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External events have dominated economic developments for Indonesia over the past quarter. The outlook for global growth has weakened and the euro zone sovereign debt crisis has intensified. International risk aversion and market volatility have increased, although they remain well below levels seen in late 2008. Equity markets have fallen and emerging markets have seen capital outflows, putting downward pressure on their currencies. Indonesia's domestic economic performance has continued to be strong but, as in other countries in the region, its financial markets have not been immune from this turbulence. Indonesia's domestic drivers of growth, its solid fiscal position, accumulation of reserves, and strengthened financial sector performance make it relatively well-placed to deal with shocks arising from the above scenarios. This improved resilience to external shocks, and a strong policy response, was seen during the 2008- 09 crisis. The final piece looks at the core development challenge of how to make growth more inclusive, as well as higher, focusing on an analysis of the province of East java.

Detailed Assessment of Observance ; This assessment is focused on the Superintendencia de Seguros de la Nacion (SSN) in Argentina. SSN has responsibility for regulation and supervision of all players in the insurance market. In addition to its role as a supervisor, SSN has powers to issue regulations, is responsible for advising the executive on issues related to insurance, and can propose draft bills. The laws are passed by the national legislative branch and enacted by the national executive branch. The assessment was performed using the 2007 version of the core principles for insurance supervision issued by the International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS). This paper is structured into following four parts: part one is information and methodology used for the assessment; part two is institutional and macro prudential setting, part three gives summary assessment; and part four gives authorities' responses.

Biologically diverse ecosystems in countries served by the World Bank provide an array of valuable economic services. While the benefits of conserving ecosystems frequently outweigh the costs, conversion of these ecosystems to other uses occurs anyway, because many ecosystem benefits are of a public good nature, without markets that would reflect their real value. The objective of this paper was defined at a Concept review meeting held on December 2009 and is to increase the understanding on how biodiversity is incorporated in a development agency such as the World Bank Group (WBG) and how the WBG can enhance its role in biodiversity and ecosystems protection and management as a key ingredient to reach development sustainability. In order to define a reasonable strategy to prepare this paper, two approaches were used: the first was to carry out background and analytical studies, and the second was to consult with a wide range of stakeholders including Bank staff, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and indigenous groups. Biodiversity provides many instrumental benefits, from food and fuel to recreation. But even where biodiversity is not immediately instrumental, it represents global public goods that must be protected, if only for their potential value in the future. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has been the mainstay of grants implemented by the Bank ($1.4 billion) for biodiversity conservation and management, but the Bank has itself committed $2 billion in loans and has leveraged $2.9 billion in co-financing.

This paper focuses on how growth theory can guide growth policy design. It first argues that policy matters for growth, in particular when policy variables are interacted with country?specific variables (financial development, institutional environment, technological development, and so forth). Second, it argues that the Schumpeterian paradigm does a better job at delivering policy prescriptions that vary with country characteristics. Third, it discusses the advantages and drawbacks of growth regression analysis. Finally, it briefly describes and then questions the recently proposed 'growth diagnostic' approach.

This publication targets private sector stakeholders who want to reduce a company s risk and vulnerability to corruption. It aims to provide guidance and recommendations for integrating ethics programs into corporate governance mechanisms to safeguard against corruption. Anti-corruption attitudes have changed significantly over the past two decades. Corruption is no longer regarded as a subject to be avoided and is now widely condemned for its damaging effect on countries, industries, governments, and the livelihoods of individual citizens. More importantly, the view of the private sector in the corruption equation is changing. Companies are no longer viewed only as facilitators of corruption - they are increasingly recognized as victims and a valuable source of working solutions, and anti-corruption efforts seen as integral to good corporate governance, Predictable, competitive, and fair economic environments free of corruption are central to sustainable business, economic growth and national development. It has been an easier task to raise this awareness than to reduce the corrosive effects of corruption, especially its worst manifestation of state capture. And though the challenge defies simple solutions, significant progress is being made. Today we have in place numerous international conventions and global collective action initiatives that set higher standards of transparency and accountability in corporate and public governance. More importantly, such standards are buttressed by a growing convergence of ethical values that set the tone for 'doing the right thing' in both the public and private sectors.

The public expenditure and institutional assessment (PEIA) were motivated by a number of factors. First, both the Government of Iraq (GoI) and its international development partners have recognized the critical importance of sound management of Iraq's substantial public financial resources. Both parties support the reform and modernization of public financial management (PFM), as articulated in the International Compact for Iraq (ICI). Secondly, international experience demonstrates the importance of establishing a baseline against which progress in PFM over time can be measured. This implies the need for an assessment which provides the information necessary to measure the performance of a country's PFM system. Thirdly, the devastating circumstances in Iraq during the past 5 years have made the institutional arrangements for PFM the subject of considerable uncertainty. The PEIA can help to shape and prioritize the necessary development program. The report is organized in two main parts. Volume one contains a summary of the main issues to emerge from the public expenditure and financial accountability (PEFA) assessment and a discussion of a number of specific PFM issues of current importance to Iraq, including: capital investment budgeting (CIB), oil revenue management, the Iraq financial management information system (IFMIS), public accounting and accountability, and payroll management. Volume two contains a detailed technical analysis behind the PEFA assessment.

The paper focuses its analysis on the last three decades of the twentieth century. The basic assumption is that Egypt's economic performance during this period was less than satisfactory compared with the most successful examples in the far East and elsewhere. The paper also assumes that Egypt's initial conditions at midcentury compared favorably with the winners in the development race at the end of the century. Egypt has achieved positive progress, no doubt, yet compared with the higher performers in Asia, and given its favorable good initial conditions, the record seems quite mediocre. By mid-twentieth century, Egypt's agriculture had almost reached its limits. Egypt, therefore, faced a new challenge: a need to transform itself into an industrial society. This objective was only partially achieved. The paper identifies three interrelated factors that helped hinder Egypt's accession to a new industrial society. The first factor is a strong state and a weak society. An authoritarian state that in its endeavor to preserve its prerogatives had to give up good governance practices and limit the creative initiative of the individuals. The second factor is a semi-rentier economy. The availability of windfall revenues not only reduced the pressure for change but also promoted a new rentier mentality that undermined the emergence of an industrial spirit. The third factor is an inadequate education system. This system failed to provide the proper skills and values required for the industrial society. These factors, moreover, are interdependent and reinforce each other.

