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Próleg i epíleg també en castellà ; The thesis "The form of living in modern Belgian architecture" is a travel through the most industrialized cities of Belgium. lts main objective is to investigate the history of the social habitat in this country, with the aim to reveal the essence of the Belgian modernity and its compromise with the architecture and town planning. Through an excursus on the social housing development, from the nineteenth century to the garden-city,the investigation proposes an historical reconstruction of the modern social housing with a particular emphasis on the importance, growth and tate of neighbourhoods with high-density population. In fact, the hypothesis of this work is that the collective housing has been the innovative element in the experience of a new method of urban planning, and thus a generator cell of Belgian modernity. The research bases itself on the analysis of two projects of workers-city, Grand Hornu and Bois du Luc, built in the nineteenth century using architectural quotations and allusions to try to shape a new reality: the monad life-work. From this time onwards, the social architecture in Belgium was the protagonist of a major evolution concerning the birth of metropolis. Starting from the late nineteenth century, Belgian hygienists gathered the attention around the problem of living in an healthy city, and the need to offer to the workers, most of whom were employed in the many coal mines of the country, a dignified housing. At this time, the garden-city was becoming the most diffused spatial conformation supporting the belief that living in a natural environment could have restored the purity subtracted from the poisons of the devourer city. The new garden-city acted as an organism to encourage the construction of new housing and to propose solutions that consecrated the desire to give to the city a modern future, which could have been an example to export . Without doubts, the rising of architectural and urban theories urged the Belgian society to take care of the issues concerning new lifestyles and therefore experiment novel models of community with the aim to renew the society itself. In the early twentieth century, the enthusiasm of young architects animated Victor Bourgeois (1897-1962) , Huib Hoste (1881-1957), Louis Van der Swaelmen (1883-1929) and Anto ine Pompe (1873-1980) to be active in the debate forwarded by the CIAM, which resulted in the division into two main architectural trends pursuing either the line or the organic form. Later on, the debate on social housing became the cradle for chimeric suggestions, like the one presented in the thirties by the architect Juliaan Schillemans (1906-1943) ,who designed an ideal "world-city ", for thirty-five millions inhabitants, with the aim to redefine the style lifestyle of a society without boundaries. More pragmatically, in the 50s, architects groups like EGAU (Etudes en groupe d'architecture et d'urbanisme), formed by Charles Carlier (1916-1993), Hyacinthe Lhoest (1913 to 1983) and Jules Mozin (1914- 1995) and the Groupe L'Equerre (1935) raised, through a fervent political activism, a reflection on the topic of housing and how to redesign new spaces. In particular, L'Equerre collaborated with the Flemish architect Renaat Braem (1910-2001) who considered architecture as the art to reorganize the human, environment and an instrument to free the society from the hierarchies inherited from the past. On the other side, the works of Groupe EGAU and the architect Willy Van Der Meeren (1923-2002) distinguished themselves in the same current for a strenuous research in the low cost housing field and for the housing solutions presented in the competition organized by CECA (European Coal and Steel Community). ; La Tesi, intitolata La forma del/'abitare nell'architettura moderna belga, e un viaggio, attraverso le citta piu industrializzate del Belgio, che si propone, come obiettivo principale, di fare luce sulla storia dell'habitat sociale in questo paese, per rivelare l'essenza della modernita belga e il suo compromesso con l'architettura e l'urbanistica. Mediante un excursus sullo sviluppo delle abitazioni collettive, dai principi dell'Ottocento alle citta giardino, l'investigazione pretenderebbe di ricostruire la storia degli alloggi sociali moderni e l'importanza dei quartieri ad alta densita abitativa, la loro crescita e il loro destino. lnfatti, l'ipotesi e che e proprio l'abitazione collettiva sia stata !'elemento singolare nell'esperienza di un nuovo metodo di progettazione urbana, come cellula generatrice della modernita belga. Lo studio prende spunto dall'interesse per i progetti delle citta operaie di Grand Hornu e Bois du Luc, edificate nel XIX secolo, che sfruttarono citazioni e allusioni architettoniche per cercare di costruire una nuova realta: quella della monade vita-lavoro. Da questo periodo in poi, l'architettura sociale in Belgio fu l'attrice di una evoluzione importante, avente ad oggetto la nascita della metropoli. Dalla fine del XIX secolo, gli igienisti belgi manifestarono il problema della salubrita della citta, e della necessita di poter offrire agli operai, la maggior parte dei quali impiegati nelle numerase miniere di carbone del paese, delle abitazioni degne. lnoltre, in questo periodo, si appoggio con decisione la conformazione spaziale proposta dalle citta giardino, avvallando la convinzione che reintrodursi in un ambiente naturale avrebbe potuto ristabilire la purezza sottratta dai veleni della citta divoratrice. Le nuove citta giardino funsero da organismi che incoraggiavano la costruzione di nuovi alloggi e proponevano soluzioni che consacravano il desiderio di conferire alla citta moderna un avvenire che avrebbe potuto essere un exemplum da esportare. Senza dubbio, le nuove teorie architettoniche e urbanistiche esortarono la societa belga a sollevare nuove questioni sullo stile di vita e a sperimentare nuovi modelli di collettivita, volti al rinnovo della societa. L'entusiasmo dei giovani architetti del primo Novecento animo Víctor Bourgeois (1897-1962), Huib Hoste (1881-1957), Louis Van der Swaelmen (1883-1929), Antoine Pompe (1873-1980) a essere attivi nel dibattito avanzato dai CIAM, e, a dividersi in due correnti architettoniche, perseguendo la linea piuttosto che la forma organica. In seguito, il dibattito sulle abitazioni sociali divenne la cuila per proposte chimeriche, come quella presentata, negli anni trenta, dall'architetto Juliaan Schillemans (1906-1943), il quale disegno un'ideale "citta mondiale", pensata per ben trentacinque milioni di abitanti, con lo scopo di ridefinire il modus vivendi di una societa senza confini. In maniera piu pragmatica, negli anni '50, si consolidarono gruppi di architetti come gli EGAU (Etudes en groupe d'architecture et d'urbanisme), formato da Charles Carlier (1916-1993), Hyacinthe Lhoest (1913- 1983) e Jules Mozin (1914-1995), e l'Equerre (1935) che imposero, attraverso un fervente attivismo político, una riflessione sul tema dell'alloggio e si adoperarono nel ridisegnare nuovi spazi. Con l'Equerre collaboro l'architetto fiammingo Renaat Braem (1910-2001) che considerava l'architettura come l'arte della riorganizzazione del medio umano e un mezzo per liberare la societa dalle gerarchie ereditate nel passato. Mentre, l'opera di EGAU e quella dell'architetto Willy Van Der Meeren (1923-2002) si contraddistinsero, nello stesso filone, per una strenua ricerca nell'ambito degli alloggi a basso costo e per le soluzioni abitative presentate al concorso indetto da CECA (Comunita europea del carbone e dell'acciaio). La presente Tesi di Dottorato sara spunto futuro di comprensione di come il moderno modello di gestione dello spazio si sia evoluto in epoca odierna. Il microcosmo delle colonie di carbone connotava un interno artificiale che l'investigazione aspira a intendere, decifrando tutta la complessita di un progetto d'architettura nelle sue fasi di ideazione, costruzione e rilettura, e ponderando gli intrecci tra storia, paesaggio, aree periferiche con gli ancestrali vincoli tra architettura, citta, habitat. ; La Tesis, "La forma dell'abitare nell'architettura moderna belga", es un viaje, a través de las ciudades más industrializadas de Bélgica, que se propone, como objetivo principal de estudio de analizar la singular historia del hábitat social de este país para revelar la esencia de la modernidad belga y su compromiso con la arquitectura y el urbanismo. Gracias a un excursus sobre el desarrollo de las viviendas colectivas, desde los principios del siglo XIX, hasta las ciudades jardín, se pretende, reconstruir la historia de la vivienda social moderna y la importancia de los barrios con alta densidad residencial, sus crecimientos y su desarrollo. La hipótesis plantea cómo la vivienda colectiva constituye el elemento singular en la experiencia de un nuevo método de proyectación urbana, como célula generadora de la modernidad belga. La investigación surge del interés por los proyectos de las ciudades obreras del Grand Hornu y de Bois du Luc, edificadas en el XIX siglo, que utilizaron símbolos e alusiones arquitectónicas para construir una nueva realidad: la mónada vida-trabajo. A partir de este momento en adelante, la arquitectura social en Bélgica fue el centro de una importante evolución sobre el nacimiento de la metrópoli. Asimismo, desde el final del siglo XIX, los higienistas belgas habían planteado el problema de la salubridad de la ciudad y la necesidad de poder ofrecer unas viviendas dignas a la clase trabajadora mayoritariamente, empleados en las numerosas minas de carbón del país. En este período, se consolida la configuración espacial propuesta por las ciudades jardín, que pretende reestablecer la relación con el entorno natural y recuperar la salubridad afectada por los contaminantes de la ciudad industrial. Las nuevas ciudades jardín promovieron la construcción de nuevos alojamientos y además ofrecieron soluciones que confirmaban el deseo de otorgar a la ciudad moderna un futuro que hubiese podido ser un modelo a exportar. Sin duda, las nuevas teorías arquitectónicas y urbanas sugirieron la voluntad de impulsar a la sociedad belga a experimentar nuevos modelos colectivos. Este intenso deseo de reformar el estilo de vida, constituye un importante aspecto para analizar, en el curso de la tesis, las cuestiones planteadas por los utopistas y sus experiencias comunitarias. El entusiasmo de los jóvenes arquitectos del siglo XX, Víctor Bourgeois (1897-1962}, Huib Hoste (1881-1957), Louis Van der Swaelmen (1883-1929) ó Antaine Pompe (1873-1980), suscitó su participación en el debate de los CIAM y los impulsa a dividirse en dos tendencias arquitectónicas, persiguiendo la línea antes que la forma orgánica. Posteriormente, estos ensayos iniciales serán la base para la mayoría de las propuestas visionarias como la realizada por el arquitecto de los años treinta Julian Schillemans (1906-1943), que concibe una utópica "ciudad mundial" concebida para treinta y cinco millones de habitantes con el fin de redefinir el modus vivendi de una sociedad sin fronteras. De una manera más pragmática, en los años 50, la consolidación de grupos de arquitectos como los EGAU, (Etudes en groupe de architecture et de urbanisme), formado por Charles Carlier (1916-1993), Hyacinthe Lhoest (1913-1983) y Jules Mozin (1914- 1995) y l'Equerre (1935) planteó, a través de un ferviente activismo político, una reflexión sobre el tema del alojamiento y se afanó en rediseñar nuevos modelos. Con l'Equerre colaboró el arquitecto flamenco Renaat Braem (1910-2001) que consideraba la arquitectura como el arte de la reorganización del medio humano y un medio para eliminar las jerarquías de la sociedad heredados del pasado; mientras que el trabajo del colectivo EGAU y el del arquitecto Willy Van Der Meeren (1923-2002) se caracterizaron por una vigorosa investigación sobre la vivienda de bajo coste como la vivienda presentada al concurso de CECA (la Comunidad Europea del Carbón y del Acero). ; Postprint (published version)

Статья посвящена имагологическим аспектом образа современного автору Рима в книге П.П. Муратова «Образы Италии». Учитывая то, что традиционным аспектом имагологического описания Рима являются история и культура Античности, запечатленные в римских памятниках, образ Рима, созданный Муратовым, отличается оригинальностью и своеобразием. Типичная римская мифологема Вечного города, акцентирующая сему бессмертия в образе Рима, находит в книге Муратова свое подтверждение в сквозной мысли повествователя способности Рима адаптировать все возникающие в нем новые градостроительные и культурные элементы к своему пространству, какими бы чужеродными на первых порах эти элементы ни казались. ; Images of Italy by P. Muratov is the pinnacle of literature devoted to Italy not only because this book fuses the traditions of Russian and European literature on travels in Italy, but also because Italy changed so much in the 20th century that its ancient literary myth turned out to be on the verge of decay. After decades of decline, the Italian myth again gained momentum in the era of symbolism, also due to the great works on the history of Italian art by critics and scholars Burck-hardt, Wolfflin, Vernon Lee, Pater, Berenson, Venturi, Symonds. These writers gave Mura-tov new patterns of form, composition and style, which the Russian literary tradition did not have; and their authority strengthened the aestheticism and tendency to separate epochs of Italian art, such as the Quattrocento and the "primitive" art, already characteristic of his personality. But Muratov''s text has its own features: high artistic merit, unusual for an essay; competence in the history of Italian art; originality in the choice of subjects; accuracy and freedom of judgment. V.N. Grashchenkov, editor of the critical edition of Muratov''s book, noted: " Muratov combined a long literary tradition of travel notes with methods of English artistic critical essays and methodological achievements of the new European Art Criticism". Travel impressions and memoirs in the book are organically connected with the historical biographical elements. Images of Italy has eight chapters devoted to Rome: "Feeling Rome", "The Antique", "Christian Rome", "Melozzo da Forli", "High Renaissance", "Baroque", "Piranesi", "Roman Campagna". The subject of R. Giuliani''s attention, the image of Rome contemporary to Muratov, being apparently a secondary and marginal aspect of his narrative, is in fact recurrent and highly revealing for understanding the original point of view of the writer and his writing manner. The proof of this can be the epigraph he chose that precedes the chapters about Rome. If chapters on other cities are preceded by epigraphs from literary works, the epigraph "Roma o morte" (or, rather: "O Roma o morte", "Rome or Death") was a famous slogan of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Rome was conquered by Garibaldi''s troops and proclaimed capital of Italy only in 1870. Thus, the epigraph mark both the change in the city''s history, triggered by political circumstances, and Muratov''s interest not only to the past of Italy, but also to its modernity. Accession of Rome to the Kingdom of Italy was marked by the beginning of a painful process that forever changed the urban, architectural and social look of the city and imprinted on its self-identity. Between 1870 and 1885 the living body of the inhabited center of Rome was ripped open by new streets where frantic construction of new quarters began. The construction plans (1873, 1883, 1909) were partially taken into account, yet mostly ignored because construction was largely unplanned. Neglect of the current urban structure of the city occurred along with building speculation. In the 1880s more than 20 old aristocratic houses were destroyed, most of which were real gems of architecture. Meanwhile, the vast patrician villas, models for European aristocratic residences since the Renaissance era, were a characteristic feature of the urban area of Rome. Muratov''s opinion on urban innovations is sharp in tone and is expressed by epithets "tasteless", "banal", "bad", "ugly", "worthless", "monstrosity", etc. In the Roman chapters of Images of Italy Muratov makes severe judgments about the massive urban interventions in the city''s appearance on the objectively descriptive narrative level, but over time the new does not irritate him so much. Genuine self-exposure of the author shows on the intimate lyrical narrative level (the tastes of the author, his conception of the beautiful and the picturesque, leitmotiv comparison of the past and the present). Particular attention of Muratov, a certified engineer-transporter, belongs to urban and suburban traffic routes (tram and railway lines), their descriptions, sometimes lyrical, periodically become part of the narrative imagery. His opinion on the social institutions of the Kingdom of Italy becomes generous when it comes to the preservation and protection of monuments of antiquity: Muratov is impressed by the recent excavations of ancient Ostia, by archaeological arrangement of the Forum; he likes new museums: the National Museum, the Barrakka and the Capitoline Museums. In conclusion, it can be noted that Muratov''s judgment of Rome after the unification of Italy is clear and harsh, yet fair in regard to the merits of the new municipal government. This judgment is a result not only of the author''s acute sense of beauty, be it of landscape or a work of art, but also of his passion, his often lyrical and elegiac sense of the world, finally, his existential experience of Rome. Deep connoisseur of the Roman genius loci, Muratov asserts that Rome will certainly adapt all the innovations made to the urban look by the tumultuous events of Italian history at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries to its space and spiritual aura. This prophecy of the passionate scholar, a Russian writer loving Italy was right.

Nowadays, ubiquitous environments become part of our daily lives. At home, work, cars, hotels, supermarkets and others public spaces we find technologies (electronics and computational elements) that try to make our life simpler and easier in a transparent way. In recent years, the potential of these environments is more and more exploited with the advent and widespread usage of smartphones. This kind of devices enables the execution of applications that are able to adapt seamlessly to the current environment state. These applications, called context-aware applications, benefit from the context information and services that are present in ubiquitous environments to improve and change automatically their behavior. However, such adaptations require the integration of information regarding heterogeneity in terms of devices, execution platforms, and communication protocols as well the mobility of applications so that the different responsibilities of the adaptation can be distributed. In order to face these issues, and considering the limitations of existing solutions, we provide two major contributions in this dissertation: i) SPACES, a middleware approach to integrate context information and ii) Ubiquitous Feedback Control Loops (Ubiquitous FCLs), as an approach to adapt context-aware applications. In particular, in SPACES we define a metamodel inspired on REST (REpresentational State Transfer) for fostering the exchange of context information as resources, which represents the keystone of our approach. Then, we define SPACES Connectors modularizing the different concepts and concerns identified by the metamodel. The connectors are designed by using Component Based Software Engineering (CBSE) principles and then they are incorporated into the Service Component Architecture (SCA) model to be used in different kinds of applications, not only context-aware applications. With the SPACES definition we are able to state the second major contribution-- i.e., Ubiquitous FCLs. Inspired on concepts from Autonomic Computing, this kind of FCLs provides the flexibility required to integrate new participants in the adaptation process (e.g., context-aware applications, services and legacy systems) by supporting mobility and the incorporation of new communication mechanisms when required. In the core of the Ubiquitous FCLs--i.e., the deci- sion making-- we employ constraint programming techniques to optimize the selected configuration regarding aspects for providing a better user experience, such as the cost associated with the adaptation, the resources consumed or the QoS offered by the new configuration. Finally, we validate our proposal with three case studies: i) a Caching or Off-Loading situation, where the application behavior is modified at runtime, ii) TRACK.ME, a platform for supporting tracking-based scientific experimentations and iii) DIGIHOME, a smarthome platform. These scenarios demonstrate the suitability of our approach when different kinds of devices, protocols and implementation technologies are involved in the adaptation process. ; Aujourd'hui, les environnements ubiquitaires font partie de notre vie quotidienne. À la maison, au travail, dans les voitures, dans les hôtels, les supermarchés et autres espaces publiques, nous rencontrons des technologies qui visent à rendre notre vie plus simple et plus facile d'une façon transparente. Durant ces dernières années, le potentiel de ces environnements a été de plus en plus exploité, notamment avec l'avènement et l'utilisation généralisée des smartphones. Ce type de dispositifs permet l'exécution d'applications qui ont la capacité de s'adapter parfaitement à l'état courant de l'environnement. De telles applications, appelées "applications sensibles au contexte", bénéficient de l'information du contexte et des services qui sont présents dans leur environnement pour améliorer et changer automatiquement leur comportement. Toutefois, ces adaptations nécessitent une intégration d'informations qui doit être effectuée en tenant compte de l'hétérogénéité en termes de dispositifs, de plateformes d'exécution, et de protocoles de communication ainsi que la mobilité des applications de sorte que les différentes responsabilités de l'adaptation peuvent être distribuées. Pour faire face à ces défis, et compte tenu des limitations des solutions existantes, nous fournissons deux contributions majeures dans cette dissertation. Tout d'abord nous introduisons l'intergiciel SPACES comme une solution d'intégration des informations contextuelles et ensuite nous définissons le paradigme de "boucles de contrôle ubiquitaires" pour adapter les applications sensibles au contexte. En particulier, dans SPACES, nous définissons un méta-modèle inspiré du style architectural REST (REpresentational State Transfer) pour favoriser l'échange des informations contextuelles en tant que ressources, ce qui représente le fondement de notre approche. Ensuite, nous définissons les connecteurs SPACES pour modulariser les différents concepts et préoccupations identifiés par le méta-modèle. Ces connecteurs sont conçus en utilisant les principes de la programmation orientée composant et ils sont incorporés dans le modèle Service Component Architecture (SCA) pour être utilisés dans différents types d'applications, et ainsi indépendamment des applications sensibles au contexte. Grâce à la définition de SPACES, nous sommes en mesure d'élaborer la seconde contribution de la dissertation--i.e., les boucles de contrôle ubiquitaires. Inspiré par les concepts de l'informatique autonome, les boucles de contrôle offre la flexibilité nécessaire pour intégrer de nouveaux participants dans le processus d'adaptation (par exemple, des applications sensibles au contexte, des services et des systèmes existants) tout en fournissant un support pour la mobilité et l'intégration de nouveaux mécanismes de communication en cas de besoin. Dans le noyau des boucles de contrôle ubiquitaires--i.e., la prise de décision-- nous employons des techniques de programmation par contraintes pour optimiser la configuration courante de l'application en intégrant des critères qui garantissent une meilleure expérience à l'utilisateur final, tels que les coûts associés à l'adaptation, les ressources consommées ou encore la qualité de service offerte par la nouvelle configuration. Enfin, nous validons notre proposition avec trois études de cas: Tout d'abord une politique de Caching or Off-Loading, dans laquelle le comportement de l'application est modifiée lors de l'exécution, ensuite TRACK.ME, une plateforme pour effectuer des expérimentations scientifiques et enfin DIGIHOME, une plateforme pour la création des maisons intelligentes. Ces scénarios démontrent la pertinence de notre approche lorsque différents types de dispositifs, des protocoles et des technologies de mise en œuvre sont impliqués dans le processus d'adaptation.

