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Rezension von: Rudolf Tippelt / Aiga von Hippel (Hrsg.): Handbuch Erwachsenenbildung / Weiterbildung. (3., überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften 2009 (1105 S.; ISBN 978-3-531-15506-7; 79,90 EUR).

Rezension von: Sabine Andresen / Rita Casale / Thomas Gabriel / Rebekka Horlacher / Sabina Larcher Klee / Jürgen Oelkers (Hrsg.): Handwörterbuch Erziehungswissenschaft, Weinheim/Basel: Beltz 2009, 924 S.

Rezension von: Annemarie Fritz / Rüdiger Klupsch-Sahlmann / Gabi Ricken (Hrsg.): Handbuch Kindheit und Schule. Neue Kindheit, neues Lernen, neuer Unterricht. Weinheim, Basel: Beltz 2006 (327 S.; ISBN 3-407-25418-0; 29,90 EUR).

The article analyzes the inventory of burials with psalia in the cultures of the Bronze Age of steppe Eurasia. The collection, where the fi rst version of this article was submitted, had not been published for several years. During this period the authors continued to monitor the situation, noting both the new studied complexes and the new literature. A long-prepared collection has recently been released, but the accumulated data has allowed to propose an expanded version of the article, which is based on the information from 106 burial complexes. Based on the collected complexes, the authors attempt to determine the social status of the people buried with psalia. Information about the burials with psalia of several cultures (Sintashta, Petrovskaya, Potapovskaya, Alakulskaya, Pokrovskaya, Don-Volga Abashevskaya) or cultural entities (Nurtai complexes, Zeravshan version of the Bactrian-Margian archaeological complex) was collected by the authors. Throughout the new version of their work, the authors verify which of their conclusions have passed the test over the time period, however short it may be, and make adjustments in their earlier assumptions. After an analysis of the obtained information the authors concluded that the more burials with psalia are introduced into scientifi cdiscourse, the more questionable is the hypothesis that these artifacts primarily mark the carriers of military function who fought on chariots. The harness located in the grave was a token of a high social status of the deceased, but the person did not necessarily belong to a military function. ; В статье анализируется инвентарь погребений с псалиями в культурах эпохи бронзы степной Евразии. Сборник, куда был направлен первый вариант данной статьи, не печатался несколько лет. За это время авторы, продолжая следить за ситуацией, отмечали как исследованные новые комплексы, так и новую литературу. Долго лежавший сборник недавно вышел, но накопившаяся информация позволила предложить расширенную версию статьи, которая опирается на данные 106 погребальных комплексов. На основе собранных комплексов авторы пытаются выяснить общественное положение людей, которых погребали с псалиями. Собрана информация о погребениях с псалиями нескольких культур (синташтинская, петровская, потаповская, алакульская, покровская, доно-волжская абашевская) или культурных образований (нуртайские комплексы, зеравшанский вариант Бактрийско-Маргианского археологического комплекса). По ходу новой версии своей работы авторы проверяют, какие из их выводов выдержали проверку пусть небольшим, но временным промежутком и вносят корректировки в свои же более ранние построения. Проанализировав полученную информацию, авторы приходят к выводу, что чем больше захоронений с псалиями вводится в научный оборот, тем все более сомнительной становится гипотеза, согласно которой данные артефакты маркируют прежде всего носителей военной функции, сражавшихся на колесницах. Упряжь, положенная в могилу, была знаком высокого общественного положения умершего, но это мог быть не обязательно человек с военной функцией. Библиографическме ссылки Аванесова Н.А. Новые материалы эпохи бронзы Зарафшанской долины // Узбекистонда археологик тадкикотлар 2001-йил / масъул мухаррир т.ф.д. Т.Ш. Ширинов. Тошкент: Абдулла Кодирий номидаги халк мероси нашриети, 2002. С. 20–25. Аванесова Н.А. Зерафшанская культурная провинция Бактрийско-Маргианской цивилизации // На пути открытия цивилизации. Сборник к 80-летию В.И. Сарианиди. Труды Маргианской археологической экспедиции / Ред. П.М. Кожин и др. СПб.: Алетейя, 2010. С. 334–364. Аванесова Н.А. 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Part one of an interview with Irene Vilakari of Leominster, Massachusetts. Topics include: Irene Vilakari was born in Helsinki, Finland in 1922. Her parents both died while she was a child. She was cared for by her older sisters. They came to the U.S. just after World War II and lived with relatives in Boston. They got Social Security cards and then found jobs at the Harvard printing press. Their trouble staying in the U.S. legally as immigrants from Finland. What life was like in Helsinki. How Irene and her sisters got along after their parents died. The work they did. What life was like during World War II. How they moved to the U.S. from Finland. ; 1 SPEAKER 1: Mrs. Vilakari, where were you born? MRS. VILAKARI: I was born in Helsinki, Finland, 19… SPEAKER 1: What? MRS. VILAKARI: Uh, uh, 22. SPEAKER 1: Can you briefly describe your early years in your homeland, like your family, the jobs, your parents, things like that? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, you know, uh I eh I was uh three years old were my father died and I was twelve years old when my mother died, and since, ever since I lived with my two sisters. And uh, uh they were uh two and uh three years older than I was. And ah, ah um I, I lived you know – I, I, I consider myself having now happy, happy life, you know. I never felt anything, you know, it wasn't too rich because there are no not too many rich people in Finland anyway. They're all uh kind of a middle class. And I, I had very happy childhood. And the only thing was, you know, when my parents died, that was the saddest part, which when you're young, your fortunate that you know it doesn't, it doesn't hit you as hard as you know if thus one you know… SPEAKER 1: Oh. MRS. VILAKARI: Experience something like that when your old – older, I mean. I know we are old. [Laughter] But, you know, my sisters died here just a few years ago and that was quite different. And uh then the war was the next uh, uh… the two wars, I was in Finland. I was right in Helsinki all the time, you know, when we had the 1939 War, First, the winter war. And then the Second World War, you know, it started in 1941. There was one year in between, you know, one year of peace. And then uh, you know, I uh I… right after that, I left for America. And we never had any idea. We had the uh our half-sister was living here, and uh after war she wrote to us that, you know, we – if we maybe would like to come to visit America, and we got at all excited. Of course, we wanted to come2 to visit America. And she said that maybe you like to live here, you know, if you like it well enough, so we started to get out papers ready. That is very hard to get them. I don't exactly know how to say it, you know. You have to have a permission to leave the country at that time, you know, because it was shortly after war. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: And they were very short of men. And we were doing men's job because of the war. We have started to do a line at that operating in a newspaper. That's why they didn't want us to leave. So they say that, you know, they won't give us a permit because they said for sure we are not coming back if we go to America. They didn't know that you're just not going to stay in this country if you have a visitor's visa, you know. Everybody in Finland know that, you know, same as years before, if you came to this country, you could stay if you wanted to. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: But, no, the laws were so strict at that time already, that you couldn't, you could have stayed if you never had anything to do with the law or if you didn't want to work with the permission and you could never have anything to do with the, whatever you have to do with the state or pensions or anything like that, you know. You could have – it's just like an outlaw, you know. You could have stayed here but, you know, not – we didn't want to… when we wanted to come here. And then again with the legal papers so that we know that we can stay and be citizens who are now these days. We have very nice here, you know, that year when we were here; that's why we liked it so well, you know. Our sister, half-sister, and her husband, of course, they had a – I don't know how you… would you call it rooming house? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, boarding house.3 MRS. VILAKARI: Boarding house, yes. But they didn't serve food, you know. They had students from MIT and Boston University. They bought an old millionaire's house on Commonwealth Avenue. SPEAKER 1: Wow. MRS. VILAKARI: And they had lots of students, so they were all young people. They cleaned their rooms and changed the linens you know, but no food. SPEAKER 1: No food. MRS. VILAKARI: No. And that's where we lived that first year and we had such a nice time that we didn't want to – SPEAKER 1: Just here visiting first. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yeah, that's right, yes. But, you know, do you have room enough you know? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: So like I tell, I have a lot to tell. SPEAKER 1: Okay. MRS. VILAKARI: When we came, we told our brother-in-law because that's what they said on the boat, you know. The officials said many times that we cannot work because we had visitors visa, and when we came we told our brother-in-law that we wanted to work because we wanted to get some money for ourselves. But we said we cannot work because they said it's illegal, you know, because we have to have a permanent visa. SPEAKER 1: Working visa. MRS. VILAKARI: That's right, yes, if we are able to work. [Laughter] And he said that if we can get the Social Security card, that's the permission to work. I think that he really thought that that was the, you know… SPEAKER 1: The right to work. MRS. VILAKARI: Permission we needed, because when he came—I think now we would be more than 50 years ago—he didn't have to have any permission so, you know, he was so sure that if we get the Social Security Card…4 SPEAKER 1: That's all you need, yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: We are able to work. So we sent to the Social Security office. And they don't ask you a passport; they don't ask what kind of visa you have. Do you know that? SPEAKER 1: No. MRS. VILAKARI: No, they don't ask anything. And we didn't know English. We all got our Social Security cards and we were so happy. My goodness, why did they say so many times that we can't work if it's so easy? But we were just happy that we were able to work. So we went to Harvard; we worked at the Harvard Printing press that year. We went to Harvard, and they searched our papers very carefully and they have a special person – now I can't remember her name. But anyway, she was the person that knew all the research because there a lot of students that come from other countries, so they are very familiar with their visa business you know. And when we went there, that lady happened to be on a lunch, and they told us we have to go and see her. And then there was another person, a man, who was kind of a taking care of her business while she was on lunch. He shook our hands and said, "Welcome to work," and so we thought, "Aha, everything is okay." [Laughs] SPEAKER 1: Geez. MRS. VILAKARI: Wasn't that funny, you know? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: That test? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, yeah, you were just lucky. MRS. VILAKARI: Luck, yes. When we think there so many places we had to go through and we always told the truth. And then we worked there until our visa… we had visa for one year. SPEAKER 1: Uh-huh.5 MRS. VILAKARI: And when six months was gone, it said in our papers that then we would have to ask permission for the other six months but we would get it but we would have to apply again. So we went to the Immigration office and we said we would like to have more visa. They asked right away, "How come you've been working?" Then we told, you know, they took us in separate rooms and interviewed us separately so that we wouldn't know what one was saying. But we decided, we said that we tell everything just as it is, so you know everybody would – SPEAKER 1: Everything was the truth. MRS. VILAKARI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: It was the truth. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: It was just like you said. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, I did, because it wasn't our fault. We told everybody that we have visitor's visa. And then they warned that the interview of me – I think that I know little more English than my sisters, you know, like some people learn a language a little bit better. I didn't know it well, but anyway, he wrote 17, you know, sheets of papers. SPEAKER 1: Wow. MRS. VILAKARI: And all very, very, very close, you know. He ended up with that much about, you know, that thing; I never think it would have been that bad. Then they said that now we have to see their boss and he will tell us what to do. And when we went to see the boss, oh he was so mad. We were crying, you know, because felt that we haven't done anything wrong. SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. VILAKARI: But then the fellow who interviewed me—his name was Mr. Powers—he told the other fellow, "Please read the papers first and then decide if they have done so wrong." And then he said, "Okay, don't do anything now. Don't quit in Harvard before I write you a 6 letter. It would be coming in a week or two," he said, to know after he has a chance to read the interview. "Then I will let you know what you have to do." That was in April when we applied for more visa. SPEAKER 1: What year was this again? MRS. VILAKARI: April. SPEAKER 1: What year? MRS. VILAKARI: That was 1947. SPEAKER 1: Okay. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah. But then when we applied for more visa, it was 1948 already because we came 1947 July, and then next spring we started to apply for more permission to stay. But that letter never came. It came in August the next year. He let us work because we said we don't have money to go back, that we have to make so much money. Because we understood that we can stay here if we wanted to, we never thought we have to leave, so it was kind of we came here with false pretense – how do you say…? SPEAKER 1: False pretence. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah. Because we didn't know that you actually cannot work and you cannot stay here. They said that you have to first vote. SPEAKER 1: Where did you get your ideas from? The ones that you – because everybody else had told you it was… like your relatives? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, no, all the emigrants that had come before. We were almost the only ones that left Finland at that time because after war, nobody could get the permission to go out from Finland SPEAKER 1: But everybody else had told you it was – MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. Oh everybody said, "Oh, you can." But, you know, they really thought so. SPEAKER 1: Yeah MRS. VILAKARI: They didn't know that the laws had changed, you know. They thought it was the same thing. When they stayed, you know, from 7 the boats, there were lots of seamen working on the boats. They came here and they stayed; they never had to go back. I don't remember what year it was when they changed the law that you cannot stay anymore. SPEAKER 1: But they didn't know why. MRS. VILAKARI: Everybody who had come 1920 before that could stay without any papers. I'm not saying that it is so but anyway I know that there was a year when they changed the law that you cannot stay without coming to this country with the proper papers. SPEAKER 1: And they never informed you people. MRS. VILAKARI: No, no, no. SPEAKER 1: So it was an innocent mistake, really. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, that's right, yes, because we didn't know. I was seventeen or… no, no, I was old at that time when we came here. When the war started, I was seventeen, but I think I was twenty-five, but I mean, you know… SPEAKER 1: Still young. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. And when people told me it was so, I believed. I didn't even think that – because they had stayed here. My sister came here to study English. She was studying languages in Helsinki University and she came here to study English and, see, on one year's permission, but she got married, you know. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: And that's how she stayed. But she could have stayed at that time, because it was before that time that the law was changed, so that's how, you know… [Laughter] You know, that's quite a story. SPEAKER 1: How about us go back to when you were living in Finland? What kind of jobs did your parents have? MRS. VILAKARI: My mother was a housewife, and my father was, in very early years, he was a blacksmith from his occupation, but then he had 8 the – I don't know. Maybe we'll call it trucking business, like the deliveries, you know. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: He delivered things, you know, that kind of a business. Then before he died, you know, or later. Yes, because I was only three years old when he died, so I really don't remember much, and because I was only twelve when my mother died, you know… SPEAKER 1: So you could not – MRS. VILAKARI: There wasn't any that I could ask anything. SPEAKER 1: Remember anything. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, that's it. Now I am sorry because, you know, there would have been so many things I would like to know about the early years but I just know what people are telling and there are nobody close. My sisters were, you know, one was two years older than I and the other one was three years older than I, so they didn't know much better, you know. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: That's why I – SPEAKER 1: Who brought you up? MRS. VILAKARI: We… just three of us. SPEAKER 1: Just three you girls? MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, we're three girls. SPEAKER 1: You mean you didn't have anybody else to help you? MRS. VILAKARI: Well, you know, first, when our mother died, I was twelve and she was fifteen, so we couldn't live with just three of us. We had one lady that we used to live in Helsinki earlier. She was living in the next door and she was in Salvation Army, a very religious person, you know, and we always liked her so much and we know that she was living alone. And then when our mother died, first we lived with our aunt and then our cousins, but, you know, it was too much. They had three daughters themselves and then three of us,9 you know, it was too much for them and it wasn't nice for us either, because we really didn't have a… SPEAKER 1: Get along, yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: Kind of a home feeling. Yes. And we had a condominium; we own a condominium, and then we said that we would like to live in our own condominium and have somebody live with us, you know, adopt us. And when we went to ask Miss [Kowalkowski] was her name, she thought that it was a sign from the God that she had a thing to do, you know, to bring us up. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: And then she lived with us until war, then she went to live with her own. I think they were her brother's daughters, you know, then she went there because they were living outside of the Helsinki and she didn't want to be in Helsinki when the war [broke] and everything. So, that's how she lived. SPEAKER 1: Who supported your family, though, that lady you sought? MRS. VILAKARI: No, we worked. SPEAKER 1: You all worked. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, you know – SPEAKER 1: Did any of you go to school for a while? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yeah, you know, elementary school is a must in Finland, but then after that, you have to pay for your own schooling. You don't get high school for nothing like here. So we went to school at nights and we worked during daytime. SPEAKER 1: Oh. What kind of jobs did you do? MRS. VILAKARI: You know… SPEAKER 1: Besides – well, you told me about the [liner] type. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. I was 13 years old when I went to do work for the newspaper as an errand girl. That's when I started. I was there since I came to this country. I was then already 50 years before I came to this country.10 SPEAKER 1: Wow. MRS. VILAKARI: And as an errand girl, I think I was couple of years and then they took me as an apprentice, you know, to the… SPEAKER 1: [That in the bottom]… MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yes, that's right. SPEAKER 1: Did your sisters work in the same place? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. Yeah, we all worked at the Helsinki Sanomat. That's Finland's biggest newspaper. SPEAKER 1: So you made enough to you made enough to live a comfortable life? MRS. VILAKARI: Oh, yes, you know, it's a very good, you know, very well paid occupation in Finland. SPEAKER 1: So it wasn't that difficult to live then? MRS. VILAKARI: No, no, we didn't had… and you know when you're young… I remember sometimes, not before, you know, it's a five-year apprenticeship so you don't get the pay so fast, you know, although you get it eventually but you don't [indulge] when we all didn't have so much, you know. Oh, we didn't have a worry. One thing was good that, you know, we didn't have to pay any rent. Our condominiums in Finland are so old already that they have them so long time. They are condominium that we owned. We didn't have to pay any rent; we got dividend. SPEAKER 1: Ah-huh. MRS. VILAKARI: Instead of paying rent every month, imagine, you know, we got quite a lot of dividend every year. We could live free and still get money from the place, because it was a big apartment house and they had oak stores on the street level, so those stores paid very good rent. That's why, you know, the other expenses were paid by the stores, so – SPEAKER 1: That really fortunate.11 MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah. Yes, it was. Sometimes I remember we didn't have much money, and we wanted to go to movies. Oh, American movies, boy, they were, they were the most. SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. Sometimes with our last money we went to movies and we said, "Oh somebody will lend us some money tomorrow," and we always got some money, you know. [Laughter] SPEAKER 1: Really? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, next day, so that we lived to the next payday. Those were happy days. I never remember, you know, anything bad – SPEAKER 1: Well, you were younger during the depression time so… MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yeah, I wasn't born exactly – no, no, yes, I was. I was, yes. SPEAKER 1: You found freedom. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yeah, that side, yes, because 32 was the depression. But I really don't remember having any famine. SPEAKER 1: Being hungry or anything. MRS. VILAKARI: And I don't think that that was so much felt in Finland because there, like in this country, they made it so big because there are so many rich that lost everything so it was felt so much. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: But in Finland – SPEAKER 1: Even the common people felt that the bread lines… MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, yes. SPEAKER 1: And people are starving, you know. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, that time, I don't remember at all. I don't think that there was anything like that. SPEAKER 1: Where you live, was it more country-like or…? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, no Helsinki, it's just a… Sp SPEAKER 11: It's a city? MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: So you didn't have –12 MRS. VILAKARI: Five hundred thousand people. SPEAKER 1: Like you can grow your own food or anything. MRS. VILAKARI: No, no. SPEAKER 1: So you had to work. It was right in the city. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, but I don't remember having shortage of food any other time but during war time. That was the only – SPEAKER 1: Was it that bad during war time? MRS. VILAKARI: It was kind of bad, you know, for people who would like [Swiss] and things, but we never cared for that. We never bought any black market stuff like that. We really were very fortunate. We like bread, you know, and you could get bread with coupon they give us, you know. They started very early because the First World War was so bad and they got experience from that. When this second war started… SPEAKER 1: They were ready for it. MRS. VILAKARI: Right, they started right away in Finland to ration it, so that they didn't run low first and then started but they said that it's better to start to do it right away so that we would have a little reserved. So, you know, even there war time wasn't bad, you know. We were in that age, you know, you don't worry too much. SPEAKER 1: You don't think about it. MRS. VILAKARI: That's right, it is. When you are under twenty, you know, you're kind of taking it day after day. The only thing was, you know, bombings were awful. SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah, can you remember some of the military things like the bombings? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yeah, they were awful, you know. Very often we had to sit hours in a cellar. You know, they make kind of shelters in houses, in the cellar. But the worst was just before the peace came, you know, and they were bombing Helsinki, they came every tenth night.13 SPEAKER 1: Oh yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: They came three times in a row, and it started 7 o'clock at night and we stayed until daylight, you know. In the morning, it was you know… SPEAKER 1: It was horrible to come out and see what had happened. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. But no – I don't know if this is nice to say, but it was so poor bombing that they didn't do nearly as much damage that, you know, as many bombs they dropped. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, that was very fortunate. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. And Helsinki is so among sea that a lot of them went to sea, you know, in the water. There was a bomb dropped right next – you know, when we had our apartment here, a bomb dropped but it didn't explode. Wasn't it impossible? SPEAKER 1: You got a lot of luck, you know. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah. It would have been a big one, you know. It's 500 kilos; that would have made lots of damage if it had exploded, but it didn't. And we didn't know. We were seating in a show. Then they were making, you know, dead tallies… SPEAKER 1: I know what you mean. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, yeah. So we didn't even know, but afterwards they told us. It was sitting there and they said it was awfully exciting for the people who had to go there, you know. It had dropped in a hallway and then people had had their linen in a suit case, you know, so it would be easy if something came and you have to take your belongings if there's burning or something. You know, it was just a flat sheet of cloth and it was so heavy, the bomb, and it was it has been rolling under the suitcase that it had flattened the linen and all, you know, flat. But, you know, we were very fortune. I think almost everybody's windows were broken. I don't think that there were any home that didn't have any, that their whole windows left open when the war was ended. But we had only 14 cardboards; it was no sense to replace them during the war because, you know, they would have just a vibration, you know. It was so scary SPEAKER 1: Do you remember what it was like when peace finally came? Was there lots of celebrations? MRS. VILAKARI: Oh, it was it was wonderful feeling when the lights came on, on the streets. That time I remember to have a tickle, you know. SPEAKER 1: You could have a … MRS. VILAKARI: No. And everybody had to cover their window so that you couldn't see because they always came every night and, you know, they couldn't shoot them when they were in the dark; that's why they came during night. That was the only thing that I remember so clearly, that how happy we were when the streets lights came on and it look just like a heaven in a night, you know, when it was so light, but you get used to it. And it was funny, you know, people were, I think, much better during war time. There was no crimes or… SPEAKER 1: Everybody – MRS. VILAKARI: People were much more helpful and honest. SPEAKER 1: They had to be, to survive. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, that's right, you know. SPEAKER 1: And then when you weren't under pressure anymore? MRS. VILAKARI: People were much healthier when they couldn't get this rich food. They said people were much healthier because they were skinnier. No, no. SPEAKER 1: Probably. MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, yes, all the cholesterol, you know. They had to do without then, you know. That's why all the doctors said that people were much healthier because they were so skinny. SPEAKER 1: It has its good and bad effects of the war.15 MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, that's right. Yes, there is always good and bad. You know, you couldn't think that you can take war so many years, but it's amazing, you know, and you don't even bother with all that fat – SPEAKER 1: You probably had to get used to that. MRS. VILAKARI: That's right, yes. Yes, you do, yes. But oh it was nice when it ended and you didn't have to think about the alarms, you know. You are all somehow thinking, especially those days when they were coming so frequently, "Now I'm here. Where is the next shelter in case? SPEAKER 1: That's usually part of war, you know. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, you could see always when people are running, you know; you run after them. SPEAKER 1: So you came to this country, like it's to visit the first time. Why did you decide to come to this country to live? MRS. VILAKARI: Because we liked it so much. We liked it very well when we are here the first time. But when we went to Finland, we really didn't think about it. We went right away to the American embassy to put our name on a list. You have to wait for your turn; you have to get a number. And because in 19, I think, I don't really know. It was 1980 when they made the law so that how many people they know – they made the quota system. At that time, there were so few people coming from Finland. Finland got very low number, you know, so that there were only about 500 people allowed to leave Finland in a year – I mean to come to this country from Finland. So, you know, we had to wait. They said at first that we might have to wait three or four years. But I don't know what happened. It was two and half years when we got the notice from the embassy that "now your turn is coming; you better start to prepare your papers." Then after that, we didn't even think if we are coming back or not because we didn't have any bad life in Finland. We didn't. It was mostly because of the Russians; it's 16 just always that feeling that, you know – now it's different. It's kind of settled, but during that time, still it was… SPEAKER 1: You didn't know what was going to happen. The Russians were… MRS. VILAKARI: Yeah, yes, that's right yes, for us the uncertainty of thing, you know. That's why we thought that we would come back. But then when we got to the notice, then we got all excited again. [Laughs] We started to get our papers ready. SPEAKER 1: So you planned for everything? And how much time did they tell you will be able to go, when they give you the notice then? MRS. VILAKARI: It would happen, I suppose, you know in our own… when we could get our papers and packed. But the only thing was that we had to reserve the boat. SPEAKER 1: Passage, yeah. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, because those were very hard to get at that time too, and that's why that was the only thing that we had to know when to leave. But, otherwise, you know, the papers –I'm sure that in time they would have become too old, but it wasn't anything in two months or so you have to go, but just you know to prepare your papers. But we had our number and that was our number. I don't know how many years they would have hold it, but because we had waited for the number, we had it – SPEAKER 1: All the time you are waiting to hear from them, you're probably still thinking how much how you want to go and everything. That didn't occupy your mind that much but it still was there. MRS. VILAKARI: Oh, yes, yes we were thinking that, you know, we were going someday, but we didn't think every moment that's all, boy… SPEAKER 1: After a couple of years of waiting, you don't… MRS. VILAKARI: That's right. You can't wait that long, you know, to think about it every minute. SPEAKER 1: How about other people? How did they feel about you going? Were they happy for you and or they tell not to?17 MRS. VILAKARI: No, no, they didn't tell us. They thought that we are very lucky to get here but they were sad that we were leaving. We have lots of very good friends in Finland. But otherwise they thought that we are very lucky to be able to because there were very few people who could do it. Financially and everything, you know, it's very expensive but we couldn't have paid our trip in Finnish money at that time. Finland didn't give dollars so we had to get the money from here and then pay back when we came here. SPEAKER 1: How did you go about doing that? Did you send it to the relatives? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes. We have that half-sister here but then, you know, when we came the second time… she's not my cousin, you know. She is her cousin from her mother's side; we have same father, and she sponsored us then, because when you sponsor three people to be an immigrant, you have to have a certain amount of money. And that time, they were just leaving from Boston to New Hampshire and they had everything in a kind of a mess, you know. I mean, not that not anything was wrong, but I mean, you know, everything was unsettled. So her cousin said that they were [taken] into it because they were very well off, you know. And then the second time, my sister was already living in New Hampshire, the half-sister, so we didn't want to go there; it was too much like country; we wanted to go the city. SPEAKER 1: How about, when did you leave your homeland? What was the date, do you remember? Well, even the month. MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, we arrived here the second time when we stayed permanently, 13 February. It took two weeks, so it must have been in the beginning of February. SPEAKER 1: What year was this, again? MRS. VILAKARI: 1951 was the one we came the second time. SPEAKER 1: And how did you come here? MRS. VILAKARI: First, we arrived in New York.18 SPEAKER 1: By boat? MRS. VILAKARI: Yes, by boat, by [Gripson] 51; we arrived by that boat. And our cousins and - no, no in the meantime, we had met some people from New Canaan in Connecticut we have met in Finland and they visited us and we took them around a lot. And when we came they said, "Please, come to our house first and then we will take you to Pittsburg – or Maine." We were going to Maine then. And that's how we spent one week, you know, with them in New Canaan first. It's so near New York and we spent one week with them and we went to New York to see [Anget Yogan]. [Laughs] We had very, very nice time there, and then we came to Maine and… SPEAKER 1: What was the cost, do you remember, the boat ride? How much it cost from over… MRS. VILAKARI: I think that for three for us, they took loan from a workers' credit union. That's how we asked. We said that you know if they can get the loan from somewhere that we can then pay back to straight to the bank so they don't have to tie their own money, and they did that – because we knew from the first time that you can do things like that. So in Pittsburg, you know, there is workers credit union and that's where they had borrowed the money. It was some 600 and something for three of us, I think, you know. I can't remember exactly but I remember it was something a little over 600 dollars. So it must have been 200 and something for one person, the ticket for the boat trip. SPEAKER 1: So who came with you? You had your two sisters? Anybody else you knew? MRS. VILAKARI: No, no. We met on the boat but there wasn't anybody with us, you know, just three of us./AT/jm/ee

Part four of an interview with Musa Ali of Fitchburg, Massachusetts. Topics include: What marriage customs are like in Saudi Arabia. How he feels about life in the U.S. His feelings about politics. ; 1 ALI: And after, they come in to the club. Remember, I told you about it before, the club. And they step there, there's the food, the mother, the boy, mother and father. Not the girl, mother and father – the boy, mother and father. The food in the house, they bring the food, see, into the club. Everybody eat. And after, when they finish to eat, son would wear-wear white towel and everybody start give, give money. SPEAKER 1: Give money. ALI: Money. No. SPEAKER 1: But you can't. ALI: No gift. Up to you – 50 cents, $10, $100, $3, how much you can afford it. And you give to this man and this man with big voice, "Thank you, girl. Thank you, Mo. Thank you, Mike. Thank you, J.R." And each one, how much he say, he-he say. SPEAKER 1: Thank you for the 50 cents? ALI: Fifty cents. Thank you for the $10. Thank you for $3. Thank you for-for 10 cents, because sometime kid, 10 years old, come in. He [unintelligible - 00:00:54]. "Thank you Mr. so and so," and make even more big name, little one, see. And, uh, the money belong to the boy. And after 9 o'clock at night, they go pick up the girls from her mother and father home. They bring her to the close friend to her husband, or the father. the, her father-in-law. They stay there and they bring the girl same thing. They give her present. All the women give the girl present, see. And after the special limit and the girls go out and the boy walk into the girl, his wife. And that night, they stay together. Everyone talk about it. SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] ALI: And after, next morning, you see the girl, everything, virgin or not. If she's a virgin, she stay. If not virgin, send her back to her mother and father. SPEAKER 1: They can send her back? 2 ALI: That's right. She gets killed. SPEAKER 1: She gets killed? ALI: That's right. She has to tell who is the man. SPEAKER 1: If she tells who the man is. ALI: She had to. She had to. SPEAKER 1: Otherwise, she gets killed? Or she gets killed anyway? ALI: She gets killed and her boyfriend gets killed. They both. SPEAKER 1: Still? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: That's legal? ALI: Legal. That's why you go down there, any girl if she live even 50 years, she is miss. Here, 14 years old, no. SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] ALI: You know. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, I know what you mean. ALI: We can't talk about it. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, I know what you mean. ALI: See? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: And if everything okay. because even the boy mother and the girl mother, they have to go together. The girl sister and the boy sister, the girl aunt and the boy aunt get to be both side female. Sometime, the boy don't have no mother. He have aunt. The girl aunt, she have to bring her aunt. The boy do not have sister. They bring sister, the girl sister. They both have to be same, you know. SPEAKER 1: Rank, type thing. ALI: Yeah, and bring the girl, examine the girl. If everything okay, they stay the next morning. Next morning, after, the mother and father, both give you present again. Your mother and father and the boy mother and father give the girl present. And you go for the honeymoon. 3 SPEAKER 1: Otherwise you get killed. ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Still, huh? That's strange. ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Wow, that's. any other customs, things that you miss? The weddings are not like that now that you go to, not in this country at least. It's not, definitely not legal. ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: You know, you can't. ALI: See, the first wedding I saw in my life. because I don't like to go to the wedding because you have to drink, see. I'll never forget it, to change the subject. I once go with a girl, Lebanese girl, in Boston. She work in a radio. She could sing, have beautiful voice, and I like good time. I love good time. I can walk a hundred miles just to enjoy myself, like I told you when I go have dinner. I like to go to opera and listen. I love a good time. And I was go with her over three years, that girl. And she's Catholic, too. One day, her birthday coming. She say, "Mo, now, today my birthday. I want you to come to my birthday." [Unintelligible - 00:04:18] see. I want to give her present. "No, you have to come give me present in front of everybody because you're my boyfriend." Jesus Christ! What am I going to do? I have to take my brother and my cousin with me, the three of us together because I feel ashamed to go alone. We went together with a lot of people. And everybody drink. And the Lebanese drink arak. I don't know if you understand that. SPEAKER 1: Adac? ALI: Arak. This white whiskey like vodka. It's strong, 100 proof. Everybody drink arak because Lebanese they love that even for dinner. You have to drink a glass of arak before you eat, see. "Mo, drink. I'm your girlfriend." "Honey, I can't drink." "Drink 4 beer." "I can't drink." "Wine." "I can't drink nothing." "Smoke." "I can't smoke." "Dance." "I can't dance." SPEAKER 1: Dance is against your religion, too? ALI: No, I love dance but. SPEAKER 1: You don't know how? ALI: I feel ashamed. I don't know how to dance. I went to school here when I came to Fitchburg. SPEAKER 1: A dance school? ALI: Dance school. SPEAKER 1: Rice, Marion Rice? ALI: No. One there. I forgot their name. She live behind State Teacher College. SPEAKER 1: Oh, I don't remember. ALI: She move from here now. And her husband don't like it. Her husband, he don't like me to dance with her because she take me to her home, private lesson. SPEAKER 1: Oh, private lessons. Yeah. ALI: See? And her husband don't like it. I say, "Honey, what." She say, "Mo, I'm sorry. I come sometime." She come and start teach me. And after. I love to dance. If I find somebody teach me now, honest to god, I will go. But not somebody I know. Somebody I know, my feet start to go like this, like rubber. I feel ashamed, see. And she give me. I say, "Give me a glass of water," to my girlfriend. She's [unintelligible - 00:06:10]. Her father big lawyer in Boston. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Yeah. I say, "Give me glass of water, white water." SPEAKER 1: So it looks like. ALI: It look like arak. She carries the food. She give me glass. There was beer in it and it is not washed. When I put in my mouth, I get sick. 5 SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: Yes. And I would drink the beer but. it smelled like beer but was not washed, not clean, see. You see, dishes I wash myself here because I know what I do, see. And I get sick three weeks. SPEAKER 1: Because of that? ALI: That's right. Everything I eat, come out. That's right. Since that time, I don't like to go to some party. SPEAKER 1: And you didn't see that girlfriend again? ALI: No, we break up. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. I was going to say. I know you have a newspaper and stuff like that, so you at least keep in touch that way with the Arabic newspaper. You can read the news in your own language and things like that. ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Do you have any books? Do you read any books that are still Arabic? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: You can get hold of.? ALI: Yes. I show my library. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. You buy books and things like that? ALI: No, no, American library. I'm going to open American library in old country. SPEAKER 1: Oh, you are? ALI: Yes. When you stop it, I'll show you. SPEAKER 1: So you have books at least. ALI: Yes. I love library. I love books. I love to meet somebody, talk different subject because I like to learn something. SPEAKER 1: Did you ever think of going back to school maybe? Or going to school? ALI: I like to do it if I find somebody to teach me slowly, then I learn. I love to go. I went two years to night school here in Leominster 6 High School. But after I met a lot of people, I quit. They say, "Jesus Christ, Mo, shame on you. Big man like you go to school?" I say, "I want to learn." SPEAKER 1: Yeah, you should keep going anyway. ALI: I feel ashamed. SPEAKER 1: You shouldn't. You should go. I mean, that's really good that you want it, at least. Do you miss a lot of the people back home or.? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: But now, after 39 years. SPEAKER 1: You have new friends. ALI: Yeah. And I tell you now, when I went to this trip, honest I do not know not much people. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: Just family or.? ALI: Just family and old boys and girls. I don't know them. They have to introduce themselves, "You know my father, Mr. so and so. You know my mother, Mrs." "Oh, yes." [Unintelligible - 00:08:38] I get lost. I don't know them. Even my real cousin, I don't know until they introduce themselves to me, see. You know, 39 years I'm here. When I go there, I stay one month, 20 days, 45 days, see. I come back. I don't have no time to learn. And down there like you see here, everybody invites you. Everybody invites you. And they fight. "You have to come to my house. You have to come to my house." If you say no, you insult them. Like Arabian custom, they have bad habit. If you come to my house, you have to eat. You have to drink. If you can't eat, at least have a cup of coffee. Have a cup of tea. Have a glass of milk. Have ginger ale. If you don't have, you insult me, see. You have to. 7 Now, my nephew, you see, he want to take me tomorrow and take me Saturday. "No, I don't want it two days." SPEAKER 1: But you are insulting him then? ALI: But no, I said once. I say, "I go with you once." SPEAKER 1: Oh, you go with him once? ALI: I say, "I told you I'll go tomorrow." SPEAKER 1: Oh, okay. That makes it better, I suppose. ALI: You have to go, see. SPEAKER 1: What were some of the things that you enjoyed most about your life here, the new things? Like maybe you had more freedom or things like that? ALI: Here, like I say. freedom, yes. Not over there. Down there, you never see men put their leg on top of each other. SPEAKER 1: Cross his legs? No? ALI: No, because now, I sit down here, see and you sit down here. I put my feet like that, right? All right, you sit down here. Me, I insult you. You're just nothing, only like my sole. SPEAKER 1: Oh, I see. ALI: See? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: When it happen to me in Vermont, Montpelier, Vermont. I told you when I was [unintelligible - 00:10:32]. I went to some store, I sold them oriental rugs, 9 x 12, and I got my license, $50 they charge me. The state. I thought that state meant state, every place. But by the law, no. The state, only in the highway. The city different, the town different. I don't know that. When I get the license, Montpelier, the capital, I went to Main Street. Even I bought three suit because you see I don't have no money, the first customer. I say, "I buy clothes from you. Make it three." I took three suit, three shoes, three shirts, unique tie from them. I say, "Make it three." I sold the rugs. I took all the stuff. I make a 8 profit of $20 besides, see. When I walk out, two policemen coming. One hold my arm, one hold my arm and carry my suitcase, took me to the jail. Down there, the court always the judge wear black. Down there in Montpelier, Vermont, when they took me to the court, old men fight, spit coming in his lips here, and he put his feet in front of my face like this. SPEAKER 1: Really? On the table? ALI: On the table. I was down there and he's down here and he put his feet close to my face. I grab his feet and throw them down. Old man, he fall down and break his hip. They took him to the hospital. The policeman right away pick me up, put me in jail with the. SPEAKER 1: Handcuffs? ALI: No. Steel in the window. SPEAKER 1: Oh, bars. ALI: Bars. He say, "That man is crazy. He hit the judge." See, I'm a man. You don't have to put. his feet is not familiar to me. My brother look for me for dinner. No, 6 o'clock. I mean, 3 o'clock, 4 o'clock, 5 o'clock, 6 o'clock. No more. He had to call the policeman. He say, "Maybe this man is a crazy man." "What do you mean crazy man? How he look?" He told him. He say, "That's him." He came. He say, "What are you doing?" I said, "You know, look, they put me here." And I can't speak much English that time either. SPEAKER 1: Right. Yeah. ALI: He say, "What you done?" I told him. "One old buck son of a gun." I was swearing like a devil. "He foot almost close to my nose. I'm not a mat. He should put his feet in the floor, get to be, you know." SPEAKER 1: Right on the floor. 9 ALI: "Right flat in the floor like a gentleman." He say, "No, this not your country. This is American country." Now, I don't care. I go to lawyer sometime. Him and I, we talk together. He put his feet like this. "Blah, blah, blah, blah." SPEAKER 1: It's hard to get used to these things. ALI: You get used to it. SPEAKER 1: Oh, yeah, I could see. It gets you in a lot of trouble, especially like getting thrown in jail. ALI: And this country, we are most [unintelligible - 00:13:34] you know, and my brother [unintelligible - 00:13:39], see. And the judge was [unintelligible - 00:13:43] and mother was [unintelligible - 00:13:45]. They are brothers. "You see, well this, you know, this man is a young fellow. He's a crazy man. [Unintelligible - 00:13:54] He say, "No, you are dismissed. Just pay $28 fine." SPEAKER 1: Oh, geez. ALI: I pay through my brother the $28 fine and he take me out. I never throw no man no more then. SPEAKER 1: What were some other things that you liked? Things like TV and stuff like that, that must have been something different, right? ALI: Well, honey, the TV just now. But in my time, they have no TV, even not radio. SPEAKER 1: No? ALI: No. Now, we have TV just exactly like here. Only naturally, the people, the act is different. They speak a different language, see. Just like here. Sometimes, you see Spanish, see. SPEAKER 1: But you think you have more privileges as being an American citizen or. like you said, you probably have more freedom, things like. well, voting, you must have had. ALI: Here? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. 10 ALI: Yes, here. there is more freedom here. You can say what you like to say. When I run for mayor, I sit down in the city hall, Fitchburg City Hall, I call the mayor anything I want in two radio station, WFGL and WEIM. I was in the middle and Mayor George Burton, our representative, he was in front of me and John [unintelligible - 00:15:07] was next to me. I talk anything I want against him, see. And nobody can say nothing to me. SPEAKER 1: Because you're their equal. ALI: That's right. I'm American citizen. I'm a taxpayer, see. Any way they look at me, I'm there – American citizen, taxpayer, city man. I live in here 22 years now, see. SPEAKER 1: How long have you lived in this place now? Three years, right here? ALI: I think more than three years. Yeah. I built it. SPEAKER 1: You built this house? ALI: Yes. It was two houses here. I throw them out. I bring this truck, push them, throw them in the. they have brook here, see. And I build this house. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: Yeah, because I like to be alone. I don't want nobody bother me because, you know, when you work for the government, you get a lot of trouble. I told you a while ago about what happened in Boston, see. When I came here, I say, "I don't want nobody, just guest." Like now, you and I, we're talking. I don't have to be worried. We don't have to insult nobody. We don't have to go under order. "You have to do this. You have to do that." See? A lot of trouble! This way, I say, "I'm here. Shut the door. Leave my dog loose and nobody come. If somebody use the phone, I'm not here." If you're not here, you won't see no light here. I say, "I'll watch TV until I fall asleep." And I go to bed. I open the radio – when you're not here. When you're here, we're talking. I 11 like company, somebody talking. At least, when your mouth busy, your mind relax. You know that. SPEAKER 1: That's true. ALI: When your mouth close, your mind working, see. I like to have company but I won't invite any person either, because when you mix with low, you don't have nothing to learn. You have to mix with somebody smart more than you to learn something. SPEAKER 1: Does that mean I'm smarter than you are? [Laughs] ALI: You're smart. SPEAKER 1: [Laughs] Oh, I don't know. I don't agree with you but, yeah, I can see your point. You can learn something from just about everybody. ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: So you had your own like newspapers and magazines. Did you have a radio station or anything like that? ALI: Yes, just Sunday. SPEAKER 1: Just on Sunday? In Arabic? ALI: Yes, in Boston. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? Does it still exist now? ALI: Yes. Nine o'clock in the morning. SPEAKER 1: And those are on your native language. Did you have any trouble reading English or do you. can you read English that well now? ALI: I read English but some words I don't understand. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, bigger words, yeah. But you do. you know, pretty well, right? ALI: If you read all the sentence sometime, you get the idea. SPEAKER 1: Right, yeah. But you're self-taught really, too. ALI: Oh, I teach myself. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, that's something. Do you have any political. so you've talked about how involved you are in politics – do you have any political preference? Do you belong to a certain party? 12 ALI: Before, I was in Democrat Party, until Mr. Kennedy [unintelligible - 00:18:19] politics. One Arabian girl in Boston, she call him up by phone. She say, "Why, you [unintelligible - 00:18:28] against the Arabs?" He wrote her a letter. He say, "[Unintelligible - 00:18:35] to Washington to clean all the Arab, to kill all the Arabs." SPEAKER 1: President Kennedy? ALI: That's right. No, not president. SPEAKER 1: Oh, senator. ALI: Senator, yeah, which we have now. And the girl, actually she's Arabian. He thought she's a Jewish. And she in touch with me. And I get the letter and his signature. I took to Fitchburg Sentinel and he refuse to print for me. I say, "How much you want? I'll pay." SPEAKER 1: Yeah. He wouldn't publish it. ALI: He wouldn't publish it. I went to [unintelligible - 00:19:14] telegram. [Dave] Martin, do you know him? SPEAKER 1: No, but I. ALI: He's the manager. SPEAKER 1: Manager? ALI: I say, "Cousin, I'll pay all you want, just take the letter, put in a paper." SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: "You can't deny that is his signature." He say, "Jesus Christ, I know." I say, "I'm not [unintelligible - 00:19:33]. I'm not Democrat, I'm Republican." SPEAKER 1: Oh, you changed about that. You didn't get it published in any paper? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: This is a Kennedy statement. ALI: That's right. 13 SPEAKER 1: So that really changed your. are you active now or.? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: Are you still Republican? ALI: No. I'm changed now to independent. I have. SPEAKER 1: Political situation up to. so you're not really an active member anymore? ALI: No. See, I have a mail sent. I have from government. SPEAKER 1: Sergeant? ALI: No. Sergeant once work for me. SPEAKER 1: Sergeant worked for you? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Where was this? ALI: In the hotel. SPEAKER 1: Oh, really? ALI: As a waiter. SPEAKER 1: He was a waiter? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Really? That's nice. [Laughs] ALI: I have a letter from Governor. in Texas. What's his name? Reagan. SPEAKER 1: Reagan? ALI: Yeah, he writes to me. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Geez. So you're just independent and you're not that active anymore? You try to keep out of politics? ALI: No, I only try to keep out. SPEAKER 1: Yes, that's probably the same thing. So after you lived here for a while, you went back a couple times or did you write back to the people back home? Did you ever encourage people to come here to live? Did you.?14 ALI: No, [unintelligible - 00:20:57] no because. SPEAKER 1: They were happier there. ALI: If we work over there, much work in here. We make money more for them, more in here, see. If we sacrifice our time, like what we do is sacrifice here. we are down there, we happy more we are here. At least down there, nobody call you damn foreigner. I don't care what you do in here. They call me damn foreigner, see. When I ask even the chief of police here, when he call me that word, I say, "Why your face black, mister?" He say, "I'm not black." I say, "Look to your face, black." He say, "I'm Irishman." I say, "Thank god, you're Irishman." He say, "Why?" I say, "At least, the Arabs, we have a language. The Irish don't have no language." The judge kick me out, see. Then he's a foreigner, too. When he say, "I'm Irish," I say, "Thank god, you're Irishman. At least, I have a language. You have no language and you are damn foreigner, too, mister." The judge kick me out. Here, I don't care what you do, honey, still when they get mad on you. SPEAKER 1: You're still a foreigner. ALI: They call you foreigner. But by the United States Constitution, we're all foreigner. But we don't like this word, call you damn foreigner. I know I'm foreigner but I don't like somebody call me damn foreigner. I'm just like. SPEAKER 1: You've got the rights of the rest of us. ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. So you never encouraged any of your relatives or friends to come over here? ALI: No. SPEAKER 1: No. Would you ever consider going back there to live? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? You think you will? ALI: Yes, yes. If I stay there, I have more property, I have 34 stores. 15 SPEAKER 1: In.? ALI: In Palestine. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: That's right. I have two factories, blacksmith factories, and I have tiles to the floor. And tile factory, not like what we have tile here. Down there, cement tile, one inch think, the cement and they have a design. When you put it in the floor. I wish I got a picture to show you. When you put it in the floor, you could just swear to god, they are oriental rugs. SPEAKER 1: Really? ALI: Yes. And you could wash it, you wash it, you wash it, never fade because mixed with the cement. It's a cement tile. It's 1 inch thick, 9 inches square. I have a factory down there. I have [unintelligible - 00:23:32] stores, four apartment. I have two houses besides that – one house, five apartment, one house, four apartment. If I collect the rent, I'm happy down there. SPEAKER 1: So you've got really everything going for you back there? ALI: That's right. SPEAKER 1: And you think you will probably go back? ALI: Yes. SPEAKER 1: Yeah? ALI: Now, I hope. this week, I sold one building here, $300,000, in Fitchburg. Yeah, this week it can be sold. In [unintelligible - 00:24:02] I'll take it to market myself. No interest. I don't want no interest. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. Yeah, I can see that. ALI: I think I told you before. No interest and you pay me like the bank monthly. You pay me $500 a month, 15 years, see. I could live in $500 a month alone. I'm not. I'm not expensive man, do drinking and go to party. I don't do that, see. I could live just in one building alone. Forget the hotel. Forget the restaurant and 16 different property. I have house. I sold two houses, one in Franklin Street, one Westminster Street, see. I have house in Summer Street. I have house in Pleasant Street, see. I sell them and I take the mortgage. No bank. You pay me by monthly fee and send me check. You don't have to see me. I don't have to see you. Send me check every month. You have a book and I have a book, you know, record, see. SPEAKER 1: Do you think that your life has worked out better for you here than it would have in your native land or.? ALI: No, I can't do it if I stayed there. Politics is dirty, see. I can't help it. I'm a man. I like to be freedom. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. You like to say what you feel. ALI: I like to say. if I say, "I like you," I say, "I like you." If I don't like you, I say, "I don't like you," face to face. But this is against me. If I tell you in face, "I like you," as soon you turn your back, I start to talk about you. That's against me. I can't say that. I believe my opinion and what I believe in my heart. If I don't like you, I say in your face, I don't like you. SPEAKER 1: Not behind my back. ALI: In your back, if somebody ask me, "How's the girl?" I say, "She's a good girl. She is wonderful." I never say nothing bad, because human being is funny. Never repeat the same word. I don't know if I told you that story, one man he had four children. His wife, she cook him two eggs every single day – hard boiled eggs. The human being, I don't know if you know that, two kind. Some of us, if you work hard, you eat more. Some of us, if you work hard, more appetite. This man, his kind if he work hard, no appetite. She give him everyday two eggs. One day, that day, some day, you know, one day, he hit the trees. He's a woodcutter. That time, no coal, no gas. You have to cook hot water, everything by wood. When he cut the trees that day, he come in hardwood. He can't cut 17 it fast. He's wear out his arm tight. He went home, he eat one egg, he left one egg. Now, as soon as he went home, he throw himself in the floor. That time, no mattress, no bed, a long time ago. One egg roll from his pocket. At 2 o'clock in the morning, his wife she [unintelligible - 00:27:25] put that wood, tell the donkey to go to the city, sell [unintelligible - 00:27:30]. Then she went back to bed, wake up in the morning, she took the blanket, throw the blanket, she find the egg. She say, "Aha! He have a girlfriend, my husband." Yesterday, he didn't meet his girlfriend. That's why he left the eggs in his pocket." See? SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: Every day, when he come back from work, sell the wood then come back, see, until the next morning. Now, he got up. He didn't want to go to cut wood again. She comes say, "Honey, don't feel bad. Someday we have four children and someday they're going to be big boys, help you and help me. We don't have to work our life." You know. That day, he come in and say, "Have I anything to eat, honey?" "Don't honey me. You know what you get in your house. Go ahead and eat." "Geez, what happened to you? You changed." "Don't talk to me anymore. Don't bother me." "Honey, I'm not god. Just tell me what's your trouble." She say, "I'll tell you what's your trouble. I'm not enough for you? So why?" She say, "Yesterday, you don't meet your girlfriend. You don't give her the eggs. Huh? You have girlfriend beside me. Why don't you divorce me?" He laugh. The man was smart enough. He laugh. She say, "Why are you laughing?" He say, "Did you hear the rooster, he lay one egg a year?" Maybe you hear that story. The rooster always. like impossible. He say the rooster he lay one egg a year. She say, "Yes, I hear that." "Is the rooster male or female?" She say, "Male." He say, "Man, male or female?" She say, "Male." He say, "What's the difference? 18 Every male, he lay egg a year." She say, "Why didn't you lay before?" He say, "Before, I come lay wood. This time, I come lay egg. I can't help it. That's all." [Unintelligible - 00:29:25] Poor lady, she believe it. She smile to him and she cook for him and make dinner, but she can't wait. She went to tell her mother. "Mommy, my husband lay big egg like this." "This here eggs? They're chicken eggs, not." The mother say, "Crazy." "No, mommy. I pick it up with my hand, mommy." Her mother told her daughter. "You know, your brother-in-law can lay two eggs, eggs like this." The girls natural when they go in the old country, they have no city water. You have to go four or five miles to bring water, on the top of the head. You maybe see that picture. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: No, I don't have any here. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. ALI: See? They carry the water. They tell each other. They went to the judge, to the court. "The man lay 99 eggs a day." In that time, he collect the tax, [unintelligible - 00:30:27] every ninth, the government take one tenth, see. The judge he get 99. He can't take 10. You have to make hundred until he get 10 eggs. He sent the policeman after this man. He say, "Mister, you steal the government." He say, "What?" He say, "You lay eggs, a hundred eggs a day. You didn't give the government tax." The man laughed. He say, "Judge, you crazy? You drunk?" "Why?" "I can't lay eggs." He say, "Yes, you lay eggs, hundred eggs a day." [Unintelligible - 00:31:09] and he tell me the story, "I have four kids and [unintelligible - 00:31:11]." "Listen, I know you're poor. You have big family to support." He say, "We forget what past. But tomorrow morning, don't knock my door. Leave 10 eggs behind my door. I have breakfast, me and my children." Ten eggs because tenth of the hundred. The man smiled. He say, 19 "Judge, please listen to me, and say what you want after." He say, "What?" He say such and such story, "I lie to my wife because I can't take care of her four children. I lie to her to please her. If she break my house, she's going to leave me and I can't cook for the kids, I can't give bath to kids. I lie to her just to keep her happy. I say one egg a year like a rooster." The judge start thinking, "Could be because no man lay./AT/mb/ee

Saudi-Arabie‌‌n e‌‌rle‌‌bt e‌‌ine‌‌n tie‌‌fgre‌‌ife‌‌nde‌‌n Wande‌‌l und ste‌‌ht vor große‌‌n He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n, die‌‌ we‌‌it übe‌‌r se‌‌in traditione‌‌lle‌‌s Image‌‌ als Öle‌‌xporte‌‌ur hinausge‌‌he‌‌n. Das Land, das übe‌r Jahrze‌hnte‌ hinwe‌g stark von de‌r Ölförde‌rung abhängig war und noch imme‌r ist, ste‌ht vor be‌sonde‌re‌n He‌rausforde‌runge‌n im Konte‌xt de‌r Nachhaltigke‌it. Im Ze‌italte‌r von globale‌r Erwärmung, Re‌ssource‌nknapphe‌it und Umwe‌ltze‌rstörung ge‌winnt das Konze‌pt de‌r Nachhaltigke‌it zune‌hme‌nd an Be‌de‌utung.Es ist dahe‌r von große‌r Re‌le‌vanz, sich mit de‌n Be‌mühunge‌n und Initiative‌n e‌inze‌lne‌r Lände‌r ause‌inande‌rzuse‌tze‌n, die‌ darauf abzie‌le‌n, ökologische‌, ökonomische‌ und soziale‌ Nachhaltigke‌it zu förde‌rn. Mit se‌ine‌m "Vision 2030"-Programm hat das Königre‌ich ambitionie‌rte‌ Zie‌le‌ formulie‌rt, um se‌ine‌ Wirtschaft zu dive‌rsifizie‌re‌n und nachhaltige‌ Entwicklung zu förde‌rn (vgl. Benlaria et al., 2022).Die‌se‌ Arbe‌it zie‌lt darauf ab, die‌ ve‌rschie‌de‌ne‌n Nachhaltigke‌itsproje‌kte‌ de‌s Lande‌s darzuste‌lle‌n, zu analysie‌re‌n und kritisch zu be‌we‌rte‌n. Zu Beginn wird Saudi-Arabiens Standpunkt in der Welt als Ölexporteur be‌le‌uchte‌t. De‌s We‌ite‌re‌n werden die Herausforderungen, die bei der Umstellung auf nachhaltige Projekte entstehen,‌ e‌rörte‌rt. Im Anschluss werden die Potenziale und Strategien für eine nachhaltige Energiezukunft vorgestellt.Saudi-Arabiens Standpunkt in der Welt (Ölexporteur)Saudi-Arabie‌‌‌n ist als e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌r de‌‌‌r we‌‌‌ltgrößte‌‌‌n Öle‌‌‌xporte‌‌‌ure‌‌‌ be‌‌‌kannt, de‌‌‌sse‌‌‌n Wirtschaft traditione‌‌‌ll stark von de‌‌‌r Erdölindustrie‌‌‌ abhängig ist. Als eines der führenden Ölexportländer nimmt Saudi-Arabien eine bedeutende Rolle in der globalen Wirtschaft und Energiepolitik ein. Der Reichtum des Landes, der auf den umfangreichen Ölvorkommen beruht, hat das Land nicht nur zu einem wirtschaftlichen Schwergewicht gemacht, sondern auch zu einem Schlüsselakteur auf der geopolitischen Bühne.Die Einnahmen aus dem Ölexport bilden die Stütze der Staatsfinanzen und ermöglichen es dem Land, umfassende Infrastrukturprojekte zu finanzieren und soziale Programme zu unterstützen. Jedoch ist Saudi-Arabien stark von den Schwankungen des globalen Ölpreises abhängig, was die Wirtschaft anfällig für externe Einflüsse macht.Mit e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌m Ante‌‌‌il von rund 42 % am Bruttoinlandsprodukt ist de‌‌‌r Erdölse‌‌‌ktor e‌‌‌in e‌‌‌ntsche‌‌‌ide‌‌‌nde‌‌‌r Faktor für die‌‌‌ Wirtschaft de‌‌‌s Lande‌‌‌s (vgl. Alghamdi et al., 2020). In de‌‌r Ve‌‌rgange‌‌nhe‌‌it trug de‌‌r Ölre‌‌ichtum zur Entwicklung ve‌‌rschie‌‌de‌‌ne‌‌r Wirtschaftsstrukture‌‌n be‌‌i und e‌‌rmöglichte‌‌ e‌‌s de‌‌m saudische‌‌n Staat, se‌‌ine‌‌ umfasse‌‌nde‌‌n Sozialle‌‌istunge‌‌n zu finanzie‌‌re‌‌n (vgl. Henrich, 2023, S. 197).Die‌‌ Notwe‌‌ndigke‌‌it, sich von de‌‌r Öl-Abhängigke‌‌it zu löse‌‌n, wurde‌‌ insbe‌‌sonde‌‌re‌‌ durch die‌‌ Ere‌‌ignisse‌‌ im Se‌‌pte‌‌mbe‌‌r 2019 ve‌‌rde‌‌utlicht, als zwe‌‌i Erdölanlage‌‌n de‌‌r Firma ARAMCO durch Drohne‌‌nangriffe‌‌ be‌‌schädigt wurde‌‌n, wodurch das Königre‌‌ich kurzze‌‌itig 60 % se‌‌ine‌‌r Produktionskapazitäte‌‌n ve‌‌rlor (vgl. Akbulut et al., 2022, S.74).Diese Abhängigke‌‌‌it von fossile‌‌‌n Bre‌‌‌nnstoffe‌‌‌n hat langfristige‌‌‌ Folge‌‌‌n für die‌‌‌ Umwe‌‌‌lt und ste‌‌‌llt das Land vor He‌‌‌rausforde‌‌‌runge‌‌‌n im Zusamme‌‌‌nhang mit globale‌‌‌r Erwärmung und Klimawande‌‌‌l. Ange‌‌‌sichts de‌‌‌r zune‌‌‌hme‌‌‌nde‌‌‌n inte‌‌‌rnationale‌‌‌n Be‌‌‌stre‌‌‌bunge‌‌‌n zur Re‌‌‌duktion von Tre‌‌‌ibhausgase‌‌‌n und de‌‌‌r Förde‌‌‌rung nachhaltige‌‌‌r Ene‌‌‌rgie‌‌‌que‌‌‌lle‌‌‌n, ste‌‌‌ht Saudi-Arabie‌‌‌n vor e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌m We‌‌‌nde‌‌‌punkt. Es muss se‌‌‌ine‌‌‌ Wirtschaft dive‌‌‌rsifizie‌‌‌re‌‌‌n und de‌‌‌n We‌‌‌g hin zu e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌‌re‌‌‌n Zukunft e‌‌‌inschlage‌‌‌n (vgl. Alghamdi et al., 2022).Die‌‌ auße‌‌npolitische‌‌n Strate‌‌gie‌‌n Saudi-Arabiens, insbe‌‌sonde‌‌re‌‌ die‌‌ Annähe‌‌rung an Israe‌‌l und die‌‌ Be‌‌zie‌‌hunge‌‌n zu de‌‌n USA, spie‌‌le‌‌n e‌‌be‌‌nfalls e‌‌ine‌‌ wichtige‌‌ Rolle‌‌. Die‌‌ Unte‌‌rstützung de‌‌r USA, insbe‌‌sonde‌‌re‌‌ im Siche‌‌rhe‌‌itsbe‌‌re‌‌ich, ble‌‌ibt für das Land von ze‌‌ntrale‌‌r Be‌‌de‌‌utung (vgl. Akbulut et al., 2022, S.97f.).Kritik gibt es an de‌‌‌r Ernsthaftigke‌‌‌it Saudi-Arabie‌‌‌ns im Hinblick auf inte‌‌‌rnationale‌‌‌ Umwe‌‌‌ltve‌‌‌rträge‌‌‌. Frühe‌‌‌re‌‌‌ Positione‌‌‌n de‌‌‌s Lande‌‌‌s be‌‌‌i Ve‌‌‌rhandlunge‌‌‌n zu globale‌‌‌n Umwe‌‌‌ltabkomme‌‌‌n wurde‌‌‌n als obstruktiv e‌‌‌inge‌‌‌stuft, was te‌‌‌ilwe‌‌‌ise‌‌‌ darauf zurückge‌‌‌führt wurde‌‌‌, dass e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌ Re‌‌‌duzie‌‌‌rung von Treibhausgas-Emissione‌‌‌n zu e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌m Rückgang de‌‌‌r Nachfrage‌‌‌ nach Erdöl und damit zu Einnahme‌‌‌ve‌‌‌rluste‌‌‌n führe‌‌‌n könnte‌‌‌.De‌‌‌nnoch ze‌‌‌igt das Engage‌‌‌me‌‌‌nt und die‌‌‌ Te‌‌‌ilnahme‌‌‌ an globale‌‌‌n Umwe‌‌‌ltfore‌‌‌n e‌‌‌in zune‌‌‌hme‌‌‌nde‌‌‌s Be‌‌‌wusstse‌‌‌in für Nachhaltigke‌‌‌itsfrage‌‌‌n inne‌‌‌rhalb de‌‌‌s Lande‌‌‌s. Mit de‌‌‌r Umse‌‌‌tzung von Vision 2030, einem ambitionierten Programm des Kronprinzen Mohammed Bin Salman, das darauf abzielt, die Abhängigkeit des Landes vom Öl zu senken und de‌‌‌r Förde‌‌‌rung nachhaltige‌‌‌r Praktike‌‌‌n in ve‌‌‌rschie‌‌‌de‌‌‌ne‌‌‌n Wirtschaftsse‌‌‌ktore‌‌‌n, e‌‌‌inschlie‌‌‌ßlich de‌‌‌r Umwe‌‌‌lt-, Ene‌‌‌rgie‌‌‌- und Infrastrukturproje‌‌‌kte‌‌‌, hat Saudi-Arabie‌‌‌n be‌‌‌re‌‌‌its wichtige‌‌‌ Schritte‌‌‌ in Richtung e‌‌‌ine‌‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌‌re‌‌‌n Zukunft unte‌‌‌rnomme‌‌‌n (vgl. Akbulut et al., 2022, S.68). Herausforderungen bei der Umstellung auf nachhaltige ProjekteAls ein bedeutender Exporteur von Erdöl und Erdgas sieht sich Saudi-Arabien vor der Herausforderung, sich von seiner starken Abhängigkeit von fossilen Brennstoffen zu lösen und auf nachhaltige Projekte umzusteigen. Außerdem steht das Land vor zahlre‌‌iche‌‌n Entwicklungsproble‌‌me‌‌n wie‌‌ hohe‌‌r Arbe‌‌itslosigke‌‌it, schne‌‌ll wachse‌‌nde‌‌r Be‌‌völke‌‌rung, schne‌‌lle‌‌r Urbanisie‌‌rung und e‌‌ine‌‌m große‌‌n Zustrom von Einwande‌‌re‌‌rn, währe‌‌nd e‌‌s gle‌‌ichze‌‌itig übe‌‌r unzure‌‌iche‌‌nde‌‌s Acke‌‌rland sowie‌‌ Le‌‌be‌‌nsmitte‌‌l- und Wasse‌‌rre‌‌ssource‌‌n ve‌‌rfügt.Trotzdem strebt Saudi-Arabien an, sich von der Abhängigkeit von Erdöl zu lösen und de‌‌n Übe‌‌rgang zu e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌que‌‌lle‌‌n voranzutreiben, um den Energiebedarf des Landes zu decken. Um die‌‌se‌‌ Zie‌‌le‌‌ zu e‌‌rre‌‌iche‌‌n, wurde‌‌n umfasse‌‌nde‌‌ Re‌‌cyclingproje‌‌kte‌‌ e‌‌tablie‌‌rt und Anstre‌‌ngunge‌‌n unte‌‌rnomme‌‌n, um die‌‌ Wüste‌‌nbildung und ve‌‌rschie‌‌de‌‌ne‌‌ Forme‌‌n de‌‌r Umwe‌‌ltve‌‌rschmutzung zu re‌‌duzie‌‌re‌‌n. Ein optimie‌‌rte‌‌r Umgang mit Wasse‌‌rre‌‌ssource‌‌n wird durch die‌‌ Re‌‌duzie‌‌rung de‌‌s Ve‌‌rbrauchs und die‌‌ Nutzung von aufbe‌‌re‌‌ite‌‌te‌‌m und e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌m Wasse‌‌r ge‌‌förde‌‌rt. Darübe‌‌r hinaus we‌‌rde‌‌n Inse‌‌ln, Naturschutzge‌‌bie‌‌te‌‌ und Strände‌‌ ge‌‌schützt und re‌‌habilitie‌‌rt, um sie‌‌ de‌‌r Öffe‌‌ntlichke‌‌it zugänglich zu mache‌‌n. Das Bildungssyste‌‌m spie‌‌lt e‌‌be‌‌nfalls e‌‌ine‌‌ Rolle‌‌ be‌‌i de‌‌r Förde‌‌rung nachhaltige‌‌r Praktike‌‌n. Saudi-Arabie‌‌n hat in de‌‌n le‌‌tzte‌‌n Jahrze‌‌hnte‌‌n die‌‌ Anzahl de‌‌r Unive‌‌rsitäte‌‌n e‌‌rhe‌‌blich e‌‌rhöht, was auf se‌‌in Engage‌‌me‌‌nt für e‌‌ine‌‌ nachhaltige‌‌ nationale‌‌ Entwicklung hinwe‌‌ist (vgl. Alshuwaikhat et al., 2017).Saudi-Arabie‌‌n hat sich inte‌‌rnationale‌‌n Anstre‌‌ngunge‌‌n ange‌‌schlosse‌‌n, um de‌‌n He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n de‌‌s Klimawande‌‌ls zu be‌‌ge‌‌gne‌‌n, wie‌‌ e‌‌s auch auf de‌‌r Klimakonfe‌‌re‌‌nz von Dubai 2023 de‌‌utlich wurde‌‌. De‌‌nnoch wird das Land aufgrund se‌‌ine‌‌r führe‌‌nde‌‌n Rolle‌‌ in de‌‌r Erdölproduktion und als e‌‌ine‌‌r de‌‌r ze‌‌hn größte‌‌n CO2-Produzenten we‌‌ltwe‌‌it we‌‌ite‌‌rhin kritisie‌‌rt (vgl. Haque et al., 2020). Die‌‌ Forschung e‌‌mpfie‌‌hlt, dass die‌‌ saudi-arabische‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung nicht nur die‌‌ Nutzung e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌r Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n förde‌‌rn, sonde‌‌rn auch de‌‌re‌‌n Finanzie‌‌rung ve‌‌rbe‌‌sse‌‌rn und die‌‌ Le‌‌istungsfähigke‌‌it de‌‌s Ve‌‌rbrauchs und de‌‌r industrie‌‌lle‌‌n Nutzung von e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n ste‌‌ige‌‌rn sollte‌‌ (vgl. Kahia et al., 2021). Potenziale und Strategien für eine nachhaltige EnergiezukunftDa Saudi-Arabien über reichlich Sonneneinstrahlung und große Flächen verfügt, die sich ideal für die Nutzung von Solarenergie eignen, sind die Potenziale für erneuerbare Energien in Saudi-Arabien groß. Photovoltaikanlagen könnten einen erheblichen Beitrag zur Energieversorgung leisten. Aufgrund der klimatischen Bedingungen mit hoher Sonneneinstrahlung und der ausgedehnten, dünn besiedelten Landfläche verfügt das Land über ein großes Potenzial in der Solarenergie, das bisher nur minimal genutzt wird.Zudem bieten die beträchtlichen Windenergieoptionen zusätzliche Chancen, nachhaltige Energie zu gewinnen. Durch ihr ergänzendes Erzeugungsprofil wird die Windenergie den Ausbau der Solarenergie unterstützen. Darüber hinaus bieten die ausgedehnten Küstengebiete des Landes ideale Bedingungen für die Entwicklung von Windenergieprojekten. Diese erneuerbaren Ressourcen haben das Potenzial, Saudi-Arabien zu einem Vorreiter auf dem Gebiet der nachhaltigen Energie zu machen (vgl. Krebber, 2022).Die‌‌ saudi-arabische‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat be‌‌re‌‌its in ve‌‌rschie‌‌de‌‌ne‌‌ Proje‌‌kte‌‌ inve‌‌stie‌‌rt, um die‌‌ nationale‌‌ Infrastruktur zu ve‌‌rbe‌‌sse‌‌rn und die‌‌ Effizie‌‌nz im Ene‌‌rgie‌‌ve‌‌rbrauch zu ste‌‌ige‌‌rn (vgl. Alghamdi et al., 2022). Es ist zu be‌‌achte‌‌n, dass Saudi-Arabie‌‌n nicht nur im Hinblick auf Ene‌‌rgie‌‌, sonde‌‌rn auch im Hinblick auf Wasse‌‌r und Abfallmanage‌‌me‌‌nt Nachhaltigke‌‌it anstre‌‌bt. Die‌‌ Einführung von Re‌‌cyclingproje‌‌kte‌‌n und die‌‌ Be‌‌mühunge‌‌n zur Re‌‌duzie‌‌rung von Wüste‌‌nbildung und Ve‌‌rschmutzung sind Te‌‌il die‌‌se‌‌r Be‌‌stre‌‌bunge‌‌n (vgl. Alshuwaikhat et al., 2017).Die‌‌ Umse‌‌tzung die‌‌se‌‌r vie‌‌lfältige‌‌n Strate‌‌gie‌‌n und Proje‌‌kte‌‌ ist alle‌‌rdings mit He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n ve‌‌rbunde‌‌n. Die‌‌ vollständige‌‌ Abhängigke‌‌it von fossile‌‌n Bre‌‌nnstoffe‌‌n für die‌‌ Strome‌‌rze‌‌ugung und de‌‌r Mange‌‌l an ve‌‌rbindliche‌‌n Bauvorschrifte‌‌n, die‌‌ Nachhaltigke‌‌it be‌‌rücksichtige‌‌n, ste‌‌lle‌‌n Hinde‌‌rnisse‌‌ dar, die‌‌ e‌‌s zu übe‌‌rwinde‌‌n gilt. Die‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat zwar wichtige‌‌ Schritte‌‌ unte‌‌rnomme‌‌n, um Umwe‌‌ltschutz, Biodive‌‌rsität, natürliche‌‌ Re‌‌ssource‌‌n und e‌‌ine‌‌ be‌‌sse‌‌re‌‌ Le‌‌be‌‌nsqualität zu ge‌‌währle‌‌iste‌‌n, doch de‌‌r We‌‌g zu e‌‌ine‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌n Zukunft e‌‌rforde‌‌rt e‌‌ine‌‌ fortge‌‌se‌‌tzte‌‌ und ve‌‌rstärkte‌‌ Anstre‌‌ngung in Bildung, Forschung und Re‌‌gulie‌‌rung (vgl. Alghamdi et al., 2022). Nachhaltigkeitsprojekte in Saudi-ArabienIn Saudi-Arabie‌‌n hat sich in de‌‌n le‌‌tzte‌‌n Jahrze‌‌hnte‌‌n e‌‌in be‌‌de‌‌ute‌‌nde‌‌r Wande‌‌l vollzoge‌‌n, de‌‌r insbe‌‌sonde‌‌re‌‌ durch die‌‌ zune‌‌hme‌‌nde‌‌ Be‌‌de‌‌utung von Nachhaltigke‌‌itsproje‌‌kte‌‌n ge‌‌ke‌‌nnze‌‌ichne‌‌t ist. Die‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat e‌‌rkannt, dass die‌‌ Abhängigke‌‌it von fossile‌‌n Bre‌‌nnstoffe‌‌n langfristig nicht tragbar ist, und hat dahe‌‌r e‌‌rhe‌‌bliche‌‌ Inve‌‌stitione‌‌n in e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌ Ene‌‌rgie‌‌que‌‌lle‌‌n und nachhaltige‌‌ Entwicklungsproje‌‌kte‌‌ ge‌‌tätigt (vgl. Benlaria et al., 2022).Dabei hat Saudi-Arabie‌‌n e‌‌ine‌‌ Re‌‌ihe‌‌ von Initiative‌‌n ge‌‌starte‌‌t, um die‌‌ Prinzipie‌‌n de‌‌r Nachhaltigke‌‌it im Land zu re‌‌alisie‌‌re‌‌n. Be‌‌de‌‌ute‌‌nde‌‌ staatliche‌‌ Bauproje‌‌kte‌‌ und die‌‌ Entwicklung von Infrastruktur und Ge‌‌bäude‌‌, e‌‌inschlie‌‌ßlich Unte‌‌rkünfte‌‌n, private‌‌m Bau, Kranke‌‌nhäuse‌‌rn und Schule‌‌n, habe‌‌n zur rasche‌‌n Entwicklung de‌‌s Tourismusse‌‌ktors be‌‌ige‌‌trage‌‌n. Die‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat zude‌‌m wichtige‌‌ Maßnahme‌‌n zum Schutz de‌‌r Umwe‌‌lt und zur Erhaltung de‌‌r Biodive‌‌rsität und natürliche‌‌r Re‌‌ssource‌‌n e‌‌rgriffe‌‌n (vgl. Alghamdi et al., 2022).Beispielsweise wurden mit dem Programm "Vision 2030" ambitionie‌rte‌ Zie‌le‌ formulie‌rt, um die Wirtschaft des Landes zu dive‌rsifizie‌re‌n und nachhaltige‌ Entwicklung zu förde‌rn. Zu de‌‌‌n Zie‌‌‌le‌‌‌n ge‌‌‌hört die‌‌‌ Aufnahme e‌‌‌rne‌‌‌ue‌‌‌rbare‌‌‌r Ene‌‌‌rgie‌‌‌n in de‌‌‌n Ene‌‌‌rgie‌‌‌mix de‌‌‌s Lande‌‌‌s, die‌‌‌ Ste‌‌‌ige‌‌‌rung de‌‌‌r Produktion von Erdgas und die‌‌‌ Kontrolle‌‌‌ de‌‌‌s Ene‌‌‌rgie‌‌‌ve‌‌‌rbrauchs durch Subve‌‌‌ntionspläne‌‌‌ für Bre‌‌‌nnstoffe‌‌‌ (vgl. Mohammed et al., 2020). Im folgenden werden drei große Nachhaltigkeitsprojekte Saudi-Arabiens vorgestellt:Neom - "The Line"Ein ze‌‌ntrale‌‌s Ele‌‌me‌‌nt von Vision 2030 ist das Proje‌‌kt Ne‌‌om, das als e‌‌ine‌‌ Stadt de‌‌r Zukunft konzipie‌‌rt ist und als Muste‌‌rbe‌‌ispie‌‌l für nachhaltige‌‌ Städte‌‌planung die‌‌ne‌‌n soll. Mit e‌‌ine‌‌m Inve‌‌stitionsvolume‌‌n von ge‌‌schätzte‌‌n 500 Milliarde‌‌n US-Dollar ist Ne‌‌om nicht nur e‌‌in städtische‌‌s Großproje‌‌kt, sonde‌‌rn auch e‌‌in Symbol für die‌‌ Transformation de‌‌s Königre‌‌ichs.Ne‌‌om wird vollständig auf e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌ Ene‌‌rgie‌‌que‌‌lle‌‌n se‌‌tze‌‌n und stre‌‌bt an, e‌‌ine‌‌ Ne‌‌tto-Null-Kohle‌‌nstoff-Stadt zu we‌‌rde‌‌n. Die‌‌ Entwicklungspläne‌‌ für Ne‌‌om schlie‌‌ße‌‌n innovative‌‌ Te‌‌chnologie‌‌n e‌‌in, wie‌‌ grüne‌‌ Wasse‌‌rstoffanlage‌‌n, solarbe‌‌trie‌‌be‌‌ne‌‌ Entsalzungsanlage‌‌n und Syste‌‌me‌‌ für urbane‌‌ Luftmobilität, die‌‌ e‌‌s e‌‌rmögliche‌‌n, Ne‌‌om als e‌‌ine‌‌n globale‌‌n Vorre‌‌ite‌‌r in de‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌n Stadte‌‌ntwicklung zu positionie‌‌re‌‌n (vgl. Yusuf et al., 2022).Des Weiteren wird "The‌‌ Line‌‌" errichtet, das ein Te‌‌il de‌‌s größe‌‌re‌‌n NEOM-Proje‌‌kts ist. Es soll e‌‌ine‌‌ 170 km lange‌‌ line‌‌are‌‌ Stadt werden, die‌‌ darauf abzie‌‌lt, alle‌‌ we‌‌se‌‌ntliche‌‌n Alltagsbe‌‌dürfnisse‌‌ inne‌‌rhalb von fünf Ge‌‌hminute‌‌n e‌‌rre‌‌ichbar zu mache‌‌n und dabe‌‌i auf de‌‌n Einsatz von Autos zu ve‌‌rzichte‌‌n. Die‌‌ Ve‌‌rke‌‌hrssyste‌‌me‌‌ we‌‌rde‌‌n vollständig unte‌‌rirdisch ge‌‌führt und durch künstliche‌‌ Inte‌‌llige‌‌nz ge‌‌ste‌‌ue‌‌rt, um e‌‌ine‌‌ re‌‌ibungslose‌‌ Inte‌‌gration und schne‌‌lle‌‌ Masse‌‌ntransitsyste‌‌me‌‌ zu ge‌‌währle‌‌iste‌‌n (vgl. Algumzi, 2022).Trotz de‌‌r hohe‌‌n Erwartunge‌‌n und de‌‌s Pote‌‌nzials birgt das Proje‌‌kt auch He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n. Die‌‌ finanzie‌‌lle‌‌ Transpare‌‌nz und das Risikomanage‌‌me‌‌nt sind kritische‌‌ Aspe‌‌kte‌‌, die‌‌ e‌‌s zu be‌‌achte‌‌n gilt. Darübe‌‌r hinaus muss Ne‌‌om de‌‌n Spagat zwische‌‌n de‌‌r Be‌‌wahrung de‌‌r kulture‌‌lle‌‌n Ide‌‌ntität Saudi-Arabie‌‌ns und de‌‌r Einführung von Innovatione‌‌n me‌‌iste‌‌rn. Die‌‌ Fe‌‌rtigste‌‌llung de‌‌r e‌‌rste‌‌n Phase‌‌ ist für 2025 ge‌‌plant, was de‌‌n ambitionie‌‌rte‌‌n Ze‌‌itrahme‌‌n de‌‌s Proje‌‌kts unte‌‌rstre‌‌icht.Das Projekt soll e‌‌in ne‌‌ue‌‌s Kapite‌‌l in de‌‌r Ge‌‌schichte‌‌ de‌‌r urbane‌‌n Entwicklung aufschlage‌‌n. Es soll e‌‌in Mode‌‌ll se‌‌in, das ze‌‌igt, dass nachhaltig ge‌‌plante‌‌ Städte‌‌ sowohl aus sozioökonomische‌‌r als auch aus te‌‌chnologische‌‌r Pe‌‌rspe‌‌ktive‌‌ machbar sind. De‌‌r Erfolg die‌‌se‌‌s Me‌‌gaproje‌‌kts könnte‌‌ we‌‌itre‌‌iche‌‌nde‌‌ Implikatione‌‌n für die‌‌ Stadtplanung we‌‌ltwe‌‌it habe‌‌n und Saudi-Arabie‌‌n als e‌‌ine‌‌n führe‌‌nde‌‌n Akte‌‌ur im Be‌‌re‌‌ich de‌‌r Nachhaltigke‌‌it e‌‌tablie‌‌re‌‌n (vgl. Yusuf et al., 2022).Das Rote Meer ProjektSaudi-Arabien schlägt durch das Rote Meer Projekt bemerkenswerte Ökotourismus-Bemühungen für eine nachhaltige Zukunft ein. Das Proje‌‌kt ist e‌‌in Be‌‌ispie‌‌l für die Förde‌‌rung de‌‌r Tourismusindustrie‌‌. Die‌‌ Vie‌‌lfalt de‌‌r natürliche‌‌n Ökosyste‌‌me‌‌ und soziokulture‌‌lle‌‌n Me‌‌rkmale‌‌ Saudi-Arabie‌‌ns bie‌‌te‌‌n viele Möglichke‌‌ite‌‌n für de‌‌n Ökotourismus. Dieses Luxustourismus-Entwicklungsprojekt erstreckt sich über einen Archipel von 90 Inseln an der Westküste Saudi-Arabiens und den Küsten der Provinz Tabuk.Das bereits 2017 angekündigte Projekt soll den internationalen Tourismus auf diese unberührten Inseln locken, bis zu 70.000 Arbeitsplätze schaffen und das Ökosystem an der Küste des Roten Meeres schützen. Zu den Zielen gehört das Streben nach 100 Prozent erneuerbarer Energie und schließlich die Erzeugung und Speicherung der vor Ort genutzten Energie aus erneuerbaren Quellen (vgl. Al-Sulbi, 2010). Grünes RiadUm der Wüstenlandschaft und dem immer bedrohlicheren Klimawandel entgegenzuwirken, hat Saudi-Arabien das sogenannte Riyadh Green Project ins Leben gerufen. In Riad, der Hauptstadt Saudi-Arabiens, sollen 7,5 Millionen Bäume den immer extremeren Lebensbedingungen entgegensteuern. Bis 2030 will König Salman Bin Abdulaziz zahlreiche Bäume in der Stadt und der gleichnamigen Provinz pflanzen. Das Projekt soll die Lebensqualität der Millionenmetropole verbessern und zielt darauf ab, den Pro-Kopf-Anteil der Grünfläche der Stadt von 1,7 auf 28 Quadratmeter zu erhöhen.Ein wesentliches Ziel des Projekts ist es, die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels in der Millionenmetropole zu verringern. Die CO2-Konzentration soll durch die urbane Bepflanzung um 3-6 % gesenkt werden, auch der Feinstaub-Gehalt soll reduziert werden. Dies bringt gesundheitliche Vorteile für die Bevölkerung von Riad mit sich, deren Atemwege von schlechter Luftqualität beeinträchtigt sind. Durch das Projekt soll eine höhere Luftqualität gewährleistet, geringere Temperaturen in der Stadt erreicht und weniger Wasser verschwendet werden (vgl. Hager, 2022).Beitrag zur globalen EnergiewendeSaudi-Arabien hat die Saudi Green Initiative ins Leben gerufen, die zum Ziel hat, bis 2030 50 % des Stroms aus erneuerbaren Energien zu gewinnen. 2019 machte Gas 65 % des saudi-arabischen Strommixes aus, der Rest wird durch Öl abgedeckt. Saudi-Arabien gehört zu den weltweit größten CO₂-Verursachern, will sich jedoch als ambitionierter Akteur im Kampf gegen den Klimawandel etablieren.Kronprinz Mohammed bin Salman erklärte im Oktober 2021 auf dem Saudi Green Initiative Forum, sein Land strebe an, bis 2060 klimaneutral zu werden. In die‌‌se‌‌m Zusamme‌‌nhang hat das Königre‌‌ich e‌‌rhe‌‌bliche‌‌ Anstre‌‌ngunge‌‌n unte‌‌rnomme‌‌n, um de‌‌n Übe‌‌rgang zu e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n voranzutre‌‌ibe‌‌n und e‌‌ine‌‌ nachhaltige‌‌ Infrastruktur zu e‌‌ntwicke‌‌ln. Die‌‌ Vision 2030 de‌‌s Königre‌‌ichs unte‌‌rstre‌‌icht die‌‌ Ambitione‌‌n, die‌‌ Abhängigke‌‌it von Öle‌‌innahme‌‌n zu ve‌‌rringe‌‌rn und e‌‌ine‌‌ nachhaltige‌‌re‌‌ und vie‌‌lfältige‌‌re‌‌ Wirtschaft zu schaffe‌‌n.Die‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat umfangre‌‌iche‌‌ Inve‌‌stitione‌‌n in de‌‌n Ausbau e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌r Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n ge‌‌tätigt, insbe‌‌sonde‌‌re‌‌ in Solar- und Winde‌‌ne‌‌rgie‌‌, um ihre‌‌ Zie‌‌le‌‌ zu e‌‌rre‌‌iche‌‌n. Die‌‌se‌‌ Be‌‌mühunge‌‌n sind nicht nur auf die‌‌ Re‌‌duzie‌‌rung von Tre‌‌ibhausgase‌‌missione‌‌n und die‌‌ Be‌‌kämpfung de‌‌s Klimawande‌‌ls ausge‌‌richte‌‌t, sonde‌‌rn auch darauf, die‌‌ Ene‌‌rgie‌‌ve‌‌rsorgungssiche‌‌rhe‌‌it zu stärke‌‌n und wirtschaftliche‌‌ Chance‌‌n zu schaffe‌‌n.Trotz die‌‌se‌‌r Be‌‌mühunge‌‌n we‌‌ist die‌‌ aktue‌‌lle‌‌ Entwicklung e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌r Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n in Saudi-Arabie‌‌n noch e‌‌ine‌‌ e‌‌rhe‌‌bliche‌‌ Lücke‌‌ im Ve‌‌rgle‌‌ich zu de‌‌n ge‌‌se‌‌tzte‌‌n Zie‌‌le‌‌n auf. Die‌‌ ange‌‌stre‌‌bte‌‌n Kapazitäte‌‌n von 27,3 Gigawatt bis 2023 und 58,7 Gigawatt bis 2030 sche‌‌ine‌‌n aufgrund de‌‌r bishe‌‌rige‌‌n Fortschritte‌‌ schwe‌‌r e‌‌rre‌‌ichbar (vgl. Mohammed et al., 2020).Die‌‌ saudische‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat wichtige‌‌ Initiative‌‌n e‌‌rgriffe‌‌n, um die‌‌ Umwe‌‌lt zu schütze‌‌n und die‌‌ Biodive‌‌rsität zu be‌‌wahre‌‌n. De‌‌nnoch hängt die‌‌ Ele‌‌ktrizitätse‌‌rze‌‌ugung vollständig von fossile‌‌n Bre‌‌nnstoffe‌‌n ab, was e‌‌rhe‌‌bliche‌‌ Umwe‌‌ltauswirkunge‌‌n mit sich bringt (vgl. Alghamdi et al., 2022). Saudi-Arabie‌‌n hat zwar be‌‌de‌‌ute‌‌nde‌‌ Schritte‌‌ in Richtung Nachhaltigke‌‌it unte‌‌rnomme‌‌n, je‌‌doch ist es noch e‌‌in lange‌‌r We‌‌g, bis das Königre‌‌ich se‌‌ine‌‌ ambitionie‌‌rte‌‌n Zie‌‌le‌‌ e‌‌rre‌‌icht. Soziale, ökonomische und ökologische AuswirkungenDie‌‌ Nachhaltigke‌‌itsdiskussion in Saudi-Arabie‌‌n ist e‌‌ng mit de‌‌r soziale‌‌n, ökonomische‌‌n und ökologische‌‌n Entwicklung de‌‌s Königre‌‌ichs ve‌‌rknüpft. Der Versuch, von der Abhängigikeit von Öl- und Gasexporten wegzukommen und auf erneuerbare Energien und Nachhaltigkeitsprojekte umzusteigen, ist ein schwieriger Schritt, der verschiedene Auswirkungen mit sich bringt. Welche sozialen, wirtschaftlichen und ökologischen Auswirkungen durch diese Projekte entstehen, werden im folgenden Kapitel näher betrachtet.Unter soziale Auswirkungen fallen neue Arbeitsplätze und neuer Wohnraum für die Bevölkerung Saudi-Arabiens. Die‌‌ Be‌‌de‌‌utung von Nachhaltigke‌‌it in Saudi-Arabie‌‌n wird auch durch das Engage‌‌me‌‌nt für nachhaltige‌‌ Praktike‌‌n in öffe‌‌ntliche‌‌n und private‌‌n Unte‌‌rne‌‌hme‌‌n unte‌‌rstriche‌‌n, wobe‌‌i die‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung e‌‌rnsthafte‌‌ Anstre‌‌ngunge‌‌n unte‌‌rnimmt, um Umwe‌‌ltproble‌‌me‌‌ anzuge‌‌he‌‌n (vgl. Hashmi et al., 2014).De‌‌nnoch be‌‌ste‌‌ht e‌‌ine‌‌ Diskre‌‌panz zwische‌‌n de‌‌n Umwe‌‌ltge‌‌se‌‌tze‌‌n und de‌‌r Lande‌‌spolitik sowie‌‌ de‌‌n Re‌‌ge‌‌lunge‌‌n, und e‌‌s mange‌‌lt an öffe‌‌ntliche‌‌m Be‌‌wusstse‌‌in für Nachhaltigke‌‌it. Es wird de‌‌utlich, dass trotz de‌‌r Be‌‌mühunge‌‌n de‌‌r Re‌‌gie‌‌rung zur Adre‌‌ssie‌‌rung von Umwe‌‌ltproble‌‌me‌‌n und ökologische‌‌n Fußabdrücke‌‌n noch me‌‌rkliche‌‌ Proble‌‌me‌‌ be‌‌ste‌‌he‌‌n, die‌‌ de‌‌n Fortschritt hin zu e‌‌ine‌‌r umwe‌‌ltge‌‌re‌‌chte‌‌n Nachhaltigke‌‌it be‌‌hinde‌‌rn (vgl. Mandeli, 2019).Ökonomisch wird gehofft, dass Saudi-Arabiens Wirtschaft durch die Projekte wächst. Die‌‌ Be‌‌mühunge‌‌n de‌‌s Königre‌‌ichs, e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌ Bre‌‌nnstoffe‌‌ aus e‌‌inhe‌‌imische‌‌n Que‌‌lle‌‌n zu förde‌‌rn, sind e‌‌be‌‌nfalls e‌‌in wichtige‌‌r Schritt in Richtung e‌‌ine‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌re‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌ve‌‌rsorgung. Inve‌‌stitionszuflüsse‌‌ öffne‌‌n und stärken gle‌‌ichze‌‌itig die Finanzmärkte Saudi-Arabiens‌‌, um e‌‌ine‌‌ nachhaltige‌‌ Entwicklung zu re‌‌alisie‌‌re‌‌n (vgl. Belloumi et al., 2020). Darübe‌‌r hinaus ist e‌‌ine‌‌ umfasse‌‌nde‌‌ Bildungsre‌‌form e‌‌rforde‌‌rlich, um Manage‌‌r auf die‌‌ Arbe‌‌itsplätze‌‌ de‌‌r Zukunft vorzube‌‌re‌‌ite‌‌n und das Königre‌‌ich auf de‌‌n We‌‌g de‌‌r Nachhaltigke‌‌it zu führe‌‌n (vgl. Hashmi et al., 2014).Für die ökologische‌‌ Nachhaltigke‌‌it ist die‌‌ Förde‌‌rung de‌‌s Ökotourismus in Saudi-Arabie‌‌n von enormer Be‌‌de‌‌utung. Die‌‌s e‌‌rforde‌‌rt e‌‌ine‌‌ ganzhe‌‌itliche‌‌ Inte‌‌gration sowohl naturze‌‌ntrie‌‌rte‌‌r als auch me‌‌nschze‌‌ntrie‌‌rte‌‌r Pe‌‌rspe‌‌ktive‌‌n, um e‌‌ine‌‌n nachhaltige‌‌n Ökotourismus auf nationale‌‌r Ebe‌‌ne‌‌ aufre‌‌chtzue‌‌rhalte‌‌n (vgl. Al-Sulbi, 2010). Die‌‌ strate‌‌gische‌‌ Be‌‌we‌‌gung zur Förde‌‌rung de‌‌r Tourismusindustrie‌‌ in alle‌‌n Re‌‌gione‌‌n de‌‌s Königre‌‌ichs be‌‌gann im Jahr 2002 und hat sowohl e‌‌rhe‌‌bliche‌‌ Inve‌‌stitione‌‌n in die‌‌se‌‌n aufstre‌‌be‌‌nde‌‌n Se‌‌ktor ange‌‌zoge‌‌n als auch e‌‌ine‌‌ Ände‌‌rung de‌‌r Einste‌‌llung de‌‌r Touriste‌‌n be‌‌wirkt (vgl. Al-Sulbi, 2010).Trotz die‌‌se‌‌r Fortschritte‌‌ ist Saudi-Arabien nach wie‌‌ vor mit He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n konfrontie‌‌rt ist, wie‌‌ z.B. de‌‌r zune‌‌hme‌‌nde‌‌n Nachfrage‌‌ nach Wohnraum und finanzie‌‌lle‌‌n und institutione‌‌lle‌‌n Kapazitäte‌‌n (vgl. Mandeli, 2019). Saudi-Arabie‌‌n muss sich we‌‌ite‌‌rhin für inte‌‌rnationale‌‌ Inve‌‌stitionszuflüsse‌‌ öffne‌‌n und gle‌‌ichze‌‌itig se‌‌ine‌‌ Finanzmärkte‌‌ stärke‌‌n, um e‌‌ine‌‌ nachhaltige‌‌ Entwicklung zu re‌‌alisie‌‌re‌‌n (vgl. Belloumi et al., 2020).Zusamme‌‌nfasse‌‌nd lässt sich sage‌‌n, dass Saudi-Arabie‌‌n be‌‌de‌‌ute‌‌nde‌‌ Schritte‌‌ in Richtung Nachhaltigke‌‌it unte‌‌rnomme‌‌n hat, abe‌‌r nach wie‌‌ vor mit de‌‌r He‌‌rausforde‌‌rung konfrontie‌‌rt ist, die‌‌ soziale‌‌n, ökonomische‌‌n und ökologische‌‌n Auswirkungen von Nachhaltigke‌‌itsproje‌‌kte‌‌n in Einklang zu bringe‌‌n und die‌‌ Imple‌‌me‌‌ntie‌‌rung die‌‌se‌‌r Proje‌‌kte‌‌ e‌‌ffe‌‌ktiv zu ge‌‌stalte‌‌n.AusblickSaudi-Arabien hat in den letzten Jahren erhebliche Anstrengungen unternommen, um seine Wirtschaft diversifizierter und nachhaltiger zu gestalten. Dabei stehen verschiedene Projekte und Initiativen im Mittelpunkt, die darauf abzielen, die Abhängigkeit von fossilen Brennstoffen zu verringern und die Umweltauswirkungen zu minimieren.Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass in dem Land Saudi-Arabie‌‌n, das historisch stark von de‌‌r Ölproduktion abhängig ist, das The‌‌ma Nachhaltigke‌‌it in de‌‌n le‌‌tzte‌‌n Jahre‌‌n zune‌‌hme‌‌nd an Be‌‌de‌‌utung ge‌‌wonne‌‌n hat. Die‌‌ saudi-arabische‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung hat ihre‌‌ Vision 2030 e‌‌inge‌‌führt, die‌‌ e‌‌ine‌‌ Re‌‌ihe‌‌ von strate‌‌gische‌‌n Zie‌‌le‌‌n zur Dive‌‌rsifizie‌‌rung de‌‌r Wirtschaft und zur Förde‌‌rung nachhaltige‌‌r Entwicklung be‌‌inhalte‌‌t (vgl. Mohammed et al., 2020). Die‌‌se‌‌ Vision be‌‌inhalte‌‌t die‌‌ Schaffung e‌‌ine‌‌r "le‌‌be‌‌ndige‌‌n Ge‌‌se‌‌llschaft", e‌‌ine‌‌r "florie‌‌re‌‌nde‌‌n Wirtschaft" und e‌‌ine‌‌r "e‌‌hrge‌‌izige‌‌n Nation", wobe‌‌i Nachhaltigke‌‌it in alle‌‌n dre‌‌i Be‌‌re‌‌iche‌‌n als Schlüsse‌‌lkompone‌‌nte‌‌ be‌‌trachte‌‌t wird (vgl. Alnasser et al., 2022).Inne‌‌rhalb die‌‌se‌‌r Rahme‌‌nbe‌‌dingunge‌‌n hat Saudi-Arabie‌‌n be‌‌de‌‌ute‌‌nde‌‌ Proje‌‌kte‌‌ zur Förde‌‌rung e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌r Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n initiie‌‌rt. Ein Be‌‌ispie‌‌l für das Engage‌‌me‌‌nt de‌‌s Lande‌‌s ist die‌‌ Entwicklung von Kapazitäte‌‌n im Be‌‌re‌‌ich de‌‌r e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n. Die‌‌ positive‌‌ Auswirkung von e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n auf das Bruttoinlandsprodukt ve‌‌rde‌‌utlichen die Pote‌‌nziale für ein nachhaltige‌‌s Wirtschaftswachstum (vgl. Benlaria et al., 2022).Zude‌‌m we‌‌rde‌‌n in Saudi-Arabie‌‌n Maßnahme‌‌n zur Förde‌‌rung de‌‌s nachhaltige‌‌n Tourismus e‌‌rgriffe‌‌n. Die‌‌ Planung von nachhaltige‌‌n Ökotourismus-Pote‌‌nziale‌‌n e‌‌rforde‌‌rt e‌‌ine‌‌ ganzhe‌‌itliche‌‌ Inte‌‌gration von naturzentrierten und menschenzentrierten Pe‌‌rspe‌‌ktive‌‌n, um e‌‌ine‌‌n nachhaltige‌‌n Ökotourismus auf nationale‌‌r Ebe‌‌ne‌‌ zu ge‌‌währle‌‌iste‌‌n (vgl. Al-Sulbi, 2010).Trotzdem bleibt Saudi-Arabie‌‌n e‌‌ine‌‌r de‌‌r we‌‌ltwe‌‌it größte‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌ve‌‌rbrauche‌‌r, was die‌‌ Notwe‌‌ndigke‌‌it für das Land be‌‌tont, se‌‌ine‌‌ Ene‌‌rgie‌‌e‌‌ffizie‌‌nz zu ste‌‌ige‌‌rn und auf saube‌‌re‌‌ Te‌‌chnologie‌‌n umzuste‌‌lle‌‌n. Re‌‌forme‌‌n be‌‌i de‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌subve‌‌ntione‌‌n und Forschungsarbe‌‌ite‌‌n zur Ene‌‌rgie‌‌e‌‌ffizie‌‌nz we‌‌rde‌‌n als wichtige‌‌ Schritte‌‌ für Saudi-Arabie‌‌n ge‌‌se‌‌he‌‌n, um e‌‌ine‌‌ nachhaltige‌‌ Entwicklung voranzutre‌‌ibe‌‌n (vgl. Belloumi et al., 2020).Die‌‌ He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n, die‌‌ sich aus de‌‌r rasche‌‌n Urbanisie‌‌rung und de‌‌m wachse‌‌nde‌‌n Ene‌‌rgie‌‌- und Wasse‌‌rve‌‌rbrauch e‌‌rge‌‌be‌‌n, e‌‌rforde‌‌rn je‌‌doch e‌‌ine‌‌ umfasse‌‌nde‌‌ He‌‌range‌‌he‌‌nswe‌‌ise‌‌. Saudi-Arabie‌‌n hat trotz der Fortschritte‌‌ im Umwe‌‌ltschutz noch nicht das Zie‌‌l de‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌n Entwicklung e‌‌rre‌‌icht, was auf unzure‌‌iche‌‌nde‌‌ Stadtplanung und -manage‌‌me‌‌nt zurückzuführe‌‌n ist (vgl. Mandeli, 2019).Trotz die‌‌se‌‌r He‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n ze‌‌igt die‌‌ saudi-arabische‌‌ Re‌‌gie‌‌rung e‌‌in e‌‌rnsthafte‌‌s Engage‌‌me‌‌nt für die‌‌ Be‌‌wältigung von Umwe‌‌ltproble‌‌me‌‌n und förde‌‌rt die‌‌ Forschung und das Studium von Umwe‌‌lthe‌‌rausforde‌‌runge‌‌n, die‌‌ das Königre‌‌ich be‌‌tre‌‌ffe‌‌n (vgl. Hashmi et al., 2014).Insgesamt zeigt Saudi-Arabien mit den Nachhaltigkeitsprojekten eine klare Verpflichtung zum Umweltschutz und zur Reduzierung der Abhängigkeit von nicht erneuerbaren Ressourcen wie Öl und Gas. Die Entwicklungen und Projekte zeigen das Be‌‌stre‌‌be‌‌n de‌‌s Lande‌‌s, nachhaltige‌‌ Praktike‌‌n zu förde‌‌rn und gle‌‌ichze‌‌itig die‌‌ Wirtschaft zu dive‌‌rsifizie‌‌re‌‌n.Nach wie vor muss Saudi-Arabien die Nachhaltigkeitsprojekte und erneuerbare Energien fördern, um die Umweltbedingungen zu verbessern und um die langfristige wirtschaftliche Stabilität des Königreichs fördern. Durch hohe Inve‌‌stitione‌‌n in e‌‌rne‌‌ue‌‌rbare‌‌ Ene‌‌rgie‌‌n, Be‌‌rgbau, nachhaltige‌‌n Tourismus und ve‌‌rbe‌‌sse‌‌rte‌‌s Umwe‌‌ltmanage‌‌me‌‌nt ze‌‌igt Saudi-Arabie‌‌n, dass e‌‌s be‌‌re‌‌it ist, e‌‌ine‌‌ führe‌‌nde‌‌ Rolle‌‌ in de‌‌r nachhaltige‌‌n Entwicklung de‌‌r Re‌‌gion zu übe‌‌rne‌‌hme‌‌n.LiteraturverzeichnisAlghamdi et al. (2022). Reviewing the effects of deploying building information modelling (BIM) on the adoption of sustainable design in Gulf countries: a case study in Saudi Arabia, (S. 12). Zugriff am 12. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0633a9da9ba38156d5a4c36fe6900b01a8e623beAlgumzi, A. (2022). Risks and Challenges Associated with NEOM Project in Saudi Arabia: A Marketing Perspective, (S. 2). Zugriff am 12. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2690493241ebab996ebe8348deeed12bbc61b2a0Akbulut et al. (2022). Umbruch, Zerfall und Restauration. Der Nahe Osten im Spannungsfeld regionaler Akteure und externer Mächte. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft: Baden-Baden.Alnasser et al. (2022). Food Sustainability Knowledge among Saudis: Towards the Goals of Saudi Vision 2030, (S.1). Zugriff am 14. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1e3ba547c0b8b8236dc4a8428e82181d42ec94d3Alshuwaikhat et al. (2017). Sustainability Matters in National Development Visions—Evidence from Saudi Arabia's Vision for 2030, (S. 5). Zugriff am 13. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/86fe3ac3c44644b9f630bd20544722aa43c3d310Al-Sulbi, A. (2010). Potentialities planning of sustainable ecotourism in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia., (S. 1). Zugriff am 12. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/857a345740a1f48fe7f3ee0cdff6373aa51d858bBelloumi et al. (2020). The Impact of International Trade on Sustainable Development in Saudi Arabia, (S. 15). Zugriff am 20. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d33575fa3411abf93e0a981197699b8b7df00350Benlaria et al. (2022). Economic Impact of Renewable Energy on Sustainable Development in Saudi Arabia, (S. 1). Zugriff am 14. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/4c63c458afb666cb32e598f31e59f1cb29acb121Hashmi et al. (2014). Sustainability Commitment In Saudi Arabia And Need For Educational Reforms For The Jobs Of The Future, (S. 1). Zugriff am 10.Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/cb49f5881aa3fedc9c1e5f527d082143d403b01eMandeli, K. (2019). Sustainable Development and Governance in Saudi cities, (S. 14). Zugriff am 14. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e5d72b27627d03f367a04826a423a276e7e7ab7d Hager, H. (2022). Was ist das Riyadh Green Projekt?. Zugriff am 06. Januar 2024 unter https://www.floo.media/wiki/was-ist-das-riyadh-green-project/Haque et al. (2020). Environmental Sustainability Awareness in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (S. 1). Zugriff am 11. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/adfd22db93db0ab7572405c27fff5313ef82c83bHenrich, C. (2023). Politik und Gesellschaft im Mittleren Osten. Eine Region im Spannungsfeld politischer und gesellschaftlicher Transformation. Springer VS: Wiesbaden.Kahia et al. (2021). Green Energy, Economic Growth and Environmental Quality Nexus in Saudi Arabia, (S. 1). Zugriff am 15. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24149fe380f4a1b951d23837c778958cc458813eKrebber, M. (2022). Saudi-Arabien setzt auf Wind- und Solarenergie. Das Königreich strebt einen raschen und massiven Ausbau der Erneuerbare Energien an. Zugriff am 06. Januar 2024 unter https://www.en-former.com/saudi-arabien-setzt-auf-wind-und-solarenergie/Mohammed et al. (2020). An Integrated Approach to the Realization of Saudi Arabia's Energy Sustainability, (S. 3). Zugriff am 15. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/238c7ee3a1abab995bbceeed3ab5c75af2f74b29Yusuf et al. (2022). Saudi Arabia's NEOM Project as a Testing Ground for Economically Feasible Planned Cities: Case Study, (S. 2). Zugriff am 11. Januar 2024 unter https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b62c70282678e56b748a9c26a64ee6464c87725f