Nigeria's long-run growth performance has been extremely poor. Between 1960 and 2000, real income per capita grew at only 0.43 percent per year. The situation improved between 2001 and 2006 when real per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 4.2 percent. This paper demonstrates that the superior growth performance during 2001-06 is largely attributable to the impact of better leadership and economic policy making. The improved performance of the economy after 2003 arose from implementing a comprehensive economic reform program focusing on four main areas: macroeconomic reform; structural reform; governance and institutional reform; and public sector reform. The reforms, backstopped by improved oil revenue management, monetary policy implementation, and debt management, improved overall macroeconomic policy making. This resulted in real GDP growth averaging 7.1 percent per year between 2003 and 2006, an inflation rate of 10 percent in 2006, foreign exchange reserves of US$45 billion in 2006, and total external debt of only US$5 billion in 2006. Clearly, between 1960 and 2000, Nigeria's policy choices were poor, and the reforms that sought to correct them were plagued by inconsistencies, policy reversals, and lack of coherence. In contrast, due to good leadership, the reforms adopted in 2003 were consistent and have been implemented in a coherent manner.

The 1990s have witnessed several financial crises, of which the East Asia and Mexico tequila crises are perhaps the most well-known. What impact have these crises had on labor markets, household incomes, and poverty? Total employment fell by much less than production declines and even increased in some cases. However, these aggregates mask considerable churning in employment across sectors, employment status, and location. Economies that experienced the sharpest currency depreciations suffered the deepest cuts in real wages, though deeper cuts in real wages relative to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) were associated with smaller rises in unemployment. To some extent, families smoothed their incomes through increased labor force participation and private transfers, though the limited evidence available suggests that wealthier families were better able to smooth consumption. The initial impact of the crises was on the urban corporate sector, but rural households were affected as well and in some instances suffered deeper losses than did urban families. School enrollment declined, especially among poorer families, as did use of health facilities, but the impact on children's nutrition levels appears to vary. Crises have typically proved short-lived, but whether households plunged into poverty during a crisis is able to recover as the economy does remain an open question.

The unlicensed wireless spectrum offers exciting opportunities for developing innovative wireless applications. This has been true ever since the 2.4 GHz band and parts of the 5 GHz bands were first opened for unlicensed access worldwide. In recent years, the 5 GHz unlicensed bands have been one of the most coveted for launching new wireless services and applications due to their relatively superior propagation characteristics and the abundance of spectrum therein. However, the appetite for unlicensed spectrum seems to remain unsatiated; the demand for additional unlicensed bands has been never-ending. To meet this demand, regulators in the US and Europe have been considering unlicensed operations in the 5.9 GHz bands and in large parts of the 6 GHz bands. In the last two years alone, the Federal Communications Commission in the US has added more than 1.2 GHz of spectrum in the pool of unlicensed bands. Wi-Fi networks are likely to be the biggest beneficiaries of this spectrum. Such abundance of spectrum would allow massive improvements in the peak throughput and potentially allow a considerable reduction of latency, thereby enabling support for emerging wireless applications such as augmented and virtual reality, and mobile gaming using Wi-Fi over unlicensed bands. However, access to these bands comes with its challenges. Across the globe, a wide range of incumbent wireless technologies operate in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands. This includes weather and military radars, and vehicular communication systems in the 5 GHz bands, and fixed-service systems, satellite systems, and television pick-up stations in the 6 GHz bands. Furthermore, due to the development of several cellular-based unlicensed technologies (such as Licensed Assisted Access and New Radio Unlicensed, NR-U), the competition for channel access among unlicensed devices has also been increasing. Thus, coexistence across wireless technologies in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands has emerged as an extremely challenging and interesting research problem. In this dissertation, we first take a comprehensive look at the various coexistence scenarios that emerge in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands as a consequence of new regulatory decisions. These scenarios include coexistence between Wi-Fi and incumbent users (both in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands), coexistence of Wi-Fi and vehicular communication systems, coexistence across different vehicular communication technologies, and coexistence across different unlicensed systems. Since a vast majority of these technologies are fundamentally different from each other and serve diverse use-cases each coexistence problem is unique. Insights derived from an in-depth study of one coexistence problem do not help much when the coexisting technologies change. Thus, we study each scenario separately and in detail. In this process, we highlight the need for the design of novel coexistence mechanisms in several cases and outline potential research directions. Next, we shift our attention to coexistence between Wi-Fi and vehicular communication technologies designed to operate in the 5.9 GHz intelligent transportation systems (ITS) bands. Until the development of Cellular V2X (C-V2X), dedicated short range communications (DSRC) was the only major wireless technology that was designed for communication in high-speed and potentially dense vehicular settings. Since DSRC uses the IEEE 802.11p standard for its physical (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) layers, the manner in which DSRC and Wi-Fi devices try to gain access to the channel is fundamentally similar. Consequently, we show that spectrum sharing between these two technologies in the 5.9 GHz bands can be easily achieved by simple modifications to the Wi-Fi MAC layer. Since the design of C-V2X in 2017, however, the vehicular communication landscape has been fast evolving. Because DSRC systems were not widely deployed, automakers and regulators had an opportunity to look at the two technologies, consider their benefits and drawbacks and take a fresh look at the spectrum sharing scenario. Since Wi-Fi can now potentially share the spectrum with C-V2X at least in certain regions, we take an in-depth look at various Wi-Fi and C-V2X configurations and study whether C-V2X and Wi-Fi can harmoniously coexist with each other. We determine that because C-V2X is built atop cellular LTE, Wi-Fi and C-V2X systems are fundamentally incompatible with each other. If C-V2X and Wi-Fi devices are to share the spectrum, considerable modifications to the Wi-Fi MAC protocol would be required. Another equally interesting scenario arises in the 6 GHz bands, where 5G NR-U and Wi-Fi devices are likely to operate on a secondary shared basis. Since the 6 GHz bands were only recently considered for unlicensed access, these bands are free from Wi-Fi and NR-U devices. As a result, the greenfield 6 GHz bands provide a unique and rare opportunity to freshly evaluate the coexistence between Wi-Fi and cellular-based unlicensed wireless technologies. We study this coexistence problem by developing a stochastic geometry-based analytical model. We see that by disabling the listen before talk based legacy contention mechanism---which has been used by Wi-Fi devices ever since their conception---the performance of both Wi-Fi and NR-U systems can improve. This has important implications in the 6 GHz bands, where such legacy transmissions can indeed be disabled because Wi-Fi devices, for the first time since the design of IEEE 802.11a, can operate in the 6 GHz bands without any backward compatibility issues. In the course of studying the aforementioned coexistence problems, we identified several gaps in the literature on the performance analysis of C-V2X and IEEE 802.11ax---the upcoming Wi-Fi standard. We address three such gaps in this dissertation. First, we study the performance of C-V2X sidelink mode 4, which is the communication mode in C-V2X that allows direct vehicular communications (i.e., without assistance from the cellular infrastructure). Using our in-house standards-compliant network simulator-3 (ns-3) simulator, we perform simulations to evaluate the performance of C-V2X sidelink mode 4 in highway environments. In doing so, we identify that packet re-transmissions, which is a feature introduced in C-V2X to provide frequency and time diversity, thereby improving the system performance, can have the opposite effect if the vehicular density increases. In fact, packet re-transmissions are beneficial for C-V2X system performance only at low vehicular densities. Thus, if vehicles are statically configured to always use/disable re-transmissions, the maximum potential of this feature is not realized. Therefore, we propose a simple and effective, distributed re-transmission control mechanism named Channel Congestion Based Re-transmission Control (C2RC), which leverages the locally available channel sensing results to allow vehicles to autonomously decide when to switch on re-transmissions and when to switch them off. Second, we present a detailed analysis of the performance of Multi User Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (MU OFDMA)---a feature newly introduced in IEEE 802.11ax---in a wide range of deployment scenarios. We consider the performance of 802.11ax networks when the network