Premi extraordinari doctorat 2013-2014 ; This doctoral research explores the forms of modern collective housing accomplished in Portugal and in other territories of Portuguese language under Oliveira Salazar's dictatorship. lt seeks to highlight the indisputable values of modern architecture through the work by Portuguese architects in Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique and Macau, retaking the theme of Portuguese colonization as an imaginary of creative capacity, which enables both to get a vision of independence and the valuation of the territory. The period under investigation starts in 1948, heightens between the 50's and the 60's and finishes in 1974, the year of the April revolution. From this date on the architecture context has changed not only in Portugal - with the coming of the democracy - but also in the other Portuguese speaking countries. The guideline of this study is the Portuguese architectural culture as well as the utopía of the Modern Movement made real by collective inhabitation. lt is also meant to identify the strong influence of modern Brazilian architecture and how the later dissolves with the purpose of creating a possible continuity in the other territories. The research isn 't about the Portuguese perspective only and the international paradigmatic situations inevitably come along so as to justify the modern theory on collective Portuguese housing. The Modern generation born in the architecture schools in Lisbon and Oporto has found the devices to adapt the peculiarities of each work to the specificity of its space. The first systems developed between universality and adaptability, functionality and economy, the vecracity of the materials and sincerity of the structure, are aspects that characterize it and will try to demonstrate wtih the analysis of the selected objects. lt was from the 1950 decade onwards that the block of flats gained leading position as part of the construction process of the city / town. This period is directly related with Le Corbusier and the influential modern Brazilian architecture both obviously controlled by the dictatorial regime. lt was the Golden Age of the political strategies to define the colonial area. With it the processes for the planning and changing of the territory were started as well as the first guiding planes, which established what we now know as the town. While international style critical movement question exactly the universality that is the characteristic of modernity, in Portugal a question a position close to the themes of the latest CIAM congress around the binomial identity - modernity. To this effect in the l 960's the moment of the discipline crisis was put to publish the famous survey about the Popular Portuguese Architecture pursuing, however a vision proclaimed by the Estado Novo regime. This dissertation on the one hand makes public the modern Portuguese heritage in the residential scope, which was almost unknown internationally, and on the other hand documents the whole of those architectures with the aim of contributing not only to its disclosure but also to show the qualities inherent to the chosen selected projects. Thus it opens the discussion on the recovering and requalifying of these works. In order to do it, the modern specific grounds of the collective housing system from town to typology deepen in countries with a common architectural history. Through the study of form , when it is understood as a part of relations and meanings, the 20 th century architecture becomes better known and at the same time the historic and theoretical picture of this heritage in the 21 st century. ; Esta investigación doctoral explora las formas de la residencia moderna producida en Portugal y en otros países de expresión portuguesa, durante el régimen dictatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Se procura evidenciar los valores indudables de la arquitectura moderna, a través de la vivienda colectiva realizada por arquitectos lusos en Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Mozambique y Macao, retomando el tema de la colonización portuguesa como un imaginario de capacidad regenerativa, que permite simultáneamente adquirir una visión de independencia y valorar el territorio. El periodo considerado se inicia en 1948, se intensifica entre los años cincuenta y sesenta y finaliza en 1974, año de la Revolución de Abril, a partir del cual el contexto urbano-arquitectónico se transforma completamente no solo en Portugal –con la entrada de la democracia– sino también en el resto de países de expresión portuguesa. El hilo conductor de la investigación es la cultura arquitectónica portuguesa y la utopía del Movimiento Moderno transformada en realidad a través del habitar colectivo. Asimismo, se pretende identificar la fuerte influencia de la arquitectura moderna brasileña y el modo cómo se disuelve en Portugal, a fin de establecer una posible continuidad en los demás territorios. El estudio no se limita a la perspectiva portuguesa, pues tiene en cuenta además los casos pragmáticos internacionales, de modo a fundamentar el argumento moderno de la vivienda colectiva lusa. La generación moderna, formada en las escuelas de Arquitectura de Lisboa y Oporto, encontró los mecanismos para adecuarse a las particularidades de las obras en la especificidad de cada lugar. Los primeros sistemas desarrollados entre universalidad y adecuación, la funcionalidad y economía, la veracidad de los materiales y la sinceridad de la estructura, constituyen aspectos característicos y que se intentan poner de relieve con los análisis de los objetos seleccionados Fue a partir de la década de 1950 cuando se asistió al protagonismo del bloque de vivienda colectiva como elemento crucial en el proceso de construcción de ciudad. Este periodo está directamente relacionado con Le Corbusier y con la influyente arquitectura moderna brasileña, ambos naturalmente censurados por el régimen dictatorial. Se trató de la época de oro de las obras públicas y de las estrategias políticas para definir el espacio colonial; con ella se iniciaron los procesos de planeamiento y transformación del territorio y se elaboraron los primeros planes generales que definieron lo que hoy conocemos como ciudad. Cuando las corrientes críticas del estilo internacional cuestionaron precisamente la universalidad que caracteriza la modernidad, en Portugal se reconoció una actitud próxima al tema del último CIAM y al binomio, identidadmodernidad. En este sentido, en los años 60 se aprovechó el momento de la crisis disciplinar para publicar la famosa Encuesta a la Arquitectura Popular Portuguesa, siguiendo de todos modos, una visión contraria a la proclamada por el Estado Novo. La tesis agrega por una parte, el patrimonio moderno luso en el ámbito residencial, prácticamente desconocido a nivel internacional, y, por otra parte, documenta el conjunto de estas arquitecturas, a fin de contribuir no solo a su divulgación sino para realzar las cualidades inherentes a los proyectos seleccionados, abriendo, así, el debate sobre su recuperación y recualificación. Para tal, se identifican los fundamentos modernos específicos del sistema de la vivienda colectiva, desde la ciudad a la tipología, en países con una historia arquitectónica común. A través del estudio de la forma, entendida como un conjunto de relaciones y significados, se da a conocer la mejor arquitectura del siglo XX y a la vez se registra el marco histórico y teórico de este patrimonio en el siglo XXI. ; Esta investigação de doutoramento explora as formas da habitação coletiva moderna realizadas em Portugal e noutros territórios de expressão portuguesa, sob o sistema ditatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Procura evidenciar os valores indiscutíveis da arquitetura moderna, através de obras levadas a cabo por arquitetos lusos em Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Moçambique e Macau, retomando o tema da colonização portuguesa como um imaginário de capacidade criativa, que permite simultaneamente adquirir uma visão de independência e de valorização do território. O período considerado inicia-se em 1948, intensifica-se entre os anos cinquenta e sessenta e termina em 1974, o ano da Revolução de Abril. A partir deste data, o contexto urbano-arquitetónico mudou não só em Portugal –com o advento da democracia– como também nos demais territórios de expressão portuguesa. O fio condutor é justamente a cultura arquitetónica portuguesa e a utopia do Movimento Moderno transformada em realidade através do habitar coletivo. Igualmente, pretende-se identificar a forte influência da arquitetura moderna brasileira e a forma como esta se esbate em Portugal, com o fim de estabelecer uma possível continuidade nos outros territórios. O estudo não se limita à perspetiva portuguesa e associam-se inevitavelmente os casos paradigmáticos internacionais, de modo a fundamentar o argumento moderno sobre a habitação coletiva lusa. A geração moderna, formada nas escolas de Arquitectura de Lisboa e Porto, encontrou mecanismos para adaptar as particularidades de cada obra na especificidade do lugar onde se inserem. Os primeiros sistemas desenvolvidos entre universalidade e a adaptação, a funcionalidade e a economia, a veracidade dos materiais e a sinceridade da estrutura, são aspetos que se caracterizam e que se tentam demonstrar com as análises dos objetos selecionados. Foi a partir de 1950 que se assistiu ao protagonismo do bloco de apartamentos como interveniente no processo de construção da cidade. Este período está diretamente relacionado com Le Corbusier e com a influente arquitetura moderna brasileira, ambos naturalmente censurados pelo regime ditatorial. Era a idade de ouro das obras públicas e das estratégias políticas para definir o espaço colonial; com ela iniciaram-se os processos de planeamento e de transformação do território e elaboraram-se os primeiros planos diretores, que definiram o que hoje conhecemos por cidade. Quando as correntes críticas do estilo internacional põem em causa precisamente a universalidade que caracteriza a modernidade, em Portugal reconhece-se uma atitude próxima aos temas do último Congresso CIAM, em torno do binómio identidade-modernidade. Neste sentido, nos anos 60, aproveitou-se o momento da crise disciplinar para publicar o famoso Inquérito à Arquitetura Popular Portuguesa, seguindo no entanto, uma visão contrária à proclamada pelo Estado Novo. A tese agrega por um lado, o património moderno luso no âmbito residencial, praticamente desconhecido internacionalmente, e, por outro lado, documenta o conjunto destas arquiteturas, com o objetivo de contribuir não só para a sua divulgação como também para realçar as qualidades inerentes aos projetos selecionados, abrindo, assim, o debate sobre a sua recuperação e requalificação. Para isso, identificam-se os fundamentos modernos específicos do sistema de habitação coletiva, desde a cidade à tipologia, em países de história arquitetónica comum. Através do estudo da forma, entendida como um conjunto de relações e significados, dá-se a conhecer a melhor arquitetura do século XX e. ao mesmo tempo, regista-se o quadro histórico e teórico deste património no século XXI ; Award-winning ; Postprint (published version)

Premi extraordinari doctorat 2013-2014 ; This doctoral research explores the forms of modern collective housing accomplished in Portugal and in other territories of Portuguese language under Oliveira Salazar's dictatorship. lt seeks to highlight the indisputable values of modern architecture through the work by Portuguese architects in Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique and Macau, retaking the theme of Portuguese colonization as an imaginary of creative capacity, which enables both to get a vision of independence and the valuation of the territory. The period under investigation starts in 1948, heightens between the 50's and the 60's and finishes in 1974, the year of the April revolution. From this date on the architecture context has changed not only in Portugal - with the coming of the democracy - but also in the other Portuguese speaking countries. The guideline of this study is the Portuguese architectural culture as well as the utopía of the Modern Movement made real by collective inhabitation. lt is also meant to identify the strong influence of modern Brazilian architecture and how the later dissolves with the purpose of creating a possible continuity in the other territories. The research isn 't about the Portuguese perspective only and the international paradigmatic situations inevitably come along so as to justify the modern theory on collective Portuguese housing. The Modern generation born in the architecture schools in Lisbon and Oporto has found the devices to adapt the peculiarities of each work to the specificity of its space. The first systems developed between universality and adaptability, functionality and economy, the vecracity of the materials and sincerity of the structure, are aspects that characterize it and will try to demonstrate wtih the analysis of the selected objects. lt was from the 1950 decade onwards that the block of flats gained leading position as part of the construction process of the city / town. This period is directly related with Le Corbusier and the influential modern Brazilian architecture both obviously controlled by the dictatorial regime. lt was the Golden Age of the political strategies to define the colonial area. With it the processes for the planning and changing of the territory were started as well as the first guiding planes, which established what we now know as the town. While international style critical movement question exactly the universality that is the characteristic of modernity, in Portugal a question a position close to the themes of the latest CIAM congress around the binomial identity - modernity. To this effect in the l 960's the moment of the discipline crisis was put to publish the famous survey about the Popular Portuguese Architecture pursuing, however a vision proclaimed by the Estado Novo regime. This dissertation on the one hand makes public the modern Portuguese heritage in the residential scope, which was almost unknown internationally, and on the other hand documents the whole of those architectures with the aim of contributing not only to its disclosure but also to show the qualities inherent to the chosen selected projects. Thus it opens the discussion on the recovering and requalifying of these works. In order to do it, the modern specific grounds of the collective housing system from town to typology deepen in countries with a common architectural history. Through the study of form , when it is understood as a part of relations and meanings, the 20 th century architecture becomes better known and at the same time the historic and theoretical picture of this heritage in the 21 st century. ; Esta investigación doctoral explora las formas de la residencia moderna producida en Portugal y en otros países de expresión portuguesa, durante el régimen dictatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Se procura evidenciar los valores indudables de la arquitectura moderna, a través de la vivienda colectiva realizada por arquitectos lusos en Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Mozambique y Macao, retomando el tema de la colonización portuguesa como un imaginario de capacidad regenerativa, que permite simultáneamente adquirir una visión de independencia y valorar el territorio. El periodo considerado se inicia en 1948, se intensifica entre los años cincuenta y sesenta y finaliza en 1974, año de la Revolución de Abril, a partir del cual el contexto urbano-arquitectónico se transforma completamente no solo en Portugal –con la entrada de la democracia– sino también en el resto de países de expresión portuguesa. El hilo conductor de la investigación es la cultura arquitectónica portuguesa y la utopía del Movimiento Moderno transformada en realidad a través del habitar colectivo. Asimismo, se pretende identificar la fuerte influencia de la arquitectura moderna brasileña y el modo cómo se disuelve en Portugal, a fin de establecer una posible continuidad en los demás territorios. El estudio no se limita a la perspectiva portuguesa, pues tiene en cuenta además los casos pragmáticos internacionales, de modo a fundamentar el argumento moderno de la vivienda colectiva lusa. La generación moderna, formada en las escuelas de Arquitectura de Lisboa y Oporto, encontró los mecanismos para adecuarse a las particularidades de las obras en la especificidad de cada lugar. Los primeros sistemas desarrollados entre universalidad y adecuación, la funcionalidad y economía, la veracidad de los materiales y la sinceridad de la estructura, constituyen aspectos característicos y que se intentan poner de relieve con los análisis de los objetos seleccionados Fue a partir de la década de 1950 cuando se asistió al protagonismo del bloque de vivienda colectiva como elemento crucial en el proceso de construcción de ciudad. Este periodo está directamente relacionado con Le Corbusier y con la influyente arquitectura moderna brasileña, ambos naturalmente censurados por el régimen dictatorial. Se trató de la época de oro de las obras públicas y de las estrategias políticas para definir el espacio colonial; con ella se iniciaron los procesos de planeamiento y transformación del territorio y se elaboraron los primeros planes generales que definieron lo que hoy conocemos como ciudad. Cuando las corrientes críticas del estilo internacional cuestionaron precisamente la universalidad que caracteriza la modernidad, en Portugal se reconoció una actitud próxima al tema del último CIAM y al binomio, identidadmodernidad. En este sentido, en los años 60 se aprovechó el momento de la crisis disciplinar para publicar la famosa Encuesta a la Arquitectura Popular Portuguesa, siguiendo de todos modos, una visión contraria a la proclamada por el Estado Novo. La tesis agrega por una parte, el patrimonio moderno luso en el ámbito residencial, prácticamente desconocido a nivel internacional, y, por otra parte, documenta el conjunto de estas arquitecturas, a fin de contribuir no solo a su divulgación sino para realzar las cualidades inherentes a los proyectos seleccionados, abriendo, así, el debate sobre su recuperación y recualificación. Para tal, se identifican los fundamentos modernos específicos del sistema de la vivienda colectiva, desde la ciudad a la tipología, en países con una historia arquitectónica común. A través del estudio de la forma, entendida como un conjunto de relaciones y significados, se da a conocer la mejor arquitectura del siglo XX y a la vez se registra el marco histórico y teórico de este patrimonio en el siglo XXI. ; Esta investigação de doutoramento explora as formas da habitação coletiva moderna realizadas em Portugal e noutros territórios de expressão portuguesa, sob o sistema ditatorial de Oliveira Salazar. Procura evidenciar os valores indiscutíveis da arquitetura moderna, através de obras levadas a cabo por arquitetos lusos em Portugal, Brasil, Angola, Moçambique e Macau, retomando o tema da colonização portuguesa como um imaginário de capacidade criativa, que permite simultaneamente adquirir uma visão de independência e de valorização do território. O período considerado inicia-se em 1948, intensifica-se entre os anos cinquenta e sessenta e termina em 1974, o ano da Revolução de Abril. A partir deste data, o contexto urbano-arquitetónico mudou não só em Portugal –com o advento da democracia– como também nos demais territórios de expressão portuguesa. O fio condutor é justamente a cultura arquitetónica portuguesa e a utopia do Movimento Moderno transformada em realidade através do habitar coletivo. Igualmente, pretende-se identificar a forte influência da arquitetura moderna brasileira e a forma como esta se esbate em Portugal, com o fim de estabelecer uma possível continuidade nos outros territórios. O estudo não se limita à perspetiva portuguesa e associam-se inevitavelmente os casos paradigmáticos internacionais, de modo a fundamentar o argumento moderno sobre a habitação coletiva lusa. A geração moderna, formada nas escolas de Arquitectura de Lisboa e Porto, encontrou mecanismos para adaptar as particularidades de cada obra na especificidade do lugar onde se inserem. Os primeiros sistemas desenvolvidos entre universalidade e a adaptação, a funcionalidade e a economia, a veracidade dos materiais e a sinceridade da estrutura, são aspetos que se caracterizam e que se tentam demonstrar com as análises dos objetos selecionados. Foi a partir de 1950 que se assistiu ao protagonismo do bloco de apartamentos como interveniente no processo de construção da cidade. Este período está diretamente relacionado com Le Corbusier e com a influente arquitetura moderna brasileira, ambos naturalmente censurados pelo regime ditatorial. Era a idade de ouro das obras públicas e das estratégias políticas para definir o espaço colonial; com ela iniciaram-se os processos de planeamento e de transformação do território e elaboraram-se os primeiros planos diretores, que definiram o que hoje conhecemos por cidade. Quando as correntes críticas do estilo internacional põem em causa precisamente a universalidade que caracteriza a modernidade, em Portugal reconhece-se uma atitude próxima aos temas do último Congresso CIAM, em torno do binómio identidade-modernidade. Neste sentido, nos anos 60, aproveitou-se o momento da crise disciplinar para publicar o famoso Inquérito à Arquitetura Popular Portuguesa, seguindo no entanto, uma visão contrária à proclamada pelo Estado Novo. A tese agrega por um lado, o património moderno luso no âmbito residencial, praticamente desconhecido internacionalmente, e, por outro lado, documenta o conjunto destas arquiteturas, com o objetivo de contribuir não só para a sua divulgação como também para realçar as qualidades inerentes aos projetos selecionados, abrindo, assim, o debate sobre a sua recuperação e requalificação. Para isso, identificam-se os fundamentos modernos específicos do sistema de habitação coletiva, desde a cidade à tipologia, em países de história arquitetónica comum. Através do estudo da forma, entendida como um conjunto de relações e significados, dá-se a conhecer a melhor arquitetura do século XX e. ao mesmo tempo, regista-se o quadro histórico e teórico deste património no século XXI ; Award-winning ; Postprint (published version)

The dynamics of directing of the modern folk festivals, their drama, set design, as well as the specifics of the entire director's production group are studied. Folk festivals in Ukraine are very popular and constantly gather an audience of thousands. Today, in the era of globalization such folk forums facilitate cultural exchange between nations, ethnic groups and social organizations. Wide range of information about different cultures contribute peace between nationalities and the reduction of antagonism and aggression between them. However, globalization is also associated with the progressive unification of the many aspects of national cultures that gives rise to the opposite trend when the aggressive imposition of "leveling" of the cultural space causes the opposite reaction – an interest in their own cultural traditions and in folk traditions of other nations, and the desire to protect their own cultural values. In Ukraine, the interest in folk culture has its own characteristics. In terms of permanent forbiddance on Ukrainian language and national identity only folk tradition was the constant foundation that contributed to the revival of Ukrainian culture as an independent phenomenon in European cultural context. Therefore, in Ukraine, folk festivals are very popular as a way of the own cultural identity. Ukrainian folk culture does not lead just only to the rustic culture, but it includes also the culture of other social stratums, such as the Cossacks, handicraft, as well as gentry and knightly traditions of Ukrainian cultural and political elite. This cultural stratum has a huge potential for dramatic theatrical festival shows.A distinctive feature of the folk festivals is the maximum concentration around national cultural tradition that at such events is relayed into the theatrical and entertainment forms. The main task of the director is the organic combination of traditional culture, unprofessional, variability, which is a priori of folk culture, with certain rules and laws of the performing arts as a professional skill . One should avoid mechanical transfer of traditional ceremonies , songs, games on the festival scene , and tends with the artistic methods to convey the atmosphere of festive folk culture. The director faces the task of an organic combination of the past and present, as well as the construction of the festival action in such way as to motivate and inspire a contemporary with folk tradition, to light and present in the aesthetic language of modernity.Another important factor in today's director of folk festivals, is the commercialization of the festival movement, as a part of the tourism infrastructure. A modern folk festival director faces the task to pay the maximum attention to the commercial part of the event, which affects on the director's vision of the overall festival picture, and on the selection of its members, expressive artistic methods and directing techniques. So, folk festival director often combines his work with the administrative work of the director, art director, producer.First of all, before the director is the task to develop a spectacular artistic explication, the original format of the festival, to consider the through action that should tie into a coherent, logical sequence the performances of the festival participants; to offer an original set design, sound and lighting design of the stage platforms, to develop the director's explication of the opening and closing ceremonies, as well as the main event of the festival. Typically, theatrical spectacle of the festival becomes the central festival event, that expresses the main idea of the festival.Today, folk festivals have different formats, that depend on the status of financial opportunities, concepts, themes of the event. The format of folk festival, aesthetics and style are also dependent on whether it is dedicated to folk culture of a particular ethnic group or has the genre direction, or demonstrates the tradition of a small area (village, district, local) or the tradition of the specific historical time (the prince, Cossack times, the era of Baroque and others).Global trend of folk festivals is the active usage of landscape and architectural attractions as the venue of folklore activities, that contributes to the attractiveness of visitors, enhances the aesthetic appreciation of folk activities, expand their cultural and educational program. In the other turn, the venue of the festival dictates the choice of artistic media and the formation of the artistic design of the theatrical spectacle. This is due to the general tendency of visualization and entertainment of cultural events of all levels. The folk festival, as well as any other festival, it is a complex, synthetic and multifunctional phenomenon, not just the sum of several theatrical shares. By definition, on the festival it should be general encouraged atmosphere of the fest, like a holiday, where all participants are competent.One of the main tasks for the director of the folklore festival is the creation of the conceptual drama and director plan of the full event, taking into account the features of the traditional genre of folk art. Today shooting script (implemented as a common scheme or libretto) of the folk festival has the several canonical constants: opening ceremony, parade, procession of participants, concerts and individual performances, improvised performances, competitions, culminating action and grand final (Gala).In the structure of folklore programs, that have spectacular type, it is recommended to follow the principle of contrast , alternating different performances by: a) the genre (choral, dance, instrumental), and b) the age composition (children, adults, the elderly) , and c) regional characteristics. So you can achieve the variety of programs, raise the interest for action as the monotonous performances tire and depress the emotional mood of the audience. Special emphasis is directed to the interactive participation in all the actions the maximum number of those who are on our folklore.Having reviewed the basic principles, forms of folk festivals direction, it can be summarized that the main current trend is to use new, original approach for playing, reconstruction and representation of traditional folk culture.Direction skill at such festivals consists of creation the fascinating spectacle and unique atmosphere f the national holiday with the help of the organic, thematically unified fusion of different types of art. ; Исследуются виды современных фольклорных фестивалей и их драматургия. Рассматривается динамика режиссуры фольклорного фестиваля, анализируется специфика работы режиссера фестиваля, сочетающая традиционные и современные методы для воплощения заданий, которые стоят перед режиссерской группой (создание концепции, формата, сквозного действия, основного фестивального события, сценографии, звукового и светового оформления площадок, постановка открытия и закрытия фестиваля и т.д.). ; Досліджуютьсявидовіформифольклорнихфорумів, їхдраматургія, сценографія, промоція. Розглядаєтьсядинамікарежисурисучаснихфольклорнихфестивалів. Аналізується специфіка й особливості роботи режисера фестивалю, в якій поєднуються традиційні й сучасні методи для втілення завдань, що стоять перед режисерською групою (створення концепції, формату, наскрізної дії, основної події фестивалю, сценографії, звукового й світлового оформлення майданчиків, постановка відкриття й фінальної частини фестивалю).

