The World Bank's Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) is an important knowledge product that assesses the performance of 39 IDA countries along 16 dimensions of policy and institutional quality. This is the first in the series of annual reports. The 16 dimensions are grouped into four clusters: economic management; structural policies; policies for social inclusion and equity; and public sector management and institutions. The CPIA has been measuring and tracking the strength of policies and institutions in IDA-eligible countries since 1980, and releasing that information since 2006. Until now, the CPIA has been used mainly to inform IDA's allocation of resources to poor countries and in research. Yet the information contained in the CPIA is potentially valuable to governments, the private sector, civil society, researchers and the media as a tool to monitor their country's progress and benchmark it against progress in other countries. By presenting the CPIA scores for 38 African countries over six years in one easy-to-read document, this report aims to provide citizens with information that can support evidence-based debate that can, in turn, lead to better development outcomes. The scope of the report is motivated by the World Bank's open data initiative and the new Africa strategy, both of which seek to foster participation in development from a wide range of stakeholders by providing broader access to data and knowledge.
The outlook for FY2011 has changed since the last macroeconomic update in October 2010.1 While gross development product (GDP) growths is still projected to be around 6.2 percent in FY11, inflationary pressures have strengthened and the external position has weakened. Rising energy and food subsidies are placing a strain on the budget, but higher-than-anticipated revenues and lower-than-budgeted Annual Development Program expenditures leave sufficient fiscal space for the government to react to these pressures. Progress on reforms is mixed, with advances made on Value Added Tax reforms, efforts to tighten liquidity and setting up a framework for public-private partnership projects. Developments on telecommunication policy, the Anticorruption Commission, and policy responses to stock market volatility are a cause for concern. The growth outlook for FY12 remains good but there are risks that need to be contained. Short-term risks include rising food and fuel prices, deteriorating remittances, an increased reserve drawdown, a growing quasi-fiscal deficit, stock market volatility and its potential impact on the banking sector. Long-term risks include the inability to sufficiently alleviate power shortages, raise public investment, and remove bottlenecks for private investment.
This aim of this report is to assess the accounting and financial auditing standards and practices in Burkina Faso in the private and semipublic sectors, using as benchmarks International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and International Standards on Auditing (ISA) and taking into account the good practices noted in the international sphere in these two areas. The main objective of this assessment is to make recommendations aimed at strengthening accounting, financial auditing, and financial transparency practices in the private sector and semipublic enterprises in Burkina Faso. The development objectives associated with these recommendations are as follows: (i) stimulating private investment and enhancing the competitiveness of enterprises; (ii) improving governance in the private market and semipublic sector; and (iii) achieving greater integration of the Burkinabe economy at the regional and international levels.
This paper sets out the recent history and evolution of the UK governments' performance measurement, monitoring and management systems from the period since 1997 and the election of the New Labor government, until today. Although, as the paper shows many of the changes the New Labor government introduced were at least partially prefigured in changes introduced in the previous two decades or more. The reason that the period since 1997 is so important is because, it represents the period in which the UK governments' system became almost universal across public activities, including measuring performance at the highest levels of government itself. The core of the performance policies developed by government over this period have been the Public Service Agreements (PSAs) promulgated since 1998, of which there have now been five rounds (1998; 2000; 2002; 2004; 2007). Whilst PSAs are not the only performance policies, or measurement, monitoring and reporting systems, they have come to be seen as the pinnacle of the whole system and, in intention at least, driving developments throughout the public services. The paper will cover only the UK government. Over the past decade significant constitutional changes have devolved some central government powers to first the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly, and then more recently the Northern Ireland Assembly.
Reforming business licenses is part of a suite of products delivered by the World Bank group's investment climate advisory services, under the business operations practice. The approach to reforms highlighted in this handbook fits into the broader policy framework for business licensing reform and simplification. The framework paper provides the context for business licensing practices; establishes the key principles and concepts underpinning licensing; and gives an overview of licensing reform objectives, issues, and processes. It includes an overall introduction to the use (and abuse) of business licenses, and a further elaboration on the way business licensing reforms can be organized. This handbook is part of a suite of knowledge management products dedicated to business licensing. This handbook is written for business regulation practitioners. It aims to provide reformers with detailed information and guidance on how to implement fast-track, top-down licensing and regulatory reform projects. Its structure follows the process underpinning such reforms, taking readers step-by-step through the successive stages of reforms.
This Action Plan is based on the World Bank's Technical Note on Consumer Protection and Financial Literacy in Azerbaijan published in June 2009. The Action Plan focuses on the Legal and Regulatory Issues of the Technical Note's Key Findings and Recommendations, proposing specific actions for Azerbaijani authorities, financial institutions and consumer organizations so that consumer protection is strengthened and made more effective and efficient. The Action Plan should be the base upon which specific legal changes should be drafted and against which their implementation should be evaluated. Beside the Technical Note itself, the Action Plan draws on best international practices and experiences of regulators and supervisors that have tried to introduce improved consumer protection in their countries. It should also be noted that a well-balanced consumer protection regime serves also the interest of financial institutions as it provides them with better informed clients and also makes sure that clients understand their obligations under the contracts they signed. The Action Plan is divided into five parts that cover the key areas based on the recommendations of the Technical Note: (a) Legal Mandate, (b) Effective Supervision and Regulation, (c) Disclosure of Information, (d) Business Practices, and (e) Dispute Resolution.
After decades of war, with a dilapidated infrastructure and millions of people dead, wounded or displaced, Vietnam could have been considered a hopeless case in economic development. Yet, it is now about to enter the ranks of middle-income countries. The obvious question is: How did this happen? This paper goes one step further, asking not which policies were adopted, but rather why they were adopted. This question is all the more intriguing because the process did not involve one group of individuals displacing another within the structure of power. To answer this question, the paper relies on the insights of those who were actually involved in the economic experiments, conceptual discussions, and political maneuvering that led to the adoption of key reforms. Especially, it builds on a series of long and regular conversations with H. E. the late Vo Van Kiet, one of Vietnam's leading figures. In doing so, it brings into the open the inside story of Doi Moi, a process that is not known by outsiders and remains opaque to most Vietnamese. The relevance of this exercise is not merely historical. Understanding how reforms were engineered may yield valuable lessons for other developing countries. It is also relevant for Vietnam, as two decades of rapid economic growth have resulted in dramatic changes in its economy and society. While praising the decision-making processes that allowed Vietnam to successfully emerge from poverty, the paper also explores the adjustments that could be needed for it to become an industrial country.
This article analyzes the relationship between export competitiveness and investment in machinery, allowing for imperfect substitution between domestically produced and imported machinery. A trans log export price function is estimated for developed, export oriented developing, and import substituting developing economies in a panel data setting. Between 1967 and 1990 imported machinery helped lower export prices for export oriented developing economies. Moreover, throughout the period imported machinery was not a substitute for domestic machinery. Import substituting developing economies was unable to harness imported machinery to reduce costs early in the period, but from about the early 1980s, with the opening of their trade regimes, they were able to benefit from the cost reducing effect. The results imply that innovative effort based on imported technologies can be a precursor to the development of domestic innovation capabilities.