comprises of only 802.11ax as well as a combination of 802.11ax and legacy stations. The latter is a practical scenario, especially during the initial phases of 802.11ax deployments. Simulation results, obtained from our ns-3 based simulator, give encouraging signs for 802.11ax performance in many real-world scenarios. That being said, there are some scenarios where naive usage of MU OFDMA by an 802.11ax-capable Wi-Fi AP can be detrimental to the overall system performance. Our results indicate that careful consideration of network dynamics is critical in exploiting the best performance, especially in a heterogeneous Wi-Fi network. Finally, we perform a comprehensive simulation study to characterize the performance of Multi Link Aggregation (MLA) in IEEE 802.11be. MLA is a novel feature that is likely to be introduced in next-generation Wi-Fi (i.e., Wi-Fi 7) devices and is aimed at reducing the worst-case latency experienced by Wi-Fi devices in dense traffic environments. We study the impact of different traffic densities on the 90 percentile latency of Wi-Fi packets and identify that the addition of a single link is sufficient to substantially bring down the 90 percentile latency in many practical scenarios. Furthermore, we show that while the addition of subsequent links is beneficial, the largest latency gain in most scenarios is experienced when the second link (i.e., one additional) link is added. Finally, we show that even in extremely dense traffic conditions, if a sufficient number of links are available at the MLA-capable transmitter and receiver, MLA can help Wi-Fi devices to meet the latency requirements of most real-time applications. ; Doctor of Philosophy ; Wireless networks have become ubiquitous in our lives today. Whether it is cellular connectivity on our mobile phones or access to Wi-Fi hotspots on laptops, tablets, and smartphones, never before has wireless communication been as integral to our lives as it is today. In many wireless communication systems, wireless devices operate by sending signals to and receiving signals from a central entity that connects to the wired Internet infrastructure. In the case of cellular networks, this entity is the cell tower deployed by the operators (such as ATandT, Verizon, etc. in the US), while the Wi-Fi router deployed in homes and offices plays this role in Wi-Fi networks. There is also another class of wireless systems, where wireless devices communicate with each other without requiring to communicate with any central entity. An example of such a distributed communication system---which is fast gaining popularity---is vehicular ommunication networks. End-user devices (e.g. cellphone, laptop, tablet, or a vehicle) can communicate with each other or the central entity only if they are both tuned to the same frequency channel. This channel can lie anywhere within the radio frequency spectrum, but some frequency channels (the collection of channels is referred to as frequency bands) are more favorable--in terms of how far the signal sent over these channels can reach--than others. Another dimension to these frequency bands is the licensing mechanism. Not all frequency bands are free to use. In fact, most frequency bands in the US and other parts of the world are licensed by the regional regulatory agencies. The most well-known example of this licensing framework is the cellular network. Cellular operators spend large amounts of money (to the tune of billions of dollars) to gain the privileges of exclusively operating in a given frequency band. No other operator or wireless device is then allowed to operate in this band. Without any external interfering wireless device, cellular operators can guarantee a certain quality of service that is provided to its customers. Thus, the benefits of using licensed frequency bands are obvious but these bands and their associated benefits come at a high price. An alternative to licensed frequency bands are the unlicensed ones. As the name suggests, unlicensed frequency bands are those where any two or more wireless devices can communicate with each other (subject to certain rules) without having to pay any licensing fees. Unsurprisingly, because there is no limit to who or how many devices can communicate over these bands, wireless devices in these bands frequently experience external interference, which manifests to the end-user in terms of interruption of service. The best example of a wireless technology that uses unlicensed bands is Wi-Fi. One of the greatest advantages of Wi-Fi networks is that anyone can purchase a Wi-Fi router and deploy it within their homes or offices--flexibility not afforded by licensed bands. However, this very flexibility and ease-of-use can sometimes contribute negatively to Wi-Fi performance. Arguably, we have all faced scenarios where the performance of Wi-Fi is poor. This is most likely to happen in scenarios where there are hundreds (or even thousands) of neighboring Wi-Fi devices, such as at stadiums, railway stations, concerts, etc. Based on our discussions above, it is clear as to why Wi-Fi performance suffers in such scenarios. Thus, although unlicensed bands are lucrative in terms of low-cost, and ease of use, there is no guarantee on how good a voice/video call or a video streaming session conducted over Wi-Fi will be. The above problem is well-known and well-researched. Regulators, researchers, and service providers actively seek solutions to offer better performance over unlicensed bands. An obvious solution is to make more unlicensed bands available; if all neighboring Wi-Fi users communicate with their respective routers on different channels, everyone could communicate interference-free. The problem, however, is that frequency bands are limited. Even more limited are those bands that support wireless communications over larger distances. Another solution is to improve the wireless technologyif a Wi-Fi device can more efficiently utilize the channel, its performance is likely to improve. This fact has driven the constant evolution of all wireless technologies. However, there are fundamental limits to how much a frequency channel can be exploited. Therefore, in recent years, stakeholders have turned to spectrum sharing. Even though a wireless network may possess an exclusive license to operate on a given frequency band, its users do not use the band everywhere and at all times. Then why not allow unlicensed wireless devices to operate in this band at such places and times? This is precisely the premise of spectrum sharing. In this dissertation, we look at the problem of coexistence between wireless technologies in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands. These two bands are extremely lucrative in terms of their relatively favorable propagation characteristics (i.e., their communication range) and the abundance of spectrum therein. Consequently, these bands have garnered considerable attention in recent years with the objective of opening these bands up for unlicensed services. However, the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands are home to several licensed systems, and the performance of these systems cannot be compromised if unlicensed operations are allowed. Significant activity has taken place since 2013 concerning new technologies being developed, new spectrum sharing scenarios being proposed, and new rules being adopted in these two bands. We begin the dissertation by taking a comprehensive look at these issues, describing the various coexistence scenarios, surveying the existing literature, describing the major challenges, and providing directions for potential research. Next, we look at three coexistence problems in detail: (i) coexistence of dedicated short range communications (DSRC) and Wi-Fi, (ii) coexistence of cellular V2X (C-V2X) and Wi-Fi, and (iii) coexistence of 5G New Radio Unlicensed (5G NR-U) and Wi-Fi. The former two scenarios involve the coexistence of Wi-Fi with a vehicular communication technology (DSRC or C-V2X). These scenarios arose due to considerations in the US and Europe to allow Wi-Fi operations (on an unlicensed secondary basis) in the spectrum that was originally reserved for vehicular communications. Our work shows that because DSRC and Wi-Fi are built on top of fundamentally similar protocols, they are, to an extent, compatible with each other, and coexistence between these two technologies can be achieved by relatively simple modifications to the Wi-Fi protocol. However, C-V2X, owing to its inheritance from the cellular LTE, is not compatible with Wi-Fi. Consequently, significant research is required if the two technologies are to share the spectrum. On the other hand, in the coexistence of 5G NR-U and Wi-Fi, we focus on the operations of these two technologies in the 6 GHz bands. NR-U is a technology that is built atop the 5G cellular system, but is designed to operate in the unlicensed bands (in contrast to traditional cellular systems which only operate in licensed bands). Although these two technologies can coexist in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands, we restrict our attention in this dissertation to the 6 GHz bands. This is because the 6 GHz bands are unique in that the entire range of the 6 GHz bands were opened up for unlicensed access all at once recently, and no Wi-Fi or NR-U devices currently operate in these bands. As a result, we can learn from the mistakes made in the 5 GHz bands, where a vast majority of today's Wi-Fi networks operate. Our work shows that, indeed, we can take decisive steps---such as disabling certain Wi-Fi functions---in the 6 GHz bands, which can facilitate better coexistence in the 6 GHz bands. Finally, in the course of identifying and tackling the various coexistence scenarios in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands, we identify some open issues in the performance of new wireless technologies designed to operate in these bands. Specifically, we highlight the need to better understand and characterize the performance of Multi User Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (MU OFDMA), a feature common in cellular networks but newly introduced to Wi-Fi, in the upcoming Wi-Fi 6 generation of devices. We propose and evaluate an analytical model for the same. We also characterize the performance of Multi Link Aggregation---which a novel feature likely to be introduced in future Wi-Fi 7 devices---that is aimed at reducing the worst-case delay experienced by Wi-Fi devices in dense traffic conditions. Additionally, we identify an issue in the performance of the distributed operational mode of C-V2X. We show that packet re-transmissions, which is a feature aimed at improving the performance of C-V2X, can have a counter-productive effect and degrade the C-V2X performance in certain environments. We address this issue by proposing a simple, yet effective, re-transmission control mechanism.