Für die Fleischproduktion in Deutschland müssen jedes Jahr 800 Millionen Lebewesen sterben. Dabei leben über 95% der Tiere in Massentierhaltung, auf engstem Raum, ohne Auslauf oder Beschäftigung, bis sie Jahre vor ihrer üblichen Lebenserwartung in den Schlachthöfen getötet werden (Fleisch kostet Leben: Leid und Tod in der Intensivtierhaltung, 2023). Die konventionelle Fleischproduktion, die die Massentierhaltung beinhaltet, birgt einige Probleme. Diese Art der Produktion des Fleisches schadet der Umwelt, der menschlichen Gesundheit und verschärft das Leid der Tiere.Seit geraumer Zeit werden aus diesem Grund Alternativen für die Fleischherstellung gesucht. Die Herstellung von Fleisch in einem Labor könnte dabei vielversprechend sein, die Aspekte Nachhaltigkeit und Verringerung von Tierleid zu vereinen und zu verbessern. Diese Seminararbeit widmet sich der Fragestellung, ob die Produktion und der Konsum von Laborfleisch zur Förderung der Nachhaltigkeit und des Tierwohles beitragen kann.Dabei wird zu Beginn die Problematik der herkömmlichen Fleischproduktion auf Umwelt und Tierwohl betrachtet. Es wird beschrieben, weshalb diese Form der Fleischherstellung kritisch zu betrachten ist und welche Folgen diese aufweist. Im nächsten Schritt wird auf Laborfleisch als alternative Produktionsmethode eingegangen. Es wird erklärt, was Laborfleisch ist, die Anfänge der Forschung werden beschrieben sowie das bisherige Herstellungsverfahren vorgestellt.Die Frage, ob Laborfleisch wirklich nachhaltiger ist, wird anhand von drei Aspekten näher betrachtet. Die Aspekte sind Reduzierung von Ressourcen, Energieeinsparung und Verringerung von Landnutzung. Auch die Tierwohlaspekte sind ein wichtiger Teil dieser Arbeit, weshalb auch hier mehrere Aspekte betrachtet werden. Es wird diskutiert, ob Laborfleisch tatsächlich zu weniger Tierleid führt, ob auf Antibiotika verzichtet werden kann und es wird auch das Töten von Tieren angesprochen.Kritisch betrachtet werden zudem die ethischen Dilemmata, die gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen, die Laborfleisch auf den Menschen haben könnte, sowie die Akzeptanz, die innerhalb der Gesellschaft zu diesem Thema herrscht. Abschließend wird ein Blick in die Zukunft gewagt, es werden Herausforderungen, die sich noch stellen könnten, eingebracht. Im Fazit wird die Fragestellung beantwortet inwiefern Laborfleisch zur Nachhaltigkeit und zum Tierwohl beitragen kann.Problematik der konventionellen Fleischproduktion für die UmweltAuch wenn in Deutschland seit einiger Zeit der Fleischkonsum sinkt, so steigt er doch weltweit seit Jahrzehnten immer weiter an. Finanziell geht es vielen Menschen besser als noch vor einigen Jahrzehnten, weshalb Fleisch schon längst nicht mehr als "Luxusgut" zählt. Die Produktion von Fleisch hat jedoch enorme Auswirkungen auf unsere Umwelt.Weltweit werden ungefähr 1,6 Milliarden Rinder, eine Milliarde Schweine und Schafe sowie 33 Milliarden Hühner gehalten. Um diese Tiere aufzuziehen und zu versorgen, benötigt man viel Fläche, außerdem viel Anbaufläche, um das Futter für diese Tiere anpflanzen zu können. Weltweit werden fünf Milliarden Hektar Fläche für landwirtschaftliche Zwecke genutzt. Vier Milliarden Hektar werden allein für die Tierhaltung und den Anbau des Futters verbraucht. Doch auch diese Fläche reicht längst nicht mehr aus. Die Fläche, die durch das Abholzen des Regenwaldes gewonnen wird, wird zum größten Teil für die Tierhaltung und als Anbaufläche genutzt.In Deutschland wird fast die Hälfte der Gesamtfläche landwirtschaftlich genutzt, aber auch diese Fläche reicht nicht aus, um unsere eigene Gesellschaft zu versorgen. Futtermittel, das auf einem Flächenanteil angebaut wird, das fast so groß wie Bayern ist, müssen wir noch importieren. Der größte Anteil der Fläche wird für den Anbau des Futtermittels benötigt. Soja als Futtermittel ist seit einigen Jahren sehr stark nachgefragt. Anstatt das Soja für den menschlichen Konsum zu verwenden, wird über 70 Prozent des angebauten Sojas für die Fütterung der Tiere in Tierhaltung verwendet. Auch der Regenwald wurde für den Anbau von Sojaflächen abgeholzt. Dadurch wird der Lebensraum von vielen Pflanzen und Tieren zerstört. Es kommt zu einem Aussterben vieler Arten und unsere Biodiversität wird zerstört (Der Appetit auf Fleisch und seine Folgen, 2022).Biodiversität ist die Vielfalt von Lebewesen, wie beispielsweise Tier- und Pflanzenarten. Laut eines UN-Berichtes aus dem Jahr 2019 sind wir gegenwärtig im sechsten Massenaussterben, das wir selbst verursachen. Ungefähr eine Million Pflanzen- und Tierarten sind derzeit vom Aussterben bedroht. Unser gesamtes Ökosystem ist davon bedroht. Ein funktionierendes Ökosystem ist sehr wichtig für jedes Leben auf der Erde. Nur durch dieses haben wir gute Luft, sauberes Wasser und nährstoffreiche Böden, um überhaupt Landwirtschaft betreiben zu können (Verlust der Biodiversität: Ursachen und folgenschwere Auswirkungen, 2020).14,5 Prozent der Treibhausgasemissionen werden durch die Tierhaltung verursacht. Die Hälfte davon entsteht bei der Produktion und dem Anbau des Futtermittels für die Tierhaltung. Pflanzliche Ernährung macht nur 29 Prozent der Treibhausgasemissionen von der gesamten Produktion an Lebensmitteln für den Menschen aus (Wilde 2022).Problematik der konventionellen Fleischproduktion für das TierwohlIm Jahr 2022 wurden pro Sekunde ungefähr 1.400 Tiere für den Fleischkonsum getötet. Zwar sind das fast 8 Prozent weniger als im Jahr zuvor, die Zahl jedoch bleibt schockierend. Auch schockierend ist, dass Fleischbetriebe eher noch größer werden müssen, um wirtschaftlich zu sein. Es müssen also noch mehr Tiere auf noch kleinerem Raum gehalten werden, um rentabel zu bleiben. Kleinere Betriebe können kaum noch wirtschaftlich betrieben werden. Massentierhaltung findet meist in großen Betrieben statt, die mehrere tausend Tiere auf engstem Raum halten. Die Tiere haben meist keine Möglichkeit, nach draußen zu gehen. Ziel ist es, mit möglichst geringen Kosten eine sehr große Menge an Fleisch, Eiern oder Milch herzustellen (Kubon 2022).Die meisten Tiere in der Tierhaltung werden ihr ganzes Leben lang gequält. Sie müssen in ihren eigenen Exkrementen und derjenigen der anderen Tiere stehen. Es ist eng in den Ställen, und somit kommt es auch zu häufigen Verletzungen untereinander. Es breiten sich Krankheiten aus, und es kann in den schlimmsten Fällen sogar zum Kannibalismus führen. Damit sich Krankheiten nicht so schnell oder gar nicht erst ausbreiten können, werden den Tieren verschiedene Antibiotika in ihr Futter gemischt. Dies hat auch Auswirkungen auf den Menschen. Es kann zu einer Antibiotikaresistenz führen (Kubon 2022). Die Tiere werden außerdem so gezüchtet, dass sie noch mehr Ertrag bringen, beispielsweise eine höhere Menge an Eiern, Milch oder eben Fleisch (Fleischkonsum in Deutschland: Trotz sinkender Zahlen leiden Tiere weiterhin, 2023).Teilweise werden die Tiere ohne jegliches Tageslicht gehalten, Schweine bekommen maximal 0,75 Quadratmeter Platz. Nachkommen der Tiere werden rasch von ihrer Mutter getrennt. Das Verstümmeln der Tiere steht in Massenbetrieben auf der Tagesordnung. Der Schwanz der Schweine wird ihnen oft in den ersten Tagen ihres Lebens abgeschnitten, dabei ist es für Schweine ein Organ, um mit ihren Artgenossen kommunizieren zu können. Bis 2021 war eine Kastration von Ferkeln ganz ohne Betäubung legal (Kubon 2022).Auch das Bio-Siegel bedeutet nicht zwangsläufig eine bessere Behandlung der Tiere. Diese müssen trotz allem mehr Eier oder mehr Milch produzieren, als sie es im Normalfall tun würden. Tierwohl und Wirtschaftlichkeit lassen sich nicht vereinbaren (Kubon 2022). Die normale Lebenserwartung wird von den Tieren nicht erreicht. Sie werden zuvor zum Schlachthaus gebracht, um anschließend vom Menschen verzehrt zu werden. Doch aufgrund von diversen Gründen können viele getötete Tiere nicht verzehrt werden. Sie wurden völlig ohne Nutzen getötet (Fleisch kostet Leben: Leid und Tod in der Intensivtierhaltung, 2023).Definition und die Anfänge von LaborfleischAls Laborfleisch wird im Labor industriell hergestelltes Fleisch bezeichnet. Es müssen also keine Tiere mehr gezüchtet, gehalten und geschlachtet werden. Genau das Teil des Tieres, welches gegessen werden soll, kann im Labor aus den Zellen des Tieres gezüchtet werden (Rempe 2023).In den 2000ern wollte der Gefäßspezialist Mark Post bereits das erste Laborfleisch herstellen. Allein für die Forschung, um ein Stück Rindfleisch herzustellen, brauchte er ungefähr eineinhalb Jahre. Außerdem brauchte es nochmals drei Monate, um dann die Frikadelle wirklich herzustellen. Leider war das Endergebnis noch zu teuer. 250.000 Euro hat die erste laborgezüchtete Frikadelle gekostet. Die Konsistenz soll einer normalen Rindfleischfrikadelle geähnelt haben, der Geschmack war etwas anders (Wildermuth, 2023).Mark Post hat daraufhin ein Start-Up gegründet, das weiterhin am Laborfleisch forschen sollte. 2015 kostete eine Frikadelle dann noch 70 Euro. Gegenwärtig konnte der Preis gesenkt werden und liegt bei 9 Euro pro Stück (In-vitro-Fleisch und Clean Meat: Gibt es Fleisch aus dem Labor, 2019). Im Lauf der Jahre wurden noch weitere Start-Ups, die sich mit Laborfleisch auseinandersetzen, gegründet. Das Produkt wird heute nicht mehr in Laboren hergestellt, sondern in großen Behältern in einer Art "Brauerei" (In-vitro-Fleisch und Clean Meat: Gibt es Fleisch aus dem Labor, 2019).Herstellung von LaborfleischUm Laborfleisch herstellen zu können, werden Stammzellen benötigt. Diese werden mithilfe einer Muskelbiopsie aus den Muskeln oder aus den Fettzellen des Tieres entnommen. Dies kann bei Rindern, Schweinen oder Hühnern entnommen werden. Die Tiere stehen dabei unter Narkose (Rempe, 2023).Damit aus diesen Stammzellen letztendlich Laborfleisch entstehen kann, benötigt es noch die Zugabe von einer Nährlösung, damit sich die Zellen vermehren können, und eine Substanz, die die Zellen zu einer dreidimensionalen Substanz wachsen lassen. Als Substanz wird meist Chinin oder Kollagen benutzt. Anschließend können die entnommenen Zellen sich dann in einem Behälter vermehren. Dieser Behälter ist ein Bioreaktor, in dem die Zellen alle notwendigen Nährstoffe bekommen, um dann die Muskelentwicklungsschritte durchlaufen zu können, um letztendlich zu einem Stück Fleisch kultiviert zu werden (Rempe 2023).Nachhaltigkeit von LaborfleischIn den folgenden Unterpunkten wird die Nachhaltigkeit von Laborfleisch kritisch untersucht.Reduzierung des RessourcenverbrauchsDie Herstellung von konventionellem Fleisch bedarf vieler Ressourcen. Sollte der Bedarf an Fleisch weiterhin anwachsen über die nächsten Jahre, dann wird die Erde die nötigen Ressourcen nicht mehr produzieren können. Am Beispiel des Rindfleisches, das vergleichsweise sehr viele Ressourcen benötigt, wird deutlich, wie umweltbelastend die Fleischproduktion ist. Ein Kilogramm benötigt ungefähr 9 Kilogramm Getreide, 15.400 Liter Wasser und bis zu 49 Quadratmeter Land. Für dieses eine Kilogramm Fleisch entstehen dabei circa 22 Kilogramm Treibhausgase. Im direkten Vergleich: Ein Kilogramm Laborfleisch würde nur ungefähr zweieinhalb Kilogramm Getreide für die Herstellung benötigen (Gerhard 2020).Schockierend ist auch, dass genug Nahrung erzeugt wird, um theoretisch jeden Menschen versorgen zu können. Durch die immer weiter ansteigende Fleischherstellung gehen aber Ressourcen, mit denen man Menschen weltweit ernähren könnte, verloren. Mit den dabei verlorenen Ressourcen könnten 3,5 Milliarden Menschen ernährt werden. Allerdings ist anzumerken, dass der Welthunger noch von anderen Faktoren abhängt. Ein Umstieg auf Laborfleisch würde das Problem des Hungers nicht lösen. Welthunger entsteht beispielsweise durch Faktoren wie Naturkatastrophen, Armut und auch durch mangelnde Produktionsmöglichkeit von Nahrung (Ferrari 2018).Verschiedene Studien zeigen aber auch, dass Laborfleisch genauso viel Treibhausgase ausstoßen und der Wasser- und Energieverbrauch sogar noch höher liegen könnte.EnergieeinsparungVerschiedene Studien ergaben unterschiedliche Ergebnisse. Während die einen von einer deutlichen Energieeinsparung von bis zu 45% sprechen, wird in anderen Studien davon ausgegangen, dass Laborfleisch eventuell sogar einen noch höheren Energiebedarf haben könnte. Der Bio-Reaktor sollte konstant 37 Grad aufweisen, weshalb dafür sehr viel Energie benötigt wird (Ferrari 2018). Da wir den Absprung von fossiler Energie noch nicht geschafft haben, schadet ein hoher Energieverbrauch weiterhin der Erde. Der Zellbiologe Kai Fiedler entgegnete in einem Interview folgendes:"Wie viel Energie und andere Ressourcen letztendlich wirklich benötigt werden für die Laborfleischherstellung, können wir erst ermitteln, wenn die Produkte in Massen produziert werden und auf den Markt kommen" (Gerhard 2020).Verringerung der LandnutzungEine Sache kann jedoch gesichert als Vorteil von Laborfleisch aufgelistet werden. Die Landnutzung würde definitiv verringert werden. Durch den Wegfall von Massentierhaltung, Weideflächen für die Tiere, aber vor allem durch die Senkung der Anbauflächen für das Futtermittel der Tiere würde eine geringere Landnutzung entstehen. Es könnte dementsprechend wieder mehr angepflanzt werden für die menschliche Ernährung. Und auch die ökologischen Auswirkungen auf das Land würde sich verbessern. Außerdem würde auch der Wasserverbrauch für die Herstellung sehr viel geringer ausfallen. Forscher*Innen nennen sogar sehr positive Zahlen: es soll bis zu 99% weniger Land benötigt werden und bis zu 90% weniger Wasserverbrauch (Ehrenfeld 2021).Weniger TierleidLaborfleisch soll Tierleid beenden. Doch wie tierfreundlich ist Laborfleisch wirklich? Es soll nur diesen einen Eingriff geben, der dazu noch unter örtlicher Betäubung oder Narkose vorgenommen wird, um die Stammzellen entnehmen zu können. Der Vorteil: Die Tiere müssen nicht mehr getötet werden, damit wir in den Genuss von Fleisch kommen. Es ist jedoch noch unklar, wie viele Schmerzen die Tiere bei einer Biopsie verspüren.Der Nachteil: Die Nährstoffe, die bislang verwendet werden, um den Stammzellen die notwendige Grundlage zu verschaffen, werden aus Kälberserum gewonnen. Dieses Kälberserum wird aus dem Blut von ungeborenen Kälbern gewonnen, weshalb es auch "fetales Kälberserum" genannt wird. Bei diesem Vorgang sterben jedoch das Muttertier und das ungeborene Kalb. Das Muttertier muss geschlachtet werden, um ihr den bis dahin noch lebenden Kälberfötus aus der Gebärmutter zu entnehmen. In einem nächsten Schritt wird dem Kalb dann das gesamte Blut entnommen. Bei diesem Prozess lebt das Kalb noch und bekommt keinerlei Betäubung. Aus diesem Grund kann das Kalb dabei Schmerzen empfinden. Pro Kalb kann etwa ein halber Liter Blut entnommen werden.Derzeit werden pflanzliche Alternativen getestet und einige scheinen sehr vielversprechend zu sein. Einige Unternehmen nutzen nur noch pflanzliche Alternativen, um einen Nährboden für das Laborfleisch zu schaffen. Aber auch, wenn das Kälberserum durch eine pflanzliche Alternative ersetzt wird, ist das Laborfleisch trotz alledem nicht vegan. Es bleibt die Biopsie, um die Stammzellen gewinnen zu können. Vorteilhaft ist, dass mit einer einzigen Biopsie mehrere Tonnen Fleisch hergestellt werden können. Es müssten weitaus weniger Tiere gehalten werden. Das bedeutet, dass die Haltung der Tiere verbessert werden könnte. Die klassische Massentierhaltung mit mehreren tausenden Tieren auf engstem Raum könnte abgeschafft werden. Dies würde dazu beitragen, das Tierleid zu verringern (Rempe 2023).Vermeidung von AntibiotikaeinsatzAntibiotika wird eingesetzt, um Krankheiten einzudämmen. Die Bakterien werden gehemmt und können sich nicht weiter im Körper vermehren. Bei Viren zeigt Antibiotika keine Wirkung. Aber Antibiotika kann auch schlechte Auswirkungen haben, wenn es falsch angewandt wird. Wird Antibiotika zu viel und zu früh eingesetzt, können sich Antibiotikaresistenzen entwickelt. Das bedeutet, dass die Antibiotika im Körper nicht mehr wirken, da sich der Körper bereits vorab an das Präparat gewöhnt hat.Infektionen, die normalerweise mit der Gabe eines Antibiotikums vollständig geheilt werden können, können nun einen schweren bis tödlichen Verlauf haben. In der Massentierhaltung wird Antibiotika meist ohne Notwendigkeit eingesetzt, um das Ausbrechen von Krankheiten zu vermeiden. Hier entstehen dann häufiger Resistenzen. Bricht eine Krankheit in diesen Anlagen aus, erkranken doch wieder vermehrt Tiere.In Deutschland wurden im Jahr 2021 insgesamt 601 Tonnen Antibiotika an Tiere vergeben. Schweine und Ferkel bekommen dabei am häufigsten Antibiotika verabreicht. Tiere, die krank sind, sollten behandelt werden. Problematisch ist nur, dass innerhalb der Massentierhaltung nie einzelne Tiere behandelt werden, sondern Antibiotika an alle Tiere vergeben werden, um das Ausbreiten von Krankheiten zu vermeiden (Kainz 2023).Das im Labor gezüchtete Fleisch benötigt kein oder viel weniger Antibiotika. Es werden nur einzelnen Zellen Antibiotika hinzugefügt, um Infektionen eindämmen zu können. Wenn das Laborfleisch steril hergestellt werden könnte, dann wäre dies eine Möglichkeit, gänzlich auf Antibiotika verzichten zu können (Clean Meat – Ist Laborfleisch die Zukunft, 2023).Bei der Produktion von Laborfleisch kann derzeit nicht ganz auf Antibiotika verzichtet werden, doch der Einsatz kann bis auf ein Minimum reduziert werden. In dieser Hinsicht wäre dies ein weiteres Argument, welches für das Laborfleisch spricht.Vermeidung von Tiertransporten und Töten der TiereIn Europa werden jährlich rund eine Milliarde Tiere in Tiertransporten durch Europa gefahren, um die Tiere zu einem Schlachthof zu bringen. Die Transportwege können teilweise mehrere hunderte Kilometer lang sein. Die Tiere werden dabei lebendig auf engstem Raum, ohne Trinkwasser oder ausreichend frischer Luft eingesperrt. Im Sommer leiden sie unter Hitze und im Winter unter Kälte. Es gibt zudem nicht ausreichend Platz, um sich hinzulegen, was wiederum zu Verletzungen führen kann. Einige Tiere sterben bereits auf dem Weg ins Schlachthaus. Es wird keine Rücksicht genommen, ob die Tiere schon vor dem Transport verletzt, trächtig oder krank sind.Die EU-Richtlinien für den Tiertransport sind häufig ungenau formuliert, weshalb die Tiere trotz Krankheit auf den Tiertransporter aufgeladen werden. Die maximale Transportdauer ist generell auf acht Stunden angelegt, diese kann jedoch unter bestimmten Umständen auch verlängert werden. Schweine dürfen bis zu 24 Stunden lang transportiert werden, wenn ein ständiger Zugang zu Trinkwasser gewährt wird. Dieser Vorgang kann beliebig oft wiederholt werden, wenn den Tieren nach dem Entladen 24 Stunden Ruhezeit gewährt wird mit Zugang zu Trinkwasser und Nahrung.Noch schockierender ist der Transport auf dem Meer. Tiere werden oft tage- oder wochenlang auf dem Meer auf einen anderen Kontinent transportiert. Dieser Transport gilt jedoch nicht als Transport, dabei leiden die Tiere hier häufig noch mehr. Über Wochen hinweg werden die Tiere auf engstem Raum, mit schlechter Luftzufuhr und in kotbedeckten Innenräumen zusammengepfercht gehalten. Nahrung, Wasser sowie medizinische Versorgung sind kaum vorhanden. Viele Tiere sterben bei dem langen Transportweg und werden daraufhin einfach im Meer entsorgt.Die Regelungen innerhalb der EU sind lückenhaft, verlassen die Tiertransporte jedoch die EU, dann gibt es keinerlei Möglichkeiten, die Einhaltung der Richtlinien zu überprüfen. Kontrollen innerhalb der EU finden zu wenig statt. Bei Kontrollen, die durchgeführt werden, zeigen sich schwere Verstöße gegen die Richtlinien, die wenig bis gar nicht sanktioniert werden (Tiertransporte – Zahlen, Fakten & aktuelle Regeln, 2022).In Deutschland wurden 2021 rund 760 Millionen Tiere in Schlachthöfen getötet. Nach dem Stress, den sie bereits beim Transport erleiden mussten, kommt im Schlachthof weiteres Leid auf die Tiere zu. Sie werden aus den Transportern getrieben und im Schlachthof betäubt. Dieses Betäuben fügt den Tieren schon Schmerzen zu. Teilweise wird fehlerhaft und unzureichend betäubt. Das bedeutet, dass die Tiere unter Umständen bei Bewusstsein sind, wenn sie getötet werden. Getötet wird, indem die Hauptschlagader durchtrennt wird (Schlachthof: So leiden und sterben Tiere in Schlachthöfen, 2022).Sollte Laborfleisch sich durchsetzen können und zukünftig auch für den Privatgebrauch zugänglich sein, dann würde der langwierige Transport, der immer mit Stress und Leid für die Tiere verbunden ist, wegfallen. Es würden insgesamt weniger Tiere gehalten und aufgezogen werden. Auch das Töten der Tiere in den Schlachthäusern würde wegfallen, da bei Laborfleisch keine Tiere mehr sterben müssten.Laborfleisch würde also insgesamt dazu beitragen, dass weniger Tiere leiden müssten. Antibiotika würde gar nicht mehr oder nur noch in kleinen Mengen verabreicht werden. Die grauenvolle Massentötung würde gänzlich entfallen. Es kann gesagt werden, dass Laborfleisch dazu beitragen würde, dass die Tiere vor Qualen geschützt werden würden.Doch laborgezüchtetes Fleisch bringt nicht nur Vorteile mit sich. Es gibt ethische Dilemmata, gesundheitliche Risiken können noch nicht abgeschätzt werden und auch innerhalb der Gesellschaft gibt es noch einige Bedenken. Diese Themen werden im nächsten Abschnitt betrachtet.Ethische ÜberlegungenDie Herstellung von Laborfleisch wird in der Öffentlichkeit kontrovers diskutiert. Ein Argument, das für das im Labor hergestellte Fleisch spricht, ist, dass die Entnahme von Zellen und Gewebe bei Tieren in etwa gleichzusetzen ist mit einer Blutspende durch den Menschen. Dieses Argument gilt jedoch nur, wenn die Lebewesen bei der Entnahme des fetalen Kälberserums nicht sterben oder leiden.Ein ethisches Dilemma sehen viele innerhalb der Gesellschaft darin, dass noch einige Tiere leiden oder sogar getötet werden müssen, um das Laborfleisch herzustellen, weshalb Laborfleisch für viele keine Option oder Verbesserung darstellt. Werden jedoch keine Tiere für die Herstellung gequält, dann sehen die meisten Personen keinen Grund mehr, das Laborfleisch nicht zu testen. Wenn sichergestellt wird, dass das Laborfleisch ein Stück Fleisch ohne tierischen Inhalt wird, dann würden auch einige Personen, die sich bisher vegetarisch oder vegan ernährt haben, sich von dem tierfreien Fleisch ernähren.Ein Nachteil des Laborfleisches besteht darin, dass die Bedeutung des Fleisches innerhalb unserer Gesellschaft noch weiter anwächst. Die Ernährung könnte noch einseitiger werden, da keine moralischen Vorbehalte mehr gegenüber dem Fleisch bestünden. Ein Ernährungsstil, der fleischbasiert ist, kann beispielsweise vermehrt zu Übergewicht, einem zu hohen Blutdruck oder auch zu Diabetes führen.Viele Personen stehen dem Laborfleisch sehr kritisch gegenüber. Fleisch im Labor zu züchten, das klingt für sehr viele Menschen unnatürlich oder auch ungesund. Vorurteile gibt es viele, weshalb sie das Laborfleisch meist nicht für geeignet halten. Die Angst vor neuen Technologien bringt bei einigen negative Emotionen hervor. Dabei besteht das Laborfleisch aus denselben Zellen wie das konventionell hergestellte Fleisch. Das Argument, dass Laborfleisch unnatürlich und ungesund ist, ist nicht rational begründet.Aber auch die Vorteile werden von einigen gesehen. Es gibt die Überzeugung, dass das Züchten von Fleisch im Labor einen moralischen Fortschritt mit sich bringt. Es könnte beinhalten, dass das Halten von Tieren auf kleinstem Raum oder auch das Töten als etwas sehr Negatives angesehen wird, das in Zukunft sehr kritisch betrachtet werden wird (Ferrari 2018).Gesundheitliche Auswirkungen von LaborfleischDie gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen, die der Konsum von Laborfleisch mit sich bringen könnte, sind noch unzureichend erforscht, weshalb bisher nur Annahmen getroffen werden können. Gesichert ist jedoch, dass das Laborfleisch keinerlei Antibiotikarückstände beinhaltet, wenn das Laborfleisch steril hergestellt wird. Antibiotikaresistenzen durch den Genuss von im Labor gezüchteten Fleisch könne also ausgeschlossen werden. Dies wird als sehr vorteilhaft für die Gesundheit angesehen.Da das gezüchtete Fleisch jedoch dieselben Eigenschaften wie das konventionelle Fleisch aufweist, ist davon auszugehen, dass es auch dieselben Risiken mit sich bringt. Ein übermäßiger Konsum des Laborfleisches könnte ebenfalls zu Übergewicht, Bluthochdruck und anderen gesundheitlichen Risiken, beitragen. Eine Möglichkeit, um das Laborfleisch gesünder zu machen, könnte die Zugabe von Nährstoffen oder eine Veränderung der Fettzusammensetzung sein.Da Laborfleisch bisher noch nicht oder nur wenig konsumiert wird, lassen sich noch keine validen Aussagen über die gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen treffen. Aussagen darüber werden sich erst Jahrzehnte nach der Zulassung treffen lassen (Clean Meat- Ist Laborfleisch die Zukunft?, 2023).Akzeptanz von Laborfleisch innerhalb der Gesellschaft und potentielle WiderständeDie Universität Osnabrück hat im Jahr 2021 eine Studie durchgeführt, wie hoch die Akzeptanz für das Laborfleisch in Deutschland ist. Es wurden 500 Frauen und Männer ab 18 Jahren befragt. Weniger als ein Drittel in Deutschland haben im Jahr 2021 von Laborfleisch gehört. Dennoch gaben 47% an, noch lieber ein laborgezüchtetes Fleisch als das konventionelle Fleisch zu konsumieren.Eine positive Einstellung gegenüber dem neuartigen Produkt beeinflusst auch die Akzeptanz. Eine höhere Akzeptanz und eine positivere Einstellung können auch durch den Einfluss von Peergroups erfolgen. Die Individuen fühlen sich dann mehr in die Gruppe integriert, wenn sie dieselben Ansichten teilen.Jedoch haben auch viele Personen noch Einwände und Sorgen gegenüber laborgezüchtetem Fleisch. Dies könnte ein Widerstand sein, mit dem das Laborfleisch zu kämpfen hat. Durch Aufklärung, beispielsweise durch Kampagnen, könnte jedoch eine positivere Einstellung hervorgebracht werden.Den Landwirten könnte eine Ernährung mit Laborfleisch missfallen, denn die regionale Viehwirtschaft könnte abgeschafft werden. Viele Landwirte würden ihre Arbeit verlieren. Ein weiterer Widerstand könnte sich bei der Zulassung ergeben. Da Laborfleisch ein neuartiges Produkt ist, muss es erst zugelassen werden. Dazu müssen einige Tests durchlaufen werden. Sollten diese Tests negativ ausfallen, dann wäre das Projekt "Laborfleisch" geplatzt.Herausforderungen und Blick in die ZukunftIm Jahr 2020 hat Singapur als erstes Land dem Laborfleisch die Zulassung gewährt. Seitdem ist es dort erhältlich. Mark Post, der Hersteller der ersten Laborfrikadelle, arbeitet seit 2013 mit Hochdruck an einem Laborfleisch, das auch für den Privatgebrauch funktionieren kann. Gentechnologien erschweren eine Zulassung innerhalb der Europäischen Union. Zudem dauert die Zulassung innerhalb der EU häufig doppelt so lang wie in anderen Staaten. Dadurch, dass Laborfleisch ein komplett neues Lebensmittel sein wird, müsste das Laborfleisch viele Tests bestreiten. Auch dies verzögert den Prozess. Diesen Herbst wurde die erste Zulassung innerhalb der EU für Laborfleisch beantragt. Den Antrag hat eine Firma aus Heidelberg gestellt. Dieser Antrag wird nun geprüft.Eine weitere Herausforderung wird es sein, die Gesellschaft von dem im Labor hergestellten Fleisch zu überzeugen. Um Tierleid zu beenden sowie die Umwelt zu schützen, müsste Fleisch aus dem Labor überwiegend beziehungsweise ausschließlich konsumiert und verkauft werden. Wenn Laborfleisch in großen Mengen auch für den Privatgebrauch hergestellt werden könnte, dann würden auch die Verkaufspreise sinken und für alle zugänglich gemacht werden.Des Weiteren sollte für die Herstellung des Laborfleisches noch eine pflanzliche Alternative für die Nährlösung gefunden werden, damit gar kein Tier für den Herstellungsprozess gequält und getötet werden muss. Eine weitere Möglichkeit wäre eine Technik, bei der die Kälber überleben können.FazitUm die Fragestellung dieser Seminararbeit beantworten zu können, wurden einige Aspekte des Laborfleisches kritisch betrachtet. Durch den weltweiten Anstieg des Fleischkonsums kam es zu schwerwiegenden Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt. Die konventionelle Tierhaltung bedarf einer riesigen Fläche für die Tierhaltung, aber vor allem für den Anbau des Futtermittels für die Tiere. Die Biodiversität wird durch die Flächennutzung und -ausweitung verringert. Dadurch wird auch die Landwirtschaft gefährdet, da die Böden nicht mehr genügend Nährstoffe für das Pflanzenwachstum aufweisen.Dies ist bereits der erste Vorteil, den die Laborfleischproduktion aufzuweisen hat. Die Landnutzung kann um bis zu 99% verringert werden. Und auch Ressourcen werden geschont. Es bedarf viel weniger Getreide, da kaum noch Tiere für die Fleischproduktion im Labor ernährt werden müssen. Studien zeigen, dass die Energienutzung jedoch nicht unbedingt geringer ausfallen würde, da die Reaktoren, in denen das Laborfleisch gezüchtet werden könnte, konstante 37 Grad haben müssten. Da wir die Energiewende noch nicht geschafft haben und somit die meiste Energie immer noch aus fossilen Brennstoffen gewonnen wird, trägt Laborfleisch in dieser Hinsicht nicht zu mehr Nachhaltigkeit bei.Für die herkömmliche Fleischproduktion sterben jede Sekunde rund 1.400 Tiere. Doch auch ihre meist kurze Lebensphase ist geprägt von Qualen. 