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Why the people of a country foreign nations trust? The European financial crisis has destroyed hopes that economic and political links automatically lead to mutual trust. Tuuli Marya Small , therefore, addresses the question of the importance of the social culture in the European integration. Émile Durkheim's concept of mechanical solidarity reference , it checks whether populations of different nations , the central social value orientations share with each other , trust each other more than those who are less culturally similar. Based on representative data from 25 European countries will b

Does civic participation lead to a large social network? This study claims that high levels of civic participation may obstruct individual social embeddedness. Using survey data from the German Survey on Volunteering (Deutscher Freiwilligensurvey; 1999–2009), this study conducts macro- as well as multi-level regressions to examine the link between civic participation and social embeddedness. Findings reveal that civic participation on the sub-national regional level is not generally associated with social embeddedness, but it affects the participants' and non-participants' possibilities for friendships differently. This holds especially true in urban areas, but the effect cannot be found in rural areas. The analysis has implications for further research to enhance the social embeddedness of the excluded.

Can widespread civic participation lead to social exclusion? I argue that this is possible, as high levels of regional civic participation can block specific social groups from social resources. When more actors participate in communal networks, the pool of social resources available to non-active individuals is diluted. This is especially true in rural regions. Using survey data from the German National Volunteer Survey (Freiwilligensurvey 1999-2014) and multi-level regressions, I examine the link between regional civic participation and the individual expectation of receiving support from people outside the own household. My findings reveal that civic participation rates on the macro level affect participants' and non-participants' expectations differently. While widespread participation is associated with a higher expectation of receiving support for participants, it is also associated with a lower expectation of receiving support for non-participants. Thus, high macro-level participation implies that non-participants are at risk of (subjective) social exclusion.

Does an increasing divide in ideological orientations influence citizens' political behaviour? This study explores whether mass ideological polarisation stimulates individuals to become politically active in terms of poll attendance and non-elec-toral participation. In line with relative deprivation theory I argue that in an envi-ronment of ideological polarisation, individuals' normative notions are threatened, increasing the probability that they will actively participate in the political decision-making process. Using the European Social Survey (2002–2014) and focusing on subnational regions, I conduct macro-level as well as multi-level analyses. Empirical results show that ideological polarisation indeed mobilises for non-electoral participation, while there is no such effect on voting. In the second step, I examine whether ideological extremism makes individuals more susceptible to environmental ideological polarisation. Findings show that members of the far right are more likely to become politically active when their social environment is divided over political ideology. In contrast, members of the far left are hardly motivated by rising polarisation regarding ideology.

AbstractDoes an increasing divide in normative notions within a population influence citizens' political protest behaviour? This article explores whether public opinion polarisation stimulates individuals to attend lawful demonstrations. In line with relative deprivation theory, it is argued that in an environment of polarisation, individuals' normative notions are threatened, increasing the probability that they will actively participate in the political decision‐making process. Using the European Social Survey from the period 2002–2014 and focusing on subnational regions, multilevel analyses are conducted. Thereby a new index to measure public opinion polarisation is introduced. Depending on the issue, empirical results confirm the effect of polarisation. While average citizens are not motivated to demonstrate over the issue of whether people from other countries are a cultural threat, they are motivated by the issues of reducing inequality and of homosexuality. The article goes on to examine in a second step whether ideological extremism makes individuals more susceptible to environmental opinion polarisation. Findings show that members of the far left are more likely to protest when their social environment is divided over the issue of income inequality. In contrast, members of the far right are motivated by rising polarisation regarding homosexuality. In sum, citizens become mobilised as their beliefs and values are threatened by public opinion polarisation.

ZusammenfassungPolitische Partizipation wird von Kontextfaktoren mitbestimmt. Die ideologische Polarisierung ist ein solcher Faktor. Während sich die Wahlforschung mit dem Einfluss von Elitenpolarisierung auf das individuelle Wahlverhalten beschäftigt, ist bislang nichts über den Einfluss der ideologischen Polarisierung der Bevölkerung auf das nicht‐elektorale Partizipationsverhalten der Bürger bekannt. In diesem Beitrag wird daher danach gefragt, in welchem Zusammenhang die nicht‐elektorale Partizipation von Individuen mit dem Ausmaß an ideologischer Polarisierung ihrer regionalen sozialen Umwelt steht. Vermutet wird, dass wachsende ideologische Polarisierung die Bürger mobilisiert. Mit Daten des European Social Survey (2002–2012) lässt sich ein solcher Effekt zeigen. Dabei werden zwei neue Vorschläge zur Messung ideologischer Polarisierung gemacht. Anschließend wird die allgemeine Annahme spezifiziert und die These aufgestellt, dass ideologische Polarisierung besonders auf politisch bereits sensibilisierte Bevölkerungsgruppen wie ein Mobilisierungsverstärker wirkt. Zum Teil bestätigen die folgenden Analysen diese Annahme. Insgesamt legen die Ergebnisse die Schlussfolgerung nahe, dass sich das Ausmaß an ideologischer Polarisierung auf das Partizipationsverhalten der Individuen ungleich auswirkt.