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Talak-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 572 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 530 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 21 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 21 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 26 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 1 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 36 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 6 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 24 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 16 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 24 per cent loamy soils and 53 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 87 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 36 per cent is medium (101-150mm/m) and 27 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 83 per cent area and high (>337 kg/ha) in 10 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 2 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 91 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 28 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 53 (9) Guava - - Maize - 53 (9) Sapota - - Bajra - 53 (9) Pomegranate - 8 (1) Groundnut - - Musambi - 8 (1) Sunflower - 8 (1) Lime - 8 (1) Redgram - 53 (9) Amla - - Bengal gram - 8 (1) Cashew - - Cotton - 8 (1) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 8 (1) Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - 8 (1) Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 8 (1) Marigold - 8 (1) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 8 (1) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 81 (57.45%) men and 60 (42.55%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.3, marginal farmers' was 3.7, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 3.8 and medium farmers' was 4.3.  The data indicated that, 17 (126%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 65 (46.1%) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (344%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (7.8%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Talak-2 had 32.62 per cent illiterates, 18.44 per cent of them had primary school, 14.89 per cent of them had middle school, 27.66 per cent of them had high school education, 4.96 per cent of them had PUC, and 0.71 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 54.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 37.14 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.86 per cent of the household's heads were General Labour and trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 21.28 per cent of the household members, 53.9 per cent were agricultural laborers, 3.55 per cent were in general labour, 2.13 per cent were private service and children, 1.42 per cent were trade and business, 10.64 per cent were student and 4.96 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.57 per cent of the households possess thatched, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house. 17.14 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house and 2.86 per cent of the households possess semi pacca.  The results show that 54.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.14 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households possess bicycle, landline phone and computer /laptop, motor cycle per cent of the households possess 31.43, 5.71 per cent of the households possess Auto and 60 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,026, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,133, bicycle was Rs. 5,000, motor cycle was Rs. 57,818, landline phone was Rs. 5,000, mobile phone was Rs. 2,437 and computer/laptop was Rs. 40,000.  About 5.71 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 40 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill and irrigation pump, 14.29 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 14.29 2 per cent of the households possess weeder and 8.57 per cent of the households possess thresher.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 21,600, plough was Rs. 7,092, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 7,000, irrigation pump was Rs. 10,000, sprayer was Rs. 3,100, Sprinkler was Rs. 3,750, weeder was Rs. 164 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 145.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 17.14 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.71 per cent of the households possess crossbreed and 2.86 per cent of the households possess Buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, average own labour (women) available was 1.38, average hired labour (men) available was 8.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.81.  The results indicate that, 68.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 22.86 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results show that, 2.13 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has migrated.  The results show that, average distance of migration was 500 kms and average duration of migration was 11 months.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population has migrated for the purpose of job/wage/work in micro-watershed.  The results indicate that, households of the Talak-2 micro-watershed possess 50.94 ha (86.6%) of dry land and 13.4 ha (13.40%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.53 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.51 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 18.35 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 12.55 ha (61.41%) of dry land and 7.88 ha (38.59%).  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 222,743.52 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 304,312.11. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 544,169.80 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 211,828.48 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 163,395.81 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 127,483.87 for dry land and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 304,312.11.  The results indicate that, there were 2 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.5 ha), red gram (44.43 ha), groundnut (5.34 ha), sorghum (3.8 ha), green gram (22 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), paddy (11 ha) and black gram (0.97 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and black gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and 3 cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, sorghum, green gram and paddy. Medium farmers have grown red gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Talak-2 micro-watershed was found to be 94.5 per cent.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households have bank account and 65.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 222.86 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 21.74 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 4.35 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative bank, 8.70 per cent of the households have borrowed from friends / relatives, grameena bank and 4.35 per cent of the households have borrowed from money lender.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 36,173.91.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 83.33 per cent of the households not paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 32651.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 81689.26. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 490387. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.5.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 32092.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48090.90. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 159986. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 30058.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49221.51. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 191631. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.64.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 11389.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 215255. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 10135.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.89.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 26600.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 480354. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. 21434.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.81.  The total cost of cultivation for Maize was Rs. 492983. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22328.80. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. - 26969.23. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.45. 4  The results indicate that, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 19,666.67 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 81,318.18, for small farmers it was Rs. 136,440.63, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 170,285.71 and medium farmers it was Rs. 105,133.33.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,087.57. For landless households it was Rs. 2,833.33, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 2,857.85, for small farmers it was Rs. 12,602.68, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 9,265.31 and medium farmers it was Rs. 7,075.  