La popolazione mondiale è in continua espansione e la crescita demografica ed economica inducono allo sfruttamento progressivo dell'ambiente ed al depauperamento delle risorse naturali (acqua ed energia in particolare), con conseguenti impatti potenzialmente importanti sul cambiamento globale. Si rende, pertanto, necessaria ed urgente una più efficiente gestione delle risorse basata sulla rielaborazione di obiettivi sostenibili di politiche e strategie ambientali e sulla riduzione del consumo delle risorse, promuovendo la transizione da un modello di economia lineare ad uno circolare, costituito da un ciclo continuo di sviluppo positivo che preserva e migliora il capitale naturale, ottimizzando l'utilizzo delle risorse a tutte le scale. Come noto, l'Ingegneria Naturalistica (IN) utilizza le piante come materiale da costruzione nelle opere per la riqualificazione ambientale e paesaggistica del territorio. Le opere di IN sono infatti a basso impatto ambientale ed in grado di innescare processi di rinaturalizzazione che favoriscono la biodiversità, offrendo una promettente strategia di mitigazione e adattamento ai cambiamenti climatici. Fondamentale per il raggiungimento di questi obiettivi, risulta essere quindi l'uso di materiali adeguati, sostenibili, di facile reperimento e basso costo. Tenuto conto della grande disponibilità dei residui derivanti dalla potatura annuale delle viti (sarmenti) e dallo spiaggiamento annuale delle foglie di Posidonia oceanica (banquette) in Sicilia, la presente tesi ha come obiettivo principale la descrizione e l'analisi di questi nuovi materiali organici di scarto in relazione alla possibilità di uso degli stessi in opere di Ingegneria Naturalistica. Ogni anno infatti la potatura dei vigneti produce un elevato quantitativo di residui (sarmenti), che rappresentano una biomassa da smaltire; nel contempo, il fenomeno dello spiaggiamento dei residui di P. oceanica è percepito come un disagio dai cittadini, entrando in conflitto con alcune attività economiche (turismo, stabilimenti balneari, ecc). Nonostante il fondamentale ruolo ecologico che rivestono le fanerogame marine sia per limitare l'erosione della costa che per favorire la formazione del sistema dunale costiero, la presenza di residui di P. oceanica lungo la costa può comportare la riduzione del valore turistico delle spiagge; conseguentemente è richiesta alle amministrazioni locali la rimozione delle banquette ed il loro conferimento in discarica. L'utilizzo della biomassa prodotta comporta quindi un duplice vantaggio: la risoluzione del problema dello smaltimento dei residui prodotti e la creazione di nuovi prodotti, locali ed a basso costo, riutilizzabili anche nel campo del risanamento ambientale. La biomassa residuale viene vista in questo modo come una risorsa e non più un rifiuto, acquisendo un valore sia dal punto di vista ecologico che dal punto di vista economico Nell'ottica dell'economia circolare, i sarmenti sono stati assemblati in forma di fascina per costituire l'elemento base per realizzare il modulo di una fascinata, opera lineare di IN con funzioni antierosive, consolidanti e di stabilizzazione, mentre, i residui di P. oceanica sono stati utilizzati come substrato di coltivazione per rendere "viva" l'opera dopo la messa a dimora di specie autoctone al suo interno. Nella tesi sono state eseguite una serie di analisi e sperimentazioni volte: i) a caratterizzare i due materiali per valutarne l'idoneità come costituenti della fascina, ii) ad individuare le specie vegetali biotecnicamente più idonee a rendere viva l'opera, iii) ad eseguire una prima valutazione sulla funzionalità dell'opera nel suo insieme utilizzando osservazioni fatte su un piccolo prototipo di fascinata messa in opera nei campi sperimentali dell'Università di Palermo. Viene infine presentata una tecnica costruttiva innovativa delle fascinate oggetto di brevettazione da parte dell'Università degli Studi di Palermo e sviluppata nel corso delle attività di questo dottorato di ricerca. Con l'obiettivo di stimare indicatori di resistenza e durabilità delle fascine sperimentali sono state, in primo luogo, individuate quattro aziende vitivinicole che operano nel territorio siciliano, disponibili a fornire a titolo gratuito i sarmenti appena potati. Le prove meccaniche di resistenza a flessione (valutazione di tensioni di rottura e modulo di elasticità) sono state quindi eseguite su 122 provini di 8 differenti cultivar di sarmento (Cabernet, Inzolia, Nero d'Avola, Grecanico, Grillo, Chardonnay, Sirah e Catarratto). I provini di sarmento, di lunghezza L=10 cm ed umidità "normale" (12%), sono stati selezionati con criterio di assenza di nodi ed imperfezioni, uniformità di diametro ed asse longitudinale rettilineo (cilindricità). Sotto l'ipotesi di validità della legge di Hook, le prove di resistenza a flessione eseguite secondo lo schema a tre punti (3 point bending test) sino alla rottura delle fibre inferiori dei provini, hanno permesso di ricavare il modulo di elasticità longitudinale (lungo le fibre), E, e la tensione di rottura sulla base dei diagrammi sforzo/deformazione e della forza a rottura. Dai primi risultati si rileva come i vitigni Cabernet, Grillo e Sirah presentino le migliori caratteristiche di resistenza flessionale (maggiore rigidità) con netta prevalenza del Sirah (4878.6 MPa), mentre più deformabili risultano essere i sarmenti di Grecanico, Chardonnay, Catarratto e Nero d'Avola (1200 - 2000 MPa). I valori maggiori di tensioni di rottura si riscontrano invece per il Cabernet (70 MPa). Nel complesso, mettendo in relazione le tensioni di rottura campionarie ai corrispondenti moduli di elasticità, le migliori caratteristiche di resistenza e di maggiore durabilità riscontrate sono quelle del Cabernet e dello Chardonnay, che possono quindi trovare potenziale impiego come materiale da costruzione nelle opere di Ingegneria Naturalistica. Pertanto, i sarmenti di Cabernet sono stati utilizzati per il confezionamento delle fascine nell'installazione sperimentale, insieme al Catarratto che è la cultivar maggiormente coltivata nella regione e che, conseguentemente, produce il maggior quantitativo di biomassa annuale. L'area di prelievo dei residui di P. oceanica è stata individuata nella costa prospicente l'abitato di Custonaci in provincia di Trapani. La banquette dalla quale sono stati prelevati i residui presenta un'altezza di 4 m e si estende per centinaia di metri lungo la costa rocciosa alle spalle di Monte Cofano. I residui di P. oceanica spiaggiata sono stati rimossi meccanicamente e depositati in un'area di stoccaggio appositamente realizzata nel vicino Parco Sub urbano di Custonaci. Allo scopo di valutare l'abbattimento della salinità a mezzo dilavamento naturale è stato studiato il processo di infiltrazione che si attua nei residui di P. oceanica accumulata nei siti di stoccaggio. Un contributo alla caratterizzazione idrologica dei residui di P. oceanica è stato fornito eseguendo una sperimentazione su campioni di residui sottoposti ad una pioggia di fissata intensità, al fine di mettere a punto un modello semplificato di infiltrazione, valido per ammassi porosi altamente permeabili. Più precisamente il modello di infiltrazione a base fisica adottato stima il tempo di ritardo, (o di primo gocciolamento) ovvero il tempo necessario affinchè il fronte di umidità, a partire dall'inizio dell'evento piovoso, raggiunga la base dell'ammasso. Il protocollo di sperimentazione è stato studiato in modo da variare progressivamente le condizioni iniziali di umidità sullo stesso campione così da non alterare le caratteristiche fisiche del campione stesso rendendo omogenei i risultati. I campioni di residui di P. oceanica, preparati in laboratorio con una densità apparente, pari a quella misurata su campioni indisturbati nel sito di stoccaggio, sono stati posti in anelli metallici di diametro, D = 200 mm liberamente drenanti al fondo, chiusi con tessuto non tessuto e rete metallica di contenimento. Le prove di infiltrazione sono state condotte con un simulatore di pioggia di diametro pari a quello degli anelli, alimentato con una bottiglia di Mariotte (pressione costante). Nella sequenza delle prove le condizioni iniziali di umidità sono variate da 0.030 a 0.197, mentre il volume drenato, si è incrementato da 0.030 a 0.32. La condizione iniziale di umidità ha influenzato i tempi di ritardo che sono passati dai 3.87 minuti della prima prova ai 13.62 minuti dell'ultima prova. La densità apparente, stimata empiricamente in funzione dell'altezza H del campione, ha mostrato una variazione, da 0.130 a 0.140 g/cm3 che ha comportato una riduzione della porosità. Dalle prove eseguite è emerso come la compattazione dei residui di Posidonia abbia giocato un ruolo determinante durante il processo di infiltrazione. Sulla base di questa osservazione il modello teorico di infiltrazione adottato, valido su mezzi altamente porosi ma a porosità costante, è stato modificato introducendo sia l'effetto della compattazione che quello della parzializzazione della superficie effettivamente interessata dal processo di infiltrazione. La