactory and impetrative efficacy of these acts may be relinquished in favor of others when we offer Communion for them. Suppose we consider first the gift we make when we hand over the satisfactory fruits of our Communions. Ordinarily we are able to make a fitting preparation for the 262 oep*e,noer, I95 ! COMMUNION FOR OTHERS reception of Holy Communion. Not only do we fast, rise early, kneel down, but we also make acts of faith, hope, confidence, desire, humility, and perhaps acts of perfect love for God. Now each of these acts of penance and of prayer, by reason of our good subjective dispositions which accompany them, has the power to take away some temporal punishment. Moreover, since we are the ones who do the penance and say the prayers, we have the right to have our otot~ temporal punishment lessened by them. What happens, then, when we offer Communion for another? We transfer this incalculable benefit to the other party and, if he is in the state of grace, he receives it. The same is to be said of'the~ prayers we say at the moment when we receive our divine Lord and during the time that He remains pres-ent within us. We communicate the satisfactory value of all these prayers to the other person. Instead of shortening our own purga-tory we shorten the purgatory of another. We', so to speak, suffer vicariously and gratuitously for some one who has no real claim to our sacrifice. If we reflect for a moment, we shall also understand why the satisfactory efficacy of these virtuous acts preceding, accompanying, and following Holy Communion exceeds that produced by the same acts elicited at some other time. We suppose, of course, that our fer-vor (and by that we refer not to our feelings, but to our acts of will) would be equal in both instances. We shall also understand why Communion remits more temporal punishment than other prayers listed in a spiritual bouquet--for example, rosaries or visits to the chapel. We take for granted, of course, that our cooperation would be equally diligent and that the same number of acts of virtue would be made. Otherwise it could easily happen that a rosary re-cited devoutly and animated by many acts of virtue would remit more temporal punishment than a Communion prepared ~or and received listlessly and negligently. Buy other thin~s being on a par, there is an objective reason why Holy Communion should take away more temporal punishment than the rosary or other pious works. The truth of this statement rests .on the fact that ordinarily the acts of virtue we make in connection with Communion are more fer-vent (here again we do not refer to feelings of fervor) and more numerous than those evoked by other works of piety. This is pa.r-ticularly tru~ of the prayers we say during our thanksgiving' after Communion. And it should be noted that temporal punishment is 263 CLARENCE MCAULIFFE Review for Religious canceled in proportion to the fervor and number of our.tSrayers. But why should our prayers after Communion be more fervent? Because Christ is then physically present within us. As a result of His sacramental presence, both the number and the quality of the actual grac'es showered upon us are ~uperi6r to those which necessarily accompany every pious supernatural work. After Communion our Savior inserts a continuous stream of vivifying actual graces into our minds and hearts, and these graces have as their general object, not to arouse merely confidence or faith or humility, but love itself, the most noble of all the virtues. If we ponder these facts, we shall. readily see. why our prayers after Communion have a singular power to reduce the debt of punishment incurred by somebody else. So much for th~ satisfactory value of Holy Communion. We can be comparatively brief in treating of the sacrament's impetrati've fruit because it rests on the same principles we have been discussing. By offering Communion for others, v~e also mean that we trans-mit to them the petitional power of both our preparation and thanksgiving. The very same acts of virtue have not only a satis-factory, but also a pleading or intercessory value. They implore God to brant spiritual and temporal f~vors. Here again, since we are the ones who do the praying, we are the one~ who have a right to obtain the favors. But we,relinquish this right in fav~)r of other~ when we offer our Communion for them. We forget our own needs; we fore-go some benefits that would surely come to ourselves. ~re sacrifice ourselves for the other party. Of course, we must remind ourselves again that we cannot surrender those benefits that flow spontaneously from the Sacrament, such as the remission of venial sins, the growth in love for God and other people, the new title to everlasting glory and the curbing of unruly impulses. But there are many other spiritual and temporal favors that every person needs. There are .many that we ourselves need, even though we often do.not know precisely what" they are. Yet we forget our-. selves and transfer the intercessory vigor of our Communions to others when we offer Communion for them. It is like writing a let-ter of recommendation f6r som~ one else to obtain a benefit that you yourself need and have a right to; and it is a letter of recommenda-tion that you know is certain to be heeded. It is well to remember also that this impetrative efficacy of~Com-reunion is likewise of exceptional ~luality, just as the satisfactory efficacy, and for the same reason. The number and kind of actual 264 September, I~51 COMMUNION FOR OTHERS graces stirred up in the soul after. Communion exceed those accom-panying other good works. .Consequently if we co-operate with them, our acts of virtue will be correspondingly more fervent so that their pleading value is enhanced. Unfortunately, most of us probably do not pray explicitly "after Communion for the person for whom' we offer the Communion. This is, of course, not necessary since our intention made beforehand suffices to obtain for the otber~the satisfactory and impetrative fruits of the sacramefit. However, if we do remember to pray expressly for the' other person after we have received Communion, we shall un-doubtedly increase the value of our gift for him. It stands to reason that our Savior' listens to our. requests with a more willing ear when He is actually present within us with His Sacred Humanity. We recommend, therefore, the practice of praying explicitly after receiving Communion for the person to whom we relinquish the benefits. We may even ask Our Savior to grant certain spedfic favors, especially spiritual ones, to the other party. In conclusion, then, we cannot give away to anyone else the ¯ principal fruits of our Holy Communions. These we have itemized in the beginnihg. In addition to those listed, we might also add that when an indulgence is granted for the reception of Communion or for some prayer said,before or after receiving the Sacrament, we can-not offer it for another living person. Nevertheless, we do a singular favor foi others .when we offer a Communion for their intention. We sacrifice'for theirbenefit the satisfactory and impetrative fruits which are won by our acts of virtue preceding, accompanying, and follow-ing Holy Communion. MEDICO-MORAL PROBLEMS Medico-Moral Problems, Part III, by Gerald Kelly, S.J., contains complete dis-cussions of euthanasia, therapeutic abortion, organic transplantation,, and adult baptism. Also included are discussions of co-operation in illicit operations, the delivery of a. hydrocephalic infant, and lobotomy for pain relief. The booklet is published by the Catholic Hospital Association of the United States and Canada, 1438 South Grand'Blvd., St. Louis 4, Mo. 50 cents a copy; 12 for $5.25; 50 for $,20;' 100 for $37.50. Parts I and II can be obtained at the same place and at the same prices. 265 uestdons and Answers --20- An unexpected opportunity has arisen to sell a piece o{ communlt~ property {or $100,000, which is much more than we could get for it under normal circumstances. But the property must be transferred.withln ten days, otherwise the offer will be wlfhdrawn. VVhat shall we do about gefflng permission of the Holy See? Fortunately His Excellency, the Apostolic Delegate, now has faculties from the Sacred Congregation of Religious to permit the contracting of loans, sales, and alienations of property belonging to a religious institute, when the sum involved does not exceed a half million gold dollars, provided that the conditions laid down in canons 534 and 1531 be observed. We take this opportunity to inform our readers that the Sacred Congregation of Religious has also granted two other special facul-ties to the Apostolic Delegate: to dispense.religious for the reception of Holy Communion from the obligation of the Eucharistic fast so that they may take something by way of drink or m. edicin~, when their physician considers the keeping of the fast injurious to their health; also to shorten or prolong the postulancy prescribed by the Code of Canon Law (see Bouscaren, Canon Lau2 Digest, Supplement 1943-1948, p. 131, under canon 858). m2 I-- I have heard that permission of the Holy See is required {or th~ aliena-tion of notable relics and images. Is it proper ÷o infer that relics and ¯ venerated images may be bought and sold? Does his include sacred vessels? To .buy and sell is only one form of alienation. Hence it does not follow as a general rule that relics and venerated images may be bought and sold simply because the Holy See at times gives permis-sion to alienate such things. Since three distinct things are included in this question we think it advisable to treat each class separately. Relics. Canon 1289 states very plainly: "It is unlau~[ul (nefas) to sell sacred relics." To do so would be to commit a sin of simony. However, it would not be sinful to charge and pay for the metal case in which the relics are usuhlly inclosed. Canon 1281, § I tells us that "notable relics or precious images, and likewise all relics or images 266 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Which are honored in any church with great devotion on the part of the people, cannot be alier~ted validly nor transferred permanently to another church without the permission of the Holy See." What is me~tnt by notable relics? Paragraph two of canon 1281 gives us a list of notable relics: the body, head, arm, forearm, heart, tongue, hand, leg, or that part of the' body in which the martyr suffered, provided it be "entire and" not too small." Such relics may not be alienated without the permissi6n, of the Holy See. Since it is for-bidden to sell. relics, alienation here must be taken in its other meaning, that is, to give away, to lend, and the like. The permission of" the Holy See would be required also to alienate relics which °are not notable; provided that they are honored in a church with great devotion on the part of the faithful. Small relics in the possession of private persons do not come under canon 1281, but they may never be sold. Precious [maqes. Ecclesiastical goods (church property) are shid to be.precious,when they have a ~pecial value by reason of artistic, historical, or material content (canon 1497, § 2). An image is said to be precious if it was painted by a great artist, or was made of precious materials, and has a notable valu&, that'is, over 1000 gold life (about $335 in our present money). Such images, as well as others which are not precious but which may be called venerable because of the great devotion of the faithful towards them, may not be alienated without the permissiqn of the Holy See. Sacred Vessels. Things are said to be sacred when they are .destined for divine worship by reason of their consecration or con-stitutive blessing. Canon 1305 tells us that "an article of sacred equipment which is blessed or consecrated loses its blessing or conse-cration . . . if it has been put to degrading uses 6r has been exposed for public sale." On the other hand, canon 1539 states that "in the sale or exchange of sacred things no account of the consecration or blessing is to be taken in determining the price." We may say, there-fore, that sacred vessels may be sold privately by one individual to another, or by one moral person to another (a church or community to another church or community) provided no extra charge is made for the blessing or consecration. But sacred things may not be exhibited publicist for sale without losing tbeir blessing or consecra-tion. This applies principally to auction sales and to the placing of a sacred object in the window or in the show case of a store open to the public. 267 QUEST, IONS AND A .NSWERS Reuieu) for'Religious We may conclude by adding that a consecrated chalice and paten do not lose their consecration'by being regilded (canon 1305, § 2). May exfreme unction be admlnls+ered before any major opera÷ion? For the valid reception of extreme unction the subject must be in " danger of death ¯from sickness or old age. If the person who is to, undergo major surgery is already in this condition, he is capable of receiving the sacrament before the operation. It may be that this is ge~nerally the case, but it is not necessarily so. Some operations which may entail a great deal of danger are performed for removing some chronic condition which might not become dangerous, without the operation, for a long time. Such patients cannot be anointed before the operation. In practice, it is not easy to decide whether to anoint a person. before an operation or t6 hwait the outcome of the operation. ¯ There is no universally-established practice; nor could there be: Some patients are clearly not capable of receiving the sacrament before the operation; others are clearly capable; and still others are "borderline cases." Moreover, the pastor or chaplain has not merely to decide whether the patient can be validly anointed l~ut also to judge when the anointing would be most appropriate and beneficial. Our ¢ons+ffufions +el[ us +ha+ "[eff~rs fo +he S~s+ers as well as +hose senf by +hem shall pass +hrough ÷he hands of +he superior who may read +hem," In view of +hls s+a+emen+, may a eAenera[ chap+er eAranf +o 9olden jubilaHans +he prlvllecAe' of seal[n~ +belt leffers before ~ivlng ÷hem ÷o +hl superlor7 "-['he general chapter has no power to change the constitutiofis, unless the constitutions themselves give it that power, which is not likely. On the other hand, since the constitutions' do not oblige the superior 'to read all letters which pass through her hands, the general chapter could recommend that superiors refrain from reading the letters of golden jubilarians, but it could not take away the right to read them which is contained in the constitutions. The general chapter may likewise request that the constitutions be changed in this matter, if that be the wish of the majority. Such a request for a change in the constitutions would be made to the local ordinary in the case of a diocesan congregation, or to the Holy See (Co.ngrega-tion of Religious) in the case of a pontifical institute. 268 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Ret~iew /:or Religious m24-- Is the novice master to be present at the discussion of the general council which follows upon his report on the novices who are preparing for first professlon? Canon 563 reads as follows: "During the course of the year of novitiate, the master of novices, conformably to the constitutions, must present to the .chapter or the higher superior a report con-cerning the conduct of each of the novices." Strictly speaking there-fore, the master of novices makes his report to the chapter (in inde-pendent monasteries! or to the higher superior, but not directly to the gefieral council, unless the constitutions prescribe this. Hence a written report should be given the higher .superior who, in turn, will communicate it to the general council. Many constitutions have an article based on art. 300 of the Norrnae which says that "whenever in the general council the novices or the novitiate is discussed, the mistress should be called, who will make known her mind on the subject under discussion, or submit opportune information." There will be no need (and certainly no obligation) for the master of novices to remain at the council session after he has given the infor-mation prescribed by canon 563. If necessary, h~ can always be called back for further information. ~-25-- Is it permissible for sick Sisters who are not completely bedridden to ¯ receive Holy C~ommunion by the cell of a Sister who is confined perman-ently to her bed. These Sisters can manage to get around although the doctor's orders are that they rest as much as possible. Likewise the sana-torium in which they stay has' an elevator and the chapel is on the first floor. The general rule is that all should receive Holy Communion in the chapel if they can conveniently do so. If the Sisters are so sick that they are obliged to miss Holy Mass, even though they are up and about their rooms or in the corridor, they may receive Holy Com-munion on the floor on which they li~'e. As to the elevator: if the Sisters use .it to go to'another floor for their meals, then they should use it likewise to go to the chapel to receive Holy Commu'nion. In general one may say that if going to the chapel for Holy Com-munion would lengthen the time for the Eucharistic fast, or would put ar~ additional strain upon a sick Sister who is not confined to her 269 NEW MEDITATION BOOKS Review [or Reh'gious bed, she may receive Holy Communion on the floor on which she lives. --26-- Is the practice of saying I000 Hall Marys on the Feast of the Annun-ciation ÷o be considered a superstition? Everything. will depend upon the motive a person has in re-peating the Hail Mary that often on the Feast of the Annunciation. If this is done simply out of love for Our Lady, there is nothing wrong with it, since, it is a laudhble act of devotion. ~If, on the other hand, the practice were based upon a ~purious ,revelation, or a sup-posed efficacy which it does not have of its own nature (that of intercessory prayer), then it might be superstitious. New Medi!:a!:ion Books Like St. Teresa of'Avila, many religious,need a meditation book for many years to help them in their prayer. Four such books, writ-ten as helps for contact with God in prayer, have recently been pub-lished or reprinted. The authors are a German Capuchin, an Ameri-can Jesuit in India, an American Benedictine, and a Hungarian bishop. The books vary in purpose, content, and form. Direct, ~arnest, Practical One of the books is the fourth volume of MEDITATIONS by Father Bernardine Goebel, O.F.M.Cap., translated by Father Berch- 'mans Bittle, O.F.M.Cap. Adapted for the use of the Friars Minor Capuchin, the direct, earnest, and practical reflections will help any follower of the Gospel. The present volume is for the'time from Trinity Sunday to the Twelfth Sunday biter Pentecost. The meditation for Sundays is usually on the Gospel of the.day. Some of the topics developed f6r the course of a week are the Eucharist, the Mass, faith, hope, char!W, and love of .neighbor. Each meditation begins with a brief sum-mary of the meditation followed by a brief introductory paragraph, develbps two points w.ith a consid,eration and*application, and ends with a prayer. (Province of St. Joseph, 1740 Mt. Elliott Ave., Detroit 7, Michigan, 1950. Pp. 264. $2.50.) Prodac~ of Missionarg Zeal From the 'mission.field ~f Ifidia comes MEDITATIONS FOR EVERY 270 " September, 