The results indicate that, households have planted 66 neem, 2 acacia and 3banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,942.86 for land development and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 428.57 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 8.57 per cent for land development and improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 34.29 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 69.54 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 94.29 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 92.95 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 94.44 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 8.57 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant, 71.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets and 11.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor and 2.86 per cent of the households have used truck as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 2.86 per cent have adopted graded bund and Summer Ploughing.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used dung cake as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and bore well was the source of drinking water for 14.29 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. 5  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 94.29 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.57 per cent, oilseed and vegetables were adequate for 51.43 per cent, fruits were adequate for 45.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 57.14 per cent, egg and meat were adequate for 54.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseeds, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 5.71 per cent, fruits and fruits were inadequate for 77.78 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 91.43 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (57.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (62.86%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (57.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (74.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequacy extension service (48.57%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (25.71%), less rainfall (8.57%) and Source of Agritechnology information(5.71%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Haligeri-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatersheds. The present study covers an area of 410 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97per cent is covered by soils, 3 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) in soil depth.  Entire area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 47 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of all the soils is 337 kg/ha) in 53 per cent area.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 2 per cent area, 67 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and high (>1.0 ppm) in about 28 per cent.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 5 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 6 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 118 (29) 156 (38) Pomegranate - 189 (46) Maize - 71 (17) Guava - 71 (17) Bajra 71 (17) - Jackfruit - 71 (17) Red gram - 188 (46) Jamun - 189 (46) Bengalgram 117 (29) 157 (38) Musambi 93 (23) 95 (23) Groundnut 46 (11) 25 (6) Lime 93 (23) 95 (23) Sunflower 93 (23) 95 (23) Cashew - 25 (6) Cotton 117 (29) 157 (38) Custard apple 188 (46) 86 (21) Chilli 25 (6) 46 (11) Amla 71 (17) 203 (50) Tomato 25 (6) 46 (11) Tamarind - 164 (40) Drumstick - 189 (46) Marigold - 275 (67) Mulberry 46 (11) 102 (25) Chrysanthemum - 275 (67) Mango - 46 (11) Jasmine - 157 (38) Sapota - 71 (17) Crossandra - 188 (46) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 70 (50.36%) men and 69 (49.64%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 3.79, small farmers' was 4.2, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 4.25.  The data indicated that, 26 (18.71%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 58 (41.73%) were in 16-35 years of age, 37 (26.62%) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (12.95%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Haligeri-1 had 33.09 per cent illiterates, 33.81 per cent of them had primary school education, 5.76 per cent of them had middle school education, 11.51 per cent of them had high school education, 9.35 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.72 per cent did ITI and 3.60 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 91.43 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.74 per cent of the household members, 53.24 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.14 per cent were students, 2.16 per cent were children and 0.72 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 91.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 45.71 per cent of the households possess TV, 37.14 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 2.86 per cent of them possess bicycle, 22.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of them possess car/four wheeler and 77.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,012, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,900, bicycle was Rs. 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 31,250, car/four wheeler was Rs.1,50,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,912.  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess harvester, 8.57 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 54.29 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,012, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,900, bicycle was Rs. 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 31,250, car/four wheeler was Rs.1,50,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,912. 2  About 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 14.29 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess harvester, 8.57 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 54.29 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 16,000, plough was Rs. 2,033, tractor was Rs. 466,666, harvester was Rs. 32,000, chaff cutter was Rs. 2320 and the average value of weeder was Rs.30.  The results indicate that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.86 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent of the households possess sheep.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1, average own labour (women) available was 1.19, average hired labour (men) available was 5.68 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.86.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Haligeri-1 micro-watershed possess 30.53 ha (78.47%) of dry land and 8.38 ha (21.53%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.77 ha (95.26%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (4.74%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 5.49 ha (87.15%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (12.85%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.56 ha (83.51%) of dry land and 1.30 ha (16.49%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.71 ha (60.09%) of dry land and 5.79 ha (39.91%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 271,716.37 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 334,106.28. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 532,062.97 for dry land and Rs. 1,234,999.95 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 218,422.99 for dry land and Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 182,850.09 for dry land and Rs. 463,124.99 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 80,306.55 for dry land and Rs. 207,272.73 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning and 8 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 7.66 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 0.81 ha, 1.30 ha and 2.43 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (37.51 ha), sunflower (5.79 ha), Bengal gram (3.01 ha), cotton (1.21 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), bajra (0.81 ha) 3 and groundnut (0.49 ha). Marginal farmers have grown all the above crops except sunflower. Small farmers, semi medium farmer and medium farmers have grown maize and sunflower.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Haligeri-1 micro-watershed was found to be 126.03 per cent.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 50 per cent of the households borrowed from commercial bank, 16.67 per cent of them borrowed from friends/relatives, 38.89 per cent of the households borrowed from grameena banks, 5.56 per cent of the households borrowed from money lender and 38.89 per cent of the households borrowed from SHGs/CBOs.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs. 109,488.89.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households availed credit for the purpose of agricultural production and 9.09 per cent of them availed credit for the purchase of agricultural implements/farm machinery.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the credit borrowed from private credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 38857.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42316.33. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 3458.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 35645.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48370.83. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 12725.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.36.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 47010.53. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57892.21. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 10881.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23. 4  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 39164.09. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56810. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 17645.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 27107.71. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56337.56. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 29229.85. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.08.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 55222.99. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42422.25. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -12800.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 58696.