legge di infiltrazione tarata sui dati sperimentali per valori dell'intensità di pioggia variabili da i=20 a i=100 mm/h, per un ammasso di P. oceanica, messa a confronto con l'analoga legge di infiltrazione relativa ad un terreno con stesse caratteristiche idrologiche della P. oceanica, ha evidenziato in definitiva la differenza di comportamento dei due media. I residui di P. oceanica mostrano rispetto al terreno, tempi di ritardo molto brevi (infiltrazione veloce), poco variabili sia con l'intensità che con le condizioni iniziali di umidità. Per condizioni di umidità iniziale superiori a 0.15 i tempi di ritardo per il campione dei residui di P. oceanica tendono a crescere all'aumentare dell'umidità indicando, in questo campo, una lieve riduzione della permeabilità del mezzo. L'abbattimento della salinità nei residui di P. oceanica è stato valutato in laboratorio simulando in un campione un processo di lavaggio a pressione costante. I campioni di residui di P. oceanica appena spiaggiati mostrano un elevato valore di conducibilità elettrica (CE) iniziale nell'acqua di drenaggio ( 20 mS/cm) ed un rapido abbattimento del contenuto in sali già con i primi tre lavaggi unitari (di peso pari al peso del materiale dilavato). Gli ulteriori sei lavaggi hanno affinato la riduzione di CE fino al raggiungimento di valori accettabili all'utilizzo agricolo ( 2 mS/cm). Assunta una densità della P. oceanica pari a 0,1 g/cm3 un lavaggio unitario di un ammasso alto un metro corrisponde allora ad un volume d'acqua specifico di 100 mm. I valori estremi del processo di lavaggio dei residui appena spiaggiati sono stati confermati da analisi di salinità svolte secondo metodo standard con diluizione 1:20. L'abbattimento del contenuto salino dei residui di P. oceanica accumulati nel deposito all'aperto di Custonaci è avvenuto, in modo sostenibile, a mezzo di un dilavamento naturale durato poco più di un anno che ha ridotto il valore di CE a 2,8 mS/cm. Tale riduzione concorda con le sperimentazioni fatte, infatti, tenuto conto che la precipitazione media annua alla stazione pluviografica di S. Vito Lo Capo vale 474 mm e che lo spessore medio dell'ammasso è di 1 m, il deposito è stato soggetto a circa 6 lavaggi unitari che sono bastati per abbattere significativamente il valore di CE. Ulteriori lavaggi unitari applicati ad un campione di P. oceanica prelevato dal deposito hanno portato ad un CE pari a 1,8 mS/cm, dopo il primo lavaggio, che si è ridotto ulteriormente del 33,3% (CE=1,2 mS/cm) al terzo lavaggio unitario. L'individuazione delle specie vegetali biotecnicamente più idonee a rendere viva l'opera è stata condotta a mezzo di prove di resistenza a trazione, Tr, delle radici. Il prelievo delle specie vegetali autoctone da utilizzare per rendere vive le fascine è stato eseguito in 5 differenti stazioni nella provincia di Palermo. Gli elevati valori di tensioni di rottura delle radici delle specie vegetali prese in esame nello studio (A. mauritanicus, O. miliaceum, H. coronarium. M. lupulina, L. spartum, B. distachyon, R. officinalis, R. coriaria e S. junceum) confermano la loro adeguatezza nel campo del ripristino ambientale, della stabilizzazione dei versanti e nella prevenzione delle frane. In particolare S. junceum ha mostrato le migliori caratteristiche biotecniche in termini di legge tensioni/diametri e quindi è stato individuato come materiale da utilizzare preferibilmente per rendere vive le fascine. Da un'analisi più approfondita delle radici di S. junceum che crescono nelle due differenti giaciture di piano e di pendenza (22°- 28°- 40°), è stato possibile evidenziare come la giacitura in pendenza influenzi significativamente sia l'architettura complessiva del sistema radicale che lo stato tensionale dello stesso. L'indagine è stata eseguita in tre siti di prelievo (A, B e C) tutti in provincia di Palermo Nelle prove di trazione effettuate, in accordo con il maggiore sviluppo e la differente architettura radicale, i campioni di S. junceum prelevati in giacitura di pendenza hanno presentato i valori di tensione a rottura mediamente più alti. In corrispondenza dei diametri più bassi (0,5 mm) i valori di tensione a rottura sono risultati molto simili (61-70 MPa) nelle due giaciture mentre in corrispondenza dei diametri maggiori (>1 mm) la tensione a rottura dei campioni in piano risulta minore rispetto ai campioni in pendenza. Il test di covarianza (ANCOVA) applicato al campione delle tensioni di rottura con covariata il Diametro e variabili indipendenti il sito (A, B, C) e la giacitura (piano, pendenza) ha permesso di considerare non significativa la differenza tra i siti (suoli) e significativa la differenza tra le due giaciture. Nell'installazione delle fascine sperimentali si è stimata la crescita delle piantine in fitocella di S. junceum messe a dimora in diversi substrati. Dalle prime evidenze le piante cresciute sul substrato costituito dai residui di P. oceanica hanno presentato la maggior percentuale di attecchimento e la maggiore crescita epigea. Tale risultato può essere, con buona probabilità, attribuito alle proprietà fisiche ed alla capacità isolante dei residui. Difatti, la maggiore capacità drenante del substrato costituito dai residui di P. oceanica, rilevato durante le prove di infiltrazione, sembra aver giocato un ruolo positivo nell'attecchimento e sviluppo della pianta. Il controllo del microclima all'interno delle fascine è stato eseguito con misure di temperatura rilevate ad intervalli di 30 minuti da sensori hobo data logger inseriti ad una profondità di 5 cm, lasciati indisturbati per tutta la durata delle misure (dal 14.07.2017 al 20.11.2017). I dati sono stati misurati: a) nell'ambiente atmosferico, b) all'interno dei residui di P. oceanica contenuti nelle fascine e c) nel terreno contiguo all'istallazione. In totale sono stati raccolti 6201 valori di temperatura per ognuno dei tre sensori. Le misure di temperatura hanno evidenziato l'elevata capacità isolante dei residui di P. oceanica che si è manifestata con una significativa attenuazione, a livello dell'apparato radicale, delle temperature massime (36.6°C) nei residui di Posidonia e minime giornaliere (9.7°C), rispetto alle temperature massime (55.1°C) e minime (5.6°C) misurate nell'ambiente esterno nei due periodi considerati (estate e autunno). Le temperature medie più basse si sono registrate nei residui di Posidonia all'interno delle fascine, sia nel periodo estivo (25.7±3.6) che nell'arco temporale delle misure (21.8±5.2). È interessante osservare come il ruolo che tale materiale ha nel campo dell'edilizia come isolante termico possa risultare di interesse anche nel campo della coltivazione di specie vegetali. Infine, la ricerca svolta nei tre anni di dottorato ed i risultati conseguiti hanno portato al miglioramento della tecnica di realizzazione della fascinata le cui metodologie sono oggetto di una domanda di brevetto depositata dall'Università di Palermo. I vantaggi della nuova metodologia rispetto alle tecnologie attuali, possono sintetizzarsi come segue: • Riutilizzo sostenibile di materiali organici di scarto (sarmenti e P. oceanica spiaggiata e dilavata) con conseguente economia di realizzazione di una fascinata (opera I.N. lineare di consolidamento e protezione idrogeologica). • Meccanizzazione della produzione dei manufatti modulari (fascina) costituenti l'opera, che nell'attuale pratica prevede un assemblaggio solo di tipo manuale, con conseguente riduzione dei tempi di costruzione e dei costi ad esso associati. • Il prodotto proposto rende "strutturale", con un sistema di collegamento dei moduli, un'opera che staticamente non è resistente alle azioni di spinta delle terre. • Riduzione dei tempi di messa in opera del manufatto lineare. Con la tecnica innovativa avanzata, grazie alla caratteristica strutturale del manufatto, si potranno realizzare opere su più piani (non più di tre) o opere chiuse. I residui di potatura della vite ed i residui di P. oceanica sono stati utilizzati anche nell'ambito di un progetto, finanziato dalla Comunità Europea, al Comune di Custonaci dal titolo "Primi interventi finalizzati a contenere il fenomeno della desertificazione del territorio Comunale Parco sub-urbano Portella del Cerriolo". Recenti controlli di qualità dell'Unione Europea sulle opere realizzate con i suddetti materiali di scarto nel Parco sub-urbano Portella del Cerriolo a Custonaci, hanno evidenziato gli ottimi risultati raggiunti dal progetto. Per tale motivazione, La UE ha proposto la candidatura del suddetto progetto come best practices nell'area mediterranea per la lotta al fenomeno della desertificazione. L'uso dei due materiali, che rappresentano uno scarto di produzione agricola ed un rifiuto solido, ampiamente presenti sia in Sicilia che nella maggior parte dell'area mediterranea, si inquadra in un uso efficiente delle risorse (riuso sostenibile), nel risparmio economico ed energetico e nel pieno rispetto dell'ambiente. ; The world population is expanding continuously, and economic and demographic growth are leading to the exploitation of the environment and the reduction of