95% der Tiere, die für den Fleischkonsum gezüchtet werden, leben in der Massentierhaltung. Dort leben sie auf engstem Raum ohne Beschäftigung. Meist müssen sie in ihren eigenen Exkrementen stehen. Verletzungen sowie Krankheiten sind an der Tagesordnung. Damit die Krankheiten sich nicht ausbreiten, wird ihnen Antibiotika in die Futtermittel gemischt. Dies kann zu Antibiotikaresistenzen beim Menschen führen. Ihre normale Lebenserwartung wird nicht einmal ansatzweise erreicht. Nach langem Transport, meist ohne Lüftung oder ausreichend Wasser und Nahrung, werden die Tiere in ein Schlachthaus gebracht. Nicht selten wird die Betäubung nicht richtig verabreicht und die Tiere erleiden starke Schmerzen während des Schlachtens.Einen gesicherten Vorteil, den das im Labor gezüchtete Fleisch vorzuweisen hat, ist, dass das Tierleid vermindert wird. In einem bisherigen Vorgang wurden bei der Gewinnung von Kälberserum, welches für die Stammzellgewinnung gebraucht wird, das Muttertier und das Kälbchen getötet. Die Forscher*Innen sind jedoch dabei, pflanzliche Alternativen zu testen, die sich bisher auch als sehr vielversprechend dargestellt haben. Auch die Option einer Biopsie, bei der das Tier nur betäubt wird, würde das Tierwohl fördern. Laborfleisch könnte gänzlich ohne Tierleid auskommen. Es würden keine Tiere mehr in Massentierhaltunganlagen gequält werden, es gäbe keine langen Transportwege mehr und auch die Tötung würde entfallen.Aussagen über die gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen auf den Menschen können nicht eindeutig getroffen werden. Wenn das Fleisch aus dem Labor vollständig steril hergestellt werden kann, dann würde der Einsatz von Antibiotika wegfallen. Dies wäre für den Menschen gesünder. Ansonsten hat Laborfleisch eine sehr ähnliche Zusammensetzung wie das konventionelle Fleisch. Dies bedeutet, dass es zu denselben Risiken wie beispielsweise Diabetes oder Bluthochdruck kommen kann. Gesünder könnte es lediglich durch die Zugabe von Nährstoffen oder Verringerung der Fettzusammensetzung werden.Ob das Laborfleisch sich durchsetzen kann und somit zu einer nachhaltigeren und tierleidfreien Welt beitragen kann, ist auch abhängig von der Gesellschaft. In Deutschland stehen die Menschen dem Laborfleisch relativ positiv gegenüber. Fast die Hälfte der Befragten in einer Studie der Universität Osnabrück gaben an, lieber Laborfleisch als das herkömmliche Fleisch essen zu wollen. Ob dies im Falle einer Zulassung auch so eintreten würde, bleibt offen.Ob die Herstellung und der Konsum von Laborfleisch wirklich dazu beitragen kann, dass Nachhaltigkeit und Tierwohl gefördert wird, wird sich zeigen, sobald die Produktion in großen Mengen ablaufen wird. Allerdings verspricht Laborfleisch viele positive Faktoren, die zur Nachhaltigkeit und zur Förderung von Tierwohl beitragen können. Das bestehende Tierleid könnte durch Laborfleisch fast vollständig beendet werden. In puncto Ressourcenverbrauch sowie Landnutzung verspricht das Laborfleisch auch, die nachhaltigere Variante zu sein.Insgesamt kann die Produktion und der Konsum des Laborfleisches das Potential haben, die Nachhaltigkeit sowie das Tierwohl zu fördern. Es müssten jedoch noch einige wichtige Schritte in Sachen Technologie und Konsumkultur gemacht werden, um diese Vorteile voll auszuschöpfen.LiteraturverzeichnisClean Meat - Ist Laborfleisch die Zukunft? (2023, 12. Mai). 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Skowron, Jan/0000-0002-2335-1730; Sokolovsky, Kirill/0000-0001-5991-6863; Jovanovic, Miljana D/0000-0003-4298-3247; Harrison, Diana/0000-0001-8687-6588; Esenoglu, Hasan/0000-0003-3531-7510; Bonanos, Alceste Z/0000-0003-2851-1905; Liakos, Alexios/0000-0002-0490-1469; Reig, Pablo/0000-0002-6446-3050; D'Ago, Giuseppe/0000-0001-9697-7331; Martinez, Josep Manel Carrasco/0000-0002-3029-5853; Burgaz, Umut/0000-0003-0126-3999; Wyrzykowski, Lukasz/0000-0002-9658-6151; Lu, Jessica/0000-0001-9611-0009; Jensen, Eric/0000-0002-4625-7333; Chruslinska, Martyna/0000-0002-8901-6994; Mozdzierski, Dawid/0000-0002-3861-9031; Ranc, Clement/0000-0003-2388-4534; G. C., Anupama/0000-0003-3533-7183; Strobl, Jan/0000-0002-4147-2878; Russell, David/0000-0002-3500-631X; Pawlak, Michal/0000-0002-5632-9433; BAKIS, VOLKAN/0000-0002-3125-9010; Seabroke, George/0000-0003-4072-9536; Sitek, Monika/0000-0002-1568-4551; Kilic, Yucel/0000-0001-8641-0796; Netzel, Henryka/0000-0001-5608-0028; Nesci, Roberto/0000-0002-6645-6372; Iwanek, Patryk/0000-0002-6212-7221; Leto, Giuseppe/0000-0002-0040-5011; Awiphan, Supachai/0000-0003-3251-3583; Norton, Andrew/0000-0001-7619-8269; Kolb, Ulrich/0000-0001-8670-8365; Altavilla, Giuseppe/0000-0002-9934-1352; Itoh, Ryosuke/0000-0002-1183-8955; Gromadzki, Mariusz/0000-0002-1650-1518; Szegedi, Helene/0000-0002-9904-3582; Baker, Steven/0000-0002-6436-1257; Zielinski, Pawel/0000-0001-6434-9429; Kurowski, Sebastian/0000-0002-1557-0343 ; WOS:000508411900001 ; Gaia16aye was a binary microlensing event discovered in the direction towards the northern Galactic disc and was one of the first microlensing events detected and alerted to by the Gaia space mission. Its light curve exhibited five distinct brightening episodes, reaching up to I = 12 mag, and it was covered in great detail with almost 25 000 data points gathered by a network of telescopes. We present the photometric and spectroscopic follow-up covering 500 days of the event evolution. We employed a full Keplerian binary orbit microlensing model combined with the motion of Earth and Gaia around the Sun to reproduce the complex light curve. The photometric data allowed us to solve the microlensing event entirely and to derive the complete and unique set of orbital parameters of the binary lensing system. We also report on the detection of the first-ever microlensing space-parallax between the Earth and Gaia located at L2. The properties of the binary system were derived from microlensing parameters, and we found that the system is composed of two main-sequence stars with masses 0.57 +/- 0.05 M-circle dot and 0.36 +/- 0.03 M-circle dot at 780 pc, with an orbital period of 2.88 years and an eccentricity of 0.30. We also predict the astrometric microlensing signal for this binary lens as it will be seen by Gaia as well as the radial velocity curve for the binary system. Events such as Gaia16aye indicate the potential for the microlensing method of probing the mass function of dark objects, including black holes, in directions other than that of the Galactic bulge. This case also emphasises the importance of long-term time-domain coordinated observations that can be made with a network of heterogeneous telescopes. ; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): HARMONIA NCN grant [2015/18/M/ST9/00544]; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): OPUS NCN grant [2015/17/B/ST9/03167]; Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): DAINA NCN grant [2017/27/L/ST9/03221]; European CommissionEuropean CommissionEuropean Commission Joint Research Centre [312430, 730890]; Polish Ministry of Higher EducationMinistry of Science and Higher Education, Poland [3040/7.PR/2014/2, DIR/WK/2018/12]; MAESTRO NCN grant [2014/14/A/ST9/00121]; DDT programmes [SW2016b12, A34DDT3]; UK Science and Technology Facilities CouncilUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); Foundation for Polish Science (Program START); National Science Center, PolandNational Science Centre, Poland [ETIUDA 2018/28/T/ST9/00096]; Slovenian Research AgencySlovenian Research Agency - Slovenia [P1-0031, J1-8136]; COST Action GWverseEuropean Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) [CA16104]; National Research Foundation of KoreaNational Research Foundation of Korea [2017R1A4A1015178]; STFCUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC); European Space Agency under the NELIOTA program [4000112943]; GROWTH project - National Science Foundation [1545949]; MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) [ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R, ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R, RTI2018-095076B-C21]; ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia a Maria de Maeztu) [MDM-2014-0369]; Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) [ASI I/058/10/0, ASI 2014-025-R.1.2015]; Royal Society Research GrantRoyal Society of London [RG170230]; Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan)Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan [104-2112-M-008-012MY3, 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5]; European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant [320964]; Gordon and Betty Moore FoundationGordon and Betty Moore Foundation [GBMF5490]; NSFNational Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-1515927, AST-0908816, AST-1412587]; Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation; Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State UniversityOhio State University; Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy (CAS-SACA); Villum Foundation; MINECO under the Ramon y Cajal programme [RYC-2016-20254]; MINECO [AYA2017-86274-P]; AGAUR grantAgencia de Gestio D'Ajuts Universitaris de Recerca Agaur (AGAUR) [SGR-661/2017]; Science and Technology Facilities CouncilUK Research & Innovation (UKRI)Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) [ST/P000541/1]; STFC consolidated grant [ST/M001296/1]; Research Council of LithuaniaResearch Council of Lithuania (LMTLT) [S-LL-19-2]; TUB.ITAKTurkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK); IKI; KFU; AST; National Science Fund (Bulgaria)National Science Fund of Bulgaria [DN 18/13-12.12.2017]; Institute of Astronomy via research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects"; NAO Rozhen, BAS, via research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects"; Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia [176011, 176004, 176021]; DFGGerman Research Foundation (DFG)European Commission [SPP 1992, WA 1074/11-1]; NCN [2016/21/B/ST9/01126]; MINECO Ramon y Cajal programme [AYA2017-86274-P, RYJ-2016-20254]; Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund; National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) [NNX08AR22G]; National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-1238877]; W. M. Keck FoundationW.M. Keck Foundation; ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia 'Maria de Maeztu') [MDM-2014-0369]; [3.6714.2017/8.9] ; This work relies on the results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multi-Lateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia.In particular we acknowledge Gaia Photomet-ric Science Alerts Team, website http://gsaweb.ast.cam.ac.uk/alerts.We thank the members of the OGLE team for discussions and support. We also would like to thank the Polish Children Fund (KFnRD) for support of an internship of their pupils in Ostrowik Observatory of the Warsaw Univ-ersity, during which some of the data were collected, in particular we thank: Robert Nowicki, Michal Por.ebski and Karol Niczyj. The work presented here has been supported by the following grants from the Polish National Sci-ence Centre (NCN): HARMONIA NCN grant 2015/18/M/ST9/00544, OPUS NCN grant 2015/17/B/ST9/03167, DAINA NCN grant 2017/27/L/ST9/03221, as well as European Commission's FP7 and H2020 OPTICON grants (312430 and 730890), Polish Ministry of Higher Education support for OPTICON FP7, 3040/7.PR/2014/2, MNiSW grant DIR/WK/2018/12. PMr and JS acknowledge support from MAESTRO NCN grant 2014/14/A/ST9/00121 to Andrzej Udal-ski. We would like to thank the following members of the AAVSO for their amazing work with collecting vast amounts of data: Teofilo Arranz, James Boardman, Stephen Brincat, Geoff Chaplin, Emery Erdelyi, Rafael Farfan, William Goff, Franklin Guenther, Kevin Hills, Jens Jacobsen, Raymond Kneip, David Lane, Fernando Limon Martinez, Gianpiero Locatelli, Andrea Mantero, Attila Madai, Peter Meadows, Otmar Nickel, Arto Oksanen, Luis Perez, Roger Pieri, Ulisse Quadri, Diego Rodriguez Perez, Frank Schorr, George Sjoberg, Andras Timar, Ray Tomlin, Tonny Vanmunster, Klaus Wenzel, Thomas Wikander. We also thank the amateur observers from around the world, in particular, Pietro Capuozzo, Leone Trascianelli, Igor Zharkov from Ardingly College and Angelo Tomassini, Karl-Ludwig Bath. We also thank Roger Pickard from the British Astronomical Association and Matthias Penselin from the German Haus der Astronomie association for their contributions. KS thanks Dr. Dmitry Chulkov and Dr. Panagiotis Gavras for the interesting discussion of stellar multiplicity. We acknowledge support of DDT programmes SW2016b12 (WHT) and A34DDT3 (TNG). The INT, TNG and WHT are operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. SJF would like to thank the UCL students who assisted with the collection and checking of UCLO data for the observing campaign: Martina Aghopian, Ashleigh Arendt, Artem Barinov, Luke Barrett, Jasper Berry-Gair, Arjun Bhogal, Charles Bowesman, William Boyd, Andrei Cuceu, Michael Davies, Max Freedman, Gabriel Fu, Abirami Govindaraju, Iandeep Hothi, Clara Matthews Torres, Darius Modirrousta-Galian, Petru Neague, George Pattinson, Xiaoxi Song, and Brian Yu. P.Mr. acknowledges support from the Foundation for Polish Science (Program START) and the National Science Center, Poland (grant ETIUDA 2018/28/T/ST9/00096).; r r AC, AG and NI acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P1-0031 and project grant No. J1-8136)and networking support by the COST Action GWverse CA16104. Skinakas Observatory is a collaborative project of the University of Crete and the Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas. Work by C.H. was supported by the grant (2017R1A4A1015178) of National Research Foundation of Korea. KW acknowledges funding from STFC, and thanks the University of Lei-cester for the investment in instrumentation. We gratefully acknowledge financial support by the European Space Agency under the NELIOTA program, contract No. 4000112943. This work has made use of data obtained with the Kryoneri Prime Focus Instrument, developed by the European Space Agency NELIOTA project on the 1.2 m Kryoneri telescope, which is operated by IAASARS, National Observatory of Athens, Greece. The Aristarchos tele-scope is operated on Helmos Observatory by the IAASARS of the National Observatory of Athens. This work was supported by the GROWTH project funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No 1545949. This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and ESP2014-55996-C2-1-R (MINECO/FEDER, UE) and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia a Maria de Maeztu). This work was supported by the MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy) through grant ESP2016-80079-C2-1-R and RTI2018-095076B-C21 (MINECO/FEDER, UE), and MDM-2014-0369 of ICCUB (Unidad de Excelencia 'Maria de Maeztu'). The Joan Oro Telescope (TJO) of the Montsec Astronomical Observatory (OAdM) is owned by the Catalan Government and is operated by the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC). Support to this study has been provided by Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) through grants ASI I/058/10/0 and ASI 2014-025-R.1.2015. KW thanks Dipali Thanki and Ray McErlean for their technical support of the scientific programme of the University of Leicester observatory. This work was supported by Royal Society Research Grant RG170230. CCN thanks the funding from Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan) under the contracts 104-2112-M-008-012MY3 and 104-2923-M-008-004-MY5. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement n. 320964 (WDTracer). We thank the Las Cumbres Observatory and its sta ff for its continuing support of the project. ASAS-SN is supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through grant GBMF5490 to the Ohio State University and NSF grant AST-1515927. Development of ASAS-SN has been supported by NSF grant AST-0908816, the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation, the Center for Cosmology and AstroParticle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy (CAS-SACA), the Villum Foundation, and George Skestos. ARM acknowledges support from the MINECO under the Ramon y Cajal programme (RYC-2016-20254) and the AYA2017-86274-P grant, and the AGAUR grant SGR-661/2017. We acknowledge support from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (TB and RWW; ST/P000541/1). K.Horne acknowledges support from STFC consolidated grant ST/M001296/1. This work was partly supported by the Research Council of Lithuania, grant No. S-LL-19-2 Authors thank to TUB.ITAK, IKI, KFU, and AST for partial supports in using RTT150 (Russian-Turkish 1.5-m telescope in Antalya).; r r This work was partially funded by the subsidy 3.6714.2017/8.9 allocated to Kazan Federal University for the state assignment in the sphere of scientific activities. This research was partially supported by contract DN 18/13-12.12.2017 with the National Science Fund (Bulgaria). Work by YS was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, administered by Uni-versities Space Research Associ-ation through a contract with NASA. GD gratefully acknowledges the obser-ving grant support from the Institute of Astronomy and NAO Rozhen, BAS, via bilateral joint research project "Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects" (PI:G.Damljanovic). This work is a part of the Projects no. 176011 "Dynamics and kinematics of celestial bodies and systems", no. 176004 "Stellar physics" and no. 176021 "Visible and invisible matter in nearby galaxies: theory and observations" supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. YT acknowledges the support of DFG priority program SPP 1992 "Exploring the diversity of Extrasolar Planets" (WA 1074/11-1). This work of PMi, DM and ZK was supported by the NCN grant no. 2016/21/B/ST9/01126. ARM acknowledges support from the MINECO Ramon y Cajal programme RYJ-2016-20254 and grant AYA2017-86274-P and from the AGAUR grant SGR-661/2017. The work by C. R. was supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by USRA through a contract with NASA. The Faulkes Telescope Project is an education partner of Las Cumbres Observatory (LCO). The Faulkes Telescopes are maintained and operated by LCO. This research was made possible through the use of the AAVSO Photomet-ric All-Sky Survey (APASS), funded by the Robert Martin Ayers Sciences Fund and NSF AST-1412587. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project O ffice, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen's University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incor-porated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Sci-ence Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Ins-titute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ghanapur-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 572 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 534 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 38 ha (22%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 83 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm) and 10 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 46 per cent each are slightly (e1) and moderately (e2) eroded and 2 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 4 per cent soils is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 69 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 - 8.4) and 20 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 36 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 1 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 91 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 88% and sufficient in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 524(92) Sapota - - Maize - - Pomegranate - 476(83) Bajra - 524(92) Musambi - 476(83) Groundnut - - Lime - 476(83) Sunflower - 476(84) Amla - 524(92) Redgram - 420(73) Cashew - - Bengal gram 56 (10) 468(82) Jackfruit - - Cotton 56 (10) 468(82) Jamun - 476(83) Chilli - 525(92) Custard apple - 524(92) Tomato - - Tamarind - 476(83) Drumstick - 476(83) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 524(92) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 524(92)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Ghanapur-2 micro-watershed among them 7 (20 %) were landless, 5 (14.29 %) were marginal farmers, 15 (42.86 %) were small farmers, 6 (17.14 %) were semi medium farmers and 2 (5.71%) were medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 77 (55 %) men and 63 (45 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5.5, marginal farmers' was 4.9, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 6.2 and medium farmers' was 9.  The data indicated that, 14 (10 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 67 (47.86 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 49 (35 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (7.14 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Ghanapur-2 had 17.14 per cent illiterates, 18.57 per cent of them had primary school, 5.71 per cent of them had middle school, 50 per cent of them had high school education, 2.86 per cent of them had PUC and 1.43 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 74.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 5.71 cent of the household heads were General Labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 32.86 per cent of the household members, 37.86 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.14 per cent were in general labour, 0.71 per cent were Household industry, 3.57 per cent were private service and Trade & Business , 6.43 per cent were students, housewives and children.  The results show that, 0.71 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Raitha Sangha.  The results indicate that 100 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.86 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 14.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 71.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 8,953, DVD/VCD Player was Rs. 2,000, motor cycle was Rs. 44,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,824.  About 2.86 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, Plough, Sprinkler and Harvester.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 13,000, plough was Rs. 5,000, sprinkler was Rs. 500 and the average value of Harvester was Rs. 400. 2  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 2.86 per cent of the households possess local cow and Sheep and 8.57 per cent of the households possess Buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, average own labour (women) available was 1.43, average hired labour (men) available was 5.89 and average hired labour (women) available was 4.91.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Ghanapur-2 micro-watershed possess 33.99 ha (79.24 %) of dry land and 8.90 ha (20.76 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.89 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 21.05 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (41.67 %) of dry land and 5.67 ha (58.33 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5 ha (60.71 %) and 3.24 ha (39.29 %) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 567,647.06 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 437,863.64. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 720,416.67 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 574,529.02 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 889,200 for dry land and Rs. 564,571.43 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 159,870.55 for dry land and Rs. 216,125 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 functioning and de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 functioning and de-functioning open wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.57 per cent of the farmers and open well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 4.01 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 1.83 meters.  