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AbstractThis Article reinterprets the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) to show how it might rationally strengthen protections for the environment against intentional damage by states, particularly during armed conflict. The Article applies the orthodox rules of treaty interpretation to analyze in depth the Convention text, the travaux préparatoires, and available subsequent state practice, aiming to determine how the somewhat opaque Article II of ENMOD and its definition of "environmental modification technique" is best understood. It concludes that ENMOD has a broader potential application than it has historically been given.

The "Convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification technique" (referred lately in this paper as "Convention"), effective since 5 October 1978, strictly forbade military usage of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD). The Convention protects signatory nations more broadly; against any other hostile use of the ENMOD technologies, and to advocate cooperation, trust and scientific knowledge exchange between the signatory nations. The Convention also offers UN role in consultation, protection and the determined protocol for a possible issue caused by the application of the ENMOD technologies. Since the dissolution of Yugoslavia, in the early nineties, only one country; the Republic of Slovenia, ratified the Convention. Due to this fact, a large area in Southeast Europe has no proper international regulation of this matter. Regardless of the minor possibility of military ENMOD application in the region, there is an increasing expectancy of unilateral ENMOD applications as a response to economic losses caused by climate change (impacts on hydrology cycle, agriculture, forestry etc.). The main goal of this work is to apply an objective multi-criterion decision analyse, in the form of combined Analytic Hierarchy Process and Analytic Network Process, to suggest a course of action for decision-makers in the ENMOD regulation. Besides ranked alternatives, many latent and side suggestions arose from the results helping to determine the next best alternative in the case of inability to realize the best option: assembling a regional summit to promote Convention ratification.

El ambiente puede ser utilizado como blanco mediante una guerra ambiental. Este concepto fue introducido por la ONU en los años 70 a través del Convenio ENMOD. La Constitución de Venezuela de 1999, establece la normativa sobre su seguridad (impedirá la entrada al país de desechos tóxicos y peligrosos, así como la fabricación y uso de armas nucleares, químicas y biológicas), pero no hace referencia a las "armas" de posible uso en una guerra ambiental. La Asamblea Constituyente, que produjo dicha constitución ignoró el ENMOD y el potencial uso de "armas" geofísicas. Se sugieren acciones futuras para enfrentar este problema. ; Th e environment can be a target in an environmental war. Th is concept was introduced by the UN in the 1970s through the ENMOD Convention. Th e Constitution of Venezuela establishes the norms of its security (preventing the entry of toxic and hazardous wastes, as well as the manufacture and use of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons) but it does not refer to weapons that can be used in an environmental war. Th e Constituent Assembly, which led to this Constitution, ignored the existence of the ENMOD and the potential use of geophysical weapons. Some future actions are suggested to deal with this problem. ; 105-124 ; mpenaloa@ula.ve, enero2005@yahoo.com, junio1950@gmail.com ; semestral

Explores environmental protection in time of war, in context of the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD Convention).

Abstract Environment has been widely recognized as international interest and all states shall avoid any activities that may damage the environment. The adoption of Stockholm Declaration 1972, World Charter for Nature 1982, and Rio Declaration 1992 denotes that protection of the environment reflects customary international law. War or armed conflict was one of the principal contributors to the environmental damages. As in the Vietnam War, the United States attempted to create artificial rain by seeding the cloud which led to the establishment of the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD Convention) and the Additional Protocol I 1977. However, the Gulf War 1990-1991 gave rise to the questions whether those two instruments were sufficient to encompass the environmental damages caused by the Iraqi methods of warfare by burning oil wells and spilling oil to the sea. This issue was raised by the author since these two instruments set a high threshold and unclear terms on a degree of environmental damages to be considered as a violation. Accordingly, this paper discusses whether the environmental damages caused by the Persian Gulf War meets the threshold set by the Additional Protocol I and the ENMOD Convention, and further discusses the international responsibility that arose from the damages caused by the War. The result of this research shows that environmental damages caused by Iraqi burning oil wells and oil spill apparently did not satisfy the threshold set by the Additional Protocol I and the ENMOD Convention. Keywords: Armed Conflict, Environment, Gulf War, International Humanitarian Law, Responsibility Abstrak Lingkungan sudah diakui sebagai permasalahan internasional dan semua negara wajib untuk menghindari kegiatan yang berakibat kerusakan terhadap lingkungan. Pembentukan Deklarasi Stockholm 1972, Piagam Dunia Untuk Lingkungan 1982 dan Deklarasi Rio 1992 menunjukkan bahwa perlindungan terhadap lingkungan telah merefleksikan hukum kebiasaan internasional. Perang atau konflik bersenjata merupakan salah satu penyebab utama kerusakan lingkungan. Seperti percobaan untuk membuat hujan buatan yang dilakukan oleh Amerika Serikat dalam Perang Vietnam yang berujung dibentuknya Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques 1976 (Konvensi ENMOD) dan Protokol Tambahan I 1977. Namun, Perang Teluk 1990-1991 menimbulkan pertanyaan apakah kedua instrumen tersebut dapat mencakup kerusakan lingkungan yang diakibatkan oleh metode berperang Irak dengan membakar dan menumpahkan minyak. Permasalahan tersebut diangkat oleh penulis karena kedua instrumen tersebut menetapkan kriteria kerusakan lingkungan yang kurang jelas dan standar yang terlalu tinggi untuk dinyatakan sebagai pelanggaran. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini akan membahas apakah kerusakan lingkungan yang diakibatkan oleh Perang Teluk memenuhi syarat yang ditetapkan oleh Protokol Tambahan I dan Konvensi ENMOD, dan juga membahas tanggung jawab internasional yang timbul sebagai akibat dari kerusakan lingkungan yang diakibatkan oleh perang. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kerusakan lingkungan yang diakibatkan oleh Irak dengan membakar dan menumpahkan minyak ternyata tidak memenuhi standar yang ditetapkan oleh Protokol Tambahan I dan Konvensi ENMOD. Kata kunci: Hukum Humaniter Internasional, Konflik Bersenjata, Lingkungan, Perang Teluk, Pertanggungjawaban