natural resources (water and energy in particular), with potentially important impacts on global climate change. Therefore, more efficient management of resources is necessary, based on the reworking of sustainable objectives of environmental policies and strategies and lower consumption of resources, thus promoting the transition from a linear economy model to a circular one, consisting of a continuous positive development cycle that preserves and improves natural capital, optimizing the use of resources. Soil and Water Bioengineering uses plants as living building material in environmental and landscape development works. Such works with low environmental impact, promote biodiversity and, in addition, offer a promising strategy for mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Thus, the use of adequate, sustainable, easy to find and low-cost materials are essential for the achievement of these objectives. Considering the great availability of residues resulting from the annual pruning of vines and the annual cleaning of beaches from the leaves of Posidonia oceanica in Sicily, the aim of this thesis is to describe and apply innovative Soil and Water Bioengineering techniques that involve the construction of modular structures made with organic waste materials, namely, the residues of vine pruning (vine shoots) and beachside P. oceanica (banquette). In fact, every year, the pruning of vines produces high quantity residues (vine shoots), which represent a biomass to be disposed. At the same time, the beaching of P. oceanica residues is considered a problem by the population. It conflicts with a number of economic activities (tourism, bathing establishments, etc.). Even though seagrasses have a fundamental ecological role to play in limiting coastal erosion and promoting the formation of the coastal dune system, the presence of P. oceanica residues along the coast can reduce the tourism value of beaches. As a result, local authorities are required to remove banquette and dispose of them in landfills. Therefore, the use of this biomass has a double beneficial effect. It constitutes a solution to the problem of waste disposal and an opportunity for the creation of local and low-cost new products. Moreover, this waste can also be used in the field of environmental restoration. Therefore, the residual biomass considered a resource and no longer as waste, and has ecological and economic value. From the viewpoint of the circular economy, vine shoots were assembled in the form of fascines to constitute the basic element used to create a fascinate module, a linear Soil and Water Bioengineering work with anti-erosive, consolidation and stabilization functions, while the residues of P. oceanica were used as a growing medium to render the work "alive" after planting with native species. A series of analyses and experiments were carried within the framework of the thesis, in order to i) characterize both materials and evaluate their suitability as constituents of fascines, ii) identify the most biotechnically suitable plant species for rendering the work "alive", and iii) evaluate the functionality of the work as a whole using observations made on a small prototype of fascinate set up in experimental fields at the University of Palermo. Finally, an innovative fascinates construction technique is presented, which is the object of patenting by the University of Palermo and was developed during the activities of this research doctorate. First of all, we identified four wine-producing companies operating in Sicily and available to provide vine shoots just after pruning and free of charge. In order to estimate the durability of the experimental fascines, mechanical tests were carried out in the laboratory (tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) on 122 samples of 8 different vine shoot cultivars (Cabernet, Inzolia, Nero d' Avola, Grecanico, Grillo, Chardonnay, Sirah and Catarratto). The vine shoot samples, L=10 cm long and "normal" humidity (12%), were selected based on the criteria of absence of knots and imperfections, uniformity of diameter and straight longitudinal axis (cylindricality). The abiotic (mechanical) durability of the vine shoots was then estimated by means of flexural strength tests and measurement of tensile strength. Under the hypothesis of validity of Hook's law, flexural strength tests were carried out according to the three-point scheme up to the rupture of the lower fibres of the samples, which allowed to obtain the longitudinal elasticity modulus E (along the fibres) and the tensile strengthon the basis of the force/deformation diagram and tensile strength. The first results show that Cabernet, Grillo and Sirah vine shoots have the best flexural strength characteristics (greater rigidity) with a clear prevalence of Sirah (4878.6 MPa), while the vine shoots of Grecanico, Chardonnay, Catarratto and Nero d' Avola (1200 - 2000 MPa) are the most deformable. The highest values of tensile strength were found for the Cabernet (70 MPa). Consequently, by linking sample tensile strength to the corresponding elasticity modules, Cabernet and Chardonnay display the best resistance and durability characteristics, and could be used potentially as a building material in Soil and Water Bioengineering works. Therefore, Cabernet vine shoots have been suggested and used for the packaging of fascines in the experimental installation, together with Catarratto, which is the variety most cultivated in the region and, consequently, produces the largest quantity of annual biomass. P. oceanica residues were collected on the coast of Custonaci, Trapani (Southern of Italy). The "banquette" from which the residues were obtained is 4 metres high and extends hundreds of metres along the rocky coast behind Monte Cofano. P. oceanica residues were removed mechanically and deposited in a storage area created in the nearby Custonaci Park. In order to evaluate the reduction of salinity by natural runoff, the infiltration process that takes place in the residues of P. oceanica accumulated at the storage sites was studied. The investigation carried out on samples of P. oceanica residues subjected to rain of fixed intensity, allowed the development of a simplified theoretical model, valid for highly permeable porous storage. Furthermore, an analysis was performed in order to characterise P. oceanica residues from a physical and hydrological point of view and verify the applicability of a physical infiltration model for the estimation of delay time, starting from the beginning of the rainy event and ending with the storage site. The experimental protocol was studied in order to modify gradually the initial humidity conditions of the same sample and not modify the physical characteristics of the sample for the results to be homogeneous. The samples of P. oceanica residues, prepared in the laboratory with an apparent density equal to that measured on undisturbed samples at the storage site, were placed in metal rings, D = 200 mm, with free draining at the bottom, closed with non-textile and metal mesh containment. The infiltration tests were conducted with a rain simulator equal in diameter to that of the rings, and connected to a Mariotte bottle. In the test sequence, the initial humidity conditions varied from 0.030 to 0.197, while the drained volume increased from 0.030 to 0.32. Modification of the initial humidity condition had an effect on delay times. In particular, the times, with certain dispersion, increased by initial humidity conditions from the initial values of 3.87 minutes for the first test to 13.62 minutes for the last test. The apparent density empirically estimated as a function of the height H of the sample, showed a variation from 0.130g/cm3 to 0.140 g/cm3 which resulted in a reduction of porosity. The tests carried out showed that the compaction of P. oceanica residues played a decisive role during the infiltration process. Following this observation, the infiltration model on highly porous media was modified by introducing the effect of both compaction and that of the surface actually affected by the infiltration process. The infiltration law calibrated on the experimental data for rain intensity values varying from i=20 to i=100 mm/h, for P. oceanica storage, compared with the analogous infiltration law relative to soil with the same hydrological characteristics as stored P. oceanica. The difference in behaviour of the two media was revealed. P. oceanica residues show very short delay times in relation to soil (fast filtration); small differences are measured in the intensity and the initial humidity conditions. While the soil shows a typical monotonous reduction in delay times, for P. oceanica there is a slight increase in time after a given initial humidity condition, which indicates a slight reduction in permeability of the medium in this field. The reduction of salinity in P. oceanica residues was evaluated in the laboratory by means of a constant pressure washing process. P. oceanica residue samples show a high initial electrical conductivity (EC) value in