1951 NEW MEDITA'FION BOOKS DAY by Rev. P. J. Sontag; S.J. It has recently been reprinted in an attractive two volume set. The first volume containin~ I87 medi-tations covers the first half of the liturgical year from Advent to Trinity Sunday. The second volume complete~ the year bringing the total number to 369. Most of the meditations are based on the life of Christ. Meditations on the Apostles Creed, the Our Father, the sacraments, on social justice and Catholic Action are included, as ¯ ycell as meditations for the First Fridays, the lit.urgical feasts, feasts of special saints, and over twenty meditations "honoring Mary. Though the meditations'were l~repared specifically for the l~iity, priests, seminarians, and all religious will find them belpful. Each meditation fias two or three (the. additional gives the account from Scripture) preludes and three ¯points which contain ample matter for reflection. For the colloquy, the author modestly hnd wisely con-fines himself to suggesting the person, Our Lord or a saint, to ad-dress. The set belongs to the Science and Culture Series and has a preface by the general editor, Joseph Husslein, S.J. (The Bruce Publishing Company, 400 N. Broadway, Mil,waukee 1, Wisc., 1950. Pp. I, xviii q- 476; II, ix q- 466. $10.00.) Goal ol: Monasticism Volume three completes THE.SCHOOL OF THE L, ORD'S SERVICE by, Rev. Bernard A. Sause, O.S.B. (author of "Bene, dicti~e Spirit-uality," REVIEW, X, 7). The set gives a meditation based on the Rule of St. Benedict for every day of the" year. The present volume for the ninth to the twelfth month contains the text of the Rule of St. Benedict and thirty meditations on ea'cb .of the foll~)wing four subjects: spirit of detachment: good zeal': practices, interpretations. and attitudes that have grown from the Rule: and intimate union with God. There is a bibliography and a composite index for the three volumes. Each meditation contains a carefully developed consideration, an examen for the day, and a practical application. The considerations are enriched by quotations, examples, and commehts ~arnered from Benedictine tradition, The sources are given after each meditation. The author's" development of zeal is especially noteworthy. He pre-sents the virtue of zeal in a concrete, appealing'manner by singling out for each day of the month a Benedictine monk, nun, or lay Brother who exemplified some aspect of zeal in his or her life. Not all of the exam, plats are canonized saints. The book deserves and 2'71 NEW MEDITATION BOOKS rewards a careful, prayerful reading. (St. Meinrad, Indiana: The. Grail, 1951.' Vol. iII, Pp. vi q- 575. $4.00.) Devotion and Inspiration Rt. Rev. Ottokar Proh~szka, bishop of Sz~kefeh~rvfir, who died on March 28, 1927, was an outstanding and saintly prelate and a gifted, prolific writer. His MEDITATIONS ON THE GOSPELS are brief, s.wift-moving reflections on the entire life of Our Lord. He presents a text from the New Testament, gives a few short reflections, and leaves preludes, affections, and colioquies to the exercitant. The meditations should be a source of devotion and inspiration to many. The author w!;ites in the introduction to his work: '"I am come that they may have life, and may have it more abundantly.' I wish to serve this purpose of Jesus at His Incarnation, and to that end I am sending this book out into the world. It is intended to assist in the development of the life of Cbrist within our souls . Christ is God Himself in human shape, and I have to adore Him, and delight in His sublime beauty, in the depth and unique quality of His Soul, in the powerful originality of His mind, in the charm which He diffuses and in the life which flows forth from Him. My soul hangs upon His lips and hearkens to His every word. I see God reflected in Him as in a mirror; I bow my head upon His bands and surrender my heart to Him. He is God's Instrument; He will form me and harmonize thd conflicting elements within me." The present Newman edition bad three volumes fin one. The authorized translation from the Hungarian is by Margaret de Pill. Father C. C. Martindale, S.J., has written the foreword. (Wes.t-minster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1951. Pp.: I, xiv + 229; II, ix + 322; III, viii + 282. $5.50.) SPIRITUAL BOOK ASSOCIATES (381 Fourth Ave., New York 16, N.Y.) September Selection--R. Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P. Our Saviour and His Love for Us. $6.00. October Selection--Henri Petitot, O.P. The True Story of Saint Bernadette. (Cf. REVIEW, May '51, p. 161). $3.50. 272 ¯ 8ook Reviews THE HISTORY OF THE POPES. By Ludwlcj yon Pastor. Translated by E. F. Peeler. Vol. 36: Benedict XIV (1740-1758). Pp. 513; Vol. 37: Clement XIII (1758-1769). Pp. 4S8. B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis, Missouri. $5.00 per volume. This REVIEW (September, 1950) carried a notice of Volume 35 of the English Pastor, showing Pope Benedict XIV in the opening years of his pontificate working "with a pistol at his head," 'a weapon held by Catholic sovereigns demanding that he let them run the Church as well. ' It was particularly in m'eeting their concerted attack on the Society of ,lesus that Benedict XIV fought for his papal powers. Now Volume 36, the latter part of Benedict's pontificate, and 37, that of Clement XIII, come t6 hand, and their entire content is predominantly devoted to later phases of this titanic contest. Even so they bring the st.ory only to the end of the second last Act, and tfien break off while the~ translator works on the ddr~otternent. Will the Society, in the end, be suppressed? Will this regiment, of twenty-two thousand religious, in some forty provi,ces, 600 col-leges and over 1400 churches, be sacrificed? Read the next volume to foll~w shortly. To religious of both sexes, and members of whatever type of canonical organization, this story cannot but have deep and abiding interest. That it chanced to be the Ignatian Society against which the storm broke was because it was the "Swiss Guard" of the day, and the ruler of the Swiss Guard can expend his troops in battle, or order them back to the barracks to disband. Despite the faults and human weaknesses of the papacy's de-fenders, the story leaves them with the honorable distinction of. "canonical" death in the line of duty. Certain European monarchs were persuaded that the papacy had to be cut down to reasonable size. As the Minister Tanucci put it (37, 13) : "Certainly the primacy of the Pope was incontestable; he was the supreme head and centre of the Church; he had the right to summon a General Council, and he was infallible, but only when 15e made decisions in conjunction with the Bishops. But the Papacy in the form it had assumed in his day would have to. be abolished." 273 BOOK REVIEWS "The only way to treat the Pope was to . . . kiss his feet and bind his hands'~ .(28). So, under forms of exquisite politeness and courtly'deference, a violent strtiggle was waging. If the current tyranny of atheisti~ Commu, nism were being carried, on under the appearance of Catholic Leadership, if Marshal Stalin had his official minister at the Vatican to shape Catholic policy,.we could all the easier understand the high and mighty language of "unavoidable administrative necessity" that permeates these endless pages of eighteenth century despotism: It was proved with mathematical precision again and again that the mon-archs were but acting for the Church's good in withstanding the Pope, etc. Have we not heard these tunes being aired in our own day? Will it. be different in the twenty-second century, or the twenty-fifth? Details are all irrelevant; the contest wages still: evil has not prevailed, but it availeth much--GERALD ELLARD, S.J. THE LOVE OF GOD AND THE GROSS OF JESUS. By ÷he Rev. Regl-nald Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P. Transl~÷ed by Sisfer Je~n~e Marle, O.P. Volume Two. Pp. vi q- 461. B. Herder Book C;o., Sf. Louis, 1951. $~.00. This volume carries forward and completes Father Garrigou- Lag~ange's studies on divine love and the perplexing trials that are apt to befall souls fairly far advanced in the way of that love. Briefly this is the content of it. Part one deals with "crosses of the senses." These ar4 understood to be just what St. 3ohn of the Cross describes as "the night of sense," and hence here we ,have Fr. Garrigou-Lagrange's interpretation of that portion of St. 3ohn's doctrine. Correspondingly the second part is taken up with St. dohn's !'night of the spirit." Both sections, therefore, are concerned with what one might term the dark, distressing, disconsolate, phase of the mystical life. Part three is headed, "The Life of Union through desus and Mary." Among the themes considered are the inhabita-tion of the Blessed Trinity, the unity and sublimity of the apostolic life, the priesthood of Christ, His kingship, the Blessed Virgin Mary as a model of reparation, and St. 3oseph as a model of the hidden life and first among the saints. As parts one and two would com-fort'and strengthen one who is suffering, the rigors of the night of the soul, so this third part has much that is positively very magnificent and inspiring. The Three Ages of the Interior Life is expressly offere~l to the 274 September, 1951 BOOK REVIEWS public by Ft. Garrigou-Lagrange as a synthesis of this work and Christian Perfection and Contemplation (vol. I, v). Hence it shares in the merits and demerits of that larger and later work. These were discussed at length pro and con'in this REVIEW previously (Novem-ber, 19'49, pp. 297-317; March, 1950, 78-95). ' Since The Love of God and the Cross of Jesus was subsequently incprporated in The Three Ages and presented there in the form which the author now prefers, it seems rather surprising that it should be translated and published at this time. Except for scholars who wisl~ to see both studies, one who wants Fr. Garrigou- Lagrange's ideas on these matters should preferably seek them in the later and more definitiire work--AUGUSTINE G. ELLARD, S.J. THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY GHOST~ By John of St. Thomas. Trenslated fro~ the Latin by Dornin~c Hucjhes, O.P. With e Foreword by Walter Farrell, O.P. Pp. x -f- 293. Sheed end Ward, New York, 19SI. "$3.7S. Now Fr. Hughes has done, and in beautiful form, for English readers what Madame RaissaMaritain did a number of years ago for the French, that is, he has made a translation of the celebrated

Nowadays society's lifestyle encourages a high rate of consumption of natural resources; many of them are non-renewable, meaning that an inadequate management will lead to a certain degree of scarcity in the medium to long term. The most illustrative example is water, used in almost any human activity, for human consumption, cleaning and domestic use or in industrial processes (even in energy production), either as cooling medium or directly intervening in the productive process, water is present. It was up to the 2000s that the Legislative Authorities were considering water no more than a commercial asset being the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/CE) the inception to a mentality change towards water, considering it now more an heritage deserving protection and laying the foundations for the development of specific regulations that will establish minimum quality limits to be achieved prior to the discharge of the effluents into the environment. Specifically, chemical industry undergone a strong development owed to a growing demand for new products to satisfy the needs of the consumers. The manufacture of drugs, personal care products, or pesticides and fertilizers to improve agricultural production has led to the appearance, development and deployment of new organic substances. These are usually toxic, non-biodegradable and highly recalcitrant, thus they are difficult to assimilate for microorganisms, being active in the environment for long periods of time and with unknown effects on the discharge ecosystems. That situation motivates arisen, development and application of new highly oxidizing technologies, aiming the degradation of these emerging compounds and even, depending to their complexity, enhancing the biodegradability of the whole effluent. For this reason, electrochemical processes pose a versatile, useful and powerful tool since only by applying an electric current or potential on the electrodes it is able to generate oxidizing species that interacts with a broad spectra of contaminants, facilitating their removal. Some electrochemical processes have been widely used at industrial scale. For example, electrocoagulation implies an advantage over the conventional coagulationflocculation physicochemical process, since avoids the addition of chemical reagents by the use of sacrificial electrodes, generating a lower amount of sludge, and presenting higher efficiency in the colloids removal. On the other hand, electrodialysis, an electrically assisted membrane process, is able to separate the ions from an influent, yielding a highquality effluent of low ionic charge, being mainly applied in desalination processes aimed to produce drinking water. In spite of involving great advantages such as an easy control of the process and therefore easy automatization, as well as the absence of external reagents, some electro-oxidative processes have not been evaluated further than at laboratory scale. In fact, most of the studies reported in the literature are focused in the development of new materials for electrodes manufacturing, to improve effectiveness and reduce costs associated to this technology. However, it must be highlighted that electrochlorination has been implemented on a larger scale due to the low cost of the electrodes. The scarcity of studies facing these technologies under a realistic approach and for the purification of complex water matrices, has limited the possibilities of electro-oxidative systems from a commercial standpoint. It is important to note that from the ions species naturally contained in certain waters, a large amount and variety of oxidizing species can be generated, which entails an intrinsic improvement over the basic studies using a supporting electrolyte whose only function is to allow the transition of electrons. Furthermore, many of these electrogenerated species are photoactive, which means that just by irradiating the solution with ultraviolet light the generation of even more oxidizing species could be promoted, which results in an increase of the contaminants degradation rate. This has meant that the development, implementation, start-up and evaluation of these systems on a larger scale have not been also addressed in depth, hindering the scale-up of the electro-oxidative process. In this context, the opportunity of this PhD Thesis arises bringing the study of electrochemical technology to a new level closer to reality. The application of electrooxidative processes at pilot plant scale in actual wastewaters is addressed, assessing the operating conditions seeking to improve contaminants removal and water depuration. Combination of electro-oxidative systems with a natural and renewable energy source such as sunlight is also tackled. The first objective addressed was characterization, start-up and optimization of the main operational parameters of a solar photoelectro-Fenton (SPEF) pilot plant able to treat up to 100 L of water developed and installed at Plataforma solar de Almería (PSA) (CIEMAT). The system consists of four electro-cells equipped with a niobium-supported boron doped diamond anode (Nb-BDD) and a carbon-polytetrafluoroethylene (carbonPTFE) gas diffusion cathode (GDE) (Electro MP-Cells from ElectroCell). The cells are connected in parallel to a recirculation tank and this, in turn, to a solar photoreactor based on compound parabolic collectors (CPC) with 2 m2 of illuminated surface. Optimization of the main input variables, pH and current density (j), was carried out to maximize onsite H2O2 electrogeneration with the maximum current efficiency (CE). A central composite experimentaldesign was defined, and after the completion of the 19 experiments proposed in the matrix, by means of the statistical analysis of the results, the adjustment model for H2O2 concentration was obtained: [H2O2] = 2.19 - 0.31 · pH + 0.81 · j - 0.05 · pH · j + 0.15 · pH2 - 2.42 × 10-3 · j 2 , as well as for the CE percentage: = 61.68 - 0.43 · pH - 0.18 · j - 0.0275 · pH · j, and the corresponding response surface graphs. Finally, the model was validated, corroborating that, at pH 3 and applying 73.66 mA cm-2, the maximum production of H2O2 is achieved (64.9 mg min-1) with a CE associated of 89.3%. Once these parameters were established, the influence of the water and air flows, as well as the concentration of the electrolyte on the H2O2 electrogeneration was also studied, reaching the maximum applying a water flow of 5.6 L min-1, an air flow of 10 L min-1, and with 50 mM of Na2SO4. Afterwards, preliminary tests were developed assessing the efficiency in the removal of reference compounds, pyrimethanil and methomyl in a concentration of 50 mg L-1 and 90 mg L-1, respectively, by the application of the different oxidation processes that are able to be developed in the pilot plant system: anodic oxidation (AO), electro-Fenton (EF) and solar SPEF, having as supporting electrolyte a solution of Na2SO4 50 mM. The highest degradation rates were attained by SPEF process: 55% of pyrimethanil and 50% of methomyl after only 5 minutes. This research was performed with the collaboration of Prof. Anastasios J. Karabelas and Dr. Konstantinos V. Plakas of the Chemical Processes and Energy Resources Institute of the Centre for Research and Technology-Hellas (Greece) in the framework of the European project SFERA-II at PSA facilities. Second objective was focused on a real application of the previously optimized electrochemical pilot plant through its combination with a pre-treatment consisting of a nanofiltration (NF) membrane system. Urban wastewater treatment plant effluent was pre-treated for increasing the concentration of organic microcontaminants (OMCs) in the NF retentate stream, together with reducing the total volume to be treated in the tertiary electro-oxidation system. Also noteworthy is the increase in water salinity achieved after the NF system in the retentate, decreasing ohmic resistance and thus facilitating a subsequent tertiary treatment based on electro-oxidation. For studying the behavior of the SPEF system in highly saline and complex matrices, a recipe of simulated NF concentrate was developed from the characterization of concentrates previously reported in literature. Aiming to work at the effluent natural pH, avoiding the addition of reagents for acidification and neutralization, the use of ethylenediamine-N,N'-disuccinic acid (EDDS) as an iron complexing agent in the electro-Fenton (EF) process was evaluated. It was also checked the stability of Fe3+:EDDS complex in the EF process, which was degraded after 15 min of treatment, although iron did not precipitate completely until 30 min. Thereupon, the degradation of four OMCs was studied: pentachlorophenol, terbutryn, chlorfenvinphos and diclofenac (at 200 and 500 µg L-1 of initial concentration each); by AO, EF, SPEF and solar-assisted AO at natural pH, using Fe3+:EDDS (1:2) at 0.1:0.2 mM in EF and SPEF treatments. When using simulated NF retentate, whose chloride concentration was 555 mg