The research opens a new chapter about the studies conducted until now on the traditional architecture of the smaller towns in Sardinia, which I have been part from 2007 to 2010 and has been completed with the editing of Manuals Retrieval of the historical centers of Sardinia. The research started from a socio-anthropological knowledge of the characters, urban and technological centers and from the study of the traditional Sardinian architecture. Furthermore, having the opportunity to meet the Mediterranean architecture on the same viewpoints, the research investigates the archetypal elements of traditional architecture under the aspect of composition. It looks at the ways in which the contemporary design strategies, released by ideological references, take them over elaborating them, comparing with the memory of places, beyond of every stylistic affiliation. Belonging to minimalist positions, regionalist or post-modern resuming solutions, contextualizing and reinterpreting them in a practical and empirical way, even trying to see which characters and modes could be identified as typical and recurrent. This kind of research, which specifically aims to verify the composition and some elements of the experience of this project, needs to be based on the knowledge of the culture and the debate which marked the activity of designers in the near past, from the first modernity trying to recognize which characters were conditioners, which continue to influence the present and which are typical and original in the actuality. For this reason, the research has an introductory part which incorporates some emblematic moments of the debate on the architecture of the twentieth century, referring to reality and figures of the Mediterranean. One is the myth of modernity celebrated from the first rationalism, especially in Italy and Spain, the other one is the debate about the historical centers of the late twentieth century, still typical of our country: in the first season the traditional Mediterranean architecture is transformed into a progressive ideal used to specify shapes and intentions of the new architecture, especially in its character of anonymity and puristic reduction. The first part of the research, introduces the relationship between modern architecture and Mediterranean inspiration and deepens in a critical manner, the weakness of the concept of Mediterranean, founded on one hand in a sham and on the other on how rationalism looks at the historical landscape searching for a radical overhaul of the style of architecture. The Mediterranean myth in the Italian architecture is mainly influenced by the idea of the correspondence of the formal themes of modernity and is used for political reasons in order to find a place of modern Italian positions within the regime. The Mediterranean architecture is not, therefore, re-interpreted conservatively, but revised into a new paradigm, a new way of imagining the architecture. In the second part, by the pre-war myth, still literary and idealized, we move to a more critical and accurate knowledge to the empirical verification and philological sort order, losing the progressive tension of the first season and building a system of strict preservation rules, revealed, too deterministic and inhibitory. The weakness of the rationalist positions, reveals the architecture of the Second World War, who looked to the Mediterranean, devoid by now, of the ideal tension during the rationalism: it is less parallelism between cutting-edge research and charm of the Mediterranean landscape and the question begins to focus more on the relationship with the towns, with the existing environment, and for a certain range of the debate, with the preservation of historic centers, up to produce more and become part of the theories of critical regionalism, political manifesto, as Frampton says, of resistance towards globalization. The enhancement of local realities is no longer specific to the Mediterranean, but is extended: it is as if the great architecture of Mediterranean figures lost part of the universal value, which instead is recognized during rationalism. In the present, after the crisis of the great paradigms interpretive, the debate about relationship between new and old loses strength and becomes eccentric compared to issues considered preeminent. Some great works receive media attention representing particular methodologies, these are exceptional circumstances, related to charismatic personalities who avoid to define a strong theory. This research select a field of attentive investigation to the works of medium size on which you can recognize an empirical approach (not programmatic), which could be recognized as typical of this period. An approach that addresses issues that in the past were strongly ideological - the relation between modernity and tradition and continuity and rupture with the figures of history - out of those programmatic intentions and norms: in this way many architects of the younger generation, active in the Mediterranean territories, they built a sensitive and imaginative dialogue between the elements inherited from the context and strategies - even radical - of contemporary design, defining a fertile scene and interesting to build new methodologies and practices of intervention. Currently there is no attention to the great paradigm, but an open and practical approach. I will approach the scope of this study as part of the Mediterranean, in order to understand the outcome of discussions which are the current approaches and isolating a specific subject of the tradition, one of the most characteristic, trying to figure out how the projects chosen take up and rework the issue. The modulation of the light, treated according to the manner in which you relate to some elements of tradition: the dematerialization of the building mass, the dimming systems, gaps in the patio and courtyard and places of shade. Each of the examples treated, shows that there is a traditional way to control the light that has characterized the Mediterranean architecture of the past and that has been expressed by the categories identified. I prove that there are contemporary projects which reflect those solutions contextualizing and reinterpreting them in an empirical and practical way: this is very interesting because it demonstrates the vitality of the relationship between contemporary architecture and history and how certain paradigms of the Mediterranean tradition have survived as a cultural and architectural legacy, in the attempt to offer a possible answer to the complexity of the problems posed by the existing historic and how have been reinterpreted. Beyond each "nuovismo", as well as the obsession of memory, which often gave rise to an analytical mummification that carries with it the nostalgic for the unachievable quality of the ancient city and the assurance of the absence of quality of the city modern-contemporary, can be an alternative based on the careful study of places to go back to the essential qualities that the architectures are realized in it.

In den 1980er und 1990er Jahren galt London nicht gerade als ein positives Beispiel städtebaulicher Entwicklungen. Wenn überhaupt drangen höchstens negative Schlagzeilen aus der britischen Hauptstadt auf den Kontinent. Der glitzernde, aber bankrotte Bürostandort Canary Wharf, das endlos diskutierte Bürogebiet Paternoster Square am Fuße der St. Paul's Cathedral und eine für das Verkehrsmuseum reife U-Bahn dominierten die Architektur- und Städtebaudebatte. Zur Jahrtausendwende schien es mit den kontroversen Millenniumsprojekten zunächst ähnlich weiterzugehen. Doch dann ereignete sich ein Wandel im Herzen der Stadt - in der Art und Weise wie das Zentrum genutzt wird, in seiner architektonischen und städtebaulichen Gestalt, in der nationalen und internationalen Wahrnehmung und auch in Bezug auf Regierungsverantwortung und Planungsvorgaben. Die sehr dynamische Entwicklung des vergangenen Jahrzehnts ist jedoch noch keinesfalls abgeschlossen. Die britische Metropole hat 2005 den Zuschlag für die Ausrichtung der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2012 bekommen – mit einem deutlich auf Städtebau und Architektur ausgerichteten Wettbewerbsbeitrag. Ziel der Dissertation war es zu untersuchen, wie es zu diesem Paradigmenwechsel kam, der schließlich eine Wiedergeburt des Zentrums der britischen Metropole ermöglichte. Als Ausgangspunkt dieses Wandels kann heute die Schwächung demokratischer Institutionen im Vereinigten Königreich durch Margaret Thatcher festgemacht werden. Unter der Premierministerin war im Jahr 1986 die Londoner Stadtregierung abgeschafft worden. Zudem vollzog sich die Entwicklung der Stadt immer stärker zwischen zwei gegensätzlichen Polen: Die City of London und die City of Westminster boomten im Zuge der aufkommenden Dienstleistungsökonomie, wohingegen große Teile der Stadt fortschreitend unter Verarmung und Funktionsverlust litten. Für London ließ sich eine verschärfte Krisensituation diagnostizieren, die ihren Höhepunkt zu Beginn der 1990er Jahre fand. So verbreitete sich zunächst in der Fachöffentlichkeit die Überzeugung, dass eine Wiederbelebung der vom Niedergang betroffenen Stadt erfolgen müsse. Die Befürchtungen gipfelten in der Sorge, London könnte seine ökonomische Konkurrenzfähigkeit aufgrund eines Mangels an räumlichen Entwicklungsstrategien verlieren. Der Suche nach Lösungsmöglichkeiten für die städtebaulichen Probleme wurde seit der Wahl von New Labour 1997 eine hohe politische Priorität eingeräumt. Mit der Einsetzung der Greater London Authority und der Wahl eines Bürgermeisters im Jahr 2000 erhielt London wieder politische Organisationen, die sich um das Wohlergehen der Stadt kümmerten und die den Stadtumbau zu einer ihrer wichtigsten Aufgaben erklärt haben. Als Ergebnis des Paradigmenwechsels im Städtebau präsentiert sich London mit einem vielfältig umgebauten, neu regierten und neu definierten Zentrum. London vollzieht eine Entwicklung hin zur Dienstleistungsmetropole, zur world city und zur creative city, zur Tourismus- und Erlebnisstadt. Vergleichbare Prozesse haben in anderen nordamerikanischen und europäischen Metropolen bereits stattgefunden oder werden angestrebt, in London aber sind sie kristallklar und besonders zugespitzt zu beobachten. Ansätze und Strategien, die in anderen Städten bereits erprobt wurden, werden von London aus genau beobachtet, neu kombiniert und in besonderer Weise adaptiert. Auch völlig neue, sehr innovative Konzepte werden realisiert, die ein großes Potential für den Stadtumbau in anderen Metropolen darstellen. Das Beispiel London zeigt – trotz aller Probleme – sehr deutlich, wie ein neues Verständnis von Städtebau und Planung aussehen kann. Das neue Londoner Zentrum ist ein Ort, der sich nahezu perfekt an den Bedürfnissen der Hauptzielgruppen orientiert, den urbanen Mittelschichten und dem hochrangigen Servicesektor. Regie beim Stadtumbau führte eine Vielzahl von Akteuren, vor allem aber die im Jahr 2000 gegründete Greater London Authority, die einen Prototyp der schlanken, unbürokratisch agierenden und strategisch ausgerichteten nachmodernen Verwaltung verkörpert. Unterstützt wird sie von einem Zentralstaat, der dem Thema "Städtebau" eine hohe Bedeutung zuweist und mit der urban renaissance ein städtebauliches Leitbild entwickelt hat, das der nachhaltigen und an städtebaulicher Gestaltung orientierten Entwicklung der Städte verpflichtet ist. Neue, innovative Wege werden erprobt, wie diese gestiegenen Ansprüche umgesetzt werden können – in einem Klima, das nach wie vor von eingeschränkten Ressourcen der öffentlichen Hand und von immer mächtiger werdenden Privatinteressen geprägt ist. Aus London ist ein deutliches "Zurück zur Planung" zu vernehmen, eine Rückbesinnung auf hohe Ansprüche in architektonischer und städtebaulicher Gestaltung, die als richtungsweisend für andere Metropolen in Europa gelten und unter dem Begriff "Londoner Weg" zusammengefasst werden kann. ; In the 1980ies and 1990ies London did not apply straight as a positive example of urban design. If at all negative headlines made their way from the British capital to the continent. The glittering, but bankrupt office location Canary Wharf, the endlessly discussed office area Paternoster Square at the foot of the St Paul's Cathedral and the underground which seemed ripe for the traffic museum dominated the debate on architecture and town planning. At the turn of the century this trend seemed to continue with the controversial Millennium projects. But then a change in the heart of the city occurred - in the way the centre is used, in its style and quality of architecture and urban design, in the national and international perception and also regarding government responsibility and planning specifications. However, the very dynamic development of the past decade has not yet come to an end. In 2005, the British metropolis received the acceptance for the bid to host the 2012 Olympic summer games - with a contribution clearly aligned on urban design and architecture. The aim of the thesis at issue was to examine, how this paradigm shift happened, which finally made a renaissance of the centre of the British capital possible. Today, the attenuation of democratic institutions in the United Kingdom by Margaret Thatcher can be regarded as a starting point of this paradigm shift. Under the Prime Minister the London city government had been abolished in 1986. Another important fact was that the city continued to develop ever more strongly between two opposite poles. The City of London and the City of Westminster were undergoing a boom in the course of the arising service economics, whereas large parts of the city suffered progressively from depletion and a loss of uses. For London an intensified crisis situation could be diagnosed, which found its climax at the beginning of the 1990ies. The fears culminated in the concern, London could lose its economic competitive power due to a lack of spatial development strategies. First the conviction spread in the specialized public that a revival of the city should be fostered. Since the election of New Labour 1997 a high political priority was granted to the search for solutions for the problems of city centres and urban design. With the installation of the Greater London Authority and the election of a mayor in the year 2000 London received again political organizations, which cared for the well-being being of the city and which declared urban regeneration to be one their most important tasks. As result of the paradigm shift in urban design, London presents itself with a revitalised, newly governed and redefined centre. London has been turned into a service sector metropolis, a world city and a creative city, a capital of tourism and events. Comparable processes took place or are aimed at in other North American and European cities. In London, however, they are to be observed crystal clear and particularly sharpened. Ideas and strategies, which were already tested in other cities, are watched closely and are then combined and adapted specifically for London. Apart from that, completely new, very innovative concepts are put into practice. These new concepts present a large potential for urban design and regeneration in other cities. The example of London shows - despite all problems - very clearly, what a new understanding of town planning and urban design can look like in the future. The revitalised London centre is a place, which almost perfectly plays to the core of the target group, the urban middle classes and the high-ranking service sector. The urban regeneration was directed by a number of stakeholders, above all the newly created Greater London Authority, which embodies a prototype of the slim, unbureaucratically acting and strategically aligned post-modern administration. It is supported by a central government, which assigned a high meaning to the issues of town planning and urban design and which developed the leitbild "urban renaissance", which is committed to sustainable and design-led urban redevelopment. New, innovative ways are tested, how these increasing requirements can be put into practice - in a climate, which is still shaped by powerful private interests and by reduced resources of the public sector. From London a clear "return to planning" is to be heard, a return to high quality in architectural and urban design, which can be regarded as pointing the way for other cities in Europe and which can be summarized under the term "the London way".

Tese de doutoramento em Engenharia Mecânica (Controlo e Gestão) apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra ; Domínio A capacidade de produzir bem é a chave da riqueza. Uma boa produção concretiza-se pela transformação competitiva de matérias-primas em produtos de qualidade para o mercado global. Tal transformação inclui uma série de operações coordenadas de modo a obter a produtividade que permite o aumento da competitividade. Embora algumas operações possam requerer pessoal especializado, a tendência é para uma crescente automatização. A coordenação das operações automatizadas é também automatizada (através de uma variedade de transportadores, comunicação digital, etc.). Contudo, e embora a produção seja automatizada, a configuração do equipamento é feita manualmente. Situação A necessidade de automatização foi inicialmente sentida e aplicada na produção de longas séries, como no caso da indústria automóvel. Com a necessidade de redução de custos e aumento de flexibilidade, a inclusão de máquinas/equipamentos controlados por computador, assim como de interligações por computadores/redes tem sido extensiva. O aumento de software nestes sistemas, as restrições físicas e as (indesejáveis) interconecções lógicas conduzem a um aumento da complexidade, que em empresas de produção em grande escala é obviado por especialistas. O aumento na procura de produtos personalizados e a rapidez para a sua comercialização determinam a necessidade de uma produção flexível. Contudo, a referida indesejável complexidade constitui um grande obstáculo para o recurso a soluções (semi)-automatizadas, e postos de trabalho (de alta qualidade) são deslocados para países de mão-de-obra mais barata. O caso mais difícil prende-se com a utilização de robôs (que é o tipo de máquina mais flexível) nas empresas mais flexíveis, como sejam as Pequenas e Médias Empresas (PMEs). Deste modo, as condições para a utilização de robôs (juntamente com outro tipo de equipamento) em PMEs (incluindo operações manuais e configuração) representam o maior desafio, uma vez que os sistemas técnicos têm de ser estruturados de forma a suportarem a desejada flexibilidade. À semelhança da incapacidade de uma boa gestão em compensar a falta de competência em actividades como a do comércio ou da investigação cientifica, as etapas de produção têm de ser apropriadamente construídas e mantidas. Estas últimas representam aquilo em que o produtor se deve concentrar e especializar. Assim, sejam quais forem os avanços que facilitem a produção, as práticas de produção competitiva deverão ser mantidas. Especificamente, processos de trabalho com conhecimentos valiosos não devem ser prejudicados por detalhes técnicos irrelevantes. Novas tecnologias que possam aumentar a competitividade e/ou melhorar as condições de trabalho são obviamente desejáveis. Contudo, estas deverão ser combinadas com princípios de utilização simples para os quais os sistemas de produção são construídos. Tópico A complexidade surge tanto na operação como na coordenação, mas também na sua configuração manual. Esta é parcialmente compreensível e gerenciável, uma vez que uma determinada máquina ou processo de fabrico pode ser bastante avançado e complexo. Assim, a complexidade será local. Contudo, e em particular com software envolvido, dependências adhoc acidentais entre operações e coordenação tornam a situação actual mais difícil. Adicionalmente, a configuração de cada máquina e subsistema envolve uma variedade de interfaces de utilizador e ferramentas de configuração/programação. Uma vez mais, as grandes empresas podem contar com engenheiros altamente qualificados para lidar com estes problemas, enquanto que nas PMEs a situação fica facilmente ingovernável. Consideramos que podemos referir o problema como uma questão de orquestração. Orquestração é então definida como o arranjo, coordenação e gestão (semi-) automatizada de complexos sistemas de produção, incluindo as suas interacções em termos de comunicação e os seus serviços em termos de controlo por computador. O tópico pode então ser formulado como a procura de princípios óptimos, ou pelo menos exequíveis, para a orquestração de processos produtivos de pequena escala. Na realidade, existem aspectos fundamentais envolvidos que não representam apenas uma questão de engenharia a ser solucionada. Ao contrário, a situação requer uma abordagem científica com especial atenção para a recente tecnologia de suporte proveniente de outras áreas. Abordagem cientifica - A procura de princípios apropriados a PMEs para a orquestração de processos de produção não se presta a uma análise teórica, que por sua vez requer a utilização de modelos formais e derivação das soluções (sub-)óptimas e suas propriedades. Embora tivesse sido preferível obter provas formais de uma solução óptima, a complexidade do equipamento, o envolvimento de humanos, a considerável desorganização das PMEs, a necessidade de aderir às práticas industriais, assim como a variedade de PMEs existentes, dificultam uma abordagem teórica. Deste modo, foi seguida uma abordagem empírica. A dificultar o teste e a avaliação de uma abordagem empírica estão as possíveis variações no software envolvido, juntamente com a constante mudança que ocorre na produção em sistemas de produção flexíveis. Adicionalmente, a experimentação não pode ser conduzida em ambientes industriais (onde esta iria perturbar a produção). Assim sendo, as experiências deverão ser cuidadosamente seleccionadas e conduzidas em laboratório com recurso a equipamento industrial. Ainda assim, dadas as condições e singularidade de algum equipamento, não é fácil reproduzir os resultados noutros locais, o que constitui um problema para a validação e aceitação dos mesmos. Contudo, caso a solução sugerida em termos de princípios técnicos possa ser encontrada ou confirmada por resultados publicados de investigação independente, ou se técnicas relacionadas derem origem a novos produtos, tal pode desejavelmente contribuir para a validação de resultados. Isto é, embora resultados semelhantes para outros laboratórios sejam válidos, as diferenças actuais vão revelar a existência de variações que merecem estudo detalhado. Abordagem técnica - Os sistemas de produção flexíveis consistem em equipamento distribuído do ponto de vista computacional. Tipicamente, os diferentes aparelhos não foram concebidos para operarem em conjunto, mas devem, no entanto, ser de fácil configuração no local de trabalho. Uma abordagem básica passaria pela utilização de plataformas de software que suportassem componentes distribuídos de uma forma flexível. Contudo, as plataformas computacionais existentes podem não satisfazer com eficiência a necessidade do equipamento integrado, podendo revelar falta de robustez, nomeadamente nas interconecções. Deste modo, é necessário combinar com algum cuidado a tecnologia existente e confrontar as soluções sugeridas com as necessidades actuais das empresas. A abordagem seguida encontra-se dividida em quatro partes: 1. Suportar o acoplamento fraco entre componentes de forma a obter simples composição quando o equipamento é instalado ou substituído. As interacções necessitam ser assíncronas e baseadas em eventos através de interfaces bem definidas e auto-explicativas, contendo serviços definidos em termos de operações de produção (e não em termos de software interno). 2. Produzir princípios unificados para interacção com utilizador e interfaces, permitindo que utilizadores não especializados possam (re)configurar e (re)programar o sistema de produção. Uma interacção com o utilizador que permita combinar operações básicas que resultem num novo serviço, o qual deverá idealmente estar facilmente acessível através de interfaces programadas e manuais. 3. As abordagens baseadas em modelos têm-se revelado eficazes para desempenho e reutilização. No entanto, os modelos consistem em elevado nível de conhecimento e são dispendiosos de obter no âmbito da flexibilidade e desorganização das PMEs. Uma melhor abordagem é permitir a visibilidade do conhecimento envolvido numa determinada etapa em termos do processo de produção, de modo a que o operador transmita inteligência através de uma interface simples. 