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Government, non-government and donor organisations have developed a social assistance programme known as the Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) which has two subprogrammes, namely the Public Work Programme (PWP) and Direct Support Programme (DSP). PSNP is designed to reduce the vulnerability of poor people to drought. It targets households in most cases without considering extante the issue of intra-household resource distribution. This paper assesses, using Young Lives survey data, the impacts of PSNP and Agricultural Extension Programme (AEP) on time use between work and schooling, as well as the highest grade completed by 12-year-old children in rural and urban Ethiopia. Empirically the study used propensity score matching techniques to estimate the impact of PSNP and AEP on child welfare measured by time use in various types of work, schooling and studying. We found that PWP in rural areas increases child work for pay; reduces children's time spent on child care, household chores and total hours spent on all kind of work combined; and increases girls spending on studying. The DSP in rural and urban areas reduces time children spent on paid and unpaid work, and increases the highest grade completed by boys in urban areas. On the other hand, AEP in rural areas was effective in reducing child work for pay and total work, increasing time girls spent on schooling and the highest grade completed by girls.

This study used longitudinal data from the Young Lives Project in Ethiopia to examine the main factors relating to preschool access and their potential effects on cognitive performance of children aged 5 and 8 years. The results show that only one-fourth of the preschool age children have the opportunity to attend this vital stage of education, with significant disparities by family wealth, education and regional location. Regardless of its limited coverage, preschool attendance is shown to have statistically significant positive effects on cognitive performance, measured by receptive vocabulary and maths tests. The effects do not also seem to fade away at a later age, implying that inequality among children in cognitive abilities at early ages continues to exist at later ages (7 and above). Furthermore, using mediation analyses, causal chains between family backgrounds and cognitive performance were thoroughly analyzed. Bootstrap results show that preschool attendance significantly mediates the influence of family wealth, education and regional location on child cognitive performance. Nevertheless, despite the importance of preschool education, public investment in this area is currently very limited, with the private sector taking the key role and exacerbating the inequality that exists between children of the rich and poor. These findings thus emphasize the need for government involvement in the form of public investment to this subsector to increase access for all children and reduce future educational inequalities.

While the Ethiopian national emergency and food security programmes support farmers hit by area-wide shocks such as crop failure brought about by drought, insects and pests, idiosyncratic shocks such as illness and death of household member, loss of assets and separation of family or divorce are not covered by any of the current programmes. In the absence of social assistance programmes to support vulnerable households, these idiosyncratic shocks may lead to serious malnutrition among poor children. Using longitudinal data of children collected at the age of 1 and 5 years (Young Lives younger cohort data), we examined the existence of permanent consequences of early childhood malnutrition and recovery of children from their early childhood malnutrition plus the persistent effect of pre-natal and post-natal economic shocks on child health and nutritional achievement, as measured by z-score of height-for-age and log of height of 5-year-old children. We employed OLS, instrumental variable (IV) and generalised method of moment estimation methods controlling for community fixed effects. Our results confirmed the existence of permanent consequences of early childhood malnutrition and also the potential for the strong recovery of children from their initial early malnutrition. We also found significant effects on zscore of height-for-age and log of height, not only for post-natal economic shock but also the pre-natal economic shocks, implying the long-term consequence of shocks on children's height.In addition to area-wide shocks including crop failure brought about by drought, insects and pests, we found that idiosyncratic shocks such as separation of family, death of breadwinners and unavailability of food are also important determinants of malnutrition. Although area-wide economic shocks are very important and it would be good for the government to focus more on them, idiosyncratic shocks also have a considerable contribution to make to the improvement of children's z-score of height-for-age and consequently to the ...

Designed constitutionally, the Ethiopian education sector has been one of the most important pro-poor sectors over recent years, with a percentage of public education spending to total government spending of 21 per cent, and to GDP 4 per cent in 2012/13. As the result of this, school enrolment (Grades 1-12) doubled from about 10 million students in 2002/3 to over 20 million in 2013/14. Coupled with the public educational expenditure, the government has also made a number of policy changes in different areas of the sector. Examples include the introduction of the "O" class programme and non-formal preschool service called the Child‐to‐Child delivery system aiming to address marginalised children who have little or no access to preschool education. Additionally, targeting better access, equity, efficiency and quality, some other reforms were introduced in line with the latest two Education Sector Development Programmes (2005/6-2009/10 and 2010/11- 2014/15). Of note is the General Education Quality Improvement Program, designed to support quality improvements for all primary and secondary schools, and the expansion of higher education, particularly at university level, where the number of public universities increased from eight in 2008/9 to 31, with more than 0.62 million students, in 2013/14. Yet, in spite of the unprecedented enrolment at all levels, the education sector still resembles a pyramid, with varying degrees of access for different groups, where nine out of ten children of appropriate age are enrolled in primary education, two out of ten in secondary education and only one out of ten at university. There could be several reasons that explain the pyramid shape of the sector, and the disparity among various groups of individuals in particular. This paper analyses the educational inequalities that may exist among different groups of children and young people in Ethiopia using Young Lives longitudinal data collected over four rounds of surveys, for two cohorts of children born in 2001-02 (the 'Younger ...