L-1, the highest degradation of OMCs (500 µg L-1 of initial concentration each) was obtained using SPEF reaching 85% of total contaminants removal. The reason is that chlorine species generated by solar-assisted AO were not enough to degrade OMCs (75% of total amount), despite the presence of lower organic matter in solution due to the absence of EDDS. On the other hand, EF process was discarded since no improvement was observed with respect to AO, consuming the hydroxyl radicals produced by the Fenton reaction in the degradation of the EDDS instead of the OMCs. The evaluation of the SPEF system for the tertiary treatment of actual wastewater, was carried out by collecting effluent from the secondary treatment of El Ejido WWTP (in Almería, South-East of Spain), after its pre-treatment in the NF pilot plant installed at PSA until reducing the initial volume 4 times. The salinity of the effluent increased from 2.1 - 2.3 mS cm-1 to 6.1 - 6.8 mS cm-1, and the chloride concentration reached 1182 - 1960 mg L-1. The concentrate was spiked with the four target OMCs (100 µg L-1 each) and their degradation was studied by AO, SPEF (with the carbonates naturally contained in the concentrate and reducing them to 20 mg L-1 to diminish the scavenger effect on hydroxyl radicals) and solar-assisted AO. The percentages of degradation of the sum of OMCs after 180 minutes of each applied treatment were 84% (AO), 69% (SPEF with carbonates), 75% (SPEF with low carbonates) and 84% (solar-assisted AO), respectively. In this occasion, the highest percentage of degradation with the lowest electricity consumption, 5.3 kWh m-3, was obtained by solar-assisted AO, since the higher concentration of chlorides promoted a higher generation of active chlorine species. Finally, tertiary treatment by applying solar-assisted AO was chosen for the degradation of 44 OMCs actually contained in the secondary effluent of the WWTP and detected by LC-QqLIT-MS/MS, resulting in the elimination of 80% of the sum. This work was performed in collaboration with Prof. Ana Agüera and Dr. Ana Martínez-Piernas from CIESOL (mixed center CIEMAT-UAL) at the University of Almería. After the experimental program conducted in the electrochemical pilot plant, which began with its start-up and optimization of operation parameters, it was considered to study and diagnose the state of the cathode surface of the cells used in those tests. While cathode usage hours increased, onsite production of H2O2 decreased progressively from 43 mg L-1 of accumulated H2O2 in 30 min, in the first use of the cathode, to 1.5 mg L-1 after several experiments. At the moment an important reduction of the H2O2 electrogenerated was observed, making impossible the effective development of EF and SPEF processes, the cell was disassembled and the autopsy of the cathode surface was carried out by means of scanning electron microscopy and X-rays in order to try to identify the main reasons for the contamination of the cathode and the consequent loss of efficiency. In the images obtained, a loss of the carbon-PTFE coating was detected as well as the formation of iron deposits, justifying the drop in H2O2 electrogenerated with the loss of the electrode active surface. In the framework of the Marie Curie - ALICE project "AcceLerate Innovation in urban wastewater management for Climate change", H2020-MSCA-RISE, the PhD candidate carried out a research internship at the Nanotechnology and Integrated BioEngineering Centre (NIBEC) of the University of Ulster (UK), in collaboration with the Photocatalysis Research Team lead by Prof. John Anthony Byrne. The goal of this collaboration was the development and application of a laboratory-scale photoelectrocatalytic reactor for the simultaneous elimination of OMCs and pathogenic microorganisms in natural water. As a core part of the reactor, two nanotube photoanodes of titanium dioxide were manufactured by anodizing a titanium mesh at 30 V for 3 h and then annealing it at 500°C to promote the anatase phase. The reactor consists of a 190 mL cell with a double photoanode of titanium dioxide nanotubes illuminated by a 9 W UV-A lamp through a quartz window, with an applied irradiation of 50 W m-2. The main objective was the simultaneous removal of OMCs (terbutryn, chlorfenvinphos and diclofenac at 500 µg L-1 of initial concentration each) and pathogens (E. coli as reference bacteria at an initial concentration of 106 CFU mL-1), at the same time that a possible improvement by replacing a counter cathode with no contribution to the degradation process (platinumcoated titanium) by a carbon felt cathode able to electrogenerate H2O2, was evaluated. Assessing separately the degradation of OMCs and the inactivation of E. coli, when applying the photoelectrocatalytic process with platinum cathode, a clear improvement in the inactivation of bacteria was observed (2 Log reduction after 120 minutes of treatment), compared to the photo-catalytic process on its own (0.8 Log reduction in the same treatment time). However, degradation of OMCs remained at the same ratio; around 70% of the sum after 60 min. Replacement of the platinum cathode by a carbón felt cathode increased the efficiency of E. coli inactivation, reducing its concentration in 2.7 Log, although OMCs showed similar degradation percentages. When finally the degradation of OMCs was carried out simultaneously to the inactivation of bacteria by photoelectrocatalysis with carbon cathode, a significant increase in disinfection was observed, reaching the detection limit of the method through a reduction of 4.5 Log. This improvement could be attributed to the presence of methanol from the stock solution where OMCs were pre-dissolved, that acts as a hole scavenger increasing the photocurrent and getting oxidized so generating formaldehyde, a highly toxic substance for microorganisms (LC50 for E. coli = 1 mg L-1). As a consequence of this outcome, the effect of hole scavengers presence in disinfection was evaluated, using acetate and methanol at a concentration of 5 mM. In both cases, as described in literature, an increase in the photocurrent was observed under their presence, observing also an increase in the rate of bacteria inactivation, which was greater in the case of methanol due to the generation of formaldehyde. Finally, as a result of the strong collaboration between the PhD student and the Solar Water Treatment Unit with the electrochemical company DeNora built during transnational access program within SFERA-II project, the evaluation of a commercial electro-oxidation system specially designed for the abatement of chemical oxygen demand in industrial waters and supported by the action of active chlorine spices was carried out. Within the framework of this collaboration, and as part of the objectives developed in this PhD Thesis, the evaluation of a pilot plant equipped with a dimensionally stable anode cell (DSA) manufactured by DeNora was performed, combining it with a solar CPC photoreactor (3.08 m2), reaching a total capacity of 38 L, and with the aim of evaluating the possible improvement in efficiency of two batches of landfill leachates. These leachates were characterized by high organic loads (>2000 mgL-1 of dissolved organic carbon (DOC)) and a high toxicity in one of the batches (53 % of inhibition on activated sludge) so the main purpose was to reduce the toxicity and increase the biodegradability enough for a subsequent combination with a conventional biological treatment (thus reducing the associated operation costs). First step was the treatment of two batches by solar photo-Fenton process, which required an excessive accumulated UV energy (142.2 kJ L-1) to achieve only a 30% reduction of DOC in the first batch of leachate (diluted 1:1 with distilled water). In the second batch it was not possible to perform solar photo-Fenton treatment due to the large amount of foams generated, causing large oscillations of the DOC along the process. Later on, the two batches were treated by electro-oxidation, electro-oxidation by adding H2O2 and electrooxidation combined with solar radiation, being the second batch the one that showed the highest DOC and total nitrogen removal rates, 3.5 g DOC kWh-1 and 18 g TN kWh-1 in the first batch of leachate and 13.4 g DOC kWh-1 and 45.2 g TN kWh-1 in the second batch. After the application of electro-oxidation assisted by solar energy, a reduction on toxicity from 53% to 6% of inhibition, and a sufficient improvement of biodegradability were observed in both batches. This study corroborates the improvement caused by the application of sunlight to the electrochemical treatment of industrial wastewater, which may represent a step forward towards the application of these powerful oxidation systems, presenting themselves as a feasible, sustainable and green alternative to purely electrochemical treatments, with lower operation costs due to lower energy consumption. Resumen: El ritmo de vida impuesto por la sociedad actual conlleva un alto consumo de recursos naturales, muchos de ellos no renovables, por lo que una gestión inadecuada puede producir una escasez de estos a medio o largo plazo. El caso más evidente es el del agua, que se utiliza tanto para consumo humano, en agua de bebida, aseo y labores domésticas, como en procesos industriales, ya sea como refrigerante o como parte del propio proceso de producción. Hasta el año 2000, este recurso ha sido considerado por las autoridades legislativas como un bien comercial, pero a partir de la implantación de la Directiva Marco de Agua (2000/60/EC) pasó a ser considerado como un patrimonio a proteger, sentando las bases para el desarrollo de una normativa más específica que establece unos límites mínimos de calidad a alcanzar previo a la descarga de efluentes en el medio ambiente. Específicamente la industria química ha sufrido un fuerte desarrollo por la creciente demanda de nuevos productos que satisfagan las necesidades de los consumidores. La fabricación de fármacos, productos para el cuidado personal, o plaguicidas y fertilizantes para mejorar la producción agrícola, ha dado lugar a la aparición de nuevas sustancias orgánicas. Estas suelen ser tóxicas, no biodegradables y altamente recalcitrantes por lo que no son fácilmente asimilables por los microorganismos, permaneciendo por largos periodos de tiempo en el medio ambiente sin conocer los efectos que pueden generar en el ecosistema. Por este motivo surge la necesidad de desarrollar y aplicar nuevas tecnologías altamente oxidantes, capaces de reaccionar con estos compuestos degradándolos o mineralizándolos e incluso, dependiendo de su complejidad, mejorando la biodegradabilidad del efluente. Para ello, los procesos electroquímicos suponen una herramienta útil versátil y potente ya que únicamente aplicando una corriente o potencial eléctricos sobre unos electrodos se pueden generar especies altamente oxidantes que interaccionen con esos contaminantes facilitando su eliminación. Algunos de estos procesos electroquímicos han sido ampliamente utilizados a escala industrial. Por ejemplo, la electrocoagulación supone una ventaja respecto al proceso físico-químico convencional de coagulación-floculación, ya que utiliza un electrodo de sacrificio evitando la adición de reactivos, se genera menos lodo y es más efectivo en la eliminación de coloides. La electrodiálisis, un proceso de membrana asistido eléctricamente, es capaz de separar los iones de un influente generando un efluente de alta calidad con muy baja carga iónica siendo principalmente aplicado en procesos de desalación para la obtención de agua potable. Pese a presentar importantes ventajas como la facilidad para controlar el proceso y, por tanto su fácil automatización, así como la ausencia de reactivos externos, algunos procesos electro oxidativos aún no han sido evaluados más que a escala de laboratorio, centrando la mayoría de los estudios recogidos en la literatura en el desarrollo de nuevos materiales para la fabricación de electrodos para la mejora de la efectividad y la reducción de costes asociados a dicha tecnología. Sin embargo, la electro-cloración ha sido el único tratamiento implementado a mayor escala debido al bajo coste de los electrodos. La escasez de estudios aplicando estas tecnologías en situaciones reales, para la purificación de aguas residuales complejas, ha limitado, desde el punto de vista comercial, las posibilidades de los sistemas electro-oxidativos. Es importante mencionar que, a partir de los diferentes iones presentes de forma natural en determinadas aguas, se pueden generar gran cantidad y variedad de especies oxidantes, lo que conlleva una mejora intrínseca en la eficacia del proceso con respecto a una solución salina cuya única función es permitir el tránsito de electrones. Además, muchas de esas especies electro-generadas son fotoactivas, lo que supone que tan sólo con irradiar con luz ultravioleta la solución, se pueden generar especies aún más oxidantes incrementando la tasa de degradación de los contaminantes. Esto ha provocado que el desarrollo, implementación, puesta en marcha y evaluación de estos sistemas a mayor escala tampoco haya sido abordado en profundidad, lo que dificulta su escalado y aplicación industrial. En este contexto surge la motivación de la presente Tesis Doctoral, que aborda la aplicación de procesos oxidativos a escala planta piloto en aguas reales, además de estudiar las condiciones de operación que lleven a un incremento en la degradación de contaminantes y depuración de aguas, combinando el sistema electro-oxidativo con una fuente de luz natural y renovable como es la energía solar. El primer objetivo abordado fue la puesta en marcha, caracterización y optimización de los principales parámetros de operación de una planta piloto de foto electro-Fenton solar (SPEF siglas en inglés) con un volumen máximo de 100 L instalada en la Plataforma Solar de Almería (CIEMAT). El sistema está constituido por cuatro celdas comerciales equipadas con un ánodo de diamante dopado con boro soportado en niobio y un cátodo de difusión de gas de carbono-politetrafluoroetileno (Electro MP-Cells suministradas por ElectroCell). Las celdas están conectadas en paralelo a un tanque de recirculación y éste a su vez a un foto-reactor solar basado en captadores cilindro parabólico compuestos (CPC) con 2 m-2 de superficie iluminada. Se llevó a cabo la optimización de las principales variables de entrada del proceso: el pH y la densidad de corriente (j), para maximizar la electro-generación in situ de H2O2 con la máxima eficiencia en el empleo de la corriente eléctrica (CE). Se definió un diseño experimental central compuesto, de forma que tras la consecución de una matriz de 19 experimentos y a partir del análisis estadístico de los resultados se obtuvo el modelo de ajuste para la concentración de H2O2 generada directamente en el reactor: [H2O2] = 2.19 - 0.31·pH + 0.81·j - 0.05·pH· j + 0.15·pH2 - 2.42×10-3· j2 , y para la CE, = 61.68 - 0.43·pH - 0.18·j - 0.0275·pH·j, así como los gráficos de superficie de respuesta asociados. Finalmente se validó el modelo, corroborando que a pH 3 y aplicando 73.66 mA cm-2 se logra la mayor producción de H2O2, 64.9 mg min-1 con una eficiencia de la corriente aplicada del 89.3%. Una vez establecidos estos parámetros se estudió la influencia del caudal de agua, de aire y la concentración de electrolito en la electro-generación in situ de H2O2, alcanzando el máximo con un caudal de agua de 5.6 L min-1, de 10 L min-1 de aire, y una concentración de Na2SO4 de 50 mM. Posteriormente, se realizaron ensayos preliminares para la evaluación de la eficacia de eliminación de compuestos de referencia, concretamente pirimetanil y metomilo en una concentración de 50 mg L-1 y 90 mg L-1, respectivamente, mediante los diferentes procesos de electro-oxidación que podían llevarse a cabo en la planta piloto empleando como electrolito una solución 50 mM de Na2SO4, desde oxidación anódica (AO, siglas en inglés) hasta foto electroFenton solar (SPEF, siglas en inglés), obteniéndose las mayores tasas de degradación con este último: 55% y 50% de pirimetanil y metomilo, respectivamente, en 5 minutos de tratamiento. Este trabajo se realizó con la colaboración del Prof. Anastasios J. Karabelas y el Dr. Konstantinos V. Plakas del Instituto de procesos químicos y recursos energéticos del Centro para la Investigación y Tecnología-Hellas (Grecia) en el marco del proyecto europeo de capacitación SFERA-II. El segundo objetivo de esta Tesis Doctoral se centró en abordar la aplicación del sistema experimental a escala planta piloto previamente optimizado a un caso real mediante su combinación con un pre-tratamiento con membranas de nanofiltración (NF) del efluente de una Estación Depuradora de Aguas Residuales (EDAR). De esta manera se buscó aumentar la concentración de microcontaminantes orgánicos (OMCs, siglas en inglés) en la corriente de concentrado a la salida de la NF, a la vez que reducir el volumen total a tratar en el sistema terciario de electro-oxidación. Cabe destacar además el aumento en la salinidad del agua que se logra tras el sistema de NF en la corriente de concentrado, disminuyendo la resistencia óhmica y favoreciendo, por tanto, el tratamiento terciario posterior basado en electro-oxidación. Para estudiar el comportamiento del sistema de SPEF en matrices altamente salinas y complejas, se desarrolló una receta de simulado de concentrado de NF a partir de la caracterización de concentrados previamente reportados en la literatura. Con el fin de trabajar al pH natural del agua, evitando la adición de reactivos para acidificar y volver a neutralizar, se evaluó el uso de ácido etilenediamina-N,N'-disuccínico (EDDS) como quelante del hierro en el proceso electro-Fenton (EF). A continuación, se estudió la degradación de cuatro OMCs: pentaclorofenol, terbutrina, clorfenvinfos y diclofenaco (a 200 y 500 µg L1 de concentración inicial cada uno); mediante AO, EF, SPEF y AO asistida por luz solar a pH natural, usando Fe3+:EDDS (1:2) a una concentración 0.1:0.2 mM en los tratamientos EF y SPEF. Cuando se empleó como matriz el agua simulada de concentrado de NF, con una concentración de cloruros de 555 mg L-1, el mayor porcentaje de degradación de los OMCs (500 µgL-1 de concentración inicial cada uno), se obtuvo mediante SPEF, alcanzando el 85% de eliminación del total. Esto se debe a que las especies oxidantes del cloro generadas mediante AO asistida por luz solar no fueron suficientes para degradar los OMCs (75% del total), pese a la presencia de menor materia orgánica en disolución debido a la ausencia de EDDS. Por otro lado, el proceso EF fue descartado ya que no se observó mejora con respecto a AO, consumiendo los radicales hidroxilo generados por la reacción Fenton en la degradación del EDDS. Para la evaluación de este sistema de electro-oxidación en agua real, se recolectó efluente del tratamiento secundario de la EDAR de El Ejido y se pre-trató en el sistema piloto de NF disponible en la Plataforma Solar de Almería, hasta reducir el volumen inicial 4 veces (factor de concentración de 4). La salinidad del agua se incrementó de 2.1 - 2.3 mS cm-1 a 6.1 - 6.8 mS cm-1, con una concentración de cloruros final entre 1182 – 1960 mg L-1. El concentrado generado fue fortificado con los cuatro OMCs evaluados en el trabajo previo con agua simulada (100 µg L-1 de cada uno) y se estudió su degradación mediante AO, SPEF (con los carbonatos naturalmente contenidos en el concentrado y