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Contents -- 1 An Empirical Puzzle -- 1.1 The Conventional Wisdom -- 1.2 Summary of the Arguments -- 1.3 Contribution to the Literature -- 1.4 Chapter Outline -- References -- 2 The Judicial Role Orientation -- 2.1 Role Theoretic Literature -- 2.1.1 Broader Social Sciences -- 2.1.2 Political Science -- 2.2 A Role Theoretic Framework -- 2.2.1 Conceptualizing the Judicial Role Orientation -- 2.2.2 Operationalizing the Judicial Role Orientation -- 2.3 Conclusion -- References -- 3 Insights from State High Court Judges -- 3.1 The Survey Design -- 3.2 The Survey Results -- 3.3 Conclusion -- References -- 4 The Development of the Judicial Role Orientation -- 4.1 Role, Role Expectations, and Role Synthesization -- 4.2 Research Design -- 4.3 Results and Discussion -- 4.4 Conclusion -- References -- 5 The Impact of the Judicial Role Orientation -- 5.1 Role Orientation and Role Behavior -- 5.2 Research Design -- 5.3 Results and Discussion -- 5.4 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Concluding Thoughts -- 6.1 Summary of the Findings -- 6.2 Summary of the Implications -- 6.3 Potential for Future Research -- References

Single nontransferable vote (SNTV) electoral systems create severe collective-action problems for political parties. If multimember districts are used, large political parties must run the optimal number of candidates in each district and divide the vote equally between those candidates. Failure to do so will cost a party seats. In Japan, the former parties of the non-Communist opposition cooperated in all national elections from 1971 to 1990. In their efforts to cooperate, these parties as a group faced collective-action problems. To compensate for these problems, these parties modified their methods of cooperation. The widespread nature of these innovations in cooperation rebuts the common assertions that the Japanese opposition acted irrationally or incompetently.