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. -14236.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76.  The results indicate that, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.14 per cent of the households opined that it was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 80,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 83,167.86, for small farmers it was Rs. 81,990, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 128,500 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 148,750.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,285.54. For landless households it was Rs. 8,859.38, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,125.20, for small farmers it was Rs. 7,510, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 14,562.50 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 15,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 14 coconut trees and 2 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 10 teak and 7 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 75 per cent, bengalgram was sold to the extent of 58.33 per cent, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 60 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 99.86 per cent, sorghum was sold to the extent of 33.33 per cent and sunflower was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 17.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 62.86 per cent of them sold their produce in regulated market.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 11.43 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 74.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test. 5  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 54.29 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 45.71 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.43 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 17.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 11.43 per cent, milk was adequate for 20 per cent, eggs were adequate for 11.43 per cent and meat was adequate for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 8.57 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 11.43 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 82.86 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 88.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was inadequate for 77.14 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 85.71 per cent and meat was inadequate for 74.29 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 77.14 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (25.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (14.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (2.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (11.43%), inadequate extension services (14.29%), less rainfall (57.14%) and source of agri-technology information (11.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Naregallu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 551 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 89 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 8 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 90 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 51 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 48 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 37 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 61 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron content.  An area of about 22 per cent is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) and 76 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 207(38) 284(52) Sapota 34(6) - Maize 33(6) 459(83) Pomegranate 34(6) 400(73) Bajra 34(6) 457(83) Guava 34(6) - Groundnut 34(6) - Jackfruit 34(6) - Sunflower 172(31) 262(48) Jamun 34(6) 310(56) Cotton 175(32) 318(57) Musambi 172(31) 262(48) Red gram 34(6) 345(63) Lime 172(31) 262(48) Bengalgram 206(37) 286(52) Cashew 34(6) - Chilli 34(6) - Custard apple 207(38) 285(52) Tomato 34(6) - Amla 34(6) 458(83) Brinjal 33(6) 459(83) Tamarind 34(6) 310(56) Onion 33(6) 2(<1) Marigold 34(6) 458(83) Bhendi 33(6) 459(83) Chrysanthemum 34(6) 458(83) Drumstick 34(6) 400(73) Jasmine 34(6) 57(10) Mulberry 34(6) 345(62) Crossandra 34(6) 166(30) Mango 34(6) 116(21)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 94 (56.29%) men and 73 (43.71%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3, marginal farmers' was 4.2, small farmers' was 3.83, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 4.  The data indicated that, 18 (10.78%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 69 (41.32%) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (38.32%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (9.58%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Naregallu-3 had 36.53 per cent illiterates, 35.33 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.19 per cent of them had middle school education, 13.77 per cent of them had high school education, 7.19 per cent of them had PUC education and 1.20 per cent had diploma and ITI.  The results indicate that, 97.5 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 2.5 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 23.95 per cent of the household members, 61.68 per cent were agricultural labourers and 14.37 per cent were student.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5 per cent of the households possess thatched house and 95 per cent of the households possess katcha houses.  The results show that 70 per cent of the households possess TV, 17.5 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 7.50 per cent of them possess bicycle, 35 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and landline phone and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,732, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,700, bicycle was 1,175, motor cycle was Rs. 32,357, auto was 300,000, landline was 4,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,492.  About 12.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 17.50 per cent of them possess plough, 5 per cent of them possess seed/ fertilizer drill,2.5 per cent of them possess sprayer, 12.50 per cent of them possess weeder, and 17.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. T  he results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,060, plough was Rs. 2800, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 8,000, sprayer was Rs. 2,000, weeder was Rs. 21 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 441.  The results indicate that, 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 7.50 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.50 per cent possess buffalo and goat. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.40, average own labour (women) available was 1.85, average hired labour (men) available was 6.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.4.  The results indicate that 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Naregallu-3 micro-watershed possess 29.15 ha (59.87%) of dry land and 19.54 ha (40.13%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.84 ha (86.61%) of dry land and 0.90 ha (13.39%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 14.26 ha (84.63%) of dry land and 2.59 ha (15.37%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.05 ha (40.66%) of dry land and 13.21 ha (59.34%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 264,006.11 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 450,207.13. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 530,630.63 for dry land and Rs. 1,218,385.64 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 238,308.74 for dry land and Rs. 694,687.49 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 132,498.88 for dry land and Rs. 400,949.47 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 211,714.29 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 11 functioning and 6 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 27.50 per cent of the farmers and open well was the major source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 13.72 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.05 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.78 ha, 2.55 ha and 11.92 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (31.79 ha), sunflower (4.91 ha), sorghum (4.61 ha), Bengal gram (2.14 ha), paddy (1.62 ha), chilly and jowar (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize and Bengal gram, while small farmers have grown maize, sunflower, sorghum, Bengal gram paddy and jowar. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, sunflower, sorghum, paddy and chilly. Medium farmers have grown maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Naregallu-3 micro-watershed was found to be 88.20 per cent.  The results indicate that, 55 per cent of the households have bank account and savings. 3  The results indicate that, 55 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.82 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank, 4,55 per cent of them borrowed from friends/relatives, grameena bank and money lender, 9.09 per cent of the households borrowed from SHGs and CBOs. The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 59,409.09.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the household's availed credit for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the credit borrowed from private credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 33037.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45231.00. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 12193.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.37.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 57632.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89969.75. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 32337.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 57632.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89969.75. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 32337.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 57632.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 89969.75. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 32337.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.56.