reduciéndolos a 20 mg L-1 para disminuir la interacción con los radicales hidroxilo) y AO asistida por luz solar. Los porcentajes de degradación de la suma total de OMCs tras 180 minutos de tratamiento fueron 84%, 69%, 75% y 84%, respectivamente. En esta ocasión, el mayor porcentaje de degradación con el menor consumo eléctrico, 5.3 kWh m-3, se obtuvo mediante AO asistida por luz solar, ya que la mayor concentración de cloruros promovió una mayor generación de especies activas del cloro. Finalmente, se escogió el tratamiento terciario mediante AO asistida por luz solar para la degradación de 44 OMCs realmente contenidos en el efluente secundario de la EDAR y detectados mediante LC-QqLIT-MS/MS, consiguiendo eliminar el 80% del total. Este trabajo se llevó a cabo en colaboración con la Prof. Ana Agüera y la Dra. Ana Martínez-Piernas del CIESOL (centro mixto CIEMAT-UAL) en la Universidad de Almería. Tras el programa experimental realizado en la planta piloto de electro-oxidación iniciando con su puesta en marcha y optimización de parámetros de operación, se consideró estudiar y diagnosticar el estado de la superficie de los cátodos de las celdas empleadas en dichos ensayos. A medida que las horas de uso del cátodo se incrementaron, la producción in situ de H2O2 sufrió un progresivo descenso, desde 43 mg L-1 de H2O2 acumulado en 30 min, en el primer uso del cátodo, a 1.5 mg L-1 en el peor de los casos. En el momento en el que se observó una importante reducción de la electrogeneración de H2O2 que imposibilitaba el correcto desarrollo de los procesos EF y SPEF, se procedió al des ensamblaje de la celda y se realizó la autopsia de la superficie del cátodo mediante microscopía electrónica de barrido y rayos X, con objeto de intentar discernir los motivos principales del ensuciamiento del mismo y la consiguiente pérdida de eficiencia. En las imágenes obtenidas se observó una pérdida del recubrimiento de carbono-politetrafluoroetileno además de la formación de depósitos de hierro, justificando la caída en electrogeneración de H2O2 con la pérdida de superficie activa del electrodo. Como parte de las actividades recogidas en el proyecto Marie Curie - ALICE "AcceLerate Innovation in urban wastewater management for Climate changE", H2020- MSCA-RISE, la doctoranda realizó una estancia de investigación en el Centro de Nanotecnología y Bioingeniería Integrada (NIBEC) de la Universidad de Ulster (Reino Unido), en colaboración con el grupo de Investigación en Fotocatálisis liderado por el Prof. John Anthony Byrne. El objetivo de dicha colaboración fue el desarrollo y aplicación de un reactor foto-electro-catalítico a escala de laboratorio, para la eliminación simultánea de OMCs y microorganismos patógenos en agua natural. Como parte fundamental del reactor, se fabricaron dos foto-ánodos de nanotubos de dióxido de titanio mediante la anodización de una malla de titanio a 30V durante 3h y su posterior recocido a 500°C para promover la fase anatasa. El reactor consiste en una celda de 190 mL con un doble foto-ánodo de nanotubos de dióxido de titanio iluminados por una lámpara ultravioleta de 9 W a través de una ventana de cuarzo, con una irradiación aplicada de 50 W m-2. El objetivo del tratamiento fue la eliminación simultánea de OMCs (terbutrina, clorfenvinfos y diclofenaco a 500 µg L-1 de concentración inicial cada uno) y patógenos (E. coli como bacteria de referencia en una concentración inicial de 106 UFC mL-1), evaluando además la posible mejora al sustituir un cátodo sin contribución en el proceso de degradación, titanio recubierto de platino, por uno de fieltro de carbono capaz de electrogenerar H2O2. Evaluando por separado la degradación de los OMCs e inactivación de E. coli, en la aplicación del proceso foto-electro-catalítico con cátodo de platino se observa una clara mejora en la inactivación de la bacteria (2 Log de reducción tras 120 minutos de tratamiento), con respecto al proceso foto-catalítico sólo (0.8 Log de reducción en el mismo tiempo de tratamiento). Sin embargo, la degradación de OMCs se mantuvo en el mismo ratio, en torno al 70% del total tras 60 min. Al sustituir el cátodo de platino por uno de fieltro de carbono se incrementó la eficacia en la inactivación de E. coli, reduciendo su concentración en 2.7 Log, aunque los OMCs mostraron porcentajes de degradación similares. Cuando finalmente se llevó a cabo la degradación de OMCs de forma simultánea a la inactivación de bacterias mediante foto-electrocatálisis con cátodo de carbono, se observó un aumento significativo en la desinfección, alcanzando el límite de detección del método con una reducción de 4.5 Log. Esta mejora se debe a la presencia de metanol procedente de la solución en la que van pre-disueltos los OMCs, que actúa como neutralizador de huecos aumentando la fotocorriente y que además se oxida generando formaldehido, una sustancia altamente tóxica para los microorganismos (LC50 for E. coli = 1 mg L-1). Como consecuencia de este resultado, se evaluó el efecto de la presencia de sustancias neutralizadoras de huecos en la desinfección, utilizando para ello acetato y metanol en una concentración de 5 mM. En ambos casos, como está descrito en la literatura, se observó un aumento en la fotocorriente respecto a la alcanzada por el sistema en ausencia de ellos y, por lo tanto, se produjo un incremento en la tasa de inactivación de la bacteria siendo mayor en el caso del metanol por la generación de formaldehido. Finalmente, y como resultado de la estrecha colaboración de la doctoranda y la Unidad de Tratamientos Solares del Agua en el proyecto SFERA-II con la empresa DeNora, se llevó a cabo la evaluación de un sistema comercial de electro-oxidación especialmente diseñado para la reducción de demanda química de oxígeno en aguas industriales y basado en la acción de las especias activas del cloro. En el marco de esta colaboración, y como parte de los objetivos desarrollados en esta Tesis Doctoral, se llevó a cabo la evaluación de una planta piloto equipada con una celda de ánodos dimensionalmente estables (DSA, siglas en inglés) procedente de DeNora, combinándola con un reactor solar CPC, con una capacidad total de 38 L y con el objetivo de evaluar la posible mejora en la eficiencia del tratamiento de lixiviados de vertedero. Dichos lixiviados presentaban una alta carga orgánica (>2000 mg L-1 de carbono orgánico disuelto (DOC)), siendo el objetivo del tratamiento disminuir su toxicidad e incrementar su biodegradabilidad para poder combinar finalmente con un posterior tratamiento biológico (logrando así reducir los costes de operación asociados). En primer lugar se llevó a cabo el tratamiento de los dos lotes de concentrado de lixiviados mediante foto-Fenton solar, observando una necesidad de energía UV acumulada excesiva (142.2 kJ L-1) para lograr sólo un 30% de reducción del carbono orgánico disuelto (DOC, siglas en inglés) en el primer lote de lixiviados (diluido 1:1 con agua destilada). En el segundo lote no fue posible llevar a cabo el tratamiento de foto-Fenton solar a causa de la gran cantidad de espumas generada, que provocó grandes oscilaciones del DOC imposibilitando su seguimiento. Posteriormente se trataron los lixiviados mediante electro-oxidación, electro-oxidación añadiendo H2O2 y electro-oxidación combinada con radiación solar, siendo este último el que mayores tasas de degradación de DOC y de nitrógeno total mostró, 3.5 g DOC kWh-1 y 18 g TN kWh-1 en el primer lote de lixiviado tratado y 13.4 g DOC kWh-1 y 45.2 g TN kWh-1 en el segundo lote. Con este tratamiento, el primer lote de lixiviados, que presentaba una toxicidad del 53% de inhibición en la tasa de consumo de oxígeno por parte de fangos activos de EDAR, disminuyó su toxicidad al 6% de inhibición, y en ambos lotes estudiados se incrementó su biodegradabilidad hasta valores adecuados para la posterior aplicación de un tratamiento biológico. Gracias a este estudio se corrobora la mejora que supone la aplicación de la luz solar a los tratamientos electroquímicos de aguas industriales, lo que puede significar un paso adelante hacia la aplicación de estos sistemas altamente oxidantes presentándose como alternativa viable, sostenible y verde, a los tratamientos puramente electroquímicos, suponiendo unos costes de explotación menores debido al menor consumo energético.

1. IntroductionOver the last decade, increased attention has been paid to terrorism, particularly to the new wave of terrorist groups, fundamentalist movements, and extremist organisations such as Al‐Qaeda. September 11 marked the beginning of a turbulent phase in which states face a new kind of threat made up of a complex network of insidious revolutionary and nationalist forces. Such transformations have given rise to an unprecedented number of publications. However, both political violence and terrorism remain sources of endless disputes and controversies because of their political implications. At the same time, in the scientific community, terrorism studies lack conceptual and methodological uniformity. In his article, Domenico Tosini synthesises and discusses some major findings from this research. Courses using such a review will be confronted with the four major topics that any analysis of terrorism, to be comprehensive, should take into account: the definition of terrorism; its history and classification; its explanations; and an assessment of the consequences of counterterrorism policies.2. Literature recommendations Bjørgo, Tore (ed.) 2005. Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Realities and Ways Forward. London, UK: Routledge.In this book, based on the analysis of numerous case studies (e.g. Palestinian armed groups, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, right‐wing extremists, state terrorism and state‐sponsored terrorism), experts in political violence examine the preconditions for the emergence of different types of terrorist organisations and the main factors that sustain terrorist campaigns. Cole, David 2003. Enemy Aliens: Double Standard and Constitutional Freedoms in the War on Terrorism. New York, NY: The New Press.Thanks to its analysis and evaluation of the consequences of counter‐terrorism measures, David Cole's Enemy Aliens is one of the most rigorous discussions of how states (like the United States since 2001) often combat terrorism by adopting emergency powers (such as the special detention at Guantanamo Bay), which, in turn, risk undermining civil liberties. della Porta, Donatella 1995. Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Based on empirical research that compares the origins and development of left‐wing terrorism in Italy and Germany between the 1960s and the 1990s, della Porta offers a middle‐range theory of political violence that combines an analysis of the political opportunities and ideological frames exploited by armed groups, a profile of their organisational structures, and an investigation of the typical patterns underlying their recruitment processes. Gambetta, Diego (ed.) 2006. Making Sense of Suicide Missions. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.In this book, a number of distinguished social scientists, while examining the use of suicide missions by political and religious groups (such as the Japanese Kamikaze, the Tamil Tigers, Palestinian organisations, and Al‐Qaeda), specify and discuss the most important methodological questions associated with definitions, data collection, and explanations concerning this form of political struggle. Hoffman, Bruce 2006. Inside Terrorism. New York, NY: Colombia University Press.The book introduces the most important issues of terrorism studies: the controversial problem of the definition of terrorism; a history of terrorism, from anti‐colonial struggles to international terrorism; an examination and explanation of the most recent waves of religious extremists and suicide terrorism; an analysis of the ways terrorist groups exploit old and new media such as the Internet; and, finally, an overview of the strategies, tactics, and organisational aspects of modern and contemporary terrorism. Horgan, John 2005. The Psychology of Terrorism. London, UK: Routledge.Horgan presents a critical analysis of our understanding of terrorist psychology; many shortcomings emerge, particularly the limitations of personality theories in attempting to explain militancy. Based on interviews with terrorists, the book considers the most relevant psychological and social factors underlying involvement and engagement in political violence, and the process of leaving terrorist organisations. Kalyvas, Stathis 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Scholars generally distinguish between terrorism and other forms of violence against civilians – tactics of guerrilla warfare or insurgency in civil wars, for example. However, this work makes a relevant contribution to terrorism studies. Kalyvas clarifies the rationality and micro‐processes of interactions during armed conflicts that account for indiscriminate and selective uses of violence against civilian populations by political actors. Kushner, Harvey W. 2003. Encyclopedia of Terrorism. London, UK: Sage.One of the most accurate and exhaustive dictionaries focusing on terrorism, with more than 300 entries concerning terrorist groups, key events, people, terms, and statistics, as well as biographical, historical, and geographical information. Free access is available at the Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT) (http://www.terrorisminfo.mipt.org/eBooks.asp). Laqueur, Walter 2002. A History of Terrorism. London, UK: Transaction Publishers.Along with Laqueur's Guerrilla Warfare: A Historical and Critical Study (London: Transaction Publishers, 1998), this constitutes a pioneering history of armed organisations, from nineteenth century Europe, to the anarchists of the 1880s and 1890s, to the left‐wing clashes during the 20th century, and up to the most recent terrorist groups. Pape, Robert A. 2005. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York, NY: Random House.Over the last decade, suicide terrorism has become an alarming political threat and a crucial challenge for social scientists. In his work, which compares a number of organisations responsible for suicide attacks, Pape rejects the explanation of suicide terrorism based on religious fundamentalism. He argues for a correlation between the use of this tactic and specific kinds of groups engaged in separatist campaigns or in struggles for liberation from foreign occupiers. Ranstorp, Magnus (ed.) 2007. Mapping Terrorism Research: State of the Art, Gaps and Future Directions. London, UK: Routledge.In this book, distinguished scholars of terrorism studies discuss state‐of‐the‐art field research. In exploring new trends in this area – the most important questions about the explanation of recent terrorist organisations such as Al‐Qaeda, and about counterterrorism – these essays shed light on the strengths and weaknesses of our current knowledge of political violence. Reich, Walter (ed.) 1998. Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.This is another seminal work on terrorism, bringing together some of the most well known experts in political violence. The variety of approaches used in the explanations of terrorist organisations and in the analysis of counterterrorism paves the way for a real interdisciplinary setting, which is absolutely crucial once the multi‐faceted nature of terrorism is clear. Sageman, Marc 2004. Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Based on the analysis of biographical data for nearly 200 members of global Islamist extremism (of which Al‐Qaeda is a part), Sageman accounts for the origins and developments of this movement and specifies the crucial role played by social networks in the recruitment of individuals as Islamist militants. Wilkinson, Paul 2006. Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. London, UK: Routledge.Wilkinson examines major trends in international terrorism and liberal democratic responses. On the one hand, the book introduces the specificity of terrorism and offers a classification and explanation of the most important types of armed groups. On the other, in approaching how states deal with terrorist threats, this work discusses forms of counterterrorism, by taking into account their impact on the rule of law and on the protection of civil liberties.3. Online materials Agenzia Informazioni e Sicurezza Interna (AISI) (Agency for Internal Information and Security)(http://www.aisi.gov.it)The Agenzia Informazioni e Sicurezza Interna (AISI) is the branch of Italian Intelligence tasked with collecting and analysing information about any criminal and terrorist threat to security. Among other activities, the AISI distributes its own periodical, Gnosis, online, where a chronology of international as well as domestic terrorist attacks since 2004 (currently updated through 2007) is available.
Counterterrorism Blog
(http://counterterrorismblog.org)The Counterterrorism Blog is a multi‐expert blog devoted to providing a one‐stop gateway to the counterterrorism community. It offers, among other things, overnight and breaking news, with real time commentary by experts; reports on terrorist organisations; discussions of long‐term trends in counterterrorism; and summaries of and discussions about US and international law.
Center for Constitutional Rights

(CCR) (http://ccrjustice.org)Founded in 1966 by attorneys who represented civil rights organisations, the Center for Constitutional Rights (CCR) is a non‐profit legal and educational organisation dedicated to protecting the rights guaranteed by the United States Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It also offers information about important issues related to counterterrorism (e.g., the prolonged battle in defence of civil liberties associated with the special detention at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba).
Global Terrorism Database
(GTD)(http://www.start.umd.edu/data/gtd)The Global Terrorism Database (GTD) is an open‐source database on terrorist incidents around the world since 1970 (currently updated through 2004). It includes systematic data on international as well as domestic terrorist attacks. For each GTD incident, information is available on the date and location of the attack, the weapons used and nature of the target, the number of casualties, and (when possible) the identity of the perpetrator. Another important database, the Terrorism Knowledge Base (TKB) at the Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT) (http://www.mipt.org/TKB.asp), has recently ceased operations and elements of the system have been merged with the GTD. Information on terrorist groups is now available at the Terrorist Organization Profiles (http://www.start.umd.edu/data/tops).
Human Security Report Project

(HSRP) (http://www.hsrgroup.org)The HSRP conducts research on global and regional trends in political violence, exploring their causes and consequences, and then making this research accessible to the policy and research communities, the media, educators, and the interested public. The HSRP's publications include the Human Security Report, the Human Security Brief series, and the Human Security Gateway. The recent Human Security Brief 2007, online, makes a relevant contribution in discussing the methodological issues associated with collecting data on terrorism and offers a comprehensive overview of terrorist incidents in the last decade.