4. O software é por defeito não descritivo, assim como a execução sequencial de código imperativo não se compõe. Conhecimento no metanível e descrições declarativas deverão ser utilizadas, se possível, sem comprometimento dos itens anteriores. O objectivo é gerar software ao nível de aplicação, partindo de descrições de alto nível. A avaliação experimental deverá verificar técnicas individuais como tal, e os resultados deverão ser comparados com investigação relacionada. A abordagem global consiste em combinar os resultados das diferentes partes em princípios aplicáveis a futuros processos de produção das PMEs. Resultados O uso de arquitecturas orientadas a serviços (SOA) nas redes empresariais resolveu as limitações das arquitecturas orientadas a componentes no que diz respeito ao acoplamento através da standarização das interfaces, protocolos de comunicação, gestão de transacções, e segurança, entre outros. SOA ao nível do dispositivo é o resultado da importação de princípios SOA para os sistemas embebidos com algumas importantes diferenças, nomeadamente: inclusão de padrões de mensagens publish/subscribe, descoberta e descrição directa entre dispositivos, e modelos descritivos genéricos. Numa primeira fase, este trabalho validou os inúmeros trabalhos realizados sobre a aplicação de SOA ao nível do dispositivo em ambiente industrial com o teste num protótipo de célula de trabalho. De seguida foi levado a cabo um trabalho de avaliação comparativa entre duas SOA ao nível do dispositivo com estilos de arquitectura diferentes, servindo como base aos restantes desenvolvimentos da tese. Ainda que os resultados desta avaliação tenham mostrado o grande avanço proporcionado pelo uso de SOA, nomeadamente no que diz respeito ao desacoplamento entre componentes atingido, alguns aspectos críticos para o seu uso efectivo ainda estavam por resolver, designadamente: 1. A geração e a especificação dos serviços ao nível da tarefa 2 A definição de uma linguagem de orquestração adequada às SOA ao nível do dispositivo. Uma abordagem baseada em tarefas, quando relacionadas com processos de manufactura, consubstancia-se na capacidade de disponibilizar um mecanismo flexível (e amigável para o utilizador de uma PME) para a especificação das interfaces de rede. Os programas de robô são um elemento chave na flexibilidade do robô e este trabalho mostrou que o seu uso para a definição de interfaces vai elevar a fasquia da flexibilidade para o nível das interligações. A natureza procedimental de muitas linguagens de robô encaixa-se perfeitamente com o padrão de mensagens definido nas plataformas SOA, com uma mistura de variáveis de estado definidas a partir de variáveis do robô, e com acções definidas a partir de métodos da linguagem robô. A definição de uma linguagem de orquestração preencheu uma lacuna nos padrões de orquestração: sistemas conduzidos a eventos. Estes sistemas definem estados e transições de uma forma clara, potenciando a capacidade do utilizador de acompanhar o estado do sistema. Statecharts constituem um par adequado para a arquitectura SOA, uma vez que as transições de estado são baseadas em eventos, que no nosso caso são eventos na rede, mas os estados (e também as transições) incluem igualmente acções, que podem ser mapeadas para operações. A avaliação empírica efectuada mostrou uma previsível boa curva de aprendizagem para estes sistemas, em parte devido às vantagens associadas à sua semelhança a técnicas de automação tradicionais, como os Sequential Function Charts. Os resultados desta avaliação são positivos e justificam esforços suplementares para efectuar testes em aplicações reais, o que neste caso implica utilizadores de PME reais. Conclusões Três conclusões devem ser retiradas desta tese: A estratégia proposta para a especificação de serviços é um elemento chave no futuro do uso de SOA ao nível dos dispositivos, devido à importância da definição das interfaces no sucesso destas arquitecturas. A programação ao nível da tarefa é desta forma transferida da programação dos robôs para o nível da rede. Uma linguagem conduzida a eventos foi definida para a orquestração. Testes revelaram o seu uso e compatibilidade com as necessidades das células de fabrico das pequenas e médias empresas, nomeadamente estados explícitos e transições baseadas em eventos. Esta abordagem preenche uma lacuna nos padrões de orquestração existentes na indústria e constitui uma excelente base de trabalho para o futuro. Finalmente, foram abordadas técnicas baseadas em conhecimento, e avaliada a sua integração com a arquitectura definida anteriormente. Estes estudos mostraram a importância das estratégias descritivas e as inúmeras possibilidades abertas quando a semântica é adicionada aos sistemas industriais baseados em software, especialmente quando suportados em bem estabelecidas tecnologias de rede, como as descritas anteriormente. ; Our ability to manufacture well is the key to our wealth. Obtaining a wider range of different (and better) products in a sustainable way in terms of labour and environment is the big challenge faced by modern manufacturing. In the last few decades, automation has played a key role in the enhanced productivity of mass-production industries, but there has been a paradigm shift: global consumers ask for customization, leading manufacturers to target mass customization and consequently requiring new levels of flexibility for automation. An industrial robot is usually considered to be a flexible machine, which is only true within the large plant scenario. Small enterprises, which are by nature the most flexible ones, do not make use of robot systems as they could, because robot flexibility, which relies on reprogramming and reconfiguring, cannot be taken on by the SME (Small Medium Enterprises) worker at the workshop, and hiring specialists is unacceptable in terms of costs. The easy reconfiguration of a robotic work-cell, which is a distributed environment with computation in different platforms that are coordinated by software, is hindered greatly by the dependencies between cell components. This thesis addresses the problem of dependencies by proposing principles and mechanisms for the orchestration of complex manufacturing systems, i.e., the (semi-) automated coordination of their interactions in terms of communications and computer control. The industrial environment, especially regarding robotics, does not lend itself to theoretical analysis due to the amount of work needed to reach formal models. This is exacerbated in the unstructured SME environment and when working with user-in-the-loop systems. Therefore, the approach used in this thesis was mainly empirical, with validation through laboratory prototypes used by some representative users. The approach consisted of the following parts: 1. supporting loose coupling between components to promote simple composition of services to enable an easier reconfiguration; 2. defining unifying principles in terms of user interaction, by taking into account current robot technologies and improvements from other scientific areas, namely enterprise level networking; 3. enabling a task-based view of knowledge in terms of the manufacturing processes to promote the reconfiguration of the system by process rather than robotics specialists; 4. proposing declarative techniques that support easy configuration of the work-cell in terms understandable by the SME user. The use of service-oriented architectures (SOAs) in the business world has tackled the limitations of component-oriented architectures in terms of coupling through the standardization of interfaces, communication protocols, transaction management, and security, among others. Device-level SOA are the result of the porting of SOA principles to the embedded level with the addition of several important features, namely: publish/subscribe messaging patterns, peer-to-peer discovery description and generic templates. At an initial stage, this work has validated the current trend of using device-level SOA in industrial environments by testing their use against a prototype work-cell. Following this, a comparison was made between device-level SOA platforms that embodied two different architectural styles. This served as a basis for the rest of the thesis. Although the results from this evaluation have shown the great advances brought about by the use of device-level SOA, for instance in terms of decoupling, some critical issues for their effective use remained unchallenged, namely: 1. The generation and the specification of task-level services (contracts), with transparent and easy-to-use techniques for the SME user. 2. The definition of orchestration techniques adapted to the device-level SOA, with adequate expressiveness and simplicity for the SME user. A task-based view of knowledge in terms of manufacturing processes relies on the ability to provide a flexible (SME user-friendly) mechanism for the specification of network interfaces. Robot programs are the key element for robot flexibility. This work has shown that their use in interface definition will feature flexibility also at the interconnection level. The procedural nature of many robot programming languages copes perfectly with the device-level SOA messaging style, with a mixture of evented state variables defined by robot variables, and with actions defined by robot methods. The definition of an orchestration language has addressed a missing pattern in service orchestration: event-driven systems. These systems define states and transitions in a clear way, thus enhancing the user's ability to predict the state of the system. Statecharts provide a perfect match for the device-level SOA since the state-transitions are event-based, but the states (and the transitions) embody actions, which can be mapped to operations. The empiric evaluation made with several types of users has shown the predictable steep learning curve of these systems, partly due to their resemblance to traditional automation techniques like SFCs. The results are therefore positive and justify the effort of testing the system against real applications, which in this case means with real SME users. Descriptive techniques for software are one of the keys to establish the bridge between humans and computer programs. Despite recent evolutions, these techniques are not yet ready for use, and supportive technologies and methodologies need to be tested. In this work, a cell specification language has been defined and software developed that configures a programming-by-demonstration robotic work-cell. In conclusion, there are three main outcomes from this thesis. The proposed strategy for the specification of services is a key enabler in the future use of device-level SOA in industrial robotics, due to the importance of interface definition in the success of these architectures. Task-level programming is in this way extended from the robot programming level to networked devices. An event-driven language has been defined for the orchestration. Tests revealed its ease of use and compatibility with the orchestration needs of SME work-cells, namely: explicit states and event-based transitions. This approach fulfils a missing orchestration pattern in the industry, and provides an excellent basis for future work. A descriptive robotic cell specification has been introduced that supports the automatic workcell (re)configuration. This work has shown the importance of descriptive knowledge in automation, especially when supported by the networking integration techniques described previously. ; Project SMERobot, Integrated project funded under the European Union's Sixth Framework Programme (FP6)

Autor pokazuje kako se stil Božidarevićeva slikarstva može analizirati kao reprezentativna građa za povijest dubrovačkog društva1500-tih godina, premda se Nikola ustezao od prodornijeg promatranja svog unutarnjeg svijeta i onog vanjskog koji ga je okruživao, dočim se moglo očekivati (obzirom na njegov temperament i budući da je radio po narudžbi kapetana i trgovaca globe-trottera) da mu slike budu proviđene s više detalja onodobne vidljive stvarnosti. ; He signed himself in brush strokes only twice as: Nicolaus Rhagusinus, Nicolo Raguseo- Nikola of Dubrovnik - once in a marble medallion under the arm of Gabriel in the middle of the Annunciation, which he painted in 1513 forthe Đorđić family, the second time at the foot of the Virgin's throne on the main altar retable in the Church of Our Lady of Dance, his last work (1517). This name, until the archival discovery of his Croatian family name, fired the imagination of those researching Dubrovnik Renaissance art and even became a kind of myth. To call himself Rhagusinus in the middle of Dubrovnik undoubtedly meant a self-confident declaration vis a vis his artistic contemporaries- especially Mihajlo Hamzić and Vicko, the son of Lovro Dobričević,and even perhaps in relation to his own father whose workshop he had just left. When we stand today in front of polyptychs of this kind (which, when preserved in full, amaze us by the perfect balance of their general composition) we rarely think that they were created as bricolage. Immediately after Nikola's return from Italy he, and his father Božidar Vlatković received several very large orders. In 1495 they were given a contract for the retable of the main altar of the Franciscan church in Cavtat. The church authorities required that the central composition and figures on the left side should be composed according to the pattern of a polyptych executed almost half a century earlier by Matko Junčić in the church of the Minorite Friars in Dubrovnik, while figures on the right side were to be done according to the pattern of another altar in the same church. The saints in the upper part of the polyptych, shown down to the waist, were to be done after Junčić also, and only the central Pieta according to an earlier painting by Božidarević. The same is true of their style. Experts have very easily "reduced" Božidarević's work into the style and themes found in the Crivelli brothers and Vittore Carpaccio. But Božidarević obviously also knew the fresco paintings of Perugino and Pinturichio in the Vatican palace (Appartamento Borgia)and elsewhere in Rome where his brush may, according to Vladimir Marković, have indeed been involved. The form of a polyptych (like the form of a sonnet) helps in the construction of a figural composition, in a rationally and symmetrically balanced composition. It equalizes lighting, concentrates sight and attention: even when its constructional elements are removed, which make the composition of a polyptych, it continues to make an invisible effect for a long time. By 1500 the form of the polyptych which the "Dubrovnik School of Painting" retained until the end had become a Procrustean bed. It did not allow figures to be shown in a natural context, to be enlivened by being shown with real appurtenances, nor for any relaxation of stiff postures, or any easier breathing. Thus in Božidarević's paintings the representation of real life and the movement of the real world is only found in miniatures, on the borders of polypthychs, in "footnotes" on individual articles or when we study details "microscopically". In fact it is drapery which is the most convincing and arresting and almost tactile element of Božidarević's painting. Just as we perceive the bustle of the harbour on the model of Dubrovnik held by St Blasius so too he was fully aware of the richness of the materials which were produced at this time in Dubrovnik. Cloth was as important as salt for the trade of Dubrovnik and was a very tangible asset in the consciousness of the city. It may be paradoxical but it is accurate to say that Božidarević did not paint portraits (using patterns of characters) but portrayed materials in which his saints were clothed. It is of significance in this context that the most outstanding assistant in his workshop for which in 1507 he rented a whole floor in one of the mansions on Placa, suitable because of its good light - was Marin Kriješić who is recorded in one of the archives as "pictor sive coltrarius", painter of pictures, curtains, covers and cloth. When we consider Božidarević's landscapes we also notice a paradox. The endless journeys of the Dubrovnikians, constantly involving the sea, did not give rise to the desire to extend the picture to include real landscape even in those ordered by ship's captains, merchants, or globe-trotters. But it would have been unrealistic to expect Nikola Božidarević to show the Annunciation in Kolendić's Lopud landscape. Instead he presents the stereotyped picture of the humanists' idea of Arcadia but omitting Bellini's ploughmen and donkeys. This is no bucolic Virgilian landscape as created in the circle surrounding Giorgione - no mundane Utopia in which we might like to live. Behind Gabriel the landscape is wild and rough, behind Our Lady it is cultivated, these are more symbolic, antithetical rather than any true mise-en scene. When we first come to Božidarević's paintings we may be surprised by the fact that in spite of the very real situation within which they developed, there is a lack of any penetrating observation of either inner or outer worlds. Where details appear they largely represent a sanctified aspect of reality: spiritualiasub metaphoris corporalium, as Thomas Aquinus would say. The political, diplomatic, commercial realism of the people of Dubrovnik was, surprisingly enough, very late reflected in an art which served symbolic ends. Considered from this angle the architectural presentation of the city has something in common with butterflies which have great black eyes on their wings in order to make an impression on their surroundings and themselves. Thus in Božidarević and his predecessors we shall find no dark allegory, as measured by today's art critics, but a clear and balanced representation of the Bible message. These polyptychs provide a view of many kinds of fear (of heaven, of the sea, of plague, of Turks of all kinds, of oneself), and also of much hope. The four paintings by Božidarević which have come down to us are typologically different. This only shows us how impoverished we are not to have his entire opus. All four of Božidarević' surviving paintings were private votive offerings. Their subject must therefore be read according to the wishes of the person who ordered them. It is often considered, taking into account their formal superioriy that the Sacra conversazione of the Đođic painting and the Annunciation done for Captain Marko Kolendić are the "measure" of Božidarević's painting. If the former is his first example of a particularly popular Renaissance composition in Croatian art history, the second is his first independent central altar painting. Private orders in Dubrovnik of the time continued to demand the traditional religious, especially votive themes. But in the wider sphere new, more secular, opportunities presented themselves. A study by Vladimir Marković shows this programme to have arisen out of a combination between political intentions and the moral principles of the patrician oligarchy which coincided and were identified with the Renaissance view of Christian and especially with the classical Roman exempla. Božidarević was the contemporary of poets Džore Držić and ŠiškoMenčetić, of Mavro Vetranović. Marin Držić, the most successful writer of Dubrovnik's "Golden Age" was born when Nikola was in prison for the ribald songs. But we cannot but feel that the painter's temper remains hidden behind the porcelain surface and perfect outer symmetry of his compositions. The Dubrovnik context did not provide opportunities for the expression of strong passions. The demands for caution and order were unremitting. There might be considerable personal pride but there must never be bragging. It was not a setting for great philosophy or poetry, nor for tragedy, but for the natural sciences, economics and- along with them- comedies. Unfortunately Dubrovnik painting was fated to disappear almost unnoticed, with no fanfares or real apogee, to be drowned in the import of baroque art from the other side of the Adriatic. When we talk about Dubrovnik, the Renaissance is our first association, but the Renaissance in Croatian painting never managed fully to develop. Indeed Gothic was never fully relinquished but, rather, gradually disintegrated. Its place was taken by the counter Reformation, together with a whole packet of ready-made solutions, before the Renaissance had managed to achieve full definition. We cannot experience Nikola's paintings as Renaissance building blocks cut out from the reality of their own day. We may rather consider them as tables bearing rich fabric. His saints, enveloped in brocade, standing before an azure sky, are sunk in timeless melancholy. They are depicted in an indeterminate context as they appeared to the eye of the painter - without any later addition of colour. They did not attain the position of an academic standard for the Dubrovnik painting of the period that followed. Božidarević went ad patraim paradisi the same time as Mihajlo Hamzić, son of the German immigrant Hans, a "bombardiere" from Cologne, and Vicko Lovrin, son of Dobričević. The sudden and complete change of generations coincided with a fundamental change in the taste of the rich commercial class when it began to turn to the artists of the Bellini and Titian circle. The colours of Božidarević's painting are the most harmonious chords of Dubrovnik's "Golden Age". Of the one hundred and fifty polyptychs registered at the time of Sormano's apostolic visitation in 1573 less than one tenth remain. The Dubrovnik archives record seventeen works by Božidarević but only four have come down to us. In old cities such as Dubrovnik - colour, like everything else except stone, is recessive. What we have today is an idealized impression of what was once reality.

El estudio de los conjuntos béticos constatados hasta la fecha ha supuesto un reto debido a la disparidad de los datos con los que se cuenta. Su recopilación y estudio ha permitido obtener valiosos datos que han permitido concretar algunos de los puntos principales que identifican una arquitectura forense bética propia. Por un lado se ha puesto en relación el contexto histórico, político y económico provincial con las fases constructivas y características identificadas en los distintos conjuntos forenses. Para ello se ha dividido el período de actividad en los fora en base a los principales momentos constructivos identificados a lo largo de esta investigación, es decir, una fase inicial desarrollada durante la etapa republicana o tardorrepublicana, el período augusteo, las consecuencias de las políticas territoriales flavias, el impacto de la llegada al trono imperial de Trajano y Adriano y, finalmente, los siglos III y IV como período de transformación y amortización. Por otra parte, la revisión de los materiales marmóreos empleados en los foros béticos ha identificado dos momentos monumentalizadores claros, la etapa julio-claudia y el siglo II d.C. como consecuencia de la reforma desarrollada en Italica y la repercusión de los nuevos modelos estilísticos e iconográficos trajano-adrianeo, siendo la primera la más prolífica en lo que respecta al uso del mármol. En lo que respecta a los materiales empleados, destaca el uso mayoritario de los extraídos en canteras provinciales -Almadén y Estremoz principalmente-, reservándose su uso para las piezas más destacadas -plástica imperial, su epigrafía y los capiteles de los edificios como la aedes o la basílica-, así como para realizar las obras costeadas por la oligarquía local/provincial para reflejar su posición social, económica y política. Si se tiene en cuenta el uso que se dio a los materiales extraídos de las canteras imperiales, destacan igualmente las ciudades de Colonia Patricia e Italica. Dos ciudades que se configuran como los grandes focos de culto al emperador en las etapas más prolíficas de la Provincia reflejado en sus paisajes monumentales. En lo concerniente a la adaptación de los modelos forenses al territorio bético, se ha identificado una clara jerarquización en la cual Colonia Patricia como capital se erige como reflejo de la Urbs, acogiendo materiales incluso mano de obra especializada venida de la propia metrópoli. A medida que nos alejamos de las capitales administrativas se observa cómo el estilismo se va esquematizando y simplificando, sustituyendo los materiales marmóreos por otros más difíciles de tratar como las terracotas o las piedras locales y calizas. Unos materiales que no permitirán unos acabados definidos y necesitarán de un estucado y pintado posterior en los que plasmar los detalles del estilismo imperante en cada momento. Aunque existía un lenguaje, donde las muestras de la cultura indígena o prerromana son cuanto menos escasas. Éstas parecen reducirse a los pequeños núcleos fuera de la órbita de las capitales administrativas, donde el lenguaje oficial monopolizará cualquier manifestación arquitectónica, escultórica y epigráfica de los ambientes públicos. Por último, el análisis de los conjuntos hispanos ha permitido la definición de varios arquetipos que fueron importados directamente desde la metrópoli estableciendo una estrecha relación entre ésta y la imagen monumental de los centros cívicos provinciales. De esta forma, los denominados foros imperiales así como la propia evolución del concepto de Estado, evolucionando desde un gobierno republicano hacia uno unipersonal de corte imperial, pasando por un período de transición o Principado, se verán reflejados en la evolución de los complejos hispanos, composición y elementos destacados, siendo la figura del emperador y el culto hacia su domus el aspecto que acaparará una importancia cada vez mayor en el fenómeno forense provincial. ; The study of the Betic sets found to date has been a challenge due to the disparity of the data available. Its collection and study has allowed us to obtain valuable data that have allowed us to specify some of the main points that identify our own forensic architecture. On the one hand, the provincial historical, political and economic context has been related to the construction phases and characteristics identified in the different forensic groups. For this, the period of activity in the fora has been divided based on the main constructive moments identified throughout this investigation, that is, an initial phase developed during the republican or late-republican stage, the August period, the consequences of the flavian territorial policies, the impact of the arrival to the imperial throne of Trajan and Hadrian and, finally, the third and fourth centuries as a period of transformation and amortization. On the other hand, the review of the marble materials used in the Betic forums has identified two clear monumentalizing moments, the Julio-Claudian stage and the 2nd century A.D. as a consequence of the reform developed in Italica and the repercussion of the new stylistic and iconographic models of Trajan and Hadrian, being the first the most prolific in regard to the use of marble. With regard to the materials used, it is worth highlighting the majority use of those extracted in provincial quarries -Almadén and Estremoz mainly-, reserving their use for the most prominent pieces - imperial plastic, its epigraphy and the capitals of buildings such as aedes or the basilica-, as well as to carry out the works financed by the local / provincial oligarchy to reflect its social, economic and political position. If you take into account the use that was given to the materials extracted from the imperial quarries, the cities of Colonia Patricia and Italica also stand out. Two cities that are configured as the great centers of worship of the emperor in the most prolific stages of the Provincia reflected in its monumental landscapes. Regarding the adaptation of forensic models to the Betic territory, a clear hierarchy has been identified in which Colonia Patricia as capital stands as a reflection of the Urbs, welcoming materials including specialized labor coming from the metropolis itself. As we move away from administrative capitals, we can see how styling is schematized and simplified, replacing marble materials with more difficult to treat such as terracotta or local stones and limestones. Some materials that will not allow definite finishes and will need a subsequent coating and painting in which to capture the details of the style prevailing at all times. Although there was a language, where samples of indigenous or pre-Roman culture are at least scarce. These seem to be reduced to small nuclei outside the orbit of administrative capitals, where the official language will monopolize any architectural, sculptural and epigraphic manifestation of public environments. Finally, the analysis of the Betic fora and their comparison with the rest of forensic complexes has allowed the definition of several archetypes that were imported directly from the metropolis establishing a close relationship between it and the monumental image of the provincial civic centers. In this way, the so-called imperial forums as well as the evolution of the concept of state itself, evolving from a republican government to a single-person imperial court, going through a transition period or Principality, will be reflected in the evolution of the Hispanic complexes, composition and outstanding elements, being the figure of the emperor and the cult towards his domus the aspect that will monopolize an increasing importance in the provincial forensic phenomenon.