drainage water (20 mS/cm) and a rapid reduction of the salt content with the first three unit washes. The six additional washings refined EC reduction to an acceptable level for agricultural use (2 mS/cm). The extreme values of the residue washing process were confirmed by salinity analysis using the standard method with dilution 1:20. The reduction of the salt content of P. oceanica residues was also achieved in a sustainable way by means of natural runoff in open storage for more than one year (≈ 500 mm/year of rain). The measurements taken at the first unit wash showed an EC of 1.8 mS/cm, which was reduced by 33.3% (CE=1.2 mS/cm) after the second unit wash. The most biotechnically suitable plant species were then identified to make the work "alive" by means of laboratory tests of Tr tensile strength of the roots. The native plant species used to make the fascine "alive" were collected at 5 different stations in the province of Palermo. The high tensile strength values of the roots of the plants considered in the study (A. mauritanicus, O. miliaceum, H. coronarium. M. lupulina, L. spartum, B. distachyon, R. officinalis, R. Coriaria and S. junceum) confirm their suitability in the field of environmental restoration, slope stabilization and landslide prevention. In particular, S. junceum displayed the best biotechnological characteristics in relation to the tension/diameter law and has therefore been identified as a material to be used for making fascine "alive". A more detailed analysis of the morphological parameters of S. junceum roots, growing at two different positions (plane and slope of 22°- 28°- 40°), showed that the position on the slope significantly influences the root system of the plant and the overall architecture of the root system at the three sampling sites (A, B and C). In the tensile strength tests carried out, in accordance with the greater development and the different radical architecture, the samples of break strength values taken in a slope position showed the highest break strength values. As regards the lowest diameters (0.5 mm), the break strength values are similar (61-70 MPa) in the two positions, while for larger diameters (2 mm) the break strength values of plane samples are lower than those of slope samples. In fact, they range from 20 MPa to almost 80 MPa at site A, 20 MPa to 50 MPa at site B, and 20 MPa to 40 MPa at site C. In the experimental installation, we estimated the growth of S. junceum planted in different substrates. The first evidence shows that the plants grown on the substrate consisting of P. oceanica residues showed the highest percentage of rooting and the greatest aerial growth (121.3 cm). This result can, most probably, be attributed to the physical properties and insulating capacity of the residues. In fact, the increased draining capacity of the substrate of P. oceanica residues, detected during infiltration tests, may have played a positive role in plant rooting and development. The micro-climate inside the fascines was estimated with temperature measurements using hobo data logger sensors inserted at a depth of 5 cm from 14.07.2017 to 20.11.2017, carried out continuously and with a time interval of 30 minutes. The data were recorded: a) in the external environment, b) inside the P. oceanica residues contained in fascines and c) in the land adjacent to the installation. A total of 6201 temperature values were collected by each of the three sensors. The temperature measurements showed the high insulating capacity of the P. oceanica residues, which manifested itself with a significant attenuation, at root level, of the maximum temperatures (36.6°C) in P. oceanica residues and daily minimum temperatures (9.7°C), compared to the maximum temperatures (55.1°C) and minimum temperatures (5.6°C) measured in the external environment during the two periods considered (summer and autumn). The lowest average temperatures were recorded in P. oceanica residues inside fascines, both in the summer period (25.7±3.6) and throughout the measurement period (21.8±5.2). It is interesting to note that the thermal insulation role of this material in the building industry also applies to agriculture. Finally, the research carried out during the three years of doctoral studies has led to the improvement of the fascinate production technique, and this methodology is subject to a patent application filed by the University of Palermo. The benefits of the new methodology compared to current technologies can be summarised as follows: • The proposed product makes "structural", with a module connection system, a work frequently used in Soil and Water Bioengineering that is not statically resistant to the actions of soil thrust. • Sustainable reuse of organic waste materials with consequent economy of construction. • Mechanisation of modular manufactured products, which in current practice provides for assembly only by hand with consequent reduction of construction time and costs. • Reduction of installation time for hydrogeological protection structures. The advanced innovative technique, to be developed with future experimental installations, has provided for the construction of a modular building made with eco-compatible materials at low cost; vine pruning residues (vine shoots) and Posidonia oceanica beaches (banquette). Vine pruning residues and P. oceanica residues were also used in a project, funded by the European Community, to the Municipality of Custonaci entitled " Primi interventi finalizzati a contenere il fenomeno della desertificazione del territorio Comunale Parco sub-urbano Portella del Cerriolo". European Union quality controls on these works has shown the excellent results achieved with the waste materials. For this reason, the EU has suggested project application as "best practices" in the mediterranean area for combating desertification. The use of these two materials, namely agricultural production waste and solid waste which are widely available in both in Sicily and most of the Mediterranean area, constitutes an efficient use of resources (sustainable use) that is low-cost, energy efficient and totally respects the environment.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Abbagiri Tanda-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 877 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 96 per cent is covered by soils and 4 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 16 soil series and 52 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 57 per cent soils are loamy and 16 per cent clayey soils at the surface About 32 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 4 per cent in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 69 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 6 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope) An area of about 59 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 19 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 21 per cent soils are strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5), an area of about 21 per cent soils are moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), an area of about 13 per cent soils are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction, an area of 10 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3), 5 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 7 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 61 per cent area. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in an area 25 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in an area of 54 per cent. About 43 per cent is low (145 kg/ha) in available potassium, 27 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 67 per cent area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 38 per cent area. Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 40 (5) 177 (20) Pomegranate - 180 (20) Maize 15 (2) 202 (23) Guava - 158 (18) Bajra 19 (2) 316 (36) Jackfruit - 158 (18) Groundnut - 471 (54) Jamun - 160 (18) Sunflower 22 (3) 58 (7) Musambi 22 (3) 158 (18) Cotton 22 (3) 194 (22) Lime 22 (3) 158 (18) Red gram - 80 (9) Cashew 15 (2) 233 (27) Bengalgram 22 (3) 205 (23) Custard apple 79 (9) 531 (60) Chilli 18 (2) 199 (23) Amla 46 (5) 557 (64) Tomato 18 (2) 199 (23) Tamarind - 24 (3) Drumstick 2 (<1) 253 (29) Marigold 15 (2) 202 (23) Mulberry 2 (<1) 426 (48) Chrysanthemum 15 (2) 202 (23) Mango - 2 (<1) Jasmine 15 (2) 180 (20) Sapota - 158 (18) Crossandra 15 (2) 180 (20) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 124 (53.45%) men and 108 (46.55%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of land less farmers was 4, marginal farmers were 4, small farmer was 5, semi medium farmer was 5 and medium farmers were 3. There were 55 (23.