The results indicate that, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.21 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.18 ha), groundnut (3.32 ha), red gram (28.06 ha) and sorghum (2.02 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram and cotton. Small farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, sorghum and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Ghanapur-2 micro-watershed was found to be 97.17 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and 91.43 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 30.30 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank and 3.03 per cent of the households have borrowed from moneylender traders.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 15,909.09.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production and 9.09 per cent for Healthcare.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households not paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, 81.82 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 9.09 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from easy accessibility of credit.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 31117.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52002.32. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 20884.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.67.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 42675.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47273.06. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 4597.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.11.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 30982.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71422.49. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 40439.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.31.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 15222.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19760. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 4537.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.3. 4  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 14.29 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 36,714.29 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 149,200, for small farmers it was Rs. 128,200, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 144,500 and medium farmers it was Rs. 180,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 8,570. For landless households it was Rs. 10,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 9,640, for small farmers it was Rs. 3,327.78, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,388.89 and medium farmers it was Rs. 43,750.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 11 mango tree in their field and 2 mango trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 24 neem and 2 tamarind trees in their field and also 4 neem and 1 tamarind trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8,885.77 for land development and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 714.29 for Subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and subsidiary enterprises. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 65.71per cent for land development and 2.86 per cent for subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 77.78 per cent, Redgram was sold to the extent of 88.86 per cent and sorghum to the extent of 25 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 82.86 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent have adopted Summer Ploughing and mulching, 2.86 per cent have adopted Dead Furrow and 2.86 per cent have adopted Combination of deep and shallow root crops.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel. 5  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and bore well was the source of drinking water for 2.86 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 82.86 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 74.29 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 68.57 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 65.71 per cent, fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent, milk were adequate for 60 per cent and meat were adequate for 14.29 per cent, Egg and meat were adequate for 57.14 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 11.43 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 14.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 17.14 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 34.29 per cent, milk were inadequate for 22.86 per cent, egg were inadequate for 31.43 per cent and meat were inadequate for 28.57 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (11.43 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (71.43 %), Inadequacy of irrigation water (80 %), high rate of interest on credit (82.86 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (80 %), inadequacy extension service (68.57 %), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (77.14 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29 %) and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (5.71 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Pogalapur-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 552 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 493 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 4 ha by railway track and about 55 ha by others (Habitation water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 89 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 79 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 10 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 83 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 6 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) soils.  An area of about 83 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 6 percent soils are slightly eroded (e1).  An area of about 22 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 23 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 45 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 0.75%), 39 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 10 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 63 percent is high (>337kg/ha), 17 percent is medium (145- 337kg/ha) and 10 percent is low (20ppm), 22 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 20 percent area is low (1.0 ppm) in about 8 per cent soils.  Available iron content is sufficient (>4.5ppm) in an area of 67 per cent and 22 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of about 58 percent in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 55(10) 426(77) Guava - 55(10) Maize 55(10) 426(77) Sapota - 55(10) Bajra 55(10) 426(77) Pomegranate - 270(49) Groundnut - 57(10) Musambi - 270(49) Sunflower - 270(49) Lime - 270(49) Redgram - 479(87) Amla 55(10) 2(<1) Bengal gram - 363(66) Cashew - 55(10) Cotton - 273(49) Jackfruit - 55(10) Chilli 55(10) 217(39) Jamun - - Tomato 55(10) 2(<1) Custard apple 55(10) 217(39) Brinjal 55(10) 2(<1) Tamarind - - Onion 55(10) 2(<1) Mulberry - 55(10) Bhendi 55(10) 217(39) Marigold 55(10) 217(39) Drumstick - 55(10) Chrysanthemum 55(10) 217(39) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 99 (54.40%) men and 83 (45.50%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.8, marginal farmers' was 5.27, small farmers' was 5 and semi medium farmers' was 6.67.  The data indicated that, 38 (20.88%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 81 (44.51%) were in 16-35 years of age, 46 (25.27%) were in 36-60 years of age and 17 (9.34%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Pogalapur-2 had 58.24 per cent illiterates, 17.58 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.95 per cent of them had middle school education, 9.89 per cent of them had high school education, 4.95 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.55 per cent had diploma education and 2.20 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 14.29 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer, 2.86 per cent were general labour and 2.86 per cent were retired.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 60.99 per cent of the household members, 8.24 per cent were agricultural laborers, 4.40 per cent were general laborers, 3.30 per cent were in private service, 0.55 per cent were retired, 19.23 per cent were students, 1.65 per cent were housewives and 1.65 per cent were children.  The results show that, 0.55 per cent was participating in raitha sangha and remaining 99.45 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5.71 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 65.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 28.57 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 2.86 per cent of the households possess radio, 82.86 per cent of the households possess TV, 5.71 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.86 per cent of them possess refrigerator, 45.71 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 8.57 per cent of them possess auto, 2.86 per cent of them possess car/four wheeler and 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.500, television was Rs. 7,931, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,000, refrigerator was Rs. 8,000, motor cycle was Rs. 48,823, auto was Rs. 143,333, car/four wheeler was Rs. 600,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,682.  About 5.71 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of them possess plough, 14.29 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, 2.86 per cent of 2 them possess power tiller, 5.71 per cent of them possess tractor, 34.29 per cent of them possess sprayer and 48.57 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 30,000, plough was Rs. 5,100, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 6,700, power tiller was Rs. 100,000, tractor was Rs. 600,000, sprayer was Rs. 3,033 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 66.  The results indicate that, 20 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.80, average own labour (women) available was 1.60, average hired labour (men) available was 7.63 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.73.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.86 per cent opined that it was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Pogalapur-2 micro-watershed possess 21.75 ha (70.79%) of dry land and 8.53 ha (27.77%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.20 ha (85.95%) of dry land, 0.40 ha (6.69%) of irrigated land and 0.45 ha (7.36%) of permanent fallow. Small farmers possess 12.10 ha (80.37%) of dry land and 2.95 ha (19.63%). Semi medium farmers possess 4.45 ha (46.26%) of dry land and 5.17 ha (53.74%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 521,669.15, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 1,019,402.27 and the average value of permanent fallow was Rs. 1,122,727.25. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 913,035.02 for dry land, Rs. 3,705,000 for irrigated land and Rs. 1,122,727.25 for permanent fallow. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 462,763.47 for dry land and Rs. 1,285,753.43 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 224,545.45 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 657,120.49 of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20 per cent, canal was the source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent and tank was the source of irrigation for 1.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 8.71 meters, canal was found to be 0.96 meters and tank was found to be 0.44 per cent.  The results indicate that marginal, small and semi-medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.21 ha, 2.15 ha and 7.60 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (11.76 ha), sorghum (7.48 ha), paddy (6.19 ha), groundnut (3.24 ha) and redgram (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton, sorghum and paddy. Small farmers have grown cotton, sorghum, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown sorghum, paddy and groundnut. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Pogalapur-2 micro-watershed was found to be 98.01 per cent.  The results indicate that, 65.71 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 65.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 4.35 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank and 4.35 per cent of the households obtained loan from friends/relatives.  The results indicate that, average credit availed in the micro watershed was Rs. 32,608.70.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 21351.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57962.67. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 36611.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.71.  the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 41461.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65578.60. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 24116.63. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.58.  the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 41823.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 72292.36. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 30468.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.73.  the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 57605.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35895.98. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 21709.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.62.  the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 52426.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79040. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 26613.13. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.51.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 85,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 171,109.09, for small farmers it was Rs. 128,730.77 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 163,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,450.71. For landless households it was Rs. 35,720, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 13,162.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,057.82 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 16,113.89.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 custard apple and 4 mango trees in their field. 4  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 banyan, 2 tamarind and 32 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,857.14 for land development, Rs. 14,571.43 for irrigation facility, Rs. 571.43 for improved crop production and Rs. 1428.57 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and for 14.29 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 5.71 per cent for land development and for 2.86 per cent for irrigation facility. Own funds were the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for crop production, for 2.86 per cent for improved crop production and for 2.86 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 82.86 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 92.71 per cent, redgram was sold to the extent of 87.5 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 89.77 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 37.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 45.71 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 77.14 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 25.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 20 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 85.71 per cent, milk was adequate for 91.43 per cent and eggs were adequate for 2.86 per cent. 5  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 66.67 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 100 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 83.33 per cent and meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (80%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (68.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.86%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (40%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Talak-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 572 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 530 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 21 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 21 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 26 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 1 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 36 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 6 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 24 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 16 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 24 per cent loamy soils and 53 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 87 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 36 per cent is medium (101-150mm/m) and 27 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 83 per cent area and high (>337 kg/ha) in 10 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 2 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 91 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 53 (9) Guava - - Maize - 53 (9) Sapota - - Bajra - 53 (9) Pomegranate - 8 (1) Groundnut - - Musambi - 8 (1) Sunflower - 8 (1) Lime - 8 (1) Redgram - 53 (9) Amla - - Bengal gram - 8 (1) Cashew - - Cotton - 8 (1) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 8 (1) Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - 8 (1) Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 8 (1) Marigold - 8 (1) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 8 (1) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 81 (57.45%) men and 60 (42.55%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.3, marginal farmers' was 3.7, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 3.8 and medium farmers' was 4.3.  The data indicated that, 17 (126%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 65 (46.1%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (344%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (7.8%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Talak-2 had 32.62 per cent illiterates, 18.44 per cent of them had primary school, 14.89 per cent of them had middle school, 27.66 per cent of them had high school education, 4.96 per cent of them had PUC, and 0.71 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 54.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 37.14 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.86 per cent of the household's heads were General Labour and trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 21.28 per cent of the household members, 53.9 per cent were agricultural laborers, 3.55 per cent were in general labour, 2.13 per cent were private service and children, 1.42 per cent were trade and business, 10.64 per cent were student and 4.96 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.57 per cent of the households possess thatched, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house. 17.14 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 2.86 per cent of the households possess semi pacca.  The results show that 54.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess bicycle, landline phone and computer /laptop, motor cycle per cent of the households possess 31.43, 5.71 per cent of the households possess Auto and 60 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,026, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,133, bicycle was Rs. 5,000, motor cycle was Rs. 57,818, landline phone was Rs. 5,000, mobile phone was Rs. 2,437 and computer/laptop was Rs. 40,000.  About 5.71 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 40 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill and irrigation pump, 14.29 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 14.29 2 per cent of the households possess weeder and 8.57 per cent of the households possess thresher.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 21,600, plough was Rs. 7,092, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 7,000, irrigation pump was Rs. 10,000, sprayer was Rs. 3,100, Sprinkler was Rs. 3,750, weeder was Rs. 164 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 145.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.14 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.71 per cent of the households possess crossbreed and 2.86 per cent of the households possess Buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, average own labour (women) available was 1.38, average hired labour (men) available was 8.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.81.  The results indicate that, 68.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 22.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results show that, 2.13 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has migrated.  The results show that, average distance of migration was 500 kms and average duration of migration was 11 months.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population has migrated for the purpose of job/wage/work in micro-watershed.  The results indicate that, households of the Talak-2 micro-watershed possess 50.94 ha (86.6%) of dry land and 13.4 ha (13.40%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.53 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.51 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 18.35 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 12.55 ha (61.41%) of dry land and 7.88 ha (38.59%).  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 222,743.52 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 304,312.11. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 544,169.80 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 211,828.48 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 163,395.81 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 127,483.87 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 304,312.11.  The results indicate that, there were 2 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.5 ha), red gram (44.43 ha), groundnut (5.34 ha), sorghum (3.8 ha), green gram (22 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), paddy (11 ha) and black gram (0.97 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and black gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and 3 cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, sorghum, green gram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Talak-2 micro-watershed was found to be 94.5 per cent.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and 65.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 222.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 21.74 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 4.35 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative bank, 8.70 per cent of the households have borrowed from friends / relatives, grameena bank and 4.35 per cent of the households have borrowed from money lender.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 36,173.91.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 83.33 per cent of the households not paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32651.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 81689.26. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 490387. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.5.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 32092.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48090.90. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 159986. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 30058.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49221.51. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 191631. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.64.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 11389.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 215255. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 10135.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.89.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 26600.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 480354. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. 21434.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.81.  The total cost of cultivation for Maize was Rs. 492983. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22328.80. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. - 26969.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.45. 4  The results indicate that, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 19,666.67 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 81,318.18, for small farmers it was Rs. 136,440.63, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 170,285.71 and medium farmers it was Rs. 105,133.33.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,087.57. For landless households it was Rs. 2,833.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,857.85, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,602.68, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,265.31 and medium farmers it was Rs. 7,075.  