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 28263.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88272.38. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 60008.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.12. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 28263.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 88272.38. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 60008.60. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.12.  The results indicate that, 7.50 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, green fodder was adequate for 2.50 per cent of the households and 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was in adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 68,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,250, for small farmers it was Rs. 79,483.33, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 98,566.67 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 160,000. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 5,928.42. For landless households it was Rs. 4,200, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,682, for small farmers it was Rs. 5,366.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,409.72 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 40,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 37 coconut tree trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak 14 neem, 6 tamarind, 9 acacia and 4 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram was sold to the extent 52.63 per cent, chilly was sold to the extent of 90 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 96.01 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 52 per cent, sorghum was sold to the extent of 54.55 per cent and sunflower were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 2.50 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 82.50 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 12.50 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 95 per cent of the households used tractor and 2.50 per cent of them used flight as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 67.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 95 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.5 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 45 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 55 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility. 5  The results indicated that, 2.50 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 95 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 62.50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 17.50 per cent, vegetables and egg were adequate for 7.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 12.50 per cent, milk was adequate for 5 per cent and meat were adequate for 2.50 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were in adequate for 10 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 27.50 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 65 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 70 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 67.50 per cent, milk was inadequate for 82.50 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 90 per cent and meat was inadequate for 75 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 15 per cent of the households,vegetables were market surplus for 20 per cent of the households, fruits were market surplus for 7.50 per cent of the households and meat were market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 72.50 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (30%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.5%), inadequate extension services (10%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), less rainfall (60%) and Source of Agri-technology information (37.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bewanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 505 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 460 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 21 ha by rock outcrops and about 24 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 81 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (0.75) organic carbon content.  About 9 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the whole area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 80% of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 15(3) 67(13) Guava - 36(7) Maize - 67(13) Sapota - 36(7) Bajra 15(3) 103(20) Pomegranate - 51(10) Groundnut - 36(7) Musambi - 51(10) Sunflower - 15(3) Lime - 51(10) Redgram - 51(10) Amla - 82(16) Bengal gram 15(3) 67(13) Cashew - - Cotton - 82(16) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 118(24) Jamun - 36(7) Tomato - 103(20) Custard apple - 82(16) Brinjal 15(3) 103(20) Tamarind - 36(7) Onion 15(3) 103(20) Mulberry - - Bhendi 15(3) 103(20) Marigold - 118(23) Drumstick - 51(10) Chrysanthemum - 118(23) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 104 (57.78%) men and 76 (42.22%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.4, marginal farmers' was 5.07, small farmers' was 5.14, semi medium farmers' was 6.2, and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 13 (12.78 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 90 (50 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 48 (26.67 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (10.56 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bewanahalli had 63.89 per cent illiterates, 7.78 per cent of them had primary school education, 0.56 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.11 per cent of them had high school education, 5.56 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.56 per cent did ITI, 2.22 per cent of them had degree education and 0.56 per cent of the population had Masters.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 11.43 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 2.86 per cent of the households were general labour and 2.86 per cent of the households were private service.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 68.89 per cent of the household members, 6.67 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.78 per cent were in general labour, 0.56 per cent were artisans, 3.89 per cent were private service, 10 per cent were students, 4.44 per cent were housewives and 2.78 per cent were children.  The results show that, only 1.11 per cent of the population of the member of self-help group and 98.89 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 5.71 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 65.71 per cent of the households possess katch house and 28.57 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 2.86 per cent of the households possess Radio, 85.71 per cent of the households possess TV, 37.14 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 48.57 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tempo and 5.71 per cent of the households possess car/four wheeler, 85.71 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.6666, mixer grinder was Rs.1915, motor cycle was Rs.60000, tempo was Rs.1000000, car/four wheeler was Rs. 200000, Radio was Rs. 1000 and mobile phone was Rs.2123. 2  About 31.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 25.71 per cent of them possess plough, 5.71 per cent them possess tractor, 2.86 per cent of them possess sprayer, 5.71 per cent them sprinkler and 11.43 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.22727, plough was Rs.3111, the average value of tractor was Rs.350000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.4000, the average value of sprinkler was Rs.4500 and the average value of weeder was Rs.490.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 8.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 5.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 8.57 per cent of the households possess goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.30, average own labour (women) available was 1.73, average hired labour (men) available was 8.57 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.67.  The results indicate that, 85.71 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bewanahalli micro-watershed possess 34.76 ha (84.04%) of dry land and 6.60 ha (15.96%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.48 ha (94.58%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (5.42 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 9.83 ha (100 %) of dry land. Semi medium farmers possess 9.97 ha (85.7%) of dry land and 1.66 ha (14.30%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.48 ha (59.26%) of dry land and 4.45 ha (40.74%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 503,259.99 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,187. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 966,778.05 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 2,058,333.25 of irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 569,218.11 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 210,511.36 for dry land and the average land value was Rs 480,778.57of irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000.00 for dry land and Rs. 404,181.82 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 11.43 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 8.19 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, semi-medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.49 ha, 1.66 ha and 1.34 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (33.46 ha), green gram (2.86 ha), sorghum (2.11 ha), paddy (2.02 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, green gram and sorghum. Small farmers have grown red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, green gram, sorghum and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown red gram, and paddy. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bewanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 94.85 per cent.  The results indicate that, 68.57 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 34.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 4.35 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank and money lender.  