En China existe una tradición milenaria en el diseño de jardines que constituye una de sus manifestaciones culturales más significativas. El concepto de jardín apareció por primera vez durante la dinastía Shāng (s. XI a.C.) y alcanza su máximo esplendor en la dinastía Míng (s. XIV-XVII). En este último período, funcionarios y aristócratas competían con el diseño de sus jardines, debido a que constituía un símbolo de prestigio social y nivel cultural. Como consecuencia, el número y la calidad de los jardines privados aumentó considerablemente, sobre todo en la próspera región de Jiāngnán 江南, situada al sureste del país. En esta zona residían la mayor parte de literatos y eruditos, y constituyó por tanto el centro cultural de China durante esa época. En este contexto, aparecieron por primera vez tratados sobre el jardín que nos proporcionan valiosas reflexiones y descripciones. El más antiguo y completo es el Yuányě《园冶》, escrito en 1631 por Jì Chéng 计成, aunque también podemos destacar al "Tratado de Elementos Superfluos"《长物志》[Zhàngwù zhì] (1621) de Wén Zhènhēng ⽂震亨, o las "Notas ocasionales para ocio y percepción"《闲情偶寄》[Xiánqíng ǒujì] (1667) escrito por Lǐyú 李渔. Los jardines privados de esta región tuvieron una gran repercusión, ya que fueron utilizados posteriormente como modelos para la construcción de jardines privados e imperiales en otras zonas del país. La tesis se ha centrado por tanto en el estudio de los jardines privados Míng en Jiāngnán. Considerando pertinente estudiar el modo en que el contexto social, cultural y político de esta próspera región contribuyó al desarrollo del jardín, como su evolución a lo largo del período analizado. La investigación se ha basado en el estudio de fuentes originales tales como tratados de la época, pinturas paisajísticas, composiciones poéticas o análisis in situ de jardines que han perdurado hasta nuestros días. Además, las fuentes originales han sido complementadas mediante el análisis de investigaciones contemporáneas. Nos hemos centrado principalmente en el estudio del Yuányě, ya que es el tratado más antiguo y completo sobre el jardín en China, y se trata de un texto clave para entender el jardín clásico en el marco de la cultura y sociedad Míng. Por otro lado, este tratado refleja aspectos esenciales de la cultura y el pensamiento chino, y tiene gran importancia en la literatura clásica, debido a las numerosas referencias históricas y literarias que utiliza, así como el uso del estilo literario conocido como Piántǐ wén 骈 体⽂. Dada la importancia del Yuányě, hemos incluido una traducción anotada directamente desde el chino. De este modo, futuros investigadores podrán disponer del texto original, con aclaraciones o especificaciones pertinentes, para poder realizar su propia interpretación en función de sus objetivos o intereses de investigación. El Yuányě recoge conceptos o principios creativos que deben inspirar las diferentes escenas del jardín, y ofrece consejos prácticos para la construcción y ubicación de sus elementos arquitectónicos. En este sentido, aporta 235 ilustraciones que incluyen plantas de pabellones, tipos de ventanas y balaustradas, pavimentos y diseños decorativos de galerías o pasajes. Estos principios de diseño reflejan la búsqueda de una íntima relación entre el hombre y la naturaleza, y permiten arrojar nueva luz sobre como la arquitectura debe de relacionarse con su entorno para estar en armonía con el medio ambiente. Por otro lado, hemos analizado la relación del Yuányě con otras manifestaciones artísticas, tales como la pintura, literatura o poesía, así como con diferentes corrientes de pensamiento. En concreto, con el confucianismo, taoísmo, budismo e ideas de geomancia o fēngshuǐ. De este modo, queremos producir un relevante avance en la comprensión de las bases conceptuales en las que se fundamenta el arte del jardín en China. ; There is a millenary tradition of garden design in China that represents one of its most significant cultural expressions. The concept of gardens first appeared during the Shāng dynasty (11th century BC) and reached its maximum splendor in the Míng Dynasty (14th-17th centuries). During this period, officials and aristocrats competed in the design of gardens because it was a symbol of social and cultural prestige. As a result, the number and quality of private gardens considerably increased, more specifically in the prosperous Jiāngnan 江南region, located in the southeast of the country. The majority of literati and scholars resided in this area, and consequently, it was the cultural center of China at that time. In this context, the first treatises governing gardens appeared, which provided valuable reflections and descriptions. The oldest and most complete is the Yuányě《园冶》, written in 1631 by Jì Chéng 计成, although we can also highlight the "Treaty of Superfluous Elements"《长物志》[Zhàngwù zhì] (1621) by Wén Zhènhēng ⽂震亨and the "Occasional notes for leisure and perception"《闲情偶寄》[Xiánqíng ǒujì] (1667) written by Lǐyú 李渔. The private gardens of this region had a great impact, since they were later used as models for the construction of private and imperial gardens in other areas of China. Consequently, the thesis focuses on the study of Míng private gardens in Jiāngnán. We considered it pertinent to study the way in which the social, cultural and political context of this prosperous region contributed to the development of gardens and their evolution throughout this period. Our research has been based on the study of original sources such as treatises from the time, landscape paintings, poetic compositions or in situ analysis of gardens that have lasted to this day. Additionally, the original sources have been complemented by the analysis of contemporary research. We have focused the analysis on the study of Yuányě, since it is the oldest and most complete treatise on gardens in China, as well as being a key text to understand the classical garden within the framework of Míng culture and society. Furthermore, this important treatise reflects relevant values of Chinese culture and thought, and has great importance in classical literature, due to the numerous historical and literary references used, as well as the use of the literary style known as Piántǐ wén 骈体⽂. Given the importance of Yuányě, we have included an annotated translation directly from Chinese. Subsequently, future researchers will have access to the original text, with appropriate clarifications or specifications, to be able to carry out their interpretation according to their objectives or research interests. Yuányě includes concepts and creative principles that should inspire different garden scenes, and provides practical advice for the construction and location of architectural elements. In this sense, it contributes 235 illustrations that include designs for pavilions, types of windows and balustrades, pavements and decorative designs of galleries or passages. These design principles reflect the search for an intimate relationship between man and nature and allow us to shed new light on how architecture must relate to and harmonize with the natural environment. Moreover, we have analyzed the relationship of the Yuányě with additional artistic manifestations, such as painting, literature or poetry, as well as different currents of thought. In particular, its relationship with Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and ideas of geomancy or fēngshuǐ. In this way, we want to produce a relevant advance in the understanding of the conceptual bases of the art of gardens in China.

The analysis of the relationship between architecture, the territory and modern tourism, the subject of this research, is part of the interpretation of the tourist phenomenon as a spatial phenomenon at the basis of new urban scenarios, capable of influencing the processes of the urbanization of places and their perception, of generating renewed urban metaphors contributing to modify social forms and methods of communication. In this sense the initial frame of reference within which research is developed, refers to the theory of space aimed at understanding the phenomenon of tourism.The study of the "space tourist" has so far placed itself within the scientific debate regarding the geographical knowledge, of which two tasks have been traditionally assigned: the first was to provide representations, the second to translate the reading and interpretation of the territory into operational tools in order to transform it according to the needs of society. The latest spatial manifestations of tourism have therefore represented significant areas whereby to draft the features of a possible postmodern geography. But the analysis of space tourism, in recent decades, has taken on a new dimension and with it, a new relevance in terms of social and cultural aspects, in fact tourist images of places have contributed in an ever more consistent way to feed the mind maps of individuals and thus their vision of space, of the territory and of the world. The horizon of tourist research was broadened enormously by the research of the last ten ye- ars, and tourism has thus become an important key for interpreting significant phenomena, starting with the process of nation building, the Americanization of consumer styles and production patterns, the elaboration of the con- cept of heritage, the courses of development of backward economies, up until the most recent studies on the relationship between tourism and urbanism. And it is precisely on contemporary urban horizon which I intend to focus on in this work, thanks to more recent research trends of the French school, in particular in the transition from the study of geography of tourism to the study of the relationship between tourism and urban themes and by the research carried out by the MIT team (MIT Team – Mobilités, Itinéraires, Territoires). Today we can speak of hyper-tourist phase- a definition that may be useful to distinguish first generation tourism from the current one - for the fact that the relationship which has been established between tourist industry, urban are as and local systems is typically post-modern. In fact, both in terms of territorial transformation and economic and cultural terms, many cities have taken tourism as the reference model and, in turn, tourist spots and places have adopted dynamics which are typically urban even when pre-existing urban settlements are not mentioned. These premises are the basis of the objectives of this research that by analyzing the contemporary tourist phenomenon in its architectural and urban spatial dimension, intends to bring materials and methodologies for interpreting it as a phenomenon that generates "urbanity". The concept of urbanity thus allows us to approach tourism in a different way than just studying a set of practices which have incre- ased exponentially: rural tourism, ecological tourism, seaside tourism, urban tourism, etc., allowing us to highlight the properties common to the tourist phenomenon and what forms it may take on. At the same time, the concept of urbanity allows us to bring out the urban characteristics produced through tourism. The concept of "urbanity" is then referred to the transformations of the territory tied to tourism: from the evolutionary trends of the settlement, which also fits the role and orientation of planning, up to the current processes of restructuring the territory. In this sense it was deemed necessary to distinguish two reference scales: the extra-territorial dimension of the phenomenon where, in the dynamics of contemporary flows, it is possible to identify a sort of macroplace (destination) that includes all the spaces where people come to and which they often share, and bringing us to a phenomenology of generalized de-localisation and de-territorialization. - the territorial dimension, the one where in the concrete relationship with places, tourism leaves deep traces in space, produces urban substance becoming the generator of urbanity forms, which often defy the rules of the city in the consolidated or traditional sense, and for which it is necessary to define critical issues and politics of intervention . Starting from the need to bring the attention to the territorial dimension, in which analysis and formalization of the relationship between territory-tourism-urbanity can lead to theoretical and operational outcomes, the developments of this research thesis are then referred to the specific case study of Sardinia. This research is structured into three main sections. The first is dedicated to the analysis of space tourism, where, starting from the modern-post modern dichotomy as identified by Minca (1996), an in-depth examination is carried out, on the one hand, a kind of tourist space explo- sion, with the acquisition of new and increasingly large territories and, on the other hand, a genuine tourist space implosion with the concentration inside closed or semi-closed areas in a series of images and pure, stylized tourist landscapes. The focus is placed on the territory: the tourist territory - namely the spatial organization (or space-time) tourism, which presents itself since its origins as a consumer-driven system, because it is moulded favouring methods of access to resources and exchange, that today becomes the paroxysmal place of the flows both in terms of material consumption of goods – starting with the territory - in terms of geographical mobility (movement) and in terms of symbolic exchange (communication). The analysis of the first section focuses, as indicated in the introduction, focuses on the interpretation of the tourist phenomenon as a spatial phenomenon which causes space tran- sformations through the construction of images and landscapes, creating forms of urbanity in terms of urban 'products' and architecture 'products'. With reference to specific case studies and analysis we will then refer to the alternation in time of genuine models tied to the courses of differentiation and approval, related to the creation and organization of tourist area in which fundamental interpretations regard the formulations of Battilani (2007) and the research contribution of Trillo (2003). This type of analysis is supported by a further comparison, the one with the specialised 'manuals' and its contents compared to the reflections and attempts to define guidelines for the space tourist project. Therefore those elements emerge - which is the basis and where the thesis is oriented towards with the ability to confer quality to the project of tourist spots, with a significant contribution in the Italian case, consisting of a lecture by Gio Ponti entitled "Architettura e turismo" (Architecture and Tourism), held in 1942 for the Directorate General for tourism and ENIT (National Tourist Agency), which widens the horizon of the debate, from the manual type of debate to the more complex one: the context. The following paragraphs relate to a specific analysis of spatial transformations induced by tourism and in particular to the phenomena of cultural and physical de-location and de-territorialization, up to the analysis of urban dynamics- related processes, in which often the concept of city is represented, made into a utopia, or subverted. If in the first section of the thesis tourism has been identified as a spatial phenomenon, which begins with a project, an intention tied to the use of places, it is evident to steer this research within a framework of analysis on the relationship between tourism and the theme of urban, introducing the second section with an interpretation of Tourism as a generator of urbanity. The possibility to analyze and identify the specific characters of urbanity, referring to the evolutionary dynamics of a given territory, can constitute a conceptual tool that allows us to receive the tourist dimension as a component of the ur- ban aspect. This is formalized through the interpretation of three different dimensions: that of urban monuments, urban public spaces and mobility, deepening the analysis on the relations between tourist spots and the differentials of urbanity, illustrating the issues whereby that tourist aspect is featured as "relative urbanity". Consequently a second analysis scenario is introduced, the one that refers to the relationship between Tourists and Urbanists, hence between tourism and planning. Some a few fundamental references, Oddi (2011) with regard to the study of the relationship between tourism and urban planning, we start with the fundamental differences that exist between the two scopes: the town is basically a technique and an art2 ; while tourism is – just as with all the "isms" - a movement, a flow, even before a pure and simple activity. In this sense the town is the tourism object but it does not deplete its interests and interferes only partially with its reasons strongly tied to moving. That which unites urban planning and tourism, however, is the need for design, planning and programming of transformations that generate in the territory in order to ensure the control and quality of interventions. It is clear that the town planning technique (more rarely art) has established the necessary instrument for implementing tourist settle- ments, but the goals have strongly come apart, producing a sort of mutual distrust that under lies many still pervasive attitudes.

Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, Güneydoğu Anadolu dağ sistemi içerisinde önemli bir alanı temsil etmekte olup, söz konusu özellik Mezopotamya çukur bölgesini hem kuzey hem de doğu Anadolu alanlarına bağlayan bir rol oynamasına imkan sağlayan coğrafi konumu ile ilişkilidir. Dicle nehrinin yukarı çığırında son otuz yılda gerçekleştirilen arkeolojik araştırmalar sayesinde, yerel bir kültürel sistemin tanımlanmasını sağlayacak yeni önemli göstergelere ek olarak, gerek bölge içerisinde gerekse ötesinde zamandizinsel ayrımlar ve eşzamanlılıklara açıklık getirmekte kullanılabilecek kapsamlı bir veri bütüncesi de elde edilmiştir. Bu kitap, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı'nın son kısmına ilişkin yakın dönemde yürütülen arkeolojik etkinliklerin sonuçlarını araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Yayımlanan verilerin ayrıntılı bir çözümlemesinden başlayarak yerleşkeler, stratigrafi, mimari, çanak çömlekler, bölgesel bağlantılar ve zamandizine ilişkin temel konular ele alınmıştır. Ṭūr ʿAbdīn tepelerinin kuzeyinde, yüksek Güneydoğu Torosların eteklerinde yer alan Yukarı Dicle bölgesi, arkeolojik bulgular açısından tutarlı ve uyumlu bir görüntü çizmektedir. Yürütülen araştırma ve kazılar, vadideki kayda değer bir yerleşim döneminin, ufak boyutlu yerleşimlerin Dicle taşkın ovası kenarındaki akarsu taraçalarında ve ana akarsu kolları boyunca kurulma eğilimi içerisinde oldukları M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın ilk yarısı arasında tarihlendirilmesi gerektiğini belgelemektedir. Bunların çoğu, iri yapılar ya da yapı bütünleri ile komşu bölgelerdeki eşzamanlı seramik geleneklerinden farklı nitelikteki yerel bir seramik topluluğu tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Ağırlıklı olarak kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerden oluşan seramik topluluğu, yerel sistemin tanımlanması ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki sahalararası kültürel bağlantıların belirlenmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Alanda ele geçirdiğimiz buluntuların büyük kısmını teşkil eden çanak çömlek parçalarının yaygın olarak yer alışı, halihazırda araştırmaların temelini oluşturmalarını sağlamaktadır. Özellikle son dönemdeki araştırmaların üzerinde yoğunlaştığı Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde ele geçirilen çanak çömlekler, diğer buluntu kategorileri ve alandaki varlıklarına kıyasla, yalnızca farklı katman bağlamları dahilinde değil aynı zamanda henüz kazılmamış alanların yüzeylerinde de dikkat çekici nitelikte olup; bu belirgin coğrafi alandaki maddi üretimin belirleyici özelliklerini saptamak ve Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki kültürel gelişimi daha geniş bir yelpazede yorumlayabilmek adına en güvenilir araçlardan biri olma özelliğine sahiptir. Coğrafi ve tarihi nitelikli kısa önsöz hariç (Bölüm 1), kitabın esas içeriğini bölgede yürütülan arkeolojik araştırmalar ve çözümlemeleri olusturmaktadır (Bölüm 2 & 4). İkinci bölümün konusu, araştırılan alanlar ve kazılan verleşimler olup (Bölüm 2); söz konusu alanlar, bugün itibarıyla sahip olduğumuz arkeolojik bilgilerin en üst seviyesine ışık tutmaktadır. Bu konuda bir diğer önemli katkı sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe'deki kazılar kitabın üçüncü bölümünün ana konusunu teşkil etmekte ve yerleşim evreleri ve ilgili çömlek buluntularını (3.4) da içeren arkeolojik bağlam (3.2) üzerine çoğunluğu yayımlanmamış akla yatkın önermelerde de bulunulmaktadır. Çanak çömlek parçalarının gerek teknolojik gerekse biçimsel açıdan sınıflandırılması (3.3) ile, alandaki varlıklarının mekansal ve zamansal devamlılık özellikleri ve çanak çömlek çeşitlerinin analizine geniş yer ayrılmıştır. Ayrıca temel küçük buluntular da gerek bölgesel gerekse zamandizinsel çerçeve açısından yorumlanmış ve ilgili ögelerle birlikte değerlendirilmiştir (3.5). Seramik buluntularının ayrıntılı bir analizini gerçekleştirebilmek adına yararlandığımız temel bilgi kaynağı Hirbemerdon Tepe höyüğünde gün ışığına çıkarılan yapılar bütünü olmakla birlikte, yerleşimde açılan sondajlardan elde edilen bulgulardan da yararlanılmıştır. Dicle nehrinin sağ kıyısında yer alan Hirbermerdon Tepe'de gerçekleştirilen ilk kazı dönemi (2005-2007), yararlı arkeolojik verileri göz önüne sermenin ötesinde, çoğunluğu M.Ö II. binyılın ilk kısmına tarihlendirilen bol miktarda çanak çömlek buluntusu ve buluntu elde edilmesini de sağlamıştır. Farklı katmanlara ait yeni veriler sunan Hirbermerdon Tepe, böylece Yukarı Dicle vadisinin kültürel profilini belirlemek adına önemli bir katkıda bulunmaktadır. Kazılar, her biri form ve teknolojik özellikleri sayesinde belirlenen üç ana seramik evresi sıralamasını gün ışığına çıkarmıştır (3.6). Yaklaşık olarak Erken Tunç Çağı'nın sonlarına, yani Erken Tunç Çağı III-IV'e (Erken Cezire III-V'in sonu) tarihlendirilen erken evre (1. Evre), kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) tarafından; Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen orta evre (2. Evre), çoğunlukla kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çanak çömlekler ve şerit boyama çömlekler (band painted ware) tarafından karakterize edilmektedir. Son evre ise (3. Evre) Orta Tunç Çağı ile kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömleklerden oluşan karmaşık bir repertuvarı gözler önüne sermekte ve Geç Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen Habur ile Nuzi çömlek parçalarını da içermektedir. Hirbemerdon'da Geç Tunç Çağı'na ait kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlek bulunup bulunmadığı henüz kesinlik kazanmamıştır. Seramik repertuvarının teknolojik ve biçimsel özellikleri kapsamında tartışılması ve bölgesel bir bağlama yerleştirilmesine ayrıca bir bölüm ayrılmış (3.7) olup; yerel seramik sistemi ile komşu bölgelerdekiler arasındaki ilişkinin altını çizebilmek adına, eldeki veriler diğer sit alanları ve bölgelerden elde edilenlerle karşılaştırılmıştır. Bölümün sonunda ise, bölgesel dönemlendirmeye ilişkin yorumlar yer almakta ve repertuvar için bir tarihlendirme önerisi sunulmaktadır. Bölüm 4, Yukarı Dicle bölgesindeki yerleşim düzeninin gelişimi, yapılar ile elde edilen çanak çömlekler ve önemli küçük buluntulara ilişkin bazı genel yorumlar sunmaktadır. Halihazırda yayımlanmış ve mevcut veriler ile Hirbemerdon Tepe'den elde edilen bulgulara dayanan bu araştırmanın sonuçlarına göre, yerel Orta Tunç Çağı kültürünün yükselişinin M.Ö. III. ile II. binyıl arasındaki geçiş dönemine tarihlendirilmesi gerekmektedir. Yukarı Dicle topluluklarının en etkin oldukları dönemin ise M.Ö. 19. ile 17. yüzyıllar arasına tarihlendirilmesi gerekmekte olup, söz konusu dönem kırmızı kahverengi astarlı/ boyalı çömleklerin ana üretim dönemiyle örtüşmektedir. Yukarı Dicle bölgesine özgü ortak bir seramik repertuvarı tespit edilebilmekte ve özellikle kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW), kırmızı-kahverengi perdahlı çömlekler (RBBW), koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB/DROW) ve çömleğin yüzünü tamamen ya da kısmen örtmek ve dekore etmek amacıyla kullanılan kırmızı-kahverengi astarların karakterize ettiği şerit boyama çömleklerin (BD) varlığı dikkat çekmektedir. Çömlek şekillerinin münferit parçalarını ile paralellik gösteren unsurlara Anadolu ve Suriye'deki Yukarı Fırat bölgesi, Belih Vadisi, Yukarı Habur ve Kuzey Irak düzlük arazileri ve bazen yüksek Anadolu arazilerini de içine alan yaygın bir coğrafyada rastlanmak olsa da, çanak çömleklerin maruz kaldığı yüzey işlemlerinin kendine özgü yerel bir özellik taşıması nedeniyle Dicle vadisi kültürünün belirgin bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilmesi gerekmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi astarlı ve boyalı çömleklerin hayli yüksek bir yüzdeye sahip oluşu, Güneydoğu Toros sıradağları ile Van dağ sırasının güneybatısında yer alan Ṭūr ʿAbdīn yüksek arazileri arasında yerel geleneğe yakından bağlı kalmış kendine özgü bir seramik bölgesinin varlığını ileri sürer niteliktedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi çömlekler (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD), Dicle nehri bölgesindeki aynı imalat geleneğinin ürünleridir. Büyük olasılıkla koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) M.