Middle East Media Research Institute

(MEMRI) (http://www.memri.org)The Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) explores the Middle East through the region's media with respect to a variety of topics including terrorism. MEMRI provides translations of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish media, as well as analysis of political, ideological, intellectual, social, cultural, and religious tendencies in the Middle East. A new section, the MEMRI's Islamist Websites Monitor Project, was launched in 2006 as part of the Jihad & Terrorism Studies project. Its aim is to keep Western audiences informed about the phenomenon of jihadist sites on the Internet, which are used by terrorist groups and their sympathisers to spread their extremist messages, to raise funds, and to recruit activists.
Uppsala Conflict Data Project

(UCDP) (http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/UCDP)The Uppsala Conflict Data Project (UCDP) collects data on armed conflicts around the world. A global conflict database is now available online. Data are useful for systematic studies of conflict origins, dynamics, and resolution.
Worldwide Incidents Tracking System
(WITS)(http://wits.nctc.gov)The Worldwide Incidents Tracking System (WITS) is the National Counterterrorism Center's (NCTC) database of terrorist incidents. NCTC serves as the primary organisation in the United States government for integrating and analysing all intelligence pertaining to terrorism and, at the same time, as the central and shared knowledge bank on terrorism information. Based on WITS, the NCTC provides an annual report and statistical information about terrorist incidents.
Additional Online Resources
Scores of additional organisations and centres (too many to list) conduct and disseminate research on issues related to armed conflicts, terrorism, terrorist groups, security, and counterterrorism. What follows is a list of some other key organisations and centres, with links to their websites:Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI)(http://www.aspi.org.au)Centre for Asymmetric Threat Studies (CATS)(http://www.fhs.se/en/Research/Centers‐and‐Research‐Programmes/CATS)Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)(http://www.csis.org)Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence (CSTPV)(http://www.st‐andrews.ac.uk/~wwwir/research/cstpv)IntelCenter(http://intelcenter.com)International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR)(http://www.pvtr.org)International Crisis Group (ICG)(http://www.crisisgroup.org)International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS)(http://www.iiss.org)International Policy Institute for Counter‐Terrorism (ICT)(http://www.ict.org.il)Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism (MIPT)(http://www.mipt.org)Saban Center at the Brookings Institution(http://www.brookings.edu/saban.aspx)Senlis Council(http://www.senliscouncil.net)Southern Poverty Law Center(http://www.splcenter.org)Terrorism and Homeland Security at RAND Corporation(http://www.rand.org/research_areas/terrorism)Terrorism Research Center (TRC)(http://www.terrorism.org)Transnational Radical Islamism Project at the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment(http://www.mil.no/felles/ffi/english/start/research/Analysis_Division/_TERRA)United States Institute of Peace(http://www.usip.org/index.html)4. Sample syllabus Course Title: A Sociological Analysis of Terrorism and Counterterrorism Course Description In this course, we will explore the most relevant issues around terrorism and counterterrorism policies. Although we will largely approach this topic from a sociological perspective, this study is quite interdisciplinary. Consequently, we will be reading works from other academic disciplines, including history, psychology, political science, and economics. There are four major areas that any analysis of terrorism, to be comprehensive, should take into account: the definition of terrorism; its history and classification; its explanations; and an assessment of consequences related to counterterrorism. After an introduction to terrorism research (part 1), we will discuss the controversies related to the definition of terrorism (part 2) and to data collection (part 3), both necessary for an understanding of tendencies concerning terrorist incidents. A historical overview (part 4) will give us some preliminary information about the variety of terrorist campaigns – information that prepares us for the next exercise (part 5): grouping terrorist organisations by different types. Looking in more depth at the evolution of terrorism in the last decade, we will examine the case of Al‐Qaeda (part 6), and how this and other organisations exploit old and new media, especially the Internet (part 7). The next chapter will be the explanation of terrorism, that is, the specification of the main psychological, political, cultural, and religious factors underlying the emergence of a terrorist organisation and the unfolding of a terrorist campaign. Suicide terrorism will be used as a case study. More specifically, we will approach terrorism by examining the motivations and rationality of terrorist organisations (part 8), of the communities that support them (part 9), and of those who join them (part 10). We end the course by focusing on both the legal (part 11) and strategic (part 12) implications of counterterrorism measures adopted since 2001. Course outline and reading assignments Part 1. Terrorism Research An overview of the most important approaches to the study of terrorism and of the strengths and weaknesses of available analyses. Bjørgo, Tore 2005. 'Introduction' (pp. 1–15) and 'Conclusions' (pp. 256–264) in Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Realities and Ways Forward, edited by Tore Bjørgo. London, UK: Routledge. Crenshaw, Martha 2000. 'The Psychology of Terrorism: An Agenda for the 21st Century.'Political Psychology 21 (2): 405–420 (Doi: 10.1111/0162-895X.00195). Ranstorp, Magnus 2007. 'Introduction: Mapping Terrorism Research – Challenges and Priorities.' Pp. 1–28 in Mapping Terrorism Research, edited by Magnus Ranstorp. London, UK: Routledge. Silke, Andrew 2004. 'An Introduction to Terrorism Research.' Pp. 1–29 in Research on Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures, edited by Andrew Silke. London, UK: Frank Cass. Sinai, Joshua 2007. 'New Trends in Terrorism Studies: Strengths and Weaknesses.' Pp. 31–50 in Mapping Terrorism Research, edited by Magnus Ranstorp. London, UK: Routledge. Turk, Austin T. 2004. 'Sociology of Terrorism.'Annual Review of Sociology 30: 271–286 (Doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110510). Wilkinson, Paul 2007. 'Research into Terrorism Studies: Achievements and Failures.' Pp. 316–328 in Mapping Terrorism Research, edited by Magnus Ranstorp. London, UK: Routledge. Part 2. What is Terrorism? A discussion of one of the most controversial issues, the definition of terrorism, focusing on its political and methodological implications. Aly, Waleed 2008. 'The Axiom of Evil.'The Guardian, 8 July, http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jul/08/nelsonmandela.terrorism (last accessed: 8 July 2008). Hoffman, Bruce 2006. Chapter 1 (pp. 1–42). Inside Terrorism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. della Porta, Donatella 2004. 'Terror Against the State.' Pp. 208–16 in The Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology, edited by Kate Nash and Alan Scott. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Schmid, Alexander P. 2004. 'Frameworks for Conceptualising Terrorism.'Terrorism and Political Violence 16 (2): 197–221 (Doi: 10.1080/09546550490483134). Tilly, Charles 2004. 'Terror, Terrorism, Terrorist.'Sociological Theory 22 (1): 5–16 (Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9558.2004.00200.x). Tosini, Domenico 2007. 'Sociology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism: A Social Science Understanding of Terrorist Threat', Sociology Compass 1 (2), 664–681 (Doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00035.x). Wilkinson, Paul 2006. Chapter 1 (pp. 1–19). Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. London, UK: Routledge. Part 3. Collecting Data on Terrorism Incidents An introduction to the challenges and solutions to the collection of terrorism data, a preliminary and crucial aspect of any scientific analysis. Buchalter, Alice R. and Glenn E. Curtis 2003. Inventory and Assessment of Databases Relevant for Social Science Research on Terrorism. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division Library of Congress, http://lcweb.loc.gov/rr/frd (last accessed 10 June 2008). Enders, Walter and Todd Sandler 2006. Chapter 3 (pp. 52–83). The Political Economy of Terrorism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lafree, Gary 2007. 'Introducing the Global Terrorism Database.'Terrorism and Political Violence 19 (2): 181–204 (Doi: 10.1080/09546550701246817). HSP 2008. Human Security Brief 2007. Dying to Lose: Explaining the Decline in Global Terrorism. Simon Fraser University, Canada: Human Security Report Project, http://www.humansecuritybrief.info/HSRP_Brief_2007.pdf (last accessed 15 June 2008). Part 4. Waves of Terror: The Evolution of Terrorism A look at terrorism from a historical perspective in an attempt to identify continuities and discontinuities in the use of political violence. Abrahms, Max 2006. 'Why Terrorism Does Not Work.'International Security 31 (2): 42–78 (Doi: 10.1162/isec.2006.31.2.42). Duyvesteyn, Isabelle 2004. 'How New Is the New Terrorism?'Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 27 (5): 439–454 (Doi: 10.1080/10576100490483750). Hoffman, Bruce 2006. Chapters 2–4 (pp. 43–130). Inside Terrorism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Jenkins, Brian 1975. International Terrorism: A New Mode of Conflict. Research Paper n. 48, California Seminar on Arms Control and Foreign Policy. Kaplan, Jeffrey 2007. 'The Fifth Wave: The New Tribalism?'Terrorism and Political Violence 19 (4): 545–570 (Doi: 10.1080/09546550701606564). Laqueur, Walter 2002. Chapters 1–2 (pp. 3–78). A History of Terrorism. London, UK: Transaction Publishers. Münkler, Herfried 2005. Chapter 5 (pp. 99–116). The New Wars. Cambridge, UK: Polity. Rapoport, David C. 2004. 'Modern Terror: The Four Waves.' Pp. 46–73 in Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Great Strategy, edited by Audrey Cronin and J. Ludes. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Reed, Donald J. 2008. 'Beyond the War on Terror: Into the Fifth Generation of War and Conflict.'Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31 (8): 684–722 (Doi: 10.1080/10576100802206533). Part 5. Typologies of Terrorist Movements An overview of the complex task of classifying terrorist organisations on the basis of characteristics such as political objectives, ideological frames, and the cleavages between them and their enemies. Goodwin, Jeff 2006. 'A Theory of the Categorical Terrorism.'Social Forces 84 (4): 2027–2046. Gunaratna, Rohan and Graeme C. S. Steven 2004. Chapter 1 (pp. 1–98). Counterterrorism. Santa Barbara, CA: Abc Clio. Schmid, Alexander P. and Albert J. Jongman 1988. Chapter 2 (in collaboration with M. Stohl and P. A. Fleming, pp. 39–60). Political Terrorism. London, UK: Transaction Publishers. Tosini, Domenico 2007. 'Sociology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism: A Social Science Understanding of Terrorist Threat.'Sociology Compass 1 (2), 664–681 (Doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00035.x). Wilkinson, Paul 2006. Chapter 2 (pp. 20–38). Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. London, UK: Routledge. Part 6. Al‐Qaeda and its Affiliates: Ideologies, Strategies, Structures A sociological look at the ideological, strategic, and organisational aspects of Al‐Qaeda's terrorism from the 1980s to its most recent campaign in Iraq. Al‐Zayyat, Montasser 2004. The Road to Al‐Qaeda. London, UK: Pluto Press. Gunaratna, Rohan 2002. Chapters 1–2 (pp. 21–126). Inside Al‐Qaeda. New York, NY: Berkley Books. Pape, Robert A. 2005. Chapter 7 (pp. 102–125). Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York, NY: Random House. Sageman, Marc 2004. Chapters 1‐2 (pp. 1‐60). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Hafez, Mohammed M. 2007. Chapters 1–5 (pp. 35–162). Suicide Bombers in Iraq. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press. Part 7. Terrorism and the Media An exploration of the ways that terrorist organisations exploit old and new media, especially the Internet, as communicative channels (for staging their attacks, threats, demands, and propaganda) and as instrumental tools (for fund raising, coordination, and recruitment). Hoffman, Bruce 2006. Chapters 6–7 (pp. 173–228). Inside Terrorism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ICG 2006. In Their Own Words: Reading the Iraqi Insurgency. International Crisis Group: Middle East Report No 50, 15 February, http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3953&l=1 (last accessed 5 February 2008). Rogan, Hanna 2006. Jihadism Online: A Study of How Al‐Qaeda and Radical Islamist Groups Use Internet for Terrorist Purposes. Norwegian Defence Research Establishment: FFI/RAPPORT‐2006/00915, http://rapporter.ffi.no/rapporter/2006/00915.pdf (last accessed 5 June 2008). Sageman, Marc 2008. Chapter 6 (pp. 109–123). Leaderless Jihad. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Weimann, Gabriel 2006. Chapters 3–4 (pp. 49–145). Terror on the Internet. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press. Part 8. Terrorist Organisations and Their Logic An examination of the political objectives and ideologies of terrorist organisations and an overview of the rationality and strategies underlying their decision‐making in relation to the political opportunities and military events shaping their environment. Boyns, David and James David Ballard 2004. 'Developing a Sociological Theory for the Empirical Understanding of Terrorism.'American Sociologist 35 (2): 5–26 (Doi: 10.1007/BF02692394). Crenshaw, Martha 1998. 'The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorist Behaviour as a Product of Strategic Choice.' Pp. 7–24 in Origins of Terrorism, edited by Walter Reich. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. Gambetta, Diego 2006. 'Can We Make Sense of Suicide Missions?' Pp. 259–299 in Making Sense of Suicide Missions, edited by Diego Gambetta. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Hafez, Mohammed and Quintan Wiktorowicz 2004. 'Violence as Contention in the Egyptian Islamic Movement.' Pp. 61–88 in Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach, edited Quintan Wiktorowicz. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. Kalyvas, Stathis 2006. Chapters 6–7 (pp. 147–208). The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kramer, Martin 1998. 'The Moral Logic of Hezbollah.' Pp. 131–157 in Origins of Terrorism, edited by Walter Reich. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. Pape, Robert A. 2005. Chapters 3–5 (pp. 27–60). Dying to Win. New York, NY: Random House. Tosini, Domenico 2009. 'A Sociological Understanding of Suicide Attacks.'Theory, Culture & Society (Forthcoming). Part 9. Mechanisms of Social Support A discussion of the economic, cultural, and political conditions which make possible the support for, and collaboration with, terrorist organisations by members of certain communities. Cook, David and Olivia Allison 2007. Chapters 1–5 (pp. 1–85). Understanding and Addressing Suicide Attacks: The Faith and Politics of Martyrdom Operations. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International. Chernick, Marc 2007. 'FARC‐EP: From Liberal Guerrillas to Marxist Rebels to Post‐Cold War Insurgency.' Pp. 51–120 in Terror, Insurgency, and the State, edited by Marianne Heiberg et al. Philadelphia, PA: University Pennsylvania Press. Hashim, Ahmed S. 2006. Chapter 2 (pp. 59–124). Insurgency and Counter‐Insurgency in Iraq. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Kalyvas, Stathis 2006. Chapter 4 (pp. 87–110). The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Merari, Ariel 2005. 'Social, Organizational and Psychological Factors in Suicide Terrorism.' Pp. 70–86 in Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Realities and Ways Forward, edited by Tore Bjørgo. London, UK: Routledge. Pape, Robert A. 2005. Chapters 6–8 (pp. 79–167). Dying to Win. New York, NY: Random House. Part 10. Social Networks and Recruitment An analysis of the motivations behind the process of joining terrorist organisations and of the role played by group dynamics and social networks. della Porta, Donatella 1995. Chapter 7 (pp. 165–186). Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Sageman, Marc 2004. Chapters 4–5 (pp. 99–173). Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia, PA: University Pennsylvania Press. Horgan, John 2005. Chapter 3 (pp. 47–79). The Psychology of Terrorism. London, UK: Routledge. Khosrokhavar, Fahad 2005. Chapter 3 (pp. 149–224). Suicide Bombers. London, UK: Pluto Press. Pedahzur, Ami 2005. Chapters 6–7 (pp. 118–181). Suicide Terrorism. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Stern, Jessica 2003. Chapter 9 (pp. 237–280). Terror in the Name of God. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publisher. Wintrobe, Ronald 2006. Chapters 5–6 (pp. 108–157). Rational Extremism: The Political Economy of Radicalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Part 11. Counterterrorism I: Legal Implications An overview of the emergency powers of antiterrorism legislations and 'special measures', and an analysis of their legal impact on the protection of human rights. Cole, David 2003. Chapters 1–5 (pp. 17–82). Enemy Aliens. New York, NY: The Free Press. Haubrich, Dirk 2003. 'September 11, Anti‐Terror Laws and Civil Liberties: Britain, France and Germany Compared.'Government and Opposition 38 (1): 3–29 (Doi: 10.1111/1477-7053.00002). Parker, Tom 2005. 'Counterterrorism Policies in the United Kingdom.' Pp. 119–148 in Protecting Liberty in an Age of Terror, edited by Philip B. Heymann and Juliette N. Kayyem. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Tosini, Domenico 2007. 'Sociology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism: A Social Science Understanding of Terrorist Threat', Sociology Compass 1 (2): 664–681 (Doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00035.x). Part 12. Counterterrorism II: Strategic Limitations An examination of the most important counterterrorism policies adopted since 2001, with special reference to the occupation of Iraq, and an assessment of their advantages and risks for combating and preventing terrorism. Nesser, Peter 2006. 'Jihadism in Western Europe After the Invasion of Iraq: Tracing Motivational Influences from the Iraq War on Jihadist Terrorism in Western Europe.'Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29 (4): 323–342 (Doi: 10.1080/10576100600641899). Pape, Robert A. 2005. Chapter 12 (pp. 237–250). Dying to Win. New York, NY: Random House. Silke, Andrew 2005. 