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 101 (43.53%) were in 16-35 years of age, 57 (24.57 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (8.19%) were above 61 years of age. The micro watershed had 34.48 per cent illiterates, 0.43 per cent functional literates, 34.48 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.59 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.36 per cent of them had high school education, 7.33 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.66 per cent of them diploma, 0.86 per cent of them had ITI, 3.45 per cent of them had degree education and 1.29 per cent of them had other education. The results indicate that, 81.63 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 4.08 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 53.88 per cent of the household members, 7.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 4.31 per cent were general labours, 0.43 percent were in government service, 0.86 per cent of them were in private sector, 0.43 per cent of them were in trade and business, 21.98 per cent of them were students and 1.72 per cent were housewives. The results shows that 1.72 per cent of them participated in self help groups, 0.86 per cent of them participated in gram panchayat, 0.43 per cent of them participated in Raitha Sangha and 96.98 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Landless and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local institutions. Semi medium farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. The results indicate that 87.76 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 10.20 per cent of them possess Pucca house and 2.04 per cent them possess semi Pucca house. 100 percent of the landless, marginal and small farmers possess Katcha house. The results shows that 57.14 per cent of the households possess TV, 34.69 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 42.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 83.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The average value of television was Rs.3178, mixer grinder was Rs.1876, DVD player was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.33857, bicycle was Rs.1250, Auto Rs.200000 and mobile phone was Rs.1736. About 34.69 per cent of the households possess plough, 30.61 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 26.53 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 12.24 2 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 46.94 per cent of the households possess weeder. The average value of plough was Rs.748, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 18750 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.2117. The results indicate that, 36.73 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 18.37 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 2.04 per cent of the households possess equally for sheep and goat respectively. Average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.91, average own labour (women) available was 1.45, average hired labour (men) available was 11.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.41. The results indicate that, 89.80 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, 1 person was migrated from micro watershed that belonged to semi medium farmer category. People have migrated on an average of 450 Kms and average duration was 10 months. Job/work was important reason for migration for all the migrants. Households of the Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed possess 40.54 ha (68.45%) of dry land and 18.69 ha (31.55%) of irrigated land. The average value of dry land was Rs.260116.79 and average value of irrigated was Rs.316639.24. There were 14 functioning and 7 defunct bore wells in the micro watershed. Bore well was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers. There were 10.76 ha of irrigated area in total in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (29.38 ha), Navane (0.81 ha), Bajra (7.32 ha), Paddy (1.22 ha), Sorghum (3.04 ha), and Red gram (2.49ha) in kharif season and Bengal gram (4.08 ha), groundnut (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha) and sorghum (0.81 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Ground nut, Bengal gram and Redgram. Small farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sorghum, Bengal gram and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, Bengal gram and Paddy. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram. Medium farmers have grown Maize and Bengal gram. The cropping intensity in Abbagiri Tanda-1 micro watershed was found to be 90.91 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 96.40 per cent, for small farmers it was 87.36 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 89.84 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent. The results indicate that, 55.10 per cent and 53.06 per cent of the households have both bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 63.64 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 65 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 60 per cent of savings. Semi medium farmers possess 54.55 per cent of both bank account and savings and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings. 3 The results indicate that, 65.22 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 43.48 per cent have availed loan in money lender and 4.35 per cent have availed loan from cooperative bank. Marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.16142.86, Rs. 114444.44, Rs.50000, and Rs. 250000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 73608.70. The results indicate that, 18.75 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially which includes 22.22 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers. The data also showed that 56.25 per cent of households have unpaid their loans and only 25 per cent of households have fully repaid their loans. The results also indicated that 20 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially and 80 percent of the households have unpaid their loan. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23153.0. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22838.19. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -314.89, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.99. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 20389.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47012.31. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 26622.35, and the income generated from red gram was Rs. 10618.55, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31. Total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 12067.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25935. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 13867.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.15. Total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 35259.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41003.63. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 5744.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16. The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14260.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27694.88. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 13715.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96. The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 41141.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80509.57. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 39367.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96. Total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 48921.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80878.78. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 31957.66. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65. The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13963.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25468.44. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 11505.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.82. 4 The results indicate that, 59.18 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 4.08 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate also the data revealed that 24.49 per cent of the farmers opined that green fodder is adequate. The table indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3571.43, business Rs.3632.65, wage Rs.27367.35, agriculture Rs. 52992.86, farm income Rs.1632.65, Non farm income Rs.3061.22, dairy farm Rs.2215.31 and goat farming was Rs.3061.22. The results indicated that, 44.90 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 45.45 per cent marginal farmers, 55 per cent small farmers, 45.45 per cent semi medium farmers and 50 per cent medium farmers. The results indicated that for 12 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development. Similarly for the dependency was for irrigation facility 48 percent and only 2 percent for improved crop production. The results indicated that, only Navane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent. The data regarding marketing channels used for sale of agricultural produce was showing that 57.14 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 42.86 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and only 4.08 per cent of the households sold their produce to agents/traders. The data about mode of transport of agricultural produce indicated that 75.51 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport and 28.57 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 63.64 per cent of marginal farmers, 70 per cent of small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing. The data pertaining to soil and water conservation practices and structures adopted in micro watershed was indicating that, 10.20 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 18.18 per cent of marginal, 10 per cent of small farmers, and 50 per cent of medium farmers. Summer ploughing was adopted by 57.14 per cent of the households i.e.63.64 per cent of the marginal farmers, 70 per cent of the small farmers, 54.55 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent medium farmers. Form pond was adopted by the farmers was 2.04 per cent. The data regarding agencies involved in soil conservation structures in was showing that 2.04 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 8.16 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 2.04 per cent is constructed by farmer's organization. 