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1. Problem and definition -- The need to justify punishment -- The definition of punishment -- 2. Backward-looking theories -- Retribution theories in general -- Legal, circular, and intrinsic-good retributivism -- Distress-culpability, forfeited rights, indifference -- Innocence system -- Annulment, offenders' rights -- Rational contract -- Consent to loss on immunity -- Satisfactions-in-acting -- 3. Grievance satisfaction -- An actual reason -- System -- Defences and criticism -- 4. Utilitarian prevention theory, etc. -- Questions of fact about prevention -- The utilitarian prevention theory -- The victimization objection -- Utilitarians on victimization -- Justified and unjustified victimizations -- Retrospect and conclusion -- 5. Reform, rehabilitation, treatment -- Punishment as reformative -- Illness and treatment -- Objections -- 6. Determinism -- Punishment, freedom, responsibility -- A sketch of determinism -- Determinism despite quantum theory -- Compatibilism and incompatibilism -- Attitudinism -- Arguments for compatibilism and incompatibilism -- The real consequences of determinism -- Punishment -- 7. Compromise theories -- Retrospect, separate questions -- Prevention and retribution -- Correct-values retributivism -- Liberal-community retributivism -- 8. Non-problem, other conclusions -- The end of all retributivism -- The decent society -- The principle of humanity -- Our societies -- Our unjustified punishments