Ö. II. binyılın başlarında bazı sınırlı istisnalar hariç kullanımdan kalkmış olduğu halde, kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ise Orta Tunç Çağı'nın tamamı boyunca ve muhtemelen Geç Tunç Çağı'nın başlarına kadar var olmaya devam etmiştir. Dicle çanak çömlek seçkisi, Fırat bölgesinden Cezire'ye kadar uzanan farklı akımlardan etkilenmiş olup; etkileşimin bazı dönemlerle oldukça yoğun, bazen ise daha seyrek nitelikte olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuç kısmını teşkil eden Bölüm 5'te ise, türdeşliğin Dicle Bölgesi'ndeki maddi kültür bağlamında toplumsal ve kültürel değeri araştırılmakta ve belki de siyasi oluşumlarla ilintili bir genel örgütlenmenin varlığına ilişkin görüşler ileri sürülmektedir. Kırmızı-kahverengi seramik tarafından karakterize edilen sit alanları, Erken ve Orta Tunç Çağı arasındaki kültürel devamlılığa dair kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Verilerden hareketle, yerel toplumsal ve siyasi düzenin bir noktada değişime uğradığı ve çok işlevli yapılar barındıran küçük yerleşkeler etrafında odaklanan yeni bir yerleşim düzenine geçildiği ve bu değişimin başta kırmızı-kahverengi boya astarlı çömlekler (RBWW) ve koyu turuncu ağızlı çanaklar (DROB) olmak üzere, kırmızı-kahverengi çömlek gruplarının üretildiği yerleşim alanlarının gelişimiyle özdeşleştirilebileceği varsayımında bulunmak mümkündür. Erken Tunç Çağı dönemine dair fazla bir yorumda bulunmak mümkün değildir. M.Ö III. binyılın ikinci yarısına ait ya da son yüzyıllarına tarihlendirilen buluntular ve katmanlar, birkaç sit alanında gün ışığına çıkartılmasına rağmen, hiçbiri açık bir stratigrafik sıralama ya da nispeten bütünlüklü bir bağlamlar topluluğu sunmamaktadır. Kalıntılar, bir sonraki dönem olan Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakilere kıyasla cılız kalmakta ve sit alanının kenar noktalarında yer almaktadır. Vadi bu dönemde önemli yerleşimlerden neredeyse tamamen yoksun olup, bunun nedeni muhtemelen yerleşim düzeninin Orta Tunç Çağı'ndakinden hayli farklı ve/veya arkeolojik açıdan kolayca tespit edilemez nitelikte oluşudur. Bazı sit alanlarından oldukça seyrek bulgular elde edilmiş (gömütler, duvar ve zeminlerin bazı bölümleri, çanak çömlek parçaları), fakat bugün itibarıyla kayda değer herhangi bir katmana rastlanmamıştır. Gel gelelim ince katmanların kısa ve aralıklı yerleşim dönemlerine işaret etmesi mümkündür. Elbette bazı ana höyüklerin altında henüz gün ışığına çıkartılmamış kayde değer M. Ö III. binyıl yerleşimlerinin yer alma olasılığı bulunmakla birlikte, henüz bu yönde somut herhangi bir kanıt ele geçirilmemiş, Pornak ve Pir Hüseyin'deki olası geniş yerleşke buluntuları da nehir boyunca ilerleyen vadi bağlamında neredeyse fark edilmeyecek kadar ufak yerleşkelerden ibaret kırsal bir arazi şeklinde beliren genel görüntüyü değiştirecek nitelikte değildir. Muhtemelen M.Ö III. ile II. binyıl arasında geçiş döneminde vadideki yerleşke ve topluluklar, yerleşim alanlarının artması suretiyle bir yeniden yapılanma süreci yaşamış; söz konusu süreç, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yaşayan gerek yerleşik gerekse yerel toplumun parçası olan hareketli grupların toplumsal karmaşıklığının gelişmesini tetikleyen ve bu sayede topluluklar arasında yeni etkileşim, kontrol ve idare yöntemleri meydana getiren, niteliği henüz belirsiz fakat önemli bazı değişiklikleri takiben hayata geçmiştir. Bu dönemde, muhtemelen M.Ö III. binyıl sosyopolitik düzeninin belirgin özelliği olan gevşek köy örgütlenmelerine kıyasla daha karmaşık bir toplumsal yapı geliştirilmiştir. Örneğin Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe'de bulunan ve Orta Tunç Çağı'na tarihlendirilen yapılara ve birleşik mimari komplekslere ait bölümler ile benzer mimari özellikler taşıyan Kavuşan ve Üçtepe kalıntıları, muhtemelen üretim kaynakları üzerinde belirli denetim yöntemlerinin uygulandığı bir toplum planlaması düzenine ya da yerel ekonomik yaşantı yapılanmasına işaret etmekle birlikte, merkezi bir güce biat edildiğini ima etmek için yeterli bir karmaşıklık seviyesinde olmadığı görülmektedir. Yapı ve buluntular elit bir sınıfın varlığını doğrulamamakta olup, yerel ekonomi yönetimini mütevazı ölçekte organize eden ufak toplulukların varlığını ortaya koymaktadır. Söz konusu sitler arasında bir hiyerarşi olduğunu iddia etmeye yetecek bulguya sahip olmamamıza rağmen, eşgüdüm bağlamında önemli bir rol üstlendiklerini ve toplulukları kendilerine çeken, üretilen ürünlerin işlendiği, hayvancılık, tarım, avcılık ve dağlar arası ticaretten elde edilen malların depolandığı ve aynı zamanda toplumsal ve dini nitelikli eylemlerin gerçekleştirildiği önemli birer merkez teşkil ettikleri görülmektedir. Yerleşim yoğunluğundaki artış, yöreye özgü grupların sosyoekonomik anlamdaki yeniden yapılanmasının göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu yenilenme süreci, ticari bir ağın kurulmasına ve/veya temel geçim etkinlikleri arasındaki dengede meydana gelen bir değişime ya da bölgeye yeni toplulukların gelişi gibi diğer dış etkenlere de bağlantılandırılabilir. Aynı şekilde önemli olabilecek bir başka faktör ise, aynı grup veya kabile içerisindeki iki farklı kesim, diğer bir deyişle yerleşikler (çoğunlukla çiftçi) ve seyyar (yaylacı çobanlar ve göçebeler) arasındaki ilişkinin değişmesi ve bu sayede bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyo-politik düzenin gelişmesine neden olmasıdır. Şimdilik yerli toplumun gelişiminin olası nedenleri üzerine tahmin yürütmekle yetinmek zorundayız. Söz konusu iki kesim, yani aynı grup ya da kabile içerisindeki yerleşikler ve seyyarlar arasındaki ilişki ve bu ilişkinin yol açtığı bütünleşik bir ekonomi ile genişlemiş bir sosyopolitik düzenin gelişmesi olguları, Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde M.Ö III. binyılda hayat bulan yeni bir toplum yapısının temellerini teşkil etmekteydi. Daha karmaşık bir süreci basite indirgemek suretiyle zihnimizde bir senaryo canlandırmak gerekirse, bu bölgede yaşadıkları antik metinler ve modern araştırmalarca doğrulanan göçebe ya da yarı göçebe çoban gruplarının farklı gerekçelerle tarımsal etkinlikler ve köy yaşantısına geçmeye karar verdiklerini ve bu amaçla dağlar, vadiler ve stepler arasında önceleri yüzyıllar boyunca mevsimlik göç ve yaylacılık çerçevesinde yararlandıkları alanlardan birine yerleşmeyi seçtiklerini; grubun diğer kısmının ise sürülerle geleneksel rotaları izleyerek ilerledikleri ve yerleşik topluluklarla etkileşime devam ettiklerini düşünmek mümkündür. Eldeki mevcut yazılı belgeler yetersiz olup, güney şehir devletleriyle etkileşim ve ticaret ağlarına katılım yöntemlerinin belirlenmesine henüz imkan sağlamamaktadır. Yerel toplulukların sosyal ve ekonomik yapılarının yeniden düzenlenmesi olgusu Orta Tunç Çağı toplumlarının belirgin bir özelliği olarak öne çıkmakta; nitekim söz konusu toplumların önce M.Ö II. binyıl ve takiben M.Ö I. binyıl boyunca yerel niteliklerine sıkıca bağlı kaldıkları ya da güney imparatorluklarının sabit sömürgeleştirme girişimleri ve baskılarına rağmen, zaman zaman Anadolu'nun doğusuna yöneldikleri görülmektedir. Bu durumun toplumsal ve tarihsel değerinin önemli çıkarımlarından birine, yerel toplumun farklı unsurları ve üyelerinin bu arkeolojik arazi kapsamında üstlendikleri roller üzerinden ulaşmak mümkündür. Oluşturduğumuz taslak doğru ise, M.Ö III. binyıla tarihlendirilen sitlerin azlığı ya da başka bir ifadeyle bu yerleşim alanlarının sınırlı görünürlükte oluşlarının, dengesiz bir yerleşme düzenine işaret ediyor olabilir. Zira nüfusun büyük bir kısmı, bölge şartlarına en iyi uyum gösterme yöntemi olarak seyyar, yarı göçmen ya da göçmen bir yaşam tarzını tercih etmiştir. Yukarı Dicle vadisi örneğinde ise, sistemin karmaşıklaşması ve yerel toplumdaki dönüşümün tetiklenmesinde ticaret ağlarının mı yoksa yerel gruplar arasındaki belki de Akkadların bölgedeki etkilerini artırmaları sonucu doğan dinamiklerin mi etkili olduğunu sorgulamamız mümkündür. Vadi, maddi kültürü ve özellikle de çanak çömlek geleneği açısından kendisini çevreleyen diğer bölgelerden ayrılan bir niteliğe sahiptir. Aslında Dicle kültürünün kendine has ve özel konumu, birçok yüzyıl boyunca metinsel herhangi bir ize rastlanmaması, Mezopotamyalıların bölgeyi kontrol altına almakta yaşadıkları zorluklar ve maddi kalıntıların özellikleri, bu alanın iyi tanımlanmış ve belirgin bir kültürel ve belki de siyasi oluşuma ev sahipliği yaptığını düşündürmekte ve bunun bağlantılı olarak, kırmızı-kahverengi seramiklerin varlığı ile karakterize edilen yerleşkelerin gelişiminden de anlaşıldığı üzere, M.Ö III. binyılda gerçekleşen değişimlere de yön verdiği ihtimalini güçlendirmektedir. Yukarı Dicle'deki kazılarda gün ışığına çıkartılan kalıntıların Hurri medeniyetinin doğrudan bir ifadesi olarak kabul edilip edilemeyeceği ise, şimdilik ilginç fakat metinsel kanıtların yokluğunda ispat edilemeyecek bir varsayımın ötesine geçememektedir. Ancak Yukarı Dicle bölgesinde yakın dönemde yürütülen araştırmalar, M.Ö. III. binyılın sonu ile M.Ö. II. binyılın başı arasında Anadolu'nun güneydoğusunda yaşayan ve Antik Yakın Doğu'nun tarihsel arka planı kapsamında henüz tam anlamıyla belirlenememiş de olsa önemli bir rol oynayan toplulukların daha iyi tanımlanabilmeleri adına yeni ve önemli bazı kanıtlar elde edilmesini sağlamıştır. ; La regione attraversata dal corso superiore del fiume Tigri, in Turchia sud-orientale, è stata per molto tempo un'area poco conosciuta dal punto di vista archeologico. L'intensificarsi delle ricerche sul campo, a partire dagli anni novanta del secolo scorso, ha prodotto le evidenze su cui basare una prima ricostruzione della storia dell'insediamento e della cultura materiale di questi territori, tra le alte terre anatolico-orientali e le pianure mesopotamiche. I risultati degli scavi e le ricognizioni indicano che tra la fine del Bronzo Antico e l'inizio del Bronzo Medio giunge a maturazione un processo di trasformazione e riorganizzazione delle comunità locali. La comparsa di ampi complessi architettonici ed edifici in siti di medio-piccole dimensioni, caratterizzati da un particolare repertorio di oggetti e da ceramiche rosso-brune, potrebbe nascondere la formazione di realtà socio-politiche più strutturate rispetto a quelle del periodo precedente ed essere espressione di quel mondo khurrita che avrebbe avuto proprio nella regione del Tigri, secondo le ricostruzioni storiche, una delle zone di insediamento principale. ; The Upper Tigris region represents an important area within the mountainous system of south-eastern Anatolia and its relevance is related to its geographical position that plays a role in connecting the Mesopotamian lowlands to both northern and eastern Anatolian areas. Archaeological researches carried out during the last thirty years along the upper course of the Tigris river have provided new important evidence for the definition of a local cultural horizon and a large corpus of data that may be used to clarify chronological divisions and synchronism within the region itself and beyond. The aim of this book is to investigate the results of the recent archaeological activities concerning the final part of the Early and the Middle Bronze Age. Starting from a detailed analysis of the published data, central issues concerning settlements, stratigraphy, architecture, pottery, regional links, and chronology have been treated. The region of the Upper Tigris river, north of the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn hills and at the foot of the high south-eastern Anatolian mountains, show a coherent picture in terms of archaeological evidence. Surveys and excavations have documented that an important occupational period of the valley should be dated back to the end of the 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, when mainly small sized settlements tend to be established on the river terraces on the edge of the Tigris floodplain and along the main river tributaries. Many of them are characterized by large buildings or architectural complexes and the presence of a typical ceramic assemblage which appears to be distinct from the other contemporaneous ceramic traditions of the neighbouring regions. The assemblage of pottery, mainly red-brown slipped and painted wares, is important for the definition of a local horizon and for the identification of intersite cultural connections in the upper Tigris region. The ubiquity of pots sherds, essentially representing the bulk of what we found in the field, make them currently the basis of this investigation. In the particular case of the Upper Tigris, area of recent investigation, the pottery is remarkable when compared with other categories of finds and their presence, not only in stratified contexts but also on the surface of non-excavated sites, makes one of the most reliable tools for characterizing the material production of this specific geographical area and interpreting wider features of the cultural development in the Upper Tigris. A part a brief geographical and historical introduction (Chapter 1), the core of the book is represented by the results of the archaeological researches in the region and their analysis (Chapters 2 and 4). Surveyed areas and the excavated sites are the subjects of the second chapter (Chapter 2) that provides also the current state of the art for our archaeological knowledge. An important contribution is offered by the excavations at Hirbemerdon Tepe and to this site is dedicated the Chapter 3 where is reasoned argument of the archaeological context (3.2) with its phases of occupation and associated pottery (3.4), mainly unpublished. Much space is given to the classification of pottery sherds (3.3) both in technological and morphological terms and the analysis of spatial and diachronic occurrence of wares and types. Also main small findings are interpreted and contextualized in the regional and chronological frameworks (3.5). Our primary source of information for a detailed analysis of the pottery is the architectural complex, discovered on the mound of Hirbemerdon Tepe but also the evidence from other soundings opened on the site. The first excavations campaigns (2005-2007) carried out at Hirbermerdon Tepe, on the right bank of Tigris river, yielded good archaeological contexts and a conspicuous amount of pottery and artefacts mainly dating back to the first part of the 2nd millennium BC. Providing a new set of stratified data, Hirbemerdon Tepe offers an important contribution to defining the cultural profile of the Upper Tigris valley area. The excavations provided us with a sequence of three main ceramic phases, each individuated by morphological and technological attributes (3.6). The early phase (Fase 1), dating to the end of the Early Bronze Age, approximately to Early Bronze Age III-IV (end of Early Jazirah III-V), is characterized by the presence of an early version of RBWW and DROB; the middle phase (Fase 2), dated to the Middle Bronze Age, is characterized mainly by RBWW and band painted ware. The last phase (Fase 3) comprises a mixed assemblage with RBWW types of MBA date and others in common ware together with some Khabur and Nuzi sherds of Late Bronze Age date. It is not ascertained that at Hirbemerdon exists RBWW of LBA date. A section is dedicated to discuss the pottery repertoire, its technological and morphological characteristics, and in the regional context (3.7), comparing data with those from other sites and regions in order to underline the relationship between the local ceramic horizon and those of the neighbours. The end of the chapter concerns remarks on the regional periodization and propose a date for the repertoire. Chapter 4 offers general remarks about the settlement developments, architecture, pottery and significative small finds recovered in the Upper Tigris region. According to the results of this study, based on the published data currently available and the evidence from Hirbemerdon Tepe, the rise of the local Middle Bronze Age culture has to be dated to the passage between the 3rd and the 2nd millennium. The floruit of the Upper Tigris communities has to be dated to the period between the 19th and 17th centuries that coincides with the main phase of production of the red-brown slipped/painted pottery. A common pottery horizon is widely recognizable in the Upper Tigris region, marked specifically by the presence of categories known as Red Brown Wash Ware (RBWW), Red Brown Burnished Ware (RBBW), Dark Rimmed Orange Bowls/Ware (DROB/DROW) and Band Painted Ware (BD) which are characterized by a layer of red/brown slips used to cover, entirely or partially, the surface of the pot and to decorate it. Parallels of single components of the pottery shape are geographically widespread, encompassing the Upper Euphrates in Anatolia and Syria, the Balikh area, the Upper Khabur and the northern Iraqi lowlands, sometimes the Anatolian highlands, but the particular surface treatment is a specific local characteristic and has to be considered as a distinctive expression of the Tigris valley culture. The high percentage of red-brown slipped and painted wares suggests that a proper ceramic region existed between the South-Eastern Taurus fringes and the Ṭūr ʿAbdīn uplands, south-west of the Van mountain system, resting firmly within a local tradition. Red-brown wares (DROB/DROW, RBWW, BD) are products of the same manufacturing tradition, centred on the Tigris river area. It is likely that the DROB were out of use at the beginning of 2nd millennium, a part some marginal exceptions, whereas the RBWW continued for the entire span of the Middle Bronze Age and probably until the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. The Tigris pottery assemblage experienced the effects of different influxes, from the Euphrates area and to the Jazirah, with a period of major interaction and others of less intensive contacts. In conclusion, Chapter 5 explores the social and cultural value of the homogeneity in material culture within the Tigris region, suggesting the existence of a communal organization maybe connected with political entities. The sites characterised by red-brown wares represent evidence of cultural continuity between the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. It may be assumed that at a certain point a transformation of the local social and political system occurres, with the conversion to a new settlement pattern organized around little sites with multifunctional buildings and this change is also identified by the growth of settled sites producing red-brown pottery, like DROBs and principally RBWW. Not much can be said as regards the end of the Early Bronze Age period. Findings and strata of the second half of 3rd millennium or dating to the last centuries have been exposed at few sites but none provides a clear stratigraphic sequence or fairly well articulated contexts. In general, the remains are poor compared with those of the following Middle Bronze Age and cover marginal areas of the site. The valley was almost devoid of significant settlements during this period, probably because the settlement pattern was substantially different from the Middle Bronze Age pattern and/or not easily recognizable archeologically. Some sites produced very sparse evidence (tombs, portion of walls and floors, pot-sherds) but no substantial layers have been found up to now. In fact the thin layers could indicate brief and intermittent periods of occupation. Of course there might have been considerable 3rd millennium sites not yet excavated beneath some of the major and important mounds but as yet there is no evidence for them and the possible finding of large settlements in Pornak and Pir Hüseyin do not change the general picture of a rural landscape with evanescent presence of very small sites, as for the valley along the river. Probably during the passage between the 3rd and 2nd millennium there was a reorganization of settlements and populations in the valley with an increase of settled sites, after important but unclear changes in the whole region that stimulated the growth of the social complexity among the groups inhabiting the Upper Tigris, both sedentary and mobile segments of local society, producing new forms of interaction between the communities, control and management of the resources. In this period a social structure more complex than loose village organizations that probably characterized the sociopolitical landscape of the 3rd millennium was developed. The portions of buildings and composite architectural complexes, dating to the Middle Bronze Age, found for example at Giricano, Salat Tepe, Hirbemerdon Tepe, but also the remains of Kavuşan and Üçtepe showing similar architectural features, suggest a community planning with the possible existence of a form of control over productive resources or organization of the local economic life, but not a level of complexity implying the subordination to a centralizing power. Architecture and artifacts do not confirm the presence of elites but indicate small communities organizing the management of local economy on a modest scale. We do not have elements to recognize a hierarchy between these sites yet but it seems that these played a role of coordination and were centers of attraction for populations; for processing products and storing commodities coming from herds, agriculture, hunting and intermountain trade as well as for communal and ritual performances. The growing of settlement density can be considered as an indicator of a socio-economic reorganization of indigenous groups. This regenerative process can be linked to the establishment of a commercial network and/or to a change in the balance between main subsistence activities or to other external stimuli as the arrival of newcomers. Not less important could have been the changing relation between the two segments, settled (mainly farmers) and mobile (transhumant shepherds and nomads) of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, At present we can only speculate about what the development of the indigenous society holds. The relation between these two segments, settled and mobile of the same group or tribe, developing an integrated economy and an enlarged socio-political system, was at the base of a new society inaugurated at the end of the 3rd millennium in the Upper Tigris. It is possible to imagine a scenario, simplifying a more complex process, where groups of shepherds, nomadic or semi-nomadic, who have lived in this area as ancient texts and modern studies confirm, decided to convert to agricultural activities and village life, for different motives, settling in one of the areas that for centuries they had used during the seasonal migrations and transhumance between mountains, valleys and steppes; whereas the other part of the group continued to bring herds along traditional routes interacting with the sedentary communities. The available textual documentation is meager and does not permit to establish yet the modalities of interaction with the southern city states as well as the involvement within commercial circuits. This new organization of the social and economic structure of the local community is a trait of the Middle Bronze Age society that in the course of the 2nd millennium and then during the 1st millennium, will keep firmly a local character or will be occasionally oriented towards eastern Anatolia in spite of the pressure and attempts at stable colonization by southern empires. An important implication of social and historical significance is involved in the role assumed by the different components and members of the local society in this archaeological landscape. If this outline is correct, the scarcity of sites dated to the 3rd millennium or otherwise, the low visibility of these settlements, might point to unstable occupation: a mobile, semi-nomadic or nomadic style of life was for most of the population the best adaptation to the surrounding regional environment. We can question if in the case of the Upper Tigris river valley it has been the trade network to generate the rise of complexity or dynamics internal to local groups (maybe stimulated after the Akkadians established their influence over the region) have had been more effective to prompt the transformation of local society. The valley represents a distinct unit from the surrounding regions with regard to its material culture and particularly its pottery tradition. Actually, the particular setting of Tigris culture, the lack of textual records for several centuries, the difficulties met by Mesopotamians to control these territories, and the characteristics of the material remains could suggest that the area was a place of a well-defined cultural and maybe political entity and resulting in the changes at the end of 3rd millennium that we can recognize in the growth of the settlements characterized by the presence of red-brown ceramics. If the archaeological remains emerged through the excavation in the Upper Tigris have to be considered direct expression of the Khurrian world is at the moment an intriguing hypothesis that in absence of textual evidence cannot be demonstrated. However the results of the recent research in the Upper Tigris provide new fundamental evidence for a better definition of the communities inhabiting the south-eastern Anatolia between the end of 3rd and the beginning of 2nd mill. BC that played an important, yet poorly defined role within the historical scenario of the Ancient Near East.