'Fire of Iolaus: The Role of State Countermeasures in Causing Terrorism and What Needs to Be Done.' Pp. 241–255 in Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Realities and Ways Forward, edited by Tore Bjørgo. London, UK: Routledge. Smelser, Neil J. 2007. Chapter 6 (pp. 160–199). The Faces of Terrorism: Social and Psychological Dimensions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Tosini, Domenico 2007. 'Sociology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism: A Social Science Understanding of Terrorist Threat', Sociology Compass 1 (2): 664–681 (Doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00035.x). Wilkinson, Paul 2006. Chapters 5–6 (pp. 61–102). Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. London, UK: Routledge.5. Films and videos Al‐Qaeda Film on the First Anniversary of the London Bombings. 2006 (17 min)(http://www.memritv.org/clip/en/0/0/0/0/0/215/1186.htm)Excerpts from a message from 2005 London bomber Shehzad Tanweer and statements by Al‐Qaeda leaders Ayman Al‐Zawahiri and Adam Gadahn, posted on http://www.tajdeed.net.tc on 8 July 2006. A typical example of the communicative use of the Internet by Islamists in their attempt to frame terrorist attacks as legitimate acts of martyrdom, committed by courageous Muslims in defence of their brothers and sisters in occupied Muslim lands (e.g. Afghanistan, Iraq, Palestine). Al‐Qaeda Leader in Iraq Abu Musab Al‐Zarqawi's First Televised Interview. 2006 (17 min)(http://www.memritv.org/clip/en/0/0/0/0/0/344/1118.htm)A video posted by the Islamist web forum http://www.alsaha.com on 25 April 2006, in which the Al‐Qaeda commander in Iraq Abu Musab Al‐Zarqawi (killed by an airstrike on 7 June 2006) outlines all the typical condemnations (by Islamist extremists) of the Iraq occupation by the US‐led coalition, and calls for a jihad against its forces and allies. Propagandising the military capabilities of Al‐Qaeda, the video culminates in footage of Al‐Zarqawi with masked fighters, firing an automatic weapon, and 'new missiles' developed by 'the brothers'. Al‐Arabiya TV Special on the Culture of Martyrdom and Suicide Bombers. 2005 (7 min)(http://www.memritv.org/clip/en/0/0/0/0/0/215/807.htm)Excerpts from a show about the culture of martyrdom, aired on Al‐Arabiya TV on 22 July 2005. The documentary investigates some of the most relevant religious and political justifications and symbolic representations among Islamist extremists in favour of suicide attacks. In particular, it looks at the Palestinian organisations Hamas and Islamic Jihad, and at the Lebanese Hezbollah. The film includes an interview with Maha Ghandour, the wife of Salah Ghandour, who was responsible for a suicide attack carried out in 1995 on behalf of Hezbollah against an Israeli military convoy. Battle For Haditha. 2007 (93 min)(http://www.nickbroomfield.com/haditha.html)In this film, the director Nick Broomfield looks at the dramatic events surrounding an incident that occurred in Haditha, Iraq, when 24 Iraqis were allegedly massacred by US Marines, following the death of a Marine in a bombing perpetrated by Iraqi insurgents. The harsh reality of the war is viewed from three perspectives: that of the US troops, the insurgents who committed the attacks, and a civilian Iraqi family. Iranian Animated Film for Children Promotes Suicide Bombings. 2005 (10 min)(http://www.memritv.org/clip/en/0/0/0/0/0/215/906.htm)Including excerpts from an Iranian animated movie for children, aired on IRIB 3 TV on 28 October 2005, this film is an example of the mechanisms of de‐humanization of the enemy (the Israelis), based on a tale of the ferocious murder of innocent people by Israeli soldiers. This incident is followed by a bomb attack framed as an act of martyrdom by young militants in revenge of the previous assassination. Paradise Now. 2005 (91 min)In his film, the director Hany Abu‐Assad focuses on the final days of two Palestinian militants as they prepare to carry out a suicide attack in Tel Aviv. Once childhood friends Said (Kais Nashef) and Khaled (Ali Suliman) are offered such an attack, they feel a sense of purpose in serving their people's cause, whereas a young Palestinian woman, after learning of their plan, tries to dissuade them from carrying out their missions. Paradise Now has been viewed as a controversial attempt to examine the motivations of suicide bombers. The Reach of War: Sectarian War in Iraq. 2006 (7 min)(http://www.nytimes.com/packages/khtml/2006/12/28/world/20061228_SECTARIAN_FEATURE.html)The New York Times journalist Marc Santora reports on some of the most violent and bloody effects of the sectarian violence perpetrated in Iraq during the civil war between Sunnis and Shiites, which has followed the occupation by the US‐led coalition. The Road to Guantanamo. 2006 (92 min)(http://www.roadtoguantanamomovie.com)Directed by Michael Winterbottom, the film tells the story of four friends beginning a holiday in Pakistan. Through a series of interviews and news footage, the film shows how they end up in Afghanistan, where are then captured by American forces and kept in harsh conditions at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, for over 2 years. The Role of Foreign Fighters in the Iraqi Jihad. 2006 (9 min)(http://www1.nefafoundation.org/multimedia‐original.html)In this video, NEFA Foundation expert Evan Kohlmann documents the phenomenon of foreign fighters in Iraq and their role within the Sunni insurgency. The video includes footage of senior figures from Abu Musab al‐Zarqawi's terrorist group (including Lebanese, Saudi, and Kuwaiti nationals) and scenes from Al‐Qaida training camps in Iraq. The Suicide Bomber. 2005 (12 min)(http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/terrorism/july‐dec05/bombers_11‐14.html)In this debate aired on PBS on 14 November 2005, three experts (Mia Bloom, Mohammed M. Hafez, and Robert A. Pape) discuss what motivates suicide bombers and their terrorist organisations, with special reference to the 2005 hotel bombings in Amman, Jordan, where a female militant joining these attacks was found alive after her bomb failed to detonate. The Terrorist Propaganda (three videos):
Indexing Al‐Qaeda Online.
2005 (6 min)(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp‐dyn/content/custom/2005/08/05/CU2005080501141.html?whichDay=1)
Without the Video, It's Just an Attack.
2007 (5 min)(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp‐dyn/content/video/2007/09/28/VI2007092800608.html)
Al‐Qaeda's Growing Online Offensive.
2008 (14 min)(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp‐dyn/content/article/2008/06/23/AR2008062302135.html)Over the last decade, terrorist propaganda on the Internet has increased dramatically. In these videos, experts discuss how insurgent groups, in particular Islamist extremists in Iraq and Afghanistan, are using new media to spread their messages worldwide, to chronicle their operations (including the assembly and emplacement of roadside bombs targeting US forces), to recruit, and to raise money.6. Focus questions

What challenges do researchers interested in terrorism studies face and why? What are the most important theoretical and methodological weaknesses in current terrorism research?
How can we define terrorism? What political controversies affect the definition of terrorism? When comparing different terrorism data sets, what kinds of diagnoses can we make on the tendencies of terrorist incidents in the last decade?
How has terrorism changed in history? Based on the literature concerning Al‐Qaeda's ideology, strategies, and structures, what continuities and discontinuities can we identify with respect to previous forms of terrorism?
When dealing with the explanation of terrorism, what are the most significant factors to be taken into account? How can we learn from the current literature on suicide terrorism in order to build a comprehensive model for its explanation?
Given the legislative and military responses to September 11 and subsequent attacks (e.g. the 2005 London bombings), what have been the legal consequences affecting our societies and the strategic implications for combating and preventing terrorist violence?

7. SeminarsParticipants will be divided into small groups of about three persons. Each group will be asked to make a contribution to a sociological analysis (either written or presented) of a specific armed organisation, such as:Al‐Gama'a Al‐IslamiyyaAl‐QaedaAl‐Qaeda in IraqAl‐Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (formerly Salafist Group for Call and Combat)Ansar Al‐SunnahAnsar Al‐IslamArmed Islamic Groups (GIA)Army of GodAum ShinrikyoChechen separatistsEgyptian Islamic JihadEuskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA)HamasHezbollahIrgun Zvai LeumiIrish Republican Army (IRA)Islamic Movement of UzbekistanJemaah IslamiyahKashmiri separatistsKu Klux Klan (KKK)Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)Lashkar‐e‐JhangviLibyan Islamic Fighting GroupPalestinian Islamic JihadPalestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO)Red Army Faction (RAF)Red Brigades (BR)Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)Taliban.For each armed organisation, each group will examine the following aspects:

data on its attacks – including information that justifies the label of 'terrorist organisation';
a historical account of its origins and developments;
an analysis of the strategy underlying its terrorist campaigns;
a clarification of its social support and collaboration (if any);
a profile of its militants and patterns of recruitment;
a discussion of the counterterrorism policies adopted by states and their impact on the terrorist organisation.

Note
* Correspondence address: Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology and Social Research, Piazza Venezia 41 – 38100 Trento, Italy, +39 0461 881324; +39 0461 881348 (fax); +39 347 2329219 (mobile); Email: domenico.tosini@soc.unitn.it http://portale.unitn.it/dpt/dsrs/docenti/tosini.htm

This doctoral dissertation evaluated the use of sustainable biomass sources (agri-food waste and residues, and industry streams) in anaerobic digestion with the goal of replacing maize silage in a large-scale biogas production and investigated alternative pathways of biogas utilisation incorporated in energy systems operating with high share of renewable energy sources. The methods applied in the research included elements of chemical and mechanical engineering in order to create a holistic approach that could be applicable to various biogas plant cases. Experimental investigations showed the biogas yield of residue lignocellulosic biomass of 0.192-0.275 Nm3/kgTS, and bulk food waste of 0.252-0.566 Nm3/kgTS. Meat and bone meal and wastewater sludge were shown to be co-substrates with antagonistic effect in biogas production, however they increased the reaction rate of overall degradation. Pyrolysis of digestate showed lower energy requirements and higher biochar yield (38%) compared to direct pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass (24%). The gate fee business model for receiving biodegradable waste and the implementation of new technologies, namely biogas upgrading, are the most likely options for biogas plants in the future. A robust mathematical model of power-to-gas integration showed that the installation of 18 MWel of wind and 9 MWel of photovoltaics with an additional import of 16 GWhel from the grid could produce 36 GWh of renewable methane which could be economically competitive with natural gas if the feedstock gate fee in the proposed system was -120 €/t. Geospatial availability of an energy potential of biogas production from examined feedstocks, combined with Life Cycle Assessment of the alternative biogas utilisation pathways created the synergistic effects in terms of reduced environmental burdens by 4-36 times compared to the current operation. Based on the applied methods and outcomes of the doctoral thesis, the research hypothesis "Applying holistic approach on biogas plants, both on the production and utilisation side, can increase economic profitability and environmental benefits over current subsidised operation" was tested and confirmed. The economic feasibility of biogas plants after exiting subsidy schemes will include the implementation of the gate fee business model for substrates, new investments in biomass pretreatment lines, increase of on-site biogas storage capacity and additional investments in renewable methane production system, primarily biomethane. Environmental burdens of such actions will be reduced through a contribution of biowaste management on urban and rural level, combined with the utilization of biogas for production of biomethane as a replacement to natural gas. ; Biomasa je obnovljiv izvor energije (OIE) te ima važnu ulogu u diverzifikaciji opskrbe energijom u Europskoj Uniji (EU) [1]. Ona doprinosi ravnoteži ugljikovog dioksida (CO2), stvaranju radnih mjesta, smanjenju emisija stakleničkih plinova (eng. Greenhouse gas, GHG) te osiguravanju dostupnosti resursa i njihovom ekonomičnom gospodarenju [2]. U Republici Hrvatskoj biomasa je definirana prema Zakonu o obnovljivim izvorima energije i visokoučinkovitoj kogeneraciji kao "biorazgradivi dio proizvoda, otpada i ostataka biološkog podrijetla iz poljoprivrede (uključujući tvari biljnoga i životinjskoga podrijetla), šumarstva i srodnih proizvodnih djelatnosti, uključujući ribarstvo i akvakulturu, kao i biorazgradivi dio industrijskoga i komunalnog otpada" [3]. Biomasa se može direktno koristiti kao gorivo za dobivanje energije (npr. drvna biomasa u kotlovima), ili se može biokemijskim, kemijskim, ili termokemijskim postupcima pretvoriti u materijal dodane vrijednosti – biogorivo, čime se postiže njezina šira primjenjivost u energetske svrhe [4]. Biogoriva prve generacije dobivena iz prehrambenih usjeva kao uzgojene biomase [5] naišla su na neodobravanje znanstvene zajednice i šire javnosti, primarno zbog korištenja obradivih površina za njihov uzgoj. Napredna biogoriva (druge i treće generacije [5]) proizvedena su iz biomase koja nije kompetitivna s proizvodnjom hrane, a u nju spada otpadna biomasa iz kućanstva i industrije, poljoprivredni ostatci, neprehrambeni usjevi te alge. Ova doktorska disertacija stavlja fokus na korištenje biomase u procesu anaerobne razgradnje za dobivanje bioplina. Cilj istraživanja je ostvariti sinergijski učinak između ekonomičnog korištenja otpadne biomase i proizvodnje energije u sustavima s velikim udjelom OIE kako bi se postiglo smanjenje utjecaja na okoliš u usporedbi s trenutnom praksom u bioplinskim postrojenjima koja uključuje korištenje kukuruzne silaže i proizvodnju električne energije uz zajamčenu otkupnu cijenu. Mjesto nastanka, tip biomase, te njezine količine bitan su faktor za strateško pozicioniranje novih bioplinskih postrojenja, te za planiranje novih lanaca opskrbe sirovinama u postojećim postrojenjima. Geografski informacijski sustav (eng. Geographic Information System, GIS) [6] prepoznat je kao vrijedan alat za mapiranje potencijala izvora biomase, kao i određivanje transportnih udaljenosti od mjesta nastanka biomase do postrojenja. GIS analiza na razini EU pokazala je ukupni energetski potencijal za proizvodnju bioplina iz poljoprivrednih ostataka i životinjske gnojovke na godišnjoj razini jednak 0.7 EJ (oko 195 TWh) [7], što je dvostruko više nego proizvodnja bioplina iz tih supstrata ostvarena u 2016 godini u EU. Primjenom GIS alata na lokalnoj razini u Grčkoj, Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama i Finskoj pokazano je da ekonomski prihvatljive transportne udaljenosti za supstrate mogu varirati između 10 i 40 km [8–10]. Povećanjem radijusa raspoloživosti biomase povećava se i kapacitet postrojenja čime je moguće ostvariti veću proizvodnju obnovljive energije, no istovremeno stvara se dodatan teret na okoliš, kako je još uvijek većina biomase transportirana teretnim vozilima na fosilna goriva [10]. Ono što također treba uzeti u obzir prilikom procjene korištenja biomase u bioplinskom postrojenju je njezina tržišna vrijednost, odnosno plaća li bioplinsko postrojenje za biomasu, ili dobiva naknadu za njezino gospodarenje (eng. Gate fee, GF). U postojećim okvirima proizvodnje bioplina, cijena kukuruzne silaže je između 15 i 40 € po toni sirovine [11], dok alternativni izvori biomase (npr. miješani komunalni biootpad i otpadna hrana) postižu GF u iznosu od -60 do 0 €/tona [11]. Nakon što biomasa uđe u prostor bioplinskog postrojenja, potrebno ju je adekvatno pripremiti za proces anaerobne razgradnje. U tu svrhu mogu se koristiti metode predobrade koje se služe termičkim, mehaničkim, kemijskim ili biološkim postupcima (ili nekim njihovim kombinacijama) [12]. Metode predobrade služe kako bi potaknule proces razgradnje kompleksnih polimernih molekula prisutnih u organskoj tvari, čime se postiže viša konverzija biomase u bioplin [13]. Uspješnost razgradnje biomase te proizvodnje bioplina, kao i stabilnost u procesu određuju se eksperimentalnim mjerenjima, pri čemu se prate procesne varijable kao što su sadržaj suhe tvari (eng. Dry Matter, DM, ili Total Solids, TS), proizvodnja i sastav bioplina, pH, koncentracija hlapljivih masnih kiselina (eng. Volatile Fatty Acids, VFA), ukupni anorganski ugljik (eng. Total Inorganic Carbon, TIC), prisutnost amonijakalnog dušika (eng. Ammonium-nitrogen, NH4-N), koncentracija soli, teških metala i ostalo [14]. Na temelju vrijednosti navedenih procesnih varijabli operatori bioplinskih postrojenja znaju odvija li se proces unutar dozvoljenih vrijednosti te kako reagirati ukoliko je primijećena nestabilnost u procesu. Eksperimentalni podatci također služe za modeliranje kinetike anaerobne razgradnje [15] pri čemu se ovisnosti o kompleksnosti ulaznih podataka i traženih rezultata mogu primijeniti razni kinetički modeli [16–18]. Složeniji modeli zahtijevaju veći broj ulaznih podataka, ali također daju i detaljniji uvid u mehanizam reakcija i otkrivanju tzv. uskog grla procesa koji određuje ukupnu brzinu nastanka bioplina. Osim bioplina, drugi proizvod anaerobne razgradnje je digestat kojeg čine nerazgrađeni ostatci biomase u tekućoj fazi [19]. Tekuća frakcija digestata je obično bogata makronutrijentima – dušikom (N), fosforom (P) i kalijem (K), što ju čini primjenjivom kao gnojivo za tlo [20]. Čvrsta frakcija digestata također sadrži P, ali i zaostali organski ugljik (C) što ga čini prikladnim za poboljšavanje karakteristika tla, kompostiranje [21] ili za neki od oblika energetske oporabe [22]. Prednost korištenja digestata u opisanim načinima leži u činjenici da je njegova tržišna vrijednost mala, tek 2-4 €/t [23]. Proizvedeni bioplin najčešće se koristi kao gorivo u kombiniranoj proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije, kogeneracija (eng. Combined Heat and Power, CHP). Proteklih desetljeća na razini EU mehanizmi subvencija za bioplinske kogeneracije u vidu feed-in-tariffa i feed-in-premija rezultirale su intenzivnom penetracijom bioplina u elektroenergetski sektor [24]. Razina subvencija je definirana na nacionalnoj razini, ali u svim članicama EU nije niža od 80 €/MWhel, što je gotovo dvostruko veći iznos od prosječne veleprodajne tržišne cijene električne energije u EU [25]. Također, ono što je važno napomenuti jest da su subvencije izdane na određeni