This thesis is an attempt to analyse the efficacy of the existing international legal framework provided by the law of armed conflict for the wartime protection of the environment, based on the scientific data obtained during environmental assessments conducted after the 1990-1991 Gulf War and focusing on the Kuwaiti oil well fires and the legal threshold provided by Art I ENMOD Convention and Art 35(3) and 55(1) Additional Protocol I. The first main part tackles the prior background and development, course and environmental repercussions of the conflict from both a scientific and legal perspective. Geographic, economic, historical and political aspects are presented for an easier understanding of the implications of the conflict and particularly of the sabotage of over 700 oil wells in Kuwait. The effects on the atmospheric, terrestrial, marine environment and human health are studied in detail. The next central part of this thesis focuses on the legal threshold required for liability for environmental damage by using the concept of widespread, long-lasting/long-term and/or severe effects on the environment during armed conflict. The general purpose, applicability and interpretation of central problematic terms used in Art 35(3) and Art 55(1) Additional Protocol I, respectively Art I ENMOD Convention are examined, focusing on the detailed comparative analysis of the meaning of "widespread", "long-lasting/long-term" and "severe" effects/damage on the environment. The conclusion of this thesis summarises the findings and shows that although Art I ENMOD Convention and Art 35(3) and 55(1) Additional Protocol I provide a certain wartime environmental protection, it is insufficient and requires much more development and precise applicational guidelines for future armed conflicts. ; Author Andreea-Maria Stan ; Universität Linz, Diplomarbeit, 2021 ; (VLID)6261101

Roots, F.: International agreements to prohibit or control modification of the environment for military purposes: an historical overview and comments on current issues. S. 13-34. Fauteux, P.: The use of the environment as an instrument of war in occupied Kuwait. S. 35-79. Russell, D.: The Kuwait oil fires and their environmental effects. S. 85-95. Blanchet, J. P.: Atmospheric modelling of pollution in the Gulf area. S. 97-106. Meshal, A.: The oil spill in the Gulf and its impact on the marine environment. S. 107-135. Schiefer, H. B.: Long-term environmental health effects: an assessment. S. 137-146. Kirsch, P.: The London conference on environmental protection and the law of war. S. 151-158. Reiskind, J.: The Ottawa conference of experts on the use of the environment as a tool of conventional warfare: a synopsis. S. 159-160. Fauteux, P.: The Munich consultation. S. 161-163. Cleminson, R.: The Environmental Modification (ENMOD) Convention: upgrading verification through experience. S. 169-172. Zimmerman, P.: After the shooting stopped: using remote sensing to fight the Kuwait fires. S. 173-177. Tracey, J.: Airborne sensing for the verification of noncompliance of the ENMOD convention: applications and legal implications. S. 179-186. Roots, F.: The ENMOD convention and related international agreements: the changed setting in which they must operate. S. 195-207. Fauteux, P.: Legal and political lessons. S. 209-215. Schiefer, H. B.: Scientific and technical lessons. S. 217-218

Advancing scientific knowledge regarding the photosynthetic process at a molecular level has raised the possibility of widespread artificial photosynthetic projects in the future, for example, for large-scale or 'off-grid' renewable energy and food production. The value that these projects would have to states and the global community, attracts the possibility that artificial photosynthesis, and the photosynthetic process in general, may become 'direct' military targets. This chapter explores the extent to which the existing principles of the law of armed conflict, international environmental law and the ENMOD Convention are capable of regulating a direct attack on natural or artificial photosynthesis. In particular, it examines whether the basic principles of international environmental law prohibit direct manipulation of natural or artificial photosynthesis and are applicable during warfare. It then analyses whether natural photosynthesis may be protected from direct military attack under Articles 35(3) and 55 of Additional Protocol I or under the ENMOD Convention. ; Funding information: ARC DP140100566

Advancing scientific knowledge regarding the photosynthetic process at a molecular level has raised the possibility of widespread artificial photosynthetic projects in the future, for example, for large-scale or 'off-grid' renewable energy and food production. The value that these projects would have to states and the global community, attracts the possibility that artificial photosynthesis, and the photosynthetic process in general, may become 'direct' military targets. This chapter explores the extent to which the existing principles of the law of armed conflict, international environmental law and the ENMOD Convention are capable of regulating a direct attack on natural or artificial photosynthesis. In particular, it examines whether the basic principles of international environmental law prohibit direct manipulation of natural or artificial photosynthesis and are applicable during warfare. It then analyses whether natural photosynthesis may be protected from direct military attack under Articles 35(3) and 55 of Additional Protocol I or under the ENMOD Convention. ; Funding information: ARC DP140100566

Advancing scientific knowledge regarding the photosynthetic process at a molecular level has raised the possibility of widespread artificial photosynthetic projects in the future, for example, for large-scale or 'off-grid' renewable energy and food production. The value that these projects would have to states and the global community, attracts the possibility that artificial photosynthesis, and the photosynthetic process in general, may become 'direct' military targets. This chapter explores the extent to which the existing principles of the law of armed conflict, international environmental law and the ENMOD Convention are capable of regulating a direct attack on natural or artificial photosynthesis. In particular, it examines whether the basic principles of international environmental law prohibit direct manipulation of natural or artificial photosynthesis and are applicable during warfare. It then analyses whether natural photosynthesis may be protected from direct military attack under Articles 35(3) and 55 of Additional Protocol I or under the ENMOD Convention. ; ARC DP140100566