5 The results indicated that, 83.67 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, and 14.29 percent of the households used LPG. Also results indicated that, piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 53.06 per cent which includes 100 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 40 per cent of small farmers, 63.64 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers and 10.20 per cent of the households were using bore well as a source of drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light which was found to be 93.88 per cent. The results indicated that, 34.69 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 60 per cent of landless, 45.45 per cent of marginal, 3 per cent of small, 9.09 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 91.84 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.04 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 45.45 percent of the marginal, 4 per cent of the small, 36.36 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers. The result of data regarding adequacy of food items was showing that that, 97.97 per cent of cereals, 79.59 per cent of pulses, 63.27 per cent of oilseeds and 67.35 percent of both milk and egg were adequate for the households. Vegetables and fruits were adequate only for 10.20 per cent and meat was 4.08 per cent for the households respectively. Also, the results indicated that, both vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 85.71 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were inadequate for 30.61 per cent respectively; meat was inadequate for 89.90 per cent. Cereals, pulses and oilseeds were inadequate for 2.04 per cent, 18.37 per cent and 8.16 per cent respectively. The results of the farming constraints experienced by households in studied micro watershed was indicating that Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 32.65 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (59.18%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.10%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.10%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (65.31%), high rate of interest on credit (63.27%), low price for the agricultural commodities (65.31%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.35%), inadequate extension services (63.27%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.59%), less rainfall (30.61%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (12.24). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Katrahalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 444 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 90 per cent is covered by soil and 10 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 14 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. About 3 per cent is sandy (loamy sand) at the surface, 15 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 72 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 56 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) available water capacity. An area of about 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 77 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 50 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 40 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 86 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in 31 per cent of the soils. Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 5 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 85 per cent of the soils. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the soils. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 42 per cent of the area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in <1 per cent of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 127 (29) 157 (35) Pomegranate 48(11) 267(60) Maize 69 (16) 217 (49) Guava 14(3) 140(31) Bajra 82(18) 269(60) Jackfruit 48(11) 105(24) Redgram 34(8) 145 (32) Jamun 34(8) 168(22) Bengal gram 58(13) 234(53) Musambi 106(24) 209(47) Groundnut 14(3) 179 (40) Lime 106(24) 209 (47) Sunflower 93 (21) 165 (37) Cashew 48(11) 105(24) Cotton 93(21) 193(43) Custard apple 154(35) 227(51) Chilli 82(18) 14(3) Amla 95(22) 285 (64) Tomato 82(18) 14(3) Tamarind 95(22) 285(64) Drumstick 48(11) 240(54) Marigold 69(16) 215(49) Mulberry 48(11) 263(59) Chrysanthemum 69(16) 215(49) Mango 34(8) 39(9) Jasmine 69(16) 53(12) Sapota 48(11) 105(24) Crossandra 69(16) 141(32) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data on households sampled for socio economic survey in Katarahalli microwatershed indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Katarahalli microwatershed among them 5 (14.71 %) were landless farmers, 7 (20.59 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (29.41 %) were small farmers, 5 (14.71 %) were semi medium farmer, 6 (17.65 %) were medium farmers and 1(2.94 %) were large farmers. The data indicated that there were 95 (56.21 %) men and 74 (43.79 %) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of large farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.4, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 6, medium farmers' was 4.5 and large farmers' was 5. The data indicated that, 28 (16.57 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (42.60 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30.18 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (10.65 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Katarahalli had 27.22 per cent illiterates, 19.53 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.06 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.02 per cent of them had high school education, 15.98 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.18 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.78 per cent of them had ITI, 7.10 per cent of them had degree education and 0.59 per cent of them did Masters. The results indicate that, 50 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 47.06 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 2.94 per cent of the household heads were in Trade & Business. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 26.04 per cent of the household members, 33.14 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1.78 per cent were in government service, 5.33 per cent were in private service, 2.37 per cent were in trade and business, 22.49 per cent were students, 2.96 per cent were housewives and 3.55 per cent were children. The results show that, 0.59 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has participated in Gram Panchayat, Dairy Cooperative and Raitha Sangha. The results indicate that 64.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 14.71 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 20.59 per cent of them possess semi pucca house. The results show that 76.47 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.94 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD Player, 58.82 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Refrigerator, 26.47 per cent of them possess bicycle, 52.94 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2 The results show that the average value of television was Rs 5,807, DVD/VCD Player mixer was Rs 2,000, grinder was Rs 2,350, Refrigerator was Rs 12,000, bicycle was Rs 5,425, motor cycle was Rs.38,250 mobile phone was Rs. 1,998 and Computer/Laptop was Rs. 45,000. About 5.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 26.47 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess Irrigation Pump, 5.88 per cent possess tractor, 17.65 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.94 per cent of them possess Sprinkler, 76.47 per cent of them possess weeder, 23.53 per cent of them possess Thresher, 2.94 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2.94 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,500, plough was Rs. 1,820, Irrigation Pump was Rs.7,000, tractor was Rs 350,000, sprayer was Rs.3,828, Sprinkler was Rs. 8,000, average value of weeder was Rs. 159, Harvester was Rs. 84,000, Thresher was Rs. 277, average value of chaff cutter was 3,000 and the average value of earth mover/duster was Rs. 15,000. The data regarding the Livestock possession by the households in Katarahalli micro-watershed is presented in Table 13. The results indicate that, 8.82 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 17.65 per cent of the households possess local cow, 23.53 per cent of the households possess Crossbred cow, 5.88 per cent of the households possess Buffalo and 5.88 per cent of the households possess Goat. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.41, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 13.55 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.23. The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate. The results indicate that, households of the Katarahalli micro-watershed possess 17.74 ha (36.01 %) of dry land and 31.51 ha (63.99 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.30 ha (85.80 %) of dry land and 0.55 ha (14.20 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.65 ha (52.11 %) of dry land and 5.19 ha (47.89 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.90 ha (58.47 %) of dry land and 4.19 ha (41.53 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.89 ha (16.56 %) of dry land and 14.56 ha (83.44 %) of irrigated land. Large farmers possess 7.03 ha (100 %) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 431,108.83 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 382,220.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 726,470.58 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.67. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 398,101.72 3 for dry land and Rs. 731,566.65 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 237,336.99 for dry land and Rs. 441,497.59 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 553,501.40 for dry land and Rs. 322,651.47 for irrigated land. In case of large farmers, the average land value was Rs. 113,824.88 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 17 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 64.71 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 48.68 meters. The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium, medium farmers and large farmers had an irrigated area of 1.09 ha, 7.31 ha, 4.96 ha, 11.91 ha and 2.83 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown Bajra (2.91 ha), Bengal gram (2.18 ha), Cotton (5.26 ha), Drumstick (1.26 ha), Groundnut (3.79 ha), maize (12.01 ha), Sorghum (0.88 ha), Onion (1.76 ha), Red gram (.96 ha), bajra (2.91 ha) and Pearl millet (8.10 ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Katarahalli micro-watershed was found to be 74.72 per cent. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 47751.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 33186.64. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -14564.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.69. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 51818.36. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74236.52. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 22418.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.43. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 318503.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 78255.19. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -240248.31. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.25. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 57538.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 52673.65. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -4864.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.92. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 113731.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 195184.89. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 81453.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.72. 4 The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 46264.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 107609.70. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 61345.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.33. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 51344.94. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23903.22. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -27441.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.47. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 60030.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 32057.96. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -27972.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.53. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Drumstick was Rs. 40072.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 223096.78. The net income from Drumstick cultivation was Rs. 183024.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 5.57. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 78158.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61688.25. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. -16470.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.79. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 29807.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38285. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. 8477.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.28. The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and dry fodder was inadequate for 17.65 per cent of the households. The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 2,400 for landless households, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 89,571.43, for small farmers it was Rs. 184,770, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 103,200, for medium farmers it was Rs. 126,208.33 and for semi large farmers it was Rs. 138,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 18,960.57. For landless households it was Rs. 600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 14,234.69, for small farmers it was Rs. 24,260, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,400, for medium farmers it was Rs. 12,069.44 and for large farmers it was Rs. 115,000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 68 coconut trees in their field and1 in backyard, 3 Custard apple trees in their field, 5 Guava trees in their field, 10 Lemon trees in their field, 19 Mango trees in their field, 4 Pomegranate in their field and 3 lime in their field. . 5 The results indicate that, households have planted 40 Teak, 47 neem, 2 tamarind and 7 banyan trees in their field. Also, 1 neem trees in their backyard. The results indicated that, Bengalgram, Cow Pea, Drumstick, Garlic, cotton and Redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent, bajra was sold to the extent of 91.83 per cent, Groundnut was sold to the extent of 40.38 per cent, Maize was sold to the extent of 98.01 per cent, Onion was sold to the extent of 64.14 per cent, Sunflower was sold to the extent of 62.5 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 86.67 per cent. The results indicated that, about 61.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market, 8.82 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Cooperative marketing Society and 52.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to Agent/Traders. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm. The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 73.53 per cent of the households used firewood, 20.59 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel and 2.94 per cent of the households used Kerosene and Biogas as a source of fuel . The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 32.35 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the households did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 55.88 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 67.65 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 41.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 61.76 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 100 per cent, milk was adequate for 88.24 per cent, Fruits was adequate for 11.76 per cent, eggs were adequate for 29.41 per cent and meat was adequate for 47.06 per cent. The results indicated that, Cereals were inadequate for 32.35 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 58.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 38.24 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 50 per cent, milk 6 was inadequate for 2.86 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.29 per cent and meat was inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 44.12 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50 %), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.06 %), inadequacy of irrigation water (35.29 %), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (52.94 %), high rate of interest on credit (47.06 %), low price for the agricultural commodities (35.29 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20.59 %), less rainfall (38.24 %) and source of agri-technology information (26.47 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