period (12-20 godina od statusa stjecanja povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije [26]) nakon čega će bioplinska postrojenja morati razmotriti neke druge načine iskorištavanja (eng. Utilisation) bioplina da bi zadržale ekonomski isplativo poslovanje. Prema podatcima Europske udruge za bioplin (eng. European Biogas Association, EBA) u 2020. godini u Europi je bilo instalirano 18,943 bioplinskih postrojenja, od kojih je 18,214 (96%) radilo u kogeneracijskom načinu, a ostalih 4% kao postrojenja za proizvodnju biometana kroz tehnologiju poboljšavanja bioplina (eng. Biogas upgrading) odnosno uklanjanje svih ne-CH4 komponenti bioplina [27]. Ova doktorska disertacija detaljno razlaže inovativnije načine iskorištavanja bioplina u budućim energetskim sustavima, što će uključivati rad kogeneracijskih postrojenja u tržišnim okvirima [28], pretvorbu bioplina u biometan te proizvodnju e-metana kroz implementaciju power-to-gas (P2G) koncepta [29] u sustavima s visokim udjelom energije iz varijabilnih OIE. Primjena procjene životnog ciklusa (eng. Life Cycle Assessment, LCA) [30] može otkriti utjecaje promjene politika sirovina u proizvodnji bioplina i njegovog iskorištavanja u sprezi s budućim energetskim sustavima u odnosu na okoliš. Usporedba LCA performansi za bioplinsko postrojenje koje koristi životinjsku gnojovku i energetske usjeve pokazala je da bioplin za proizvodnju električne energije stvara uštede od oko 300 kgCO2-eq/MWhel, dok upgrading bioplina u biometan i njegovo ubrizgavanje u plinsku mrežu štedi oko 191 kgCO2-eq za proizvedeni MWh biometana [31]. Za preglednije tumačenje opisanih rezultata potrebno je izraziti emisije istom jedinicom, ali i prezentirati podatke o sastavu miksa električne energije (eng. Electricity mix). Za slučaj Irske, LCA je pokazao da integracija P2G koncepta za upgrading bioplina, uz korištenje električnog miksa od 85% OIE, može rezultirati smanjenjem GHG emisija za 70% u odnosu na fosilna goriva [32]. Na temelju pregleda literature (detaljniji prikaz u poglavlju Introduction), dosad nije zabilježeno istraživanje u području anaerobne razgradnje koje povezuje mapiranje i korištenje ostatne i otpadne biomase za proizvodnju bioplina sa njegovim iskorištavanjem u budućim energetskim sustavima. Ova doktorska disertacija je ocijenila takav cjeloviti pristup i predstavila rezultate istraživanja iz perspektive jednog, odnosno više bioplinskih postrojenja. Interdisciplinarni i cjeloviti pristup prema promatranoj temi koristio je elemente kemijskog i strojarskog inženjerstva za ispunjavanje četiri glavna cilja istraživanja: • • Kvantificirati proizvodnju bioplina koristeći nove supstrate biomase kao što su lignocelulozni ostatci iz poljoprivredne proizvodnje, otpadna hrana i industrijski nusproizvodi koji nisu konkurentni proizvodnji hrane, kao što je to slučaj s kukuruznom silažom u sadašnjoj proizvodnji bioplina. • • Procijeniti kinetičke parametre anaerobne razgradnje novih supstrata kombinirajući matematičko modeliranje i eksperimentalne podatke kako bi utvrdili utjecaj kemijskog sastava supstrata na stabilnost procesa i eventualna ograničenja u procesu. • • Utvrditi ekonomski isplative načine budućeg rada bioplinskih postrojenja na naprednim energetskim tržištima nakon što bioplinska postrojenja ostanu bez financijskih potpora i zajamčene cijene električne energije. • • Procijeniti utjecaje na okoliš različitih načina korištenja bioplina integriranih u buduće energetske sustave s visokim udjelom obnovljivih izvora energije. Ostvareni ciljevi istraživanja te rezultati prezentirani su široj znanstvenoj zajednici kroz sedam objavljenih znanstvenih radova (šest radova u kvartilu Q1 te jedan rad u Q2). Znanstveni članak 1 (ARTICLE 1) [33] prikazuje detaljnu analizu lanaca vrijednosti biomase iz različitih poljoprivrednih ostatka, nusproizvoda i otpada (eng. Agricultural wastes, co-products and by-products, AWCB). Rad opisuje faze u kojima i kako nastaje otpad kroz tri specifična koraka u lancu vrijednosti: proizvodnja/uzgoj, obrada u industriji te potrošnja/konzumacija. Analiza uključuje razdoblje od 7 godina, od 2010. do 2016. u 28 zemalja članica Europske unije (EU28) te uključuje četiri različita sektora sa 26 analiziranih dobara (eng. Commodity) i prikladnim vrstama otpada koji se pojavljuju u tim sektorima. Za izračun tehničkog potencijala AWCB korišteni su javno dostupni podaci iz EUROSTAT i FAOSTAT baze, a metoda proračuna uključivala je upotrebu specifične količine AWCB po analiziranim dobrima i sektoru. Rezultati su pokazali da je u analiziranom periodu u EU28 procijenjena količina AWCB iznosila oko 18,4 milijarde tona, a prema udjelima: animalni sektor ~ 31%, sektor povrća ~ 44%, sektor žitarica ~ 22% te sektor voća ~ 2%. Analizirajući pojedine sektore i količine nastalog AWCB, daljnje istraživanje bilo je usmjereno na evaluaciju korištenja određenih AWCB iz lanca vrijednosti biomase u procesu anaerobne razgradnje s ciljem proizvodnje bioplina. Znanstveni članci 2, 3 i 4 pokazuju rezultate takvog pristupa uz primjenu istraživačkih metoda kemijskog inženjerstva. ARTICLE 2 [34] istražuje upotrebu lignoceluloznih ostataka trave kao zamjene za silažu kukuruza u anaerobnoj razgradnji. Uzorci trave prikupljeni su s područja koja nisu kompetitivna s proizvodnjom hrane: neobrađeno zemljište, obala rijeke Save u gradu Zagrebu te bankina autoceste. U istraživanju je određen svježi i suhi prinos biomase, njezin kemijski sastav, prinos te sastav proizvedenog bioplina, a primjenom Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1) modela određeni su kinetički parametri razgradnje trave. Ujedno, na kraju je dana usporedba okolišnijih učinaka zamjene kukuruzne silaže ostatnom travom u proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije. Rezultati istraživanja su pokazali da je najveći prinos ostatne trave utvrđen za obalu rijeke, sa prosječnom vrijednošću od 19 t/ha svježe mase i 2.6 t/ha suhe mase. Svi uzorci trave pokazali su zadovoljavajuće parametre za primjenu u anaerobnoj razgradnji − omjer C/N između 16.6: 1 do 22.8: 1. Ostvareni biokemijski potencijal metana u monorazgradnji (monodigestiji) ostataka trave su: 0.275 Nm3/kgTS za travu s neobrađenog zemljišta, 0.192 Nm3/kgTS za travu s obale rijeke i 0.255 Nm3/kgTS za travu s bankine autoceste. Procijenjeni kinetički parametri razgradnje trave razlikuju se od do sada objavljenih rezultata, prvenstveno zato što prijašnje analize uključuju specifične tipove travnate biomase, a ne ostatnu (miješanu) travu. Procijenjeni okolišniji utjecaji zamjene kukuruzne silaže travnatom biomasom u proizvodnji električne i toplinske energije pokazali su prednosti u smislu ostvarenog doprinosa kvaliteti ekosustava (eng. Ecosystem quality) i ljudskog zdravlja (eng. Human health), no također i nešto veće emisije GHG uzrokovane izgaranjem fosilnih goriva u poljoprivrednoj mehanizaciji i povećanim transportom trave zbog nižeg prinosa bioplina u odnosu na silažu. Čvrsta frakcija digestata dobivena u procesu monodigestije trave korištena je u znanstvenom članku 3 (ARTICLE 3) kao ulazni materijal za istraživanje procesa pirolize. Cilj istraživanja u ARTICLE 3 [35] bio je odrediti utjecaj anaerobne razgradnje na sastav lignocelulozne biomase korištenjem termogravimetrijske analize (eng. Thermogravimetric analysis, TGA). Također, procijenjeni su iznosi energije aktivacije i modificiranog predeksponencijalnog faktora za travu i njezine digestate, kao i prinos konačnog ostatka pirolize (eng. Biochar). Rezultati su pokazali da je procijenjena količina razgrađene celuloze i hemiceluloze u istraživanim uzrocima trave oko 44–50%. Nadalje, digestati trave pokazali su veći prinos biochar-a (oko 38%) u odnosu na uzorke trave (oko 24%). Kombinirani proces anaerobne razgradnje trave i pirolize njezinih digestata pokazao je manje vrijednosti procijenjenih kinetičkih parametra što upućuje na niže energetske potrebe takvog procesa u odnosu na direktnu pirolizu trave. ARTICLE 4 [36] bio je izrađen u suradnji sa industrijom biomase i bioplina. U radu je eksperimentalno istražena razgradnja otpadne hrane (eng. Food waste, FW) iz bioplinskog postrojenja zajedno s nusproizvodnima iz kafilerije (eng. Rendering plant): mesno-koštano brašno (eng. Meat and bone meal, MBM) i mulj sa otpadnih voda (eng. Wastewater sludge, WWS). Prvo je provedena termička predobrada uzoraka FW (FW1 i FW2) pri temperaturi od 35 °C i trajanju 5 dana u koju su bili dodani MBM i WWS u udjelima od 5, 10 i 15% TS. Nakon toga slijedila je anaerobna razgradnja pri 40.5 °C u trajanju od 40 dana. Uvjeti termičke predobrade i proizvodnje bioplina u laboratorijskom mjerilu replicirani su iz rada samog bioplinskog postrojenja. Također, za vrijeme procesa u laboratoriju bile su praćene sve procesne varijable kao i u radu digestora na postrojenju. Kao rezultat predobrade kemijska potrošnja kisika (eng. Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD) ispitivanih uzoraka povećala se za 7 – 26%. Dodavanjem MBM u FW1 došlo je do povećanja vrijednosti COD kao i NH4-N, dok se u slučaju dodatka WWS u FW2 postiglo smanjenje, što je i bilo očekivano, budući da je WWS materijal s niskim udjelom organske tvari. Kao rezultat testa anaerobne razgradnje dobiveni su sljedeći prinosi bioplina: za FW1 – 0.566 Nm3/kg TS, za FW1-MBM – 0.499 Nm3/kg TS, za FW2 – 0.252 Nm3/kg TS i 0.195 Nm3/kg TS za FW2-WWS. Tako širok raspon vrijednosti rezultat je heterogenosti FW (FW1 i FW 2 uzete su s vremenskim razmakom od dva mjeseca na istom postrojenju). Prema sastavu proizvedenog bioplina, kao i ostalim procesnim varijablama može se zaključiti da su FW1 i FW2 vrlo slični po sastavu, ali da je istovremeno postojao neki uzročnik inhibicije u proizvodnji bioplina za uzorak FW2, koji se nije mogao procijeniti na temelju dostupne opreme i provedenih mjerenja. Tek su mjerenja električne vodljivosti ukazala na to da uzorak FW2 sadrži nešto veću koncentraciju soli koja bi mogla biti uzročnik smanjenog prinosa bioplina. Nusproizvodi kafilerije dodani u 5%-tnom udjelu uzrocima FW rezultirali su smanjenjem proizvodnje bioplina za 12% u slučaju MBM i 23% u slučaju WWS, ali nisu utjecali na stabilnost proizvodnje. Štoviše, analizom kinetike razgradnje ustanovljeno je da MBM i WWS ubrzavaju proces razgradnje FW što se vidi iz višeg iznosa reakcijske konstante. Također, pokazano je da ispitivani uzorci najbolje koreliraju sa kinetikom prvog reda što je vidljivo iz najniže ostvarene vrijednosti RMSE (eng. Root mean square error) koja je iznosila 0.015 Nm3/kg TS. U znanstvenom članku 5 (ARTICLE 5) [37] provedena je tehno-ekonomska i scenarijska analiza rada bioplinskog postrojenja nakon isteka subvencija za proizvodnju električne energije. Vođenje takvog sustava temeljilo se na iznosu cijena električne energije i biometana (eng. Unit commitment with economic dispatch) koje su određivale koja od jedinica za prihvat bioplina: CHP, upgrading ili spremnik ima najveću ekonomsku isplativost u danom trenutku. Za opis dinamike korišten je program MATLAB/Simulink, a za ekonomsku analizu MS Excel. U prvom scenariju prikazan je utjecaj cijene proizvodnje električne energije u bioplinskom postrojenju (eng. Break-even point of electricity production, BECPel) na broj radnih sati kada ono može ostvariti svojevrstan profit na dan-unaprijed tržištu (eng. Day-ahead market) električne energije. Rezultati su pokazali da kada vrijednost BECPel postane 40 €/MWhel, bioplinsko postrojenje može ostvariti (neki) profit radeći samo 4,000 sati godišnje, kako je ostalo vrijeme cijena električne energije na tržištu niža od cijene proizvodnje. Kada BECPel postane 100 €/MWhel bioplinsko postrojenje ne može ostvariti nikakav profit radeći na dan-unaprijed tržištu. Kao jedno od rješenja koje se nameće za smanjenje vrijednosti BECPel je korištenje supstrata s negativnom cijenom (GF model) koja je detaljnije prikazana u članku 6 (ARTICLE 6). Drugi scenarij uključivao je instaliranje upgrading jedinice i proizvodnju biometana, a proizvodnja električne energije ovisila je o cijenama na tržištu uravnoteženja (eng. Balancing market). Takav pristup je pokazao da bioplinsko postrojenje i uz relativno visoku cijenu biometana od 80 €/MWh, može u određenim trenutcima ostvariti i veći profit ako radi na balancing tržištu. Treći scenarij za bioplinsko postrojenje uključivao je integraciju industrijskog otpada iz proizvodnje šećera za proizvodnju bioplina i njegovo korištenje za proizvodnju procesne topline u vrijeme šećerne kampanje. Takav pristup pokazao se relativno neisplativim za bioplinsko postrojenje kako je cijena prirodnog plina na veleprodajnom tržištu još uvijek dosta niska i bioplin joj ne može u tom smislu biti konkurentan. ARTICLE 6 [38] predstavlja rezultate integracije P2G koncepta u rad bioplinskog postrojenja koje se nalazi u GF poslovnom modelu, odnosno prima naknadu za ulazni supstrat pri proizvodnji bioplina. Cilj istraživanja bio je razviti robustan matematički model na satnoj razini za procjenu optimalnih kapaciteta vjetroelektrane i solarne elektrane, veličine spremnika za bioplin te kapacitete elektrolizera, upgrading jedinice i metanatora (eng. Methanation unit) koristeći linearno programiranje i besplatni (eng. Open source) programski jezik Julia. Kao funkcija cilja korištena je minimizacija ukupnih troškova. Matematički model testiran je na postojećoj bioplinskoj elektrani instalirane snage 1 MWel. Utvrđeno je da P2G koncept zahtijeva integraciju 18 MWel vjetra i 9 MWel solara na lokaciji, uz dodatan uvoz električne energije iz mreže u iznosu 16 GWhel kako bi se na godišnjoj razini proizvelo 36 GWh obnovljivog metana. Analiza je pokazala da GF (u promatranom slučaju za otpadnu hranu) značajno doprinosi ekonomskoj održivosti obnovljivog metana: promjena GF za 100 €/toni rezultira smanjenjem troškova njegove proizvodnje za 20-60%. Ustanovljeno je da za vrijednost GF=-120 €/tona obnovljivi metan iz prikazanog koncepta postaje cjenovno konkurentan prirodnom plinu. Robusna priroda modela pokazala je da nesigurnosti povezane s proizvodnjom električne energije iz vjetra i solara na lokaciji mogu povećati troškove proizvodnje obnovljivog metana za 10-30%. ARTICLE 7 [39] integralno obuhvaća rezultate svih dotad objavljenih radova u sklopu izrade doktorske disertacije i smješta ih u kontekst testiranja hipoteze. U njemu je provedena geoprostorna analiza (eng. Geospatial analysis) bioplinskog sektora korištenjem javno dostupnog programa QGIS te procjena okolišnijih utjecaja pomoću programa SimaPro. Cilj rada bio je mapirati energetski potencijal otpadne trave, industrijskih nusproizvoda i otpada, te komunalnog biootpada (otpadne hrane) za zamjenu kukuruzne silaže u postojećoj proizvodnji bioplina te planiranje proširenja bioplinskog sektora. Kao studija slučaja (eng. Case study) korištena je Sjeverna Hrvatska (eng. Northern Croatia), područje s intenzivnim bioplinskim sektorom te snažnom industrijom, poljoprivredom i velikom gustoćom stanovništva. Rezultati su pokazali da bi navedene sirovine mogle zamijeniti 212 GWh bioplina iz kukuruzne silaže u postojećim bioplinskim postrojenjima te stvoriti dodatnih 191 GWh biometana u novim postrojenjima. Također, geoprostorna analiza je pokazala da su neka bioplinska postrojenja izgrađena u neposrednoj blizini plinske transportne mreže (<2km udaljenosti) i da imaju potencijal za utiskivanje biometana u plinsku mrežu. Cjelokupna analiza utjecaja na okoliš postojećih bioplinskih postrojenja pokazala je da integralni pristup proizvodnji i korištenju bioplina stvara sinergijske učinke u smislu smanjenja opterećenja na okoliš, što izravno dokazuje hipotezu studije. Kompleksnost P2G koncepta i njegovi intenzivni energetski zahtjevi čine ga trenutno nepovoljnijim u usporedbi sa klasičnim upgradingom bioplina, no isti dolazi do izražaja kada se u razmatranje uzmu budući energetski sustavi s visokim udjelom OIE. Znanstveni doprinosi ovog rada ostvareni su kroz provedena istraživanja te prikazani kroz objavljene rezultate u radovima kako slijedi: • Eksperimentalnim istraživanjem anaerobne razgradnje novih supstrata biomase odredit će se potencijalne prepreke u proizvodnji bioplina, poput pojave inhibicije ili utjecaja tipa biomase na stabilnost procesa: ARTICLE 2: Ustanovljeno je da lignocelulozna biomasa u obliku ostatne trave ne sadrži fizikalno-kemijske karakteristike koje bi ograničile njezinu upotrebu za proizvodnju bioplina. Štoviše, pokazalo se da ista uzrokuje poboljšanu kontrolu pH što doprinosi stabilnosti proizvodnje bioplina. Nedostatak njezinog korištenja je taj što je za ostvarivanje većih prinosa potrebno primijeniti neki oblik predobrade. ARTICLE 4: Heterogenost otpadne hrane utječe na vođenje procesa za što je potrebno ustanoviti robusnu kontrolu procesnih varijabli. Pokazalo se da i na razini bioplinskog postrojenja postoje neke varijable koje se ne prate na dnevnoj razini (prisutnost soli i metala), a koje mogu uzurpirati proizvodnju bioplina. Ustanovljeno je da kafilerijski nusprodukti i otpad u manjim količinama mogu doprinijeti povećanju brzine razgradnje otpadne hrane. • Predložiti alternativne mjere za trenutni sektor bioplina uzimajući u obzir tržišne cijene i analizu utjecaja na okoliš koristeći pristup procjene životnog ciklusa. ARTICLE 5: Alternativne mjere za bioplinski sektor u vidu proizvodnje biometana i rada bioplinskih postrojenja na day-ahead i balancing tržištu električnom energijom pokazala se kao najvjerojatnija opcija nakon napuštanja poticajnih sustava za proizvodnju električne energije. U takvim okvirima tranzicija s kukuruzne silaže na supstrate alternativne supstrate postati će prihvatljiva operativna odluka uz dodatne investicije u novu opremu. ARTICLE 6: Integracija varijabilnih OIE u rad bioplinskih postrojenja pokazala je da će se u budućnosti paradigma bioplinskih postrojenja kao takvih promijeniti – više neće biti samo pasivni proizvođači struje, nego će postati aktivni sudionici na tržištima energijom. ARTICLE 2: Pokazano je da otpadana trava više doprinosi kvaliteti ekosustava i ljudskom zdravlju nego kukuruzna silaža, iako uzrokuje veće emisije stakleničkih plinova, prvenstveno zbog intenzivnijih potreba za transportom na fosilna goriva. ARTICLE 7: LCA predloženih mjera za sektor bioplina koje uključuju zamjenu kukuruzne silaže alternativnih oblicima biomase te iskorištavanje bioplina u sustavima s visokim udjelom OIE pokazala je sinergistički efekt u smislu smanjenja cjelokupnog tereta na okoliš. Analiza je također pokazala da je integracija P2G u promatranim okvirima još uvijek neatraktivna zbog kompleksnosti sustava i energetski intenzivnih procesa. • Napredni model geografskog informacijskog sustava mapiranja novih izvora biomase koji će u kombinaciji s različitim načinima korištenja bioplina integriranim u sustave visokih obnovljivih izvora energije u naprednim energetskim tržištima rezultirati robusnim matematičkim modelima primjenjivim na različite slučajeve bioplinskih postrojenja. ARTICLE 6: Razvijeni robusni model integracije P2G koncepta u rad bioplinskog postrojenja pokazao je sinergiju između GF poslovnog modela te integracije obnovljive električne energije i topline koji su objedinjeni u postavljenoj matematičkoj formulaciji nivelirane cijene obnovljivog metana (eng. Levelized cost of renewable methane, LCORM). ARTICLE 7: Razvijeni GIS model obuhvaća analizu postojećih bioplinskih postrojenja i pozicioniranje budućih biometanskih postrojenja na temelju geoprostorne analize dostupnih alternativnih supstrata i položaja plinske mreže. Hipoteza ovog istraživanja je da je primjenom cjelovitog pristupa u radu bioplinskih postrojenja, i na strani proizvodnje i iskorištavanja bioplina, moguće povećati ekonomsku profitabilnost i doprinos zaštiti okoliša u usporedbi s trenutnim subvencioniranim radom. Kroz provedena istraživanja hipoteza je testirana i potvrđena uzevši u obzir sljedeće: • Ekonomska profitabilnost bioplinskih postrojenja nakon napuštanja subvencija i ograničenja u korištenju kukuruzne silaže bit će teže ostvariva. Uključivat će implementaciju GF poslovnog modela za supstrate za što će biti potrebne nove investicije po pitanju linije za predobradu, povećanje kapaciteta za spremanje bioplina na lokaciji kako bi postrojenje bilo fleksibilnije na tržištu električne energije te dodatne investicije u sustav za proizvodnju obnovljivog metana, prvenstveno biometana. • Cjeloviti pristup pokazao je da će doprinos budućeg bioplinskog sektora smanjenju okolišnih tereta ići kroz dvostruki doprinos: iz gospodarenja otpadom za proizvodnju bioplina koji će uključivati prvenstveno komunalni i industrijski biootpad u urbanim bioplinskim postrojenjima, a poljoprivredne ostatke u ruralnim bioplinskim postrojenjima, te iskorištavanja bioplina za proizvodnju obnovljive energije u vidu biometana.