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Prices always right The Lutheran paWication^ocieiJ No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel- • op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address ■ HENRY. S. BONER, Supt. The CDerea^y. The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XIV. GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER 1906. No. 6 CONTENTS "THE POWER OF SMALL THINGS "—Oration. . . 152 ELSIE A. GERLACH, '07. "POE: WIZARD OR CHARLATAN "—Essay. . 155 W. WlSSLER HACKMAN, '08. "THE TRAGEDY OF A SOUL"—Oration. . . . 158 CLIFFORD E. HAYS, '07. "TIME—ITS DEMANDS AND GIFTS "—Oration. . . 164 SARA B. BRUMBAUGH, '07. " CONSCIENCE AND SUPERSTITION ''—Essay. . . 167 D. L. BAKER, '08. "CO-OPERATIVE COLLEGE GOVERNMENT "—Essay. 169 '08. "THE STUDENT AND COLLEGE "—A LIFE LONG RELA-TION— Essay . .171 ROY E. SMITH, '08. "A TOURNAMENT "—Story. 172 LEVERING TYSON, '09. EDITORIALS, . 176 EXCHANGES, 179 152 THE MERCURY. THE POWER OF SMALL THINGS. ELSIE A. GBRLACH, '07. EVER since Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence civilized people have stood in awe before the grandeur of the mighty flood of Niagara Falls. They have thought and talked and written about its tremendous power, its majesty and grand beauty; but no one ever considered its source, or thought of it in its parts. It was always thought of as one grand whole, until suddenly the world was startled by the fact that the beau-tiful Niagara was threatened. Then it was that the beauty loving Americans realized that out of small things great things grow, when they saw that the use of the great mass of water, little by little for supplying the manufacturing establishments, would steal away the greatness of the world's greatest falls. You all know the result of the awakening, that popular opinion prevailed and Niagara was saved from a gross sacrifice to mercenary motives. I have used the illustration only to show how often we forget the importance of little things. It is a world old subject, this fact of small beginnings. We know that the mighty avalanche, sweeping everything before it and burying whole towns with its millions of tons of snow, is made up of the feathery flakes. We know, in fact, that the entire universe, in all its immensity, is composed of atoms; yet do we realize the significance of the small things in nature. History speaks plainly of the power of little things. The importation of the first slaves into America may have seemed a thing of trifling moment; yet the war of the rebellion grew out of it. Again, it was but a small band of Pilgrims that landed at Plymouth Rock; yet their coming was the begin-ning of the career of the grandest nation of the world. The world of finance in the great Hippel embezzlement pre-sents a striking illustration of the principle we are considering. Do you think that when the respected banker stole seven million dollars, it was his first offence? Of course not. If all the facts were known his crime could be traced back along a line of ever lessening thefts, perhaps even to the small sum of a few dollars borrowed, but never returned to the bank. Mr THE MERCURY. 153 His first theft, whatever it was, may have seemed a trifling thing. But what a result! For an example in politics take the system of graft, recently uncovered in Philadelphia. No doubt the grafters were timid at first, and took but little from the public funds ; but they kept growing bolder until the enormity of their crimes could no longer be-concealed. We can see the value of a trifle in every day life. The true story, told of the man on the tower, goes to prove this fact. He was a common day-laborer and was assisting in the com-pletion of an immense chimney on a large factory. He was working on the farther side from the others, and did not notice that they had all finished and descended, and that the scaffold-ing was removed. In a very short time, however, his absence was noticed, and a large crowd gathered below, filled with horror at the thought of the awful death which stared him in the face, for the only possible way to reach him was by scaf-folding, which it would take weeks to build. But suddenly the crowd was quiet as the wife of the man, suspended between heaven and earth, appeared. She had evidently heard, for she was very pale, but calm. Putting her hands to her mouth she shouted, " Unravel your stocking." A cheer burst from the crowd, as they grasped at this feeble hope of rescue. Before long a thin grey thread was lowered, and to this they tied a cord. The yarn was homespun and it carried the cord in safety to the waiting man. The cord in turn drew up a rope and the rope a cable, by which the man descended. Practical application of the subject can be made in every phase of life. To be happy we must be careful of the little things in our home life. To be successful the business man applies the old adage, " Take care of the pennies and the dollars will take care of themselves." To become a college graduate, worthy of the name, the ambitious student must weigh the little things. It is a small thing to prepare a debate or read-ing for the literary society, or an essay for our monthly journal. It may not seem so at the time when you think you can't pos-sibly spare even an hour or so. But it is a small thing when compared to the benefit received from regular literary work: 154 THE MERCURY. first, of course, the benefit gained in preparation, then the power to think on your feet and to accustom yourself to hearing your voice in public speaking. The time given to athletics does not cost much, considering the benefit received. A short time spent in exercising every day helps to bring about the relation of "Sana metis in corpore sano." And it isn't much trouble to really study the lessons assigned. It takes only two hours to prepare a Latin or Greek lesson. To be sure the easier way, by means of " helps," sometimes seems almost pardonable when there is work to be made up on account of sickness, or when import-ant outside work demands the time. But this habit of shirk-ing grows so easily that it must be avoided or the college edu-cation will prove a failure. The seeming trifles at college are very numerous. But these few examples will serve to illustrate their value. The power of small things is strongly brought out by Longfellow in the words: . " Nothing useless is or low ; Each thing in its place is best; And what seems but idle show Strengthens and supports the rest." Oh, but how great a thing it is, how glad, To live in this our day ! when plain strong sense, Free knowledge and Religious influence, Build up a wall against the false and bad, And give the good both temple and defense : To live—when ancient enmities intense Turn to new brotherhood till now unknown ; When science and invention bless the world, Banishing half our pains and troubles hence ; When time seems lengthened, distance nearer grown ; When tyranny from every throne is hurled ; When Right is Might, and Reason holds her own : O, happy day ! fur prophets, priests and kings Have longed in vain to see such glorious things. —Tupper. THE MERCURY. 155 POE: WIZARD OR CHARLATAN? W. WISSLER HACKMAN. I. INTRODUCTION. THE ENIGMA. IN these papers it is not our purpose to rehash any biography of Poe, and such points of his life as may come up in these discussions will do so because they are, in our opinion, essen-tial in throwing light upon the problem in hand. That Poe's heredity, environment and temperament do as much toward heightening as toward solving the mystery that surrounds his literary attitudes and motives may not be denied, much less ignored. Brilliant, versatile, volatile; Byronic in egotism, Pickwickian in fantastic fancy, a Stevenson in action and a Uoyle in plot, he presents an enigma among American authors; an enigma that invites even while it defies investigation. Sensitive, proud and weak ; yes, almost despicably weak he stands the most tragic figure in the realm of American letters ; a tragic success ; a most brilliant failure. A graphic portraitist, a skillful manipulator of plot and atmosphere, a poet surcharged with a shadowy mysticism, a philosopher and scientist in amateur, possessed of an un-bridled daring of conception, a critic, dreamer and prophet— what is he not? Candid and unshrouded he sets himself be-fore us ; frankly and unhesitatingly he draws aside the mantle of his personality and uncloses to vulgar gaze the very wheels and cogs of his literary machinery. And yet, andyet— he is too like the famous chess player he so skillfully exploits, wheels and cogs and cunning mirrors casting deceptive re-cesses, and within, the man, whom none see, smiling derisively on the easy credulity of his admirers. That is just the ques-tion, that the crux of the entire matter of Poe, the genuine-ness of his attitudes. Let sincerity be the touchstone to the man. Is he a great soul struggling through an imperfect me-dium toward revelation, has his genius labored out of the in-tangible depths some magic philosophers stone whereby to convert the dross of earth into the divine gold of ideality ? Again, dare we accept his own implied claim, and treat him as 11 ■ 156 THE MERCURY. the clear-eyed discoverer of a profound unity of all substance and energy, or is he a mere mechanic who frames soul-stirring verse on an arithmetical basis making poetry a matter of mathematical proportions? Or after all is he a base juggler or at lea.st a clever trickster ? Is he king or impostor, prophet or pretender, wizard or charlatan ? Have you never felt the uncomfortable impression intrude itself through the charming plausibility of his philosophy, the eerie beauty of his verse, or the creeping horror of his tales that at your shoulder, as it were, stood Poe, his sensitive lips curled in proud scorn while about them played a smile of mockery and derision almost mephistophelian ? Take his por-trait, search his features carefully—do you not find an in-tangible contempt lurking there? Is it for you or for a stiff-necked, hard-headed people who will be sordid and material-istic ? Take his lighter stuff—plainly you can feel the under-current of banter, whether innocent or malevolent, I dare not yet say. That Poe's was an analytical intellect of the highest type must be conceded, for that he is capable of a keenness of in-sight abnormally acute, we have proof in his own exploits. The unravelling of the "Murders of the Rue Morgue" and the death of " Marie Roget" under circumstances that would have daunted the most optimistic of sleuths are evidences that go far toward establishing Poe's integrity. Had he been on or even near the scenes of these tragedies, for they were real, we might attribute his success to some fortunate discovery, some hidden inkling. But removed as he was from the pos-sible presence of data, his only aids newspaper clippings col-lected by himself, we must admit that success was—in fact could only be—due to the reasoning of a powerful intellect. Whatever Poe is, he is no shallow montebank ; if he resorts to dishonest trickery, it is not because he is incapable of higher things. Yet he does juggle, yet he does descend to the plane of monte-bank. How the same hand that projected " Eureka," that marvelous prose-poem, could perpetuate such worthless, school boy click-clack as abounds in the life of Thingum Bob, seems, - —--'-—- * w THE MERCURY. 157 to say the least, remarkable. It is just this apparent incon-sistency— it does not merit the term versatility—that makes Poe the enigma he is. The fabric of his literary work pre-sents a strange mosaic of pearls and tawdry brass side by side and intermingled in a strange, disconcerting confusion. Thus far we have dealt in generalities ; generalities of, I fear, a vague and dissatisfactory haziness. It has been our aim in this paper to, in a general manner, outline our intended method of procedure. The * following papers will be written with the author's text close to our elbow with a view of being read in like manner. Now in the conclusion of our introduction let us advance one tenet of our literary faith, to wit: Sincerity should be the guide and touchstone in all literary criticism. Much as we dislike the imputation of egotism we shall fear-lessly work out our conclusions independent of popular senti-ment or accepted views on this particular phase of Poe. Not in that we feel ourselves better equipped than others but because we believe that no man should suppress or subvert his own individuality to the authority of another while there exsits the faintest possibility of new discovery. * NOTE—This is the first of a series of six articles to appear in the MER-CURY treating on this particular phase of Poe viewed from four stand-points. Let it be suggested that the succeeding articles be read in con-nection with the authors text. The next article will treat him as Poet —ED. (AM,, .i 158 THE MERCURY. THE TRAGEDY OF A SOUL. CLIFFORD E. HAYS, '07. ALL progress lies through evolution or revolution. Start-ling as this may seem, nevertheless it is true in Religion, Politics and the Industrial World. Progress is the giving up of the old condition and the advance to the new. The pro-gress of a nation or organization is measured by that of the individuals who compose it, and every time a man gives up a long accustomed ideal there is enacted a tragedy of the soul. Two hundred years ago a handful of patriots decided to leave behind the old order of things and set sail on that dark and unknown sea of Democracy. All those men were the de-scendants of races accustomed to monarchy and Despotism, and it was natural that there should be a long and desperate struggle before they could give up the old. No American History disregards the bitter debates of that gloomy period when the Continental Congress was in secret session and our nation's destiny hung in the balance, yet few of us indeed realize what it meant for those men to affix their names to the Declaration of Independence. Up to July 4, 1776, but a few radical dreamers had thought of separation and fewer desired Democracy. The clanging of that old bell caused a struggle in the soul of many a true and noble man before he went either to the Revolutionists or the Torys. And the tragedy of their souls has often been repeated and is now being rehearsed in the Peterhof in Russia. On May 18, 1868 a boy baby was born in St. Petersburg in the recesses of a fortified palace during a period of darkest despotism, the reaction of the spasmodic lenient period of the stormy reign of Nicholas I. During the babes' early years his grandfather Alexander II was harassed by many for-eign wars and internal troubles which ended in the Czar's as-sassination. The 3rd Alexander, the boy's father, took control, but the revolutionists were so active that he remained in con-finement two years before his coronation. Thus this youth was born and reared in a household con-tinually threatened and fearing, yet a household which held sacred the belief in historic Czarism. All his education was THE MERCURY. 159 to prepare him to be a Czar such as former Czars had been, although the fierceness of his ancestors was somewhat miti-gated by the state of affairs during which he was born, yet that one idea, that he would some day be God's vicegerent to rule that vast empire by his own absolute will, was constantly drilled into him. Surrounded and influenced by the bureau-cracy, his inherited autocratic spirit was intensified. Accus-tomed to think and hear that alone, it is not at all surprising that he should come to the throne a thorough autocrat. When twenty-six his father died, after a stormy reign filled toward the close with attempts at assassination. Then Czar Nicholas the II, this youth brought up in utter ignorance of the true condition of his country, secluded and taught aristo-cracy, with a mind and body inherited from a long line of despots, took the government of the vast Empire of Russia and her 140,000,000 souls steeped in ignorance and practically slaves to the nobles for seven centuries. It is a wild dream to think that Nicholas, the crystallized product of a line of Czars ruling for centuries in the same despotic course, should come to the throne filled with noble determination to free his people and set up a democracy. He knew no more of his people and democracy than his people knew of him personally. At court he was surrounded by that crowd of political vam-pires, the Bureaucracy, that class of nobles, the offspring of the Middle Ages, which inherited its rights for centuries. It is a nobility such as no other country knows. Dependent on the Czar and Czarism for their life liberty and property, they cling to the tottering throne of despotism as a vine to a mould-ering wall. Planted when the wall was erected, they have grown old and useless with it, and although they see the wall crumbling and tottering with every fresh blow from the tides of Democracy, yet they must cling to the wall for life. All enlightenment and culture is limited to the palaces of the nobles. "With their enlightenment and widened horizon which includes in its circle both Czar and the people, they see clearer than anyone else the true condition and the only solu-tion. They loathe Czarism which they are forced to support, and fear the people whom they must keep in submission. til Ilk ill'.) I.,.I. 160 THE MERCURY. They see this and fear, yet are bound to the throne for the maintenance of their life; they cling with death like grip to the thing they looth, yet cannot leave. Bureaucracy hangs between life and death, despotism and Democracy, progression and retrogression, but worst of all, knows that either way the pendulum swings aristocracy must vanish as a dream and they with it. Thus it is to their interest to keep the Czar in ignor-ance and their heads above water. With such a spirit ruling them and such interests at stake they drove Nicholas I mad, and hindered his useful reforms. This Czar broke through the ignorance, superstition and teachings of the Czar's and tried to better his people. He instituted education, lessened the censorship of the press, heard embassies from the people, and emulated foreign progress. Yet all this was undone by the bureaucracy who saw in this their ruin. They as ministers bowed to the Czar and promised faithfully to further his work, but out of his presence issued counter orders and altogether blocked his reforms. Real conditions were kept from him, till harassed on all sides, the Czar lost faith in everything, loathed civilization, hated progress and instituted such a despotic re-action that the country was plunged deeper than ever in the dungeon of ignorance. Such is the pitiful struggle in Russia's high places that the nobles in their mad race for life and posi-tion bind upon the Czar, in childhood, the shackles which en-able them to hinder him all through his reign. Surrounded by such conditions, Nicholas II came upon the throne of Russia in the year 1904. Brought up in seclu-sion and study during childhood, taught autocracy and militar-ianism in his youth, surrounded completely by the Bureaucracy, knowing little of Democracy, considering himself the vicege-rent of God and responsible to Him alone, and entirely ignor-ant of the condition of his people he kept the beaten path of his ancestors and it should cause no surprise that he did not immediately accept our western views of things. The recent war broke out and during it the young ruler be-came acquainted with his people. Suddenly into the dark chamber in which he sat and ruled, shut off from the world, a ray of light entered. He heard low grumblings. Then *,. THE MERCURY. 161 his dazzled eyes and startled ears gave evidence of the flames of Revolution and the demands of his people. One minute he was sitting in unsuspecting security; the next he was swept from his feet by that awful whirlwind of plunder and murder. Stunned and lost for awhile it seemed as if all must give way. Forces on all sides dragged him hither and thither. The people clamored, they howled, burned, pillaged, murdered ! Some demanded liberty ; some representation ; while others urged harsher despotism. He had no rest; one said this, another that. One cried " The Police ! Suppress! Trample ! Lash ! " Now came the urgent appeal, give the con-stitution or all is lost. Throw Autocracy to the winds or Russia is lost. Hear your people or your are doomed. The whole world mocked, the nations laughed at this poor imbe-cillic prince, who sat and held the power yet did not act. Yet were they right? Was he imbecillic and weak ? Most assuredly, No! He had always aimed to do the right, and but one thing was opened up to him as the right; therefore he did it in sincerity. On that eventful morning when after sleep-less nights, he signed the decree for the national assembly, he said to Count Witte : " I have never valued aught but the weal of my subject, and have always used autocratic power for that and never wittingly exercised it for any other purposes, I was always convinced that the welfare of the empire demanded this, but now I lay a portion of my power aside because I have good reason to believe it is to the advantage of Russia to do so." Thus drilled and taught Czarism, he came to the crisis blinded ; and when his eyes were opened he did not imme-diately fly to Democracy, and the nations mocked. He, Czar Nicholas, who believed himself to be of divine appointment, descended from a line of despots, did not break away from all precedent, undo the work of his ancestors for ages, did not deny his entire nature and change his mode of thinking in a moment, in immediate need and under great stress without hesitation, thought, or fear, and they said he was a weakling, an imbecile, a child! He loves his country, his whole pride is Russia, therefore he could not deny his moderate and prudent nature, which he 162 THE MERCURY. undoubtedly has, and plunge his people headforemost into our occidental iorm of Government, so strange to a European mind. And, if the truth were only known, the world would see but a handful of rash extremists, followers of such as Maxim Gorky, raving for liberty. What the people want is not so much the reins of government, but a little release from the oppression of the hated nobles. In this awful whirlpool of unrest the Czar could not loose all moorings from absolu-tism and expect to sail clearly and safely to any definite condi-tion. Place our own beloved President in such a position. If he should suddenly awake to the fact that Democracy was crush-ing his people that he had always been deluded, and at the same time four ways of acting, all contrary to his very nature, should be opened to him, he could not tear himself from Democ-racy ; he could not in one day decide what was best for this enlightened people. Let us then be reasonable. Let us consider the Czar with his bias due to a weight of despotic ancestry, hedged about by the autocracy, living in ignorance of the true conditions of his people, coming suddenly to the realization that something must be decided ; pushed hither and thither, all the while re-maining cool and collected, and at last giving that most mag-nificent testimony of a- clear brain and a deep desire for the right by signing the ukase by which he limited his autocratic power, and brought to a close centuries of despotism, and gave an earnest of liberty to 140,000,000 of people. Universal suffrage, a right to levy taxes, supervision over all branches of the government, and " civic liberty based on real inviolability of the person and freedom of conscience, speech, union and association," were on the 19th of August, 1905, conferred on a nation which had remained in ignorance and serfdom for seven centuries. And all this was decided upon by a conservative, prudent and strong willed man. But the most marvelous of all things which this young Prince, this laughed at " Little Father," accomplished; was the inner vic-tory in his soul over his imperial psychic nature, the accumu-lation and inheritance of ages. We are told that in order to THE MERCURY. 163 judge fairly an individual's actions " we must take into consider-ation his position, his character, his past, his individual feel-ings, his moral and physical powers. We must keep in view the incentives from without, the circumstances and limitations among which he moves." Then we can say that the Czar was not a puppet. He was not a mirror reflecting every one's opinion. With but a few short months of earnest thought after his awakening and under tempestuous conditions, he signed that manifesto. On that eventful morning, when Russia's new sun arose and the darkness of absolutism received its first blow, Czar Nicho-las II arose, calmly attended to some minor duties, then went to the Chamber of State where spread upon the table was that document. Standing on his right was Count Witte that diplo-mat of Russia who saved his country's honor in the financial crisis; he who gained a bloodless victory at Portsmouth ; the champion of the people; stood trembling as the Czar made the cross and wrote N-i-c-o-l-a-i, thus signing away his in-herited power. In the ante-room were assembled the minis-ters of Russia, members of the Bureaucracy, waiting to see the doom of their class. As Nicholas calmly signed, arose, and without a word left the chamber as if routine business had been transacted and with stately dignity and composure, passed out, these ministers burst into tears and sank into uncontroll-able grief. As thus we take under review the events of the past few months, we see a man, by the power of his will, in response to the imperative of a noble nature, breaking through all the bounds of influence, throwing off the bias of his inheritance,, changing his whole psychic nature and giving the funda-mentals of freedom to one-tenth of the earth's population. The struggle through which he passed ; the heartache, the doubt, the fear, the loneliness—who shall measure it ? There in his palace, if anywhere on earth, was enacted the silent but awful Tragedy of a Soul. 164 THE MERCURY. TIME—ITS DEMANDS AND GIFTS. '07. IN this, the Autumn season, there sometimes intrudes upon us a resentful feeling, that Time, is ruthless in his van-dalism. We stand before the ruins of the past and read new meaning in the oft-repeated phrase " time passes by." Time passes by—ah, yes! — and never did Attilla leave more devastation in his wake. The wind whispers the news of his arrival and sweet flowers fade, myriads of bright leaves fall. He breathes over the child, and the sparkling eyes become dulled, the rosy cheeks pale and seared. Shaken by his heavy onward tread, mighty columns crumble, beautiful statues fall prostrate. He passes his hand over the masterpieces of a DeVinci or a Titian and the exquisite coloring fades. He steals away the rich voice of a prima donna by whose power and sweetness the world was uplifted and rejoiced. He cramps the flexible fingers of the musician and no more the ravishing strains are heard. He leads captive the devoted statesman to whom a distracted people are anxiously looking for direction. He stalks over a mighty nation and only the record of history remains. But what strange scene is this ? I see a scholar bending over to examine a yellow crumpled volume. With an indrawn sigh of pleasure he whispers—" Ah ! it is old, old." I see a cultured woman wave aside sparkling cut glass and fragile painted china, and picking out a bit of rude discolored ware she exclaims, " Oh, give me this." I see a romping boy eagerly grasp a ragged stamp or black-ened coin. He tosses his cap in thj air and shouts—" Whew this is old." I see a traveller turn his indifferent glance from the most magnificent, the most beautiful of modern architectural achieve-ments and with face lit up with admiration, almost reverence, feast his eyes upon the crumbling columns of the Parthenon or the gloomy walls of a mediaeval castle. I see one turn from the blooming freshness of childhood to the silver hair and lined face of age, as though he had dis-covered some rarer beauty there. - - THE MERCURY. I65 V-Why should we thus stoop to kiss the hand that smites us? Go, ask the scnolar and he will lead you back to the age when men first conceived the idea of transmitting their thoughts by laboriously hewing a few symbols out ot solid rock. Cen-turies pass by until the alphabet appears and slowly, fitfully, at the cost of inconceivable labor, and often personal danger, our great treasury of thought was added to. Now it is the immortal Epics of Homer, now the philosophy for which Socrates willingly forfeited his life. Here and there are scat-tered the works of a Shakespeare, Milton, Hegel, Bacon, and the scholar in gratitude exclaims: "These are my jewels, the gift of Father Time." Ask the scientist and he will place in your hand a clod of earth or lump of coal; then leading you through the once dark avenue of scientific research, with its many windings and stumbling blocks, will turn on one by one, the many illumina-ting theories, and laws by which the by-ways of medicine, mathematics, chemistry and astronomy, have been lit up by that master-workman Time. Ask the musician and he will tell you of the rude ancient lyres which were played by the wind blowing over the strings ; or of the Grecian pipes, having but two or three stops. Then he will place you in a dimly lighted cathedral while a mighty organ peals forth a Handel's Largo, or a full orchestra, one of Beethoven's Symphonies or a single violin—a melody of Reu-benstines. Ask the patriot and he will show you a brave pioneer hew-ing his way through the limitless forest, fighting savages, de-prived of every comfort. He will show you a brave little com-pany of men boldly signing their name to what semed virtu, ally their own death warrant. He will show you a Valley Forge and a Gettysburg. He will show you a country which is regarded as the Paradise of the World. Ask the little child and he will clap his hands and lead you into an enchanted land, peopled with elves and fairies—with Santa Claus, with giants, mermaids, and Grecian heroes. Ask the aged man and he will lay before you memory's book from which the kindly hand of Time has erased all small- j66 THE MERCURV. nesses and disfiguring blots ; and upon the last page you will find inscribed not " Finis," but the expression