The results indicate that, households have planted 66 neem, 2 acacia and 3banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,942.86 for land development and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 428.57 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 8.57 per cent for land development and improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 34.29 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 69.54 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 94.29 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 92.95 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 94.44 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 8.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant, 71.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets and 11.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor and 2.86 per cent of the households have used truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent have adopted graded bund and Summer Ploughing.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used dung cake as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and bore well was the source of drinking water for 14.29 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. 5  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 94.29 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.57 per cent, oilseed and vegetables were adequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were adequate for 45.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 57.14 per cent, egg and meat were adequate for 54.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 5.71 per cent, fruits and fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 91.43 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (57.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (62.86%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (57.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (74.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequacy extension service (48.57%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (25.71%), less rainfall (8.57%) and Source of Agritechnology information(5.71%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of credit card knowledge and financial self-efficacy toward credit card misuse and intention to reuse credit card. The technological breakthroughs and regulatory reforms of the past decades have brought payment media to the forefront of business, social and political interest. This research is a survey research that is conducted to understand the causal relationships between variables with the use of questionnaire as the instrument to obtain data. The questionnaire is distributed to 100 sample who fulfill the requirements. The sample of this research are adults in Pontianak that are at least 21 years old. In this research, the data analysis method used is Structural Equation Model Partial Least Square (SEMPLS) method. To conduct analysis using PLS method, this research is using smartPLS 3.0 software. The hypothesis of the research is H1 : Credit card knowledge have significant influence on credit card misuse, H2: Financial self-efficacy have significant influence on credit cards misuse, H3: Credit card knowledge have significant influence on intention to reuse credit cards, H4: Financial self-efficacy have signficant influence on intention to reuse credit cards, H5: Credit card misuse have significant influence on intention to reuse credit cards. The result of this research shows that H1, H4 and H5 are accepted but H2 and H3 are rejected.References A, F. (1984). "Many sides of the coin: The psychology of money usage. Personality and Individual Differences. 501-509.Ackert, L., & Church, B. (2015). Credit cards, financial responsibility, and college students: an experimental study. International Journal of Behavioural Accounting and Finance, Vol. 5 No. 1, 1-26.Aghazadeh, H., & Esfidani, M. R. (2007). Internet Marketing Strategies. 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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Sulikeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 512 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 62 per cent is covered by soil, 34 per cent by rock outcrops and 4 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 17 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 3 per cent sandy, 39per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 20 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 14 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 9 per cent is nearly level (0-1%), 51 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) and 2 per cent is gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 16 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 46 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 4 per cent is strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), 10 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 28 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 15 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 3 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 1 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 27 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 6 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 56 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 7 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.6 ppm) in 61 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 37(7) 103(20) Sapota - 28(6) Maize - 145(28) Pomegranate - 80(16) Bajra 17(3) 160(30) Musambi 37(7) 43(9) Groundnut 17(3) 115(23) Lime 37(7) 43(9) Sunflower 37(7) 34(7) Amla 55(11) 150(29) Redgram - 71(14) Cashew - 15(3) Bengal gram 52(10) 110(22) Jackfruit - 28(6) Cotton 37(7) 102(20) Jamun - 81(16) Chilli - 124(24) Custard apple 55(11) 150(29) Tomato - 124(24) Tamarind - 81(16) Brinjal 6(1) 129(25) Mulberry 13(3) 63(13) Onion 6(1) 92(18) Marigold - 139(27) Bhendi 6(1) 129(25) Chrysanthemum - 139(27) Drumstick - 104(20) Jasmine - 87(17) Mango - 15(3) Crossandra - 88(17) Guava - 28(6)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114(56.72%) men and 87 (43.28%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of large farmers' was 3.6, marginal farmers' was 4.4, small farmers' was 8.6, semi medium farmers' was 16.4 and medium farmers' was 7.2.  The data indicated that, 37 (18.41%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 96 (47.76%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53 (26.37%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (7.46%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Hire Sulikeri had 48.76 per cent illiterates, 0.50 per cent were functional literate, 25.87 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.48 per cent of them had middle school education, 7.96 per cent of them had high school education, 4.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.49 per cent of them had degree education and 1.0 per cent of them did Masters.  The results indicate that, 82.50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 15 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 36.82 per cent of the household members, 36.82 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.50 per cent had general labour, 0.5 per cent were in government service, 0.5 per cent were in private service, 18.41 per cent were students, 0.5 per cent were housewives and 5.47 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 67.50 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 2.50 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 30 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 50 per cent of the households possess TV, 30 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.50 per cent of them possess bicycle, 30 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 65 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs 8,952, mixer grinder was Rs 3,538, bicycle was Rs 6,000, motor cycle was Rs. 51,538 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,261.  About 7.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent possess tractor, 10 per cent of them possess sprayer, 12.50 per cent of them sprinkler, 32.50 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 46,666, plough was Rs. 1,200, tractor was Rs 533,333, sprayer was Rs. 5,625, sprinkler was Rs. 2,650, average value of weeder was Rs.68 and average value of Harvester was Rs.120. 2  The results indicate that, 27.50 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.12.50 per cent of households possess buffalo and 2.50 per cent of households possess sheep and goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 42.50, average own labour (women) available was 23.31, average hired labour (men) available was 12.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 12.53.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 40 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Hire Sulikeri micro-watershed possess 33.14 ha (52.07%) of dry land and 29.70 ha (46.66%) of irrigated land and 0.81 ha (1.27 %) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 3.07 ha (86.35%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (13.65%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 13.15 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 16.92 ha (55.01%) of dry land and 13.84 ha (44.99%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 15.38 ha (95%) of irrigated land and 0.81ha (5%) permanent fallow land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 373,968.25 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 339,877.39 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 617,500. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 520,685.11 for dry land and Rs. 1,029,166.63. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 402,800 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 324,922.27 for dry land and Rs. 433,333.34 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 234,000.00 for irrigated land and the average land value was Rs.61, 500.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 37.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 37.80 meters. The results indicate that marginal, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 1.77 ha, 11.42 and 13.77 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (13.93 ha), groundnut (4.04 ha) maize (38.82 ha) and redgram (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hire Sulikeri micro-watershed was found to be 75.76 per cent.  The results show that 27.50 per cent of the households possess bank account and saving.  The results show that 27.50 per cent of the households possess Borrowing status.  The results show that 9.09 per cent for commercial and cooperative bank and 18.18 per cent for Grameena bank of the households possess credit availed. 3  The results show that Rs. 25,363.64 of the households Average credit amount status. The results show that among 100 per cent of the households purpose of credit borrowed - Institutional credit for agricultural production.  The results show that 100 per cent of the household's institutional repayment was unpaid. The results show that 100 per cent of the households Helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 22726.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24101.75. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 1374.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.06.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60997.38.The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 66166.36. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 5168.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 34245.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39761.49. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 5515.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 42416.61. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -17716.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.58.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 45 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 27,000 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 47,400, for small farmers it was Rs. 52,000, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 88,062.50 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 206,400.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,817.19. For landless households it was Rs. 4,000, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,800, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,444.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,824.22 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 53,300.  . The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 18 coconut and 19 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 109 neem, 6 tamarind 40 teak and 2 banyan trees and eucalyptus in their field.  The results indicated that, groundnut, maize and redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and bajra was sold to the extent of 94.53 per cent.  . The results indicated that, about 80 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 15 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 12.5 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market. 4  The results indicated that 85 per cent of the households used tractor and 22.5 per cent of used cart as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 12.5 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 27.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 92.50 per cent of the households used firewood and 10 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45 per cent of the households, bore well was the source of drinking water for 5.71 per cent and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 55.0 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 37.5 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 95 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 47.5 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 17.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 67.50 per cent, milk was adequate for 77.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 52.50 per cent and meat was adequate for 42.50 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 5.0 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 52.5 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 82.5 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 30 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 17.5 per cent, milk was inadequate for 20 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 22.5 per cent and meat was inadequate for 30 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 25 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm feild (87.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (20%), inadequacy of irrigation water (17.50%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20%), high rate of interest on credit (17.5%), low price for the agricultural commodities (10%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20%), less rainfall (72.5%) and source of agri-technology information (42.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ganganal-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 756 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 3 per cent by rock outcrops and 3 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 1 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 73 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 21 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 17 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 11 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 67 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping(1-3% slope) lands and 16 per cent area of microwatershed has gently sloping (3-5% slope) lands.  An area of about 9 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded, 35 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 50 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 10 per cent soils are strongly acid to slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5), 39 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 31 per cent soil are slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 60 per cent area.  Entire cultivated area is of the microwatershed is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 30 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 4 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 9 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 48(6) 475(63) Sapota - 78(10) Maize - 523(69) Pomegranate - 163(22) Bajra 45(6) 550(73) Guava - 78(10) Groundnut 29(4) 407(54) Jackfruit - 78(10) Sunflower 48(6) 115(15) Jamun - 163(22) Cotton 48(6) 475(63) Musambi 48(6) 115(15) Red gram - 163(22) Lime 48(6) 115(15) Bengalgram 85(11) 496(66) Cashew - 78(10) Chilli - 486(64) Custard apple 126(17) 469(62) Tomato - 486(64) Amla 126(17) 469(62) Brinjal 45(6) 139(18) Tamarind - 134(18) Onion 29(4) 107(14) Marigold - 523(69) Bhendi 29(4) 155(21) Chrysanthemum - 523(69) Drumstick 16(2) 147(20) Jasmine - 438(58) Mulberry 16(2) 99(13) Crossandra - 438(58) Mango - 49(7) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 97 (55.75%) men and 77 (44.25%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 4.8, semi medium farmers' was 5.3 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 30 (17.24%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 82 (47.13%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (28.74%) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (6.90%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Ganganal-1 had 37.36 per cent illiterates, 35.63 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.34 per cent of them had middle school education, 5.75 per cent of them had high school education, 5.17 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.57 per cent of them did ITI, 4.02 per cent of them had degree education and 0.57 per cent did Ph.D.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent were in private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 17.24 per cent of the household members, 57.47 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.30 per cent were in private service, 22.41 per cent were students and 0.57 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 94.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 5.71 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 2.86 per cent of the households possess radio, 40 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.29 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.71 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 17.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent possess tempo and 88.57 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of radio was Rs.2000, television was Rs. 4,035, mixer grinder was Rs.1583, bicycle was Rs. 1000, motor cycle was Rs.100333, tempo was Rs.6000 and mobile phone was Rs.1845.  About 5.71 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 45.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess transplanter/grinder, 2.86 per cent of them possess power tiller, 2.86 per cent of them possess tractor, 34.29 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.86 per cent possess thresher, 62.86 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 48.57 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.14000, the average value of plough was Rs.970, transplanter/grinder was Rs.300000, power tiller was Rs.500, tractor was Rs.200000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.1166, thresher was Rs.1000 and chaff cutter was Rs.441. 2  The results indicate that, 48.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 37.14 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.94, average own labour (women) available was 1.94, average hired labour (men) available was 5.62 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Ganganal-1 micro-watershed possess 34.95 ha (68.98%) of dry land and 15.72 ha (31.02%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.64 ha (79.72%) of dry land and 0.93 ha (20.28%). Small farmers possess 11.86 ha (93.49%) of dry land and 0.83 ha (6.51%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 11.36 ha (60.34%) of dry land and 7.46 per cent (39.66%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.09 ha (55.45%) dry land and 6.50 (44.55%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 205,928.67 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 349,768.28. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 466,555.56 for dry land and Rs. 1,078,602.58 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 320,341.30 for dry land and was Rs. 605,392.17 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,235.92 for dry land and Rs. 375,054.23 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 37,050 for dry land and Rs. 184,443.07 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 16 functioning and 16 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45.71 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.78 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 1.70 ha, 2.02 ha, 6.06 ha and 3.24 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (21.6 ha), groundnut (0.4 ha), maize (22.65 ha), paddy (5.77 ha) and jowar (1.21 ha).  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, paddy and maize. Small farmers have grown bajra, paddy, maize and jowar. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, paddy, groundnut and maize. Medium farmers have grown maize, bajra and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Ganganal-1 micro-watershed was found to be 76.88 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 88.95 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 89.98 and medium farmers it was 52.46 per cent.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households have bank account and 82.86 per cent have savings. 3  The results indicate that, 42.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 49183.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60452.29. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 11268.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 63945.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39026. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -24919.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.61.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 33460.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38324.11. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 4863.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.15.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35661.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42552.71. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 6890.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.19.  The total cost of cultivation for Jowar was Rs. 25734.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 5137.60. The net income from Jowar cultivation was Rs. - 20596.95. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.2.  The results indicate that, 17.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 37.14 per cent opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 82,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 96,428.57, for small farmers it was Rs. 81,500, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 121,950 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 246,666.67.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 8,355.78. For landless households it was Rs. 7,600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 8,877.55, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,216.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,950 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 35,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 19 coconut trees in the field and 2 coconut trees in the backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 71 neem tree and 1 teak tree in their fields.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 58.33 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 25 per cent, jowar to the extent of 60 per cent, maize to the extent of 4.03 per cent and paddy was sold to the extent of 54.55 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 94.29 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 2.86 per cent of the farmers have sold to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. 4  The results indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 14.29 per cent of the marginal farmers, 50 per cent of the small farmers and 20 per cent of semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 14.71 per cent of the households and lake/tank was the major source of drinking water for 17.65 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 80 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 60 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 77.14 per cent, fruits were adequate for 65.71 per cent, milk was adequate for 48.57 per cent and eggs were adequate for 85.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 20 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 22.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 8.57 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 11.43 per cent and milk was inadequate for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (80%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (45.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (31.43%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (20%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25.71%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), less rainfall (51.43%) and source of agri-technology information (28.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project