Social protection measures are becoming an increasingly important policy tool for African governments. These measures have important potential for reducing poverty and positive impacts on child well-being. However, Young Lives research has found that different social protection programmes in Ethiopia have had unexpected impacts on girls' and boys' participation in school, and in paid and unpaid work. In order to create a win-win situation where both national economic development and children's rights are realised, it is crucial to have a deeper understanding of the relationship between social protection programmes and children's time use.

Social protection measures are becoming an increasingly important policy tool for African governments. These measures have important potential for reducing poverty and positive impacts on child well-being. However, Young Lives research has found that different social protection programmes in Ethiopia have had unexpected impacts on girls' and boys' participation in school, and in paid and unpaid work. In order to create a win-win situation where both national economic development and children's rights are realised, it is crucial to have a deeper understanding of the relationship between social protection programmes and children's time use

This paper, using data from the Young Lives longitudinal survey in Ethiopia, examines the effects of pre-school attendance on the cognitive development of urban children at the ages of 5 and 8 (measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Cognitive Development Assessment – Quantitative test (CDA-Q)). We used propensity score matching techniques in order to estimate the impact of pre-school. We also substantiated the analysis using various empirical approaches including ordinary least squares and instrumental variable estimation methods. Our results show that pre-school attendance has a statistically significant positive impact on the cognitive development of children at the ages of both 5 and 8 years, with the bigger impact at the latter age. Moreover, pre-school attendance has also a positive and statistically significant effect on primary school enrolment and progression through grades. Despite the fact that early childhood education has immense importance for children's cognitive development, public investment in pre-school education is currently limited in Ethiopia, with the private sector taking the key role, which may exacerbate the inequality that exists between rich and poor (and between urban and rural areas). Therefore, given the relatively low rate of pre-school attendance and the low quality of basic education, the Government needs to reconsider its education priorities so as to invest more in early childhood education.

This report presents initial findings from the second round of data collection carried out in Ethiopia in late 2006 to early 2007. It does not aim to give a comprehensive overview of all the findings from Young Lives. Rather it gives a broad outline of some of the key indicators of childhood poverty and changes that have taken place in children's lives between the round of data collection in 2002 and the second. Data are mainly presented for the entire age group cohort, in most cases separated into wealth groups or by rural/urban location. The full richness of the data is not presented in this preliminary report, but we hope it contains enough information to prompt other researchers, policymakers and stakeholders to start engage with the data. From our survey data, there are signs that the economic growth and improved access to services have been broadly inclusive. We see that children's well-being – in all dimensions- is strongly linked to, and determined by, their socio-economic status and parents' backgrounds. Over the past 5 years, there have been obvious improvements in basic services, and school enrolment is up, although quality of education is now a key priority for the government. Nutrition remains a challenge, which high levels of under-nutrition, although in other ways we have seen obvious recovery following the 2002 drought.

This report presents initial findings from the second round of data collection carried out in Ethiopia in late 2006 to early 2007. It does not aim to give a comprehensive overview of all the findings from Young Lives. Rather it gives a broad outline of some of the key indicators of childhood poverty and changes that have taken place in the children's lives between the first round of data collection in 2002 and the second. Data are mainly presented for the entire age group cohort, in most cases separated into wealth groups or by rural/urban location. The full richness of the data is not reflected in this preliminary report, but we hope that it contains enough information to prompt other researchers, policymakers and stakeholders to start to engage with the data. From our survey data, there are signs that the economic growth and improved access to services have been broadly inclusive. We see that children's well-being – in all dimensions – is strongly linked to, and determined by, their socio-economic status and parents' backgrounds. Over the past 5 years, there have been obvious improvements in basic services, and school enrolment is up, although quality of education is now a key priority for the government. Nutrition remains a challenge, with high levels of undernutrition, although in other ways we have seen obvious recovery following the 2002 drought.

This paper examines efforts to bridge multi-disciplinary research, policy engagement and practice to improve the lives of children living in poverty in a sample of developing countries. The paper is based on the experiences of Young Lives and draws on insights from Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam. It pays particular attention to the work of the Young Lives team in Ethiopia to make children's issues central to the Ethiopian Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper process. The paper first discusses the importance of examining and understanding the policy environment in order to increase the possibility of having a pro-child influence on policy. It then considers how Young Lives in Ethiopia has set out the key factors to ensure successful research-based advocacy. The authors stress the importance of: credible research quality, understanding of the socio-political context in which research is embedded, identifying and networking with state and civil society actors, and ensuring advocacy messages are framed in a context-appropriate way. They also present lessons learned on the timing of policy engagement; the politics of bridging research and policy; and the value of long-term partnerships between NGOs and researchers. The paper concludes by reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of the poverty reduction strategy in Ethiopia, and outlines some general lessons for translating research into social policy change.