of the " great conception in which the belief in the human race and its des-tines triumphantly asserts itself"—continued through eternity. UP HIGHER. Every time you miss or fail, Start in on a higher scale, Let each tear, and sigh and moan, Only be a stepping stone ; Let each dark experience Point you to an eminence Up higher. Every stab that racks your heart, Fits you for a stronger part, Every stunning blow of pain, Lifts you to a broader plane. Every foe that can appear, Trains you for a larger sphere Up Higher. Never pause, and ne'er look back O'er the fast-receding track. There's a ghost there, grim and gaunt— IVhat's ahead is what you want. Turn; and you will stand aghast: Never search the bitter past, Look higher ! From each crushing blow of pain, Rise and go ahead again. Though your days fly swiftly past, Push to conquer to the last. Upward yet, and upward ever ; Onward still, and backward never ! Even when you hear the sound Of Death's whisper iook beyond, Up higher. —Joseph Bert Smiley THE MERCURY. l67 V-CONSCIENCE AND SUPERSTITION. D. L. BAKER, '08. conscience and Superstition—what relation can exist be-tween them ? A by no means readily seen one. It is only when we consider each in relation with a third, that their intimacy makes itself apparent. This third factor shall be Religion. Now every known religion sets forth certain staple rules for right living ; none but strives at a certain ethical standard; all hold out a certain reward, present or beyond, for faithful con-formance with its own particular doctrines and precepts. By even a mere passing analysis of the fundamental tenets of varied religion there may be readily discovered a startling con-flict in ethical ideals. Conscience is that peculiar essence which by common con-sent is credited with the office of approval and censure passed upon the actions of self. A violation of moral or ethical law is supposed to entail an unpleasant activity on the part of the conscience bearing a close resemblance and relation to remorse. Strange to say when we refer to the activities of conscience, it is almost always censure we note and rarely approval. Are we then to conclude that conscience is a threatening scourge, a lurking nemesis awaiting some unprotected Sin to pounce upon ? It is when we assume this attitude and then rake them, the infinite fields of superstition, that we are struck by a startling parallelism. As to-day the dreaded cellar fiends and garret spooks invariably lie in wait for the unruly youngster, so throughout the history of mythology it is the evil ones on whom the scourges of fiends and the terror of the Furies fell. Superstition is apparently as inherent in man as conscience itself. The most intelligent of us feel its icy fingers clutch our throats at certain limes—and those times—usually when our consciences are not easy. We perform a misdeed—the natural and legitimate result to expect, is punishment. The sin or crime may have been a secret one ; we know it was unwitnessed —yet racial habit is so over-ruling that we nevertheless expect punishment; intuitively, expect it. In such case, intelligence 168 THE MERCURY. or rather consciousness strives to justify and clothe intuition. Then there is nothing to fear from the human will; if fear con-tinues it must be of the superhuman. At night, when darkness hides danger, the hereditary ani-mal in us fears the lurking creatures of the dark pre-historic beasts of prey—but intelligence denies their existence. The animal fear triumphs and the mind creates a thousand super-stitious horrors to justify it. Any uneasy conscience multi-plies them a thousandfold, e. g., Fields' juvenile poem—"See-ing Things at Night," and Riley's, " Little Orphant Annie." Shall we then say, superstitious fear is merely a modified fear of retribution supernaturally administered because of absence of human agents ? We can say the same of conscience. Dare we then say conscience and superstition are merely dif-ferent manifestations of fear of punishment? If so, how can we explain that individuals of low intelligence are most susceptible to superstition and most callous in con-science ? Can we then define conscience as a source of super-stition ? Here we find ourselves in deep water—very deep ; conscience is supposed to set the standard for absolute right. If so, how can we explain the antagonism in religious dogmas cited in the beginning of this discussion? It seems then as though conscience was dependent on re-ligion. But every religion is burdened by a large amount of superstition, which superstition seems to exert a stimulus on conscience. Which shall we say—conscience is the product of superstition—or superstition, the product of conscience ? The revelation is undoubtedly close, closer in fact than we like or dare to admit. THE MERCURY. 109 CO-OPERATIVE COLLEGE GOVERNMENT. '08. BY cooperative college government we mean the uniting of the faculty with the student body, and the two operating jointly to promote the same end. We do not wish to make an attack on the present form of government with any malice whatever; but having been on trial before the faculty, and several times called into the Presi-dent's office, in company with a body of representative men, to consider questions relative to college government, we feel that a frank expression of our views will not be mistaken. Knowing the sentiments of many of our Alumni and that of the entire student body we are truly convinced that the present form of government is unsatisfactory, and believe that some form of cooperative government would meet with hearty approval. The predominating dissatisfaction with our present form of government is that our faculty do hot stand in close enough relation with the students, to readily understand each indi-vidual and thus are unable to correct his faults while they are yet in bud. Under the present form of government the will of the faculty is absolute. In this one body are vested the Legislative, the the Judicial and the Executive powers. The students are mute as far as government is concerned. The student upon entering the institution is handed a copy of the rules and regulations. He reads them and lays them aside. Soon he has forgotten their contents and violates a minor clause, soon another and then another till he has broken many, and it has now become a habit with him. Suddenly he is notified by the Proctor to appear before the faculty to give an account of himself. All available evidence has been collected by the faculty beforehand and he is asked to make his defense. Occasionally it so hap-pens that he cannot satisfy the faculty as to his innocence and he is given a period of suspension or expulsion, If at the outstart of his transgressions he had been visited by a com-mittee and cautioned as to his conduct, probably he would have avoided this humilation. 170 THE MERCURY. We do not believe that it would be wise to put all power of government into the hands of the students, but we believe they should be given some power. Where could be found a more fitting place for teaching the lessons of citizenship than in the govermental affairs of a college ? Our students have demonstrated that they are capable of taking up the various activities of college life and of hand-ling them successfully. We have our athletic council. In that council are representatives from every class. Why couldn't cooperative college government be run on the same plan ? The Faculty or Trustees electing their members, and each class electing theirs, this body being given full legislative power. Then a committee of students appointed by this couucil to educate the new men with the legislation, this same committee to watch a young man after he had been reported by some student for neglect or misconduct. Then if he persists in his efforts, cautioned, and then if he heeds not, brought before the com-mittee and then if they find him incorrigible, reported to the faculty, who finding out all the facts in the case take definite action. With a system of this kind, we think the faculty would be relieved of much of its burdensome care, and that all hazing and " rough housing " would be eliminated ; for those most annoyed, certainly would report to the committee and this committee being a body of honorable men could do nothing other than deal justice. Also a greater college spirit would be created, for no man would be permitted to become boorish in his manner, and each would know that part of the welfare of the college rested upon him the same as the true citizen knows that part of the nation's welfare rests upon him. When we get a system of college government such as this, then College Spirit will be a kin to Patriotism. THE MERCURY. 171 STUDENT AND COLLEGE LIFE—A LIFE LONG RELATION. ROY E. SMITH, '08. EVER since the custom of having a particular sight, dedi. cated to the instruction of those wishing to become more fully acquainted with the higher learning in science, philosophy, rhetoric and all departments of knowledge, was instituted; since certain ancients, renowned in their knowledge of certain arts, had their "schools" of followers, there has been a relation preserved between master and pupil; between their alma-mater and themselves, rivaling the ties of home and kindred and ever remembered as one of the dearest of their lives. What is this relation which binds with bonds of affection so strong that they last for a life time ? Why is it that we cling to one and repudiate the other ? ' It is the old story of affection through association. Since the beginning of time men have regarded with affection and left with regret things which may have seemed despicable to them at first. The thief does not follow his craft for love of it when he first takes it up, but later he glories in narrow es-capes and gloats over a successful raid. So it is with our college life. We, in time, become a part of our surroundings and when the time comes for our graduation, or when we must of necessity leave, it is with a pang of regret as if we were losing something that held a peculiarly warm spot in our hearts. And we are. For what is like the friendships formed be-tween instructors and those whom they teach ? What besides home affections, can rival those formed with our fellow stu-dents? Those who, having passed through their college life, are struggling with the difficult problems presented to them by the world can best answer these questions. How often do they live over again the good old days when they were Fresh-men ? They can again hear the soft knock at their door and feel over again their sensations of wonder, and then of terror, as they see man after man enter to demand entertainment. Then they thought that something like shame and humility 172 THE MERCURY. crept in as they rowed an imaginary boat in a veritable tem-pest for an imaginary shore, or gave extemporaneous speeches on subjects suggested by the audience. But no touch of bit-terness entered in now. Those things which appeared inde-corous then served only to stamp more vividly in their minds the wonderfnl good-fellowship which underlay all their gruff manners. They even wondered how they escaped getting it harder. Then they would think of their first admittance, involun-tarily and unwished for, let it be said, into the presence of the faculty; and of their mingled feelings as they were told that it was for the good of the College, generally, that they keep out of all scrapes or else go home. Truly these roses, albeit with their thorns, appear sweet and the thorns, as well as the roses, help to bind one more closely to his undergraduate life and also to his Alma Mater. Can we ever forget our undergraduate days ? As well forget the home of our childhood, or the love of a faithful friend ! A TOURNAMENT. LEVERING TYSON, '09. IN the central part of Germany, situated along the banks of the Rhine, and overlooking its surface, stood the stern fore-boding castle of Prince Vonholm. This imposing structure had been the residence of the Vonholm's for many centuries, and the aged, ivy grown walls had long since begun to crumble. The Prince and his family moved into the lowlands, shutting up the habitable part of the ancestral home, seeking the pleas-ures of court life and the education of his children. The Princes' one care was his son Richard. He was a stocky, medium-sized young fellow, muscular and especially well suited for the tournament, the principle source of amusement to the aristocrats of that day. It so happened that Sir Henry Dismusch, a favorite of the king, also had a son about Roger Vonholm's age. He was skilled in all manner of war-like exercises and held the office of head 'squire in the king's retinue. This he acquired by his strict attention to af- THE MERCURY. 173 fairs of the court and also by the aid of his father who, next to Prince Vonholm, was considered the best knight in all the country round about. While Henry Dismusch, Jr., was coursing with his father with blunt spears, Roger Vonholm would take his horse and game bag and would ride off into the woods, leaving the mes-sage that he was going hunting. This he continued to do for two years. Every evening he would come home, completely, tired out with his exertions, but with empty game bag; Yet he was as cheerful as any one in good health could possibly be. His mother was busy tending to Court affairs and his father was off to the war, so Roger's only companion was a middle aged soldier whom the Prince always left at home while he was away on his travels to guard his family. This soldier was the constant companion of Roger and was always by his side on his journeys through the woods; so the Princess Vonholm was not greatly alarmed about the safety of her son. Near the summer residence of the Vonholm's were the huge lists of Crancy. The arena was oval-shaped, six hundred feet long and about four hundred wide. Around this was a circular enclosure about twelve feet wide for the attendants, clerks of the course, and the heralds. This was to be the scene of one of the most interesting tournaments held within many miles of the castle. The young Squire Henry Dismusch was going to defend his title as head squire against all comers. Only young men under twenty years of age were eligible to compete for the honor. A contest of this kind had never been held in the Crancy lists, and the people of the surrounding country did all in their power to please their sovereign by their atten-dance. The all important day dawned fair and cloudless. Before it was time to commence the contest, every available seat in the huge amphitheatre was occupied, and still huge crowds surged through the entrances. Sir Dismusch and his family were seated near the king, awaiting with confidence the combats which meant so much to them. Prince Vonholm sat next to the king watching the surges of humanity for his son, who, for ,^,'^WuH'iti u 174 THE MERCURY. some reason or other, was delayed and could not accompany his father to the lists. At last the Prince turned his attention to the games, as the heralds had announced the preliminary contests. They were well waged but of little interest to the king and his court. These were awaiting anxiously the challenge fight for head 'squireship. The heralds had no sooner announced the proclamation of the knight defender, than a trumpet blast sounded from the far end of the lists, and there entered the arena a knight clad all in sable armor with a white cross upon his shield and a leopard rampant upon his helmet, accompanied by a knight clad all in crimson armor, a gold cross upon his shield and a double eagle on his helmet. The sable knight came forward to the centre of the lists, and raising the visor of his helmet, showed himself to be, King Howard, the brother of the king, the ruler of the neighboring kingdom. He acted as voucher for the knight challenger, saying that he wished to keep his identity unknown until after the contest. The heralds then sounded their trumpets for the contest to start. Various preliminaries were gone through, until at last the knight in crimson armor stood stock still at the northern end of the lists and the knight defendant, at the opposite station. The unknown knight was armed with a sword, mace, and dagger, and rode a huge black charger. His opponent be-strode a milk white steed and his armor was entirely white. He carried a mace hung at his saddle bow, and besides his dagger also carried^a kind of truncheon, a cross between a sword and one of the huge coursing spears generally used in tourna-ments. This last weapon was just becoming popular with the younger knights and 'squires, and Henry Dismusch had also adopted it. It could be convenien-tly wielded on horseback and was not as bulky as the spear. At the blast of the herald's trumpet, both men dug the spurs into the flanks of the horses and thundered down the lists nearer and nearer to each other. With the noise like a clap of thunder the two chargers met and recoiled, each rider doing his best to unseat the other. After the first recoil, the knights m THE MERCURY. 175 fought fiercely hand to hand. The horse of the unknown knight was unruly and the spectators could see that his actions were greatly retarding the strokes of his rider. The combat clashed on. The knight challenger was charging to meet the attack of the knight defendant, when his horse suddenly reared and received the point of the truncheon in his side. Giving a snort, he jumped forward, unseating his rider and falling heavily to the earth a short distance away, dragging the un-known knight with him in his fall. Then the knight defender seeing the knight challenger at his mercy rode over to him to end the contest. Riding his horse beside his fallen opponent, he thrust at him with his truncheon. The knight on the ground was powerless to rise, as the weight of his armor was too great for him. He knew death was imminent and waited for the finishing stroke. When the blow from the truncheon fell he seized the truncheon above the head and held. Had the knight chalen-ger just let go of the handle or stopped his steed, he would have conquered the fallen knight easily. The horse sprang forward and the very stroke that should have ended the knight's career was the means of saving him. He was dragged along the ground for a short distance and then managed to seize his opponent's stirrup. With this aid, he managed to seize the mace hanging to the saddle bow; and tearing it from its fas-tenings, with a mighty blow struck the knight challenger full in the neck and hurled him completely from the saddle. The clerks of the course declared the contest won by the knight challenger F.nd ran up just in time to catch him as he fell from exhaustion. A mighty shout arose when the result of the contest was seen ; but this changed to a roar, when the victor's name was declared by the herald. The surprise and wonder were universal and the amazement of the king was great, but none were more surprised or dumbfounded than Prince Von-holm ; for the name of the victor, which the herald announced, was " Richard Vonholm, this day rightlead squire to his Majesty, King Frederick." M tt,.»:\i,.'iii u THE MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter VOL. XIV GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1906 No. 6 Associate Editors GEO. W. KESSI.BR, '08 J. K. ROBB, '08 EDMUND L. MANGES, '08 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Editor-in-chief WARD B. S. RICE, '07 Exchange Editor THOS. E. SHEARER, '07 Business Manager THOMAS A. FAUST, '07 AssH Bus. Managers. HENRY M. BOWER, '08 H. WATSON DAVISON, '08 Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. POETRY. W e will acknowledge that some persons are more poetic in their thoughts than others, yet we believe that there are a larger number who could write poetry worth reading, if they would make the attempt. There is more of the mechanical in writing poetry than appears on the surface. In reading a poem we are so affected with the loftiness ot thought or the elegance of style that we do not think of the ground work or THE MERCURY. 177 plan by which it was effected. Poetry is not idle rhyme but a well developed plan, the discription of a beautiful thought. We notice a great difference between poetry and prose, both in style and effect. This distinction is difficult to describe; just as the metallic lustre, of a mineral, we know it is a prop-erty but can not thoroughly define it." We notice that poetry is more ornate; it is crowded with thought and beauty ; it pierces the very soul. For example take the quotation from Bell: " Rich were the sable robes she wore." This is animat-ing and suggestive ; but suppress the emphasis by a rearrange-ment of the words : " She wore rich sable robes." You now notice how flattered, how less attractive it is. Often too, rhyme lends charm to the poem, though not necssarily so, as some of the best are written in blank verse. The requisites for writing worthy poetry are out of the ordinary, but by no means unat-tainable. Furthermore we must not think that our work has been a failure because it does not measure up to the master-pieces, which are often the work of genius or years of exper-ience. THE READING One of the most important advantages afforded ROOMS. the students by the college authorities is the reading rooms and the provision for the management of the same. It is there that we have placed before us the daily news-papers, the weekly and monthly magazines. In them we have news of all kinds ; the daily occurrences and happenings, the papers depicting the sportive side of life, and the magazines which contain the latest discussions, from different points of view, by men who are leaders and thinkers. We are obliged to search the pages of history for the past, but we only have to open our eyes to see the present as it is being acted before us. It is surprising to note the small number who really take advantage of this great opportunity, and to see the large number of magazines on the shelves during the open hours. Many confine most of their time to the athletic news and the papers of jest. We do not condemn a certain amount of this kind of reading-but are obliged to do so when it is engaged in to a i78 THE MERCURY. fault. Our ignorance of the times places us at a decided dis-advantage especially in college life. We are unable to handle impromptu speaking ; we will find ourselves lacking in material for -debate, and are at a loss as to what to write on an essay subject, if we have not read an thus formed some opinion and conclusion of our own. Let us form a conclusion of our own, for what we have read is only an opinion and one of the pos-sible attitudes to the subject. By reading we become ac-quainted with the facts from which we are able to draw our conclusion. A short time each day spent in the reading rooms is not only the privilege but the duty of every one who is seek-ing a thorough college training. M The question ot literary societies is an old LITERARY SOCIETIES. Qne^ but js of such jmportance that it can not be emphasized to often. There seems to be somewhat of a renewal of the literary spirit this year; the weekly meetings show a larger attendance and a new enthusiasm in the work. This is to be highly commended ; for we can not say too much of the influence which this kind of work has upon those who actively engage in it. It seems to broaden a man in every way ; he learns to think and talk before audiences without pre-vious preparation; it is a good help in training one to express his thoughts clearly and concisely; one is soon aware of a cer-tain ease with which he recites his lessons; there is even noti-ceable more freedom in ordinary conversation. Over one half of the first term has passed. Have you joined one of the so-cieties ? If you have not done so, do it at once. Either one of them will amply repay you for the time spent in it. How-ever we do not wish to be understood to say that your name upon the roll or even your presence at the meetings will bene-fit you ; those facts only give you the opportunity; you must do the rest. For a time it may be burdensome for you to take part in the program, but through constant effort it will soon be-come a pleasure. We assure you that if you join with a de-termination to work, and make service your motto, success will be yours. THE MERCURY. 179 EXCHANGES. There are many excellent points about the exchanges this month, among which is an article in The Dickinsonian written by an alumnus, " Preparing a Debate." The writer is an ex-perienced and successful debatorand consequently the methods which he sets forth should not be passed over lightly by those who are desirous of becoming good debators. Only a few of the points can be reproduced here. " A debate is not won alone by the brilliant work done upon the platform, but is largely won in the laborious and silent days of preparation. It is then that they construct their line of defense and obtain the undeniable facts upon which they are to erect their fortress of argument. * * * * Again a whole volume of argument must be contracted into a ten minute thunderbolt, and victory usually rests with the men who can make the most of that fleeting ten minutes. This work requires ability and carelul thought. * * * * We collected all of the arguments, pro and con, and discussed them. Our next move was to construct as strong a brief as we possibly could of our opponents' case. This is well as it forces one to build his own case with a thorough understand-ing of the opposition, and he therefore puts a truer valuation on the worth of the arguments which enter into his brief of debate. After this was done we began the construction of our own cose. * * * * We took up every possible argu-ment for our opponents and carefully prepared an answer to each point which we thought they might present. Do not de-pend on constructing answers on your feet, from your general knowledge of the subject, but be prepared with facts, skill-fully marshalled, under whose fire their arguments will be swept away. In addition to this we endeavored to anticipate the possible answers which our opponents would make to our own arguments and to construct counter rebuttals." In addi-tion to all this, physical training is necessary ; for " nothing so requires vigor and thorough command of one's nerves as a debate contest; " so this debator trained just like an athlete. He was careful of his eating hours and of what he ate; he avoided pastry and most desserts; he took an extra amount of i8o THE MERCURY. light exercise in the open air, and took plenty of sleep—never buring the midnight oil. So when the night of debate came he was in the best possible condition both mentally and phy-sically. His success has given ample proof of the efficiency of his methods. " Extinction of The American Indian " in The Drury Mirror is one of those articles, often met with, which seem to be products of over-heated brains, or diseased imaginations. Do you think that it was after a calm, deliberate and just in-vestigation of the facts that the following was written ? " Call not this result barbarism succumbing to civilization ; call it not the survival of the fittest; call it rather the result of hypo-critical intrigue, of broken agreements. Let us lay the charge of this terrible obliteration at the doors of our own character. Avaricious, we mercilessly seized the Indian's lands; domi-neering, we overrode the rights of the Redman and disre-regarded our duty to him ; impatient, we refused the savage time and opportunity to accustom himself to the great change civilization brought; non-assimilative, we said, " the only good Indian was a dead one." * * * * And now! The last chapter has been written ; "congress, the vote-seeking, hold-out-your- had-for money congress, although breaking treaties and agreements, although shattering the sacred ho^e of the terri-tory Indians for separate statehood, has done the thing most feared and dreaded—brought Indian Territory and Oklahoma into the Union as one state, under the name Oklahoma." We are glad to acknowledge receipt of the following ex-changes : Otterbein Aegis, The Haverfordian, Western Mary-land Monthly, The Oivl, The Philomathean Monthly, The Col-lege Student, The Drnry Mirror, The Augsburg S. S. Teacher, The Mountaineer, The Dickinsonian, The State Collegian, The Forum, The Crimson and White, The Albright Bulletin, The Argus, The Youth's Companion, The Siisquehanna, The Jitniatd Echo, 'The Amulet, The Manitou Messenger, The Hartivick Seminary Monthly, The Augustana Observer, The High School News, (Lancaster), The Viatorian, and The Midland. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISER'S FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. H. IB. IBend-er 37 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. The Windsor Hotel 1217=2 Filbert St., Philadelphia. Headquarters for Students. Thoroughly Renovated, Refurnished and Remodeled FRANK M. SCHEIBLEY, Manager. ^Graduate of Lafayette College 1898. A* G. Spalding & Bros. Largest Manufacturers in the World of Official Athletic Supplies Base Ball Lawn Tennis Foot Ball Archery Roque Quoits Cricket Lacrosse Golf Implements for all Sports Spalding's Official Base Ball Guide for 1906. Edited by Henry Chadwick. The most complete and up-to-date book ever published oh the subject. Fully illustrated. Price 10 Cents. Spalding's Official League Ball is the adopted ball of the National League, and must be used in all match games. Every requisite for Lawn Ten-nis and Golf. For over a quarter of a century Spalding's Trade-Mark on Base Ball implements has marked the advancement in this particular sport. Spalding's Trade Mark on our Athletic Implement gives you an advantage over the other player as you have a better article, lasts longer, gives more satisfaction. Every Base Ball Manager should send at oncefor a copy of Spalding's Spring and Sun:' mer Catalogue—FREE. A. G. SPALDING «S BROS. New York, Chicago, Boston, Buffalo, Washington, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Kansas City, Montreal, Canada, New Orleans, London. England, Denver, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Syracuse, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Baltimore, Hamburg, Germany PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. 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