The results indicate that, average credit availed in the micro watershed was Rs. 2956.52.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did have partially repaid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did have partially repaid their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 28288.97. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050.00. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 8761.03, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.31.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 38989.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 66271.33. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 27281.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.7.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 47413.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35294.59. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -12118.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.74.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50737.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 134285.67. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 83547.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.65.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 33221.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25927.12. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. -7294.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78. 4  The results indicate that, 51.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 70,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 83,640, for small farmers it was Rs. 131,857.14, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 216,900, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 330,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 12,264.35. For landless households it was Rs. 6,640, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,001.11, for small farmers it was Rs. 11,005.10, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 19,800 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 53,333.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 18 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 4 tamarind, 2 acacia, 4 banyan and 54 neem trees in their fields.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7800 for land development, Rs. 285.71 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 40 per cent for land development, for 2.86 per cent of improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 17.14 per cent for land development and own funds was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, green gram was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 92.59 per cent, red gram to the extent of 97.52 per cent, sorghum to the extent of 95.24 per cent and sunflower to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 91.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 2.86 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of the households used firewood and 31.43 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 2.86 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. 5  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 91.43 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 74.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 5.71 per cent, milk was adequate for 85.71 per cent, eggs were adequate for 40 per cent and meat was inadequate for 14.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were inadequate for 8.57 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 60 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 25.71 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 94.29 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 8.57 per cent and meat was inadequate for 85.71 per cent of the households and egg was inadequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.57 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (34.29%) and inadequate extension services (8.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Wadanahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 780 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 679 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 86 ha is covered by rock outcrops 8 ha is covered by railway line and 7 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 23 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 679 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 13 per cent of area is very shallow (150 cm).  About 19 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 58 per cent loamy soils and 10 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 74 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 19 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 37 per cent area is very low (9.0) in the microwatershed.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 58 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil, 28 per cent of area is low (57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 85 per cent of area and high (>337 kg/ha) in 2 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 66 per cent of area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 1 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 281 (36) Guava - 73 (9) Maize 73 (9) 208 (27) Sapota - 73 (9) Bajra 73 (9) 208 (27) Pomegranate - 73 (9) Groundnut 73 (9) - Musambi - 73 (9) Sunflower - 73 (9) Lime - 73 (9) Redgram 233 (30) - Amla 73 (9) 47 (6) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton 47 (6) - Jackfruit - 73 (9) Chilli 73 (9) 48 (6) Jamun - - Tomato 73 (9) 48 (6) Custard apple 73 (9) 47 (6) Brinjal 73 (9) 48 (6) Tamarind - - Onion 73 (9) 48 (6) Mulberry - 73 (9) Bhendi - 73 (9) Marigold 73 (9) 48 (6) Drumstick - 90 (20) Chrysanthemum 73 (9) 48 (6) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 105 (59.66%) men and 71 (40.34%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.40, marginal farmers' was 5.18, small farmers' was 5, semi medium farmers' was 4.67 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 28 (15.91%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 83 (47.16%) were in 16-35 years of age, 60 (34.09%) were in 36-60 years of age and 5 (2.84%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Wadanahalli had 54.55 per cent illiterates, 21.59 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.84 per cent of them had middle school education, 9.66 per cent of them had high school education, 5.11 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.14 per cent had diploma and 4.55 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 91.43 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 18.75 per cent of the household members, 55.68 per cent were agricultural laborers, 23.30 per cent were students and 2.27 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 37.14 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 37.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.71 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 71.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 28.57 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 5.71 per cent of them possess bicycle, 22.86 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 8.57 per cent possess auto, 2.86 per cent possess tempo and 82.86 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6680, mixer grinder was Rs.1950, bicycle was Rs.1000, motor cycle was Rs. 68,750, auto was Rs. 31,000, tempo was Rs. 350000 and mobile phone was Rs.2110.  About 14.29 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.86 per cent of them possess plough, 14.29 per cent of them possess sprayer, 20 per cent of them possess harvester and 28.57 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 25,000, plough was Rs. 4,750, sprayer was Rs. 3,428, harvester was Rs. 1430 and the average value of weeder was Rs.1015.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.86 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.57 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent of the households possess goat. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.67, average hired labour (men) available was 6.06 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.23.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Wadanahalli micro-watershed possess 36.56 ha (84.90%) of dry land and 6.50 ha (15.10%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.90 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 17.66 ha (95.62%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (4.38%). Semi medium farmers possess 6.96 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (41.55%) of dry land and 5.69 ha (58.45%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 317,157.41 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 215,183.57. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 557,047.67 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 271,739.63 for dry land and Rs. 494,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 172,325.58 for dry land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 296,400 for dry land and Rs. 175,550.82 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.71 per cent of the farmers and canal was the major source of irrigation for 2.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 2.53 meters.  The results indicate that small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.81 ha and 2.46 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (17.28 ha), green gram (3.81 ha), sorghum (3.32 ha), cotton (14.84 ha) and groundnut (2.46 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, green gram, red gram and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and red gram. Medium farmers have grown cotton and groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Wadanahalli micro-watershed was found to be 91.31 per cent.  The results indicate that, 45.71 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 45.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 68.75 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank and 31.25 per cent of the households obtained loan from money lenders. 3  The results indicate that, average credit availed in the micro watershed was