This paper explores efforts to bridge multi-disciplinary research and policy engagement to tackle childhood poverty in developing country contexts, based on the experiences of Young Lives, an international longitudinal policy research project. It focuses on a case study involving the utilisation of research evidence on childhood poverty to shape policy debates about Ethiopia's second generation Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (2006-10). The discussion is situated within theoretical literature on the knowledge/policy/practice interface which supports the reconceptualisation of policy making as a non-linear dynamic process. It pays particular attention to the importance of understanding the political and policy contexts of Southern countries rather than simply importing Northern-derived models of advocacy. It concludes by teasing out generalisable lessons for translating research into social policy change.

This article assesses the financing of early childhood education (ECE) in three resource-constrained contexts: Ethiopia, Liberia, and Mainland Tanzania. Based on an analysis of policy documents and education administrative data, as well as surveys with key policymakers, school principals, and parents, it identifies that ECE is seen as a national priority in government policies across the three countries. However, this commitment is not aligned with the allocation of sufficient financial resources by each of the governments, which are extremely low in all three countries. This misalignment is associated with inequitable resource allocation, further reinforcing gaps in access to quality ECE between more advantaged and disadvantaged populations within the countries. ; World Bank and UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office

The Young Lives Ethiopia Country Report presents results from a fifteen-year longitudinal study, which followed two cohorts of children in 20 sites selected from the five main regions of Ethiopia, from 2002 to 2016, as a component of a larger multi-country project. The research followed one cohort as they grew from infancy to adolescence (aged one to 15), and the second as they grew from early childhood to early adulthood (aged 8 to 22). The study relates conditions early in the lives of children to later outcomes, and so improves understanding of the effects of poverty on children's life trajectories. It also provides information on the effects of policies and changes on the lives of children, and offers evidence-based guidance for policies to improve children's chances of developing into integrated and productive members of society. The report first outlines the Young Lives project and the context in which the Ethiopian study took place, including the engagement between researchers and the Ethiopian government's efforts to improve the lives of its children. It presents key findings and policy implications on four main areas of study: poverty dynamics; child health and nutrition; education and learning; and wellbeing and child protection. The report concludes with implications of the findings for future policy,and the benefits of continuing the research.

This paper describes childhood poverty in Ethiopia and reviews the policies expected to have an impact on childhood poverty. It identifies key stakeholders for the Young Lives study, describes the methods used during the first round of Young Lives research in Ethiopia, and presents preliminary results. Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world, ranking 168 out of 173 countries according to UNDP's 2002 Human Development Index. About 44 per cent of Ethiopia's population were living in absolute poverty in 1999/2000. Eighty nine per cent of children under five and 88 per cent of all children under fourteen lived under precarious conditions with limited or no access to basic services. Furthermore, with over 85 per cent of the population living in rural areas, the issue of rural poverty is of urgent importance. Food security is a key concern for rural households, and the majority of households in rural areas are not able to produce food to last throughout the year. Furthermore, 83 per cent of the rural population has no access to safe drinking water, compared to eight per cent of the urban population. The Ethiopian government has expanded its health-care services in the last five years. Although there have been improvements in access to maternal and child health-care, many children are still not receiving the vaccinations they require. Education has also seen improvements and overall net primary school enrolment has increased substantially. 66 per cent of children from the ages of seven to twelve remain out of school, however, and further improvements need to be made. Ethiopian policymakers stress the importance of economic development and argue that growth will reduce poverty and achieve economic stability. Policies relating to health and education have emphasised improved services and increased access and use. Decentralisation and good governance are also key aspects of government policy, and have been central in government measures aimed at restructuring Ethiopian political and economic systems and ...

This paper describes childhood poverty in Ethiopia and reviews the policies expected to have an impact on childhood poverty. It identifies key stakeholders for the Young Lives study, describes the methods used during the first round of Young Lives research in Ethiopia, and presents preliminary results. Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in the world, ranking 168 out of 173 countries according to UNDP's 2002 Human Development Index. About 44 per cent of Ethiopia's population were living in absolute poverty in 1999/2000. Eighty nine per cent of children under five and 88 per cent of all children under fourteen lived under precarious conditions with limited or no access to basic services. Furthermore, with over 85 per cent of the population living in rural areas, the issue of rural poverty is of urgent importance. Food security is a key concern for rural households, and the majority of households in rural areas are not able to produce food to last throughout the year. Furthermore, 83 per cent of the rural population has no access to safe drinking water, compared to eight per cent of the urban population. The Ethiopian government has expanded its health-care services in the last five years. Although there have been improvements in access to maternal and child health-care, many children are still not receiving the vaccinations they require. Education has also seen improvements and overall net primary school enrolment has increased substantially. 66 per cent of children from the ages of seven to twelve remain out of school, however, and further improvements need to be made. Ethiopian policymakers stress the importance of economic development and argue that growth will reduce poverty and achieve economic stability. Policies relating to health and education have emphasised improved services and increased access and use. Decentralisation and good governance are also key aspects of government policy, and have been central in government measures aimed at restructuring Ethiopian political and economic systems and ...