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Timmapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 84 per cent is covered by soils, 14 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 43 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and 41 per cent loamy soils at the surface.  About 13 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in organic carbon.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 71 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in about 13 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 65 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in 11 per cent soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 83 per cent area and 4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 42 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 160 (32) Sapota - 19 (4) Maize - 159 (32) Pomegranate - 78 (15) Bajra - 200 (40) Musambi - 78 (15) Groundnut - 107 (21) Lime - 78 (15) Sunflower - 75 (15) Amla - 237 (47) Red gram - 66 (13) Cashew - 36 (7) Bengalgram - 176 (35) Jackfruit - 19 (4) Cotton - 160 (32) Jamun - 69 (14) Chilli - 101 (20) Custard apple - 237 (47) Tomato - 101 (20) Tamarind - 66 (13) Brinjal 16 (3) 135 (27) Mulberry - 113 (23) Onion 16 (3) 62 (12) Marigold - 159 (32) Bhendi 16 (3) 120 (24) Chrysanthemum - 159 (32) Drumstick - 93 (18) Jasmine - 101 (20) Mango - 16 (3) Crossandra - 110 (22) Guava - 19 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY  The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Timmapur-2 microwatershed among them 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 14 (40%) were small farmers, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium farmers, 4 (11.43%) were medium farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The data indicated that there were 191 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 106 (55.50%) men and 85 (44.50 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 6, marginal farmer was 4, small and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 5.  The data indicated that 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 91 (47.64 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (24.61 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.81%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Timmapur-2 had 37.17 per cent illiterates, 35.08 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.38 per cent of them had middle school, 11.52 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 had diploma education and 1.05 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 17.14 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were general labour.  The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.55 per cent of the household members, 24.61 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.71 per cent were general labours and 23.56 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 54.84 per cent of them were agriculture labours, 29.03 per cent of them were general labour and 12.90 per cent of them were students.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers 58.82 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 17.65 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 23.53 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 51.35 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 20.27 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 28.38 per cent of them were student. In case of semi medium farmers, 76. 92 per cent of them were agriculturist, 10.26 per cent of them were agriculture labour and students. In medium farmers 30 per cent of them were agriculturist, 26.67 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 40 per cent of them were students.  The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicated that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 42.86 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.43 per cent of the households possess Pucca house. 2  The results showed that, 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 42.86 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 37.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6800, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1656, bicycle was Rs.1750, motor cycle was Rs.29230 and mobile phone was Rs.1544.  The data showed that about 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 45.71 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tractor, 25.71 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.43 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter.  The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.16800; the average value of plough was Rs. 910, the average value of tractor was Rs. 500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 59 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2325.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock and 28.57 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 62.50 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent of the households possess local cow. 75 medium farmers possess bullock and 50 farmers possess local.  The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, average own labour (women) available was 1.65, average hired labour (men) available was 8.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.16.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was also 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.71, average hired labour (men) was 9.71 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.21. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.38, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 9.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.50.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicated that, households of the Timmapur-2 microwatershed possess 20.72 ha (45.57%) of dry land and 24.75 ha (54.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal 3 farmers possess 2.51 ha (86.11%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (13.89%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 16.19 ha (86.21 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (13.79 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.81 ha (6.97 %) of dry land and 10.81 ha (93.03%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 1.21 ha (9.98%) of dry land and 10.95 ha (90.02%) irrigated land.  The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 390,761.72 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 501,592.55. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,580.64 for dry land and Rs. 1,976,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 333,450 for dry land Rs. 810,468.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 741,000 for dry land and Rs. 573,558.06 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 494,000 for dry land and Rs. 303,045.09 for irrigated land.  The results indicated that, there were 19 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 54.29 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 45.37 meters.  The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.40 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.59 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 12.02 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.11 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 21.13 ha of irrigated land.  The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (4.45 ha), chilly (1.21 ha), cotton (2.91 ha), groundnut (8.22 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), maize (14.40 ha), paddy (4.57 ha), sesamum (0.81 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), sunflower (0.81 ha) and tomato (1.21 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, maize and sesamum. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, horsegram, maize and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown chilly, cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and tomato. Medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower.  The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Timmapur-2 microwatershed was found to be 98.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in semi medium farmers it was 93.03 per cent.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and 48.57 per cent of the households have savings. 60per cent of the landless farmers have bank account. In marginal farmers 100 per cent of them have bank account and 50 per cent of them had savings. In case of small farmers 100 per cent of them had bank account and 71.43 per cent possess savings. In case of semi medium farmers, 4 100 per cent of possess bank account and 62.50 per cent farmer's savings. In Medium farmers, 100 per cent of farmers possess bank account.  The results indicated that 54.29 per cent of the farmers have borrowed credit from different sources which includes 75 per cent of marginal, 57.14 per cent of small, 75 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 15.79 per cent have availed loan in cooperative Bank, 5.26 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives, 89.47 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 42.11per cent have availed loan from money lender and 10.53 per cent have availed loan in SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs. 55,000, Rs. 110,062.50, Rs. 74,166.67 and Rs, 195,000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed was Rs. 108,447.37.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production.  The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for agriculture production which includes 40 per cent of the small and 50 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  Results indicated that 19.23 per cent of households were partially paid their loan, 61.54 per cent of households were unpaid their loan and 19.23 per cent of households were fully paid their loan.  Results indicated that 63.64 per cent of the households have partially paid their loan, 27.27 per cent have unpaid their private credit and 9.09 per cent of the households have fully paid their loan.  The results indicated that 30.77 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 46.15 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest, 7.69 per cent of the households were opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time .  The results indicated that, 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations and higher rate of interest and 36.36 per cent of the households were not given any opinion.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27597.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29830.49. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2232.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 61186.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75699.47. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14512.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. 5  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 62877.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73035.07. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 10157.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 17933.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25454.72. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 7521.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.42.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 28537.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75202.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.64.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 11451.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26840.67. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 15389.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 28542.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71784.37. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 43242.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.52.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 34933.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 28298.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.81.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 23059.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 181133.33. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 158074.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.86.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13146.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34382.40. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 21235.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.62.  The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sesamum was Rs. 15380.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21612.50. The net income from sesamum cultivation was Rs. 6231.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41.  The results indicated that, 62.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34.29 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 26000. In marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 26071.43 and agriculture was Rs. 37600. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 6 26071.43, agriculture was Rs. 49050 and dairy farm was Rs. 2112.14. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 14,375, agriculture was Rs. 117,562.50 and dairy farm was Rs.625. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 15000, agriculture was Rs. 71500 and dairy farm was Rs. 750.  The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 13000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5666.67 and agriculture was Rs.14750. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 11111.11, agriculture was Rs. 23285.71 and dairy farm was Rs. 10,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 5750, agriculture was Rs. 47875 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 3,000 and agriculture was Rs. 35,000.  The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 20 coconut and 49 mango trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have planted 50 neem, 6 tarmind, 1 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.2257.14 for land development, Rs. 1171.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.1314.29 for improved crop production, Rs.600 for improved livestock management and Rs.142.86 for subsidiary enterprises.  The data showed that Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development, Rs. 1500 for irrigation facility and Rs.1250 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2357.14 for land development, Rs. 785.71 in irrigation facility, Rs.1642.86 for improved crop production and Rs.357.14 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development, Rs. 1750 in irrigation facility, Rs.1250 for improved crop production and Rs.750 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5000 for land development, Rs. 2500 for irrigation facility, Rs.2000 for improved crop production, Rs.2500 for improved livestock management and Rs.1250 for subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that, for land development, 20 per cent were depending on loan from the bank and 2.86 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For irrigation facility 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and 11.43 per cent were depending on soft loan. Similarly for improved crop production, 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank, 2.86 per cent were dependent on their own funds and 14.29 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For improved livestock management 2.86 per cent were dependent on own funds and 11.43 per cent were dependent on soft loan. For subsidiary enterprises 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7  The results indicated that, chilli, cotton, horsegram, sesamum, sorghum, sunflower and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy were sold to the extent of 85.71 per cent, 96.27 per cent, 97.23 per cent and 94.33 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 62.86 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 31.43 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 14.29 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 11.43 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 57.14 per cent of them have used tractor and 40 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 50 percent of marginal farmers, 42.86 per cent of small farmers, 37.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 percent of medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers and 87.50 per cent of the semi medium farmers respectively.  The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cents of the households were using bore well for drinking water.  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 21.43 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium and 25 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 100 percent of the marginal, 21.43 per cent of the small, 12.50 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.29 per cent, 60 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 85.71 per cent, 80 per cent, and 65.71 per cent respectively. Vegetables and fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent of the households. 8  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 5.71 per cent, 40 per cent, 80 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 40 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 17.14 per cent and 31.43 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 42.86 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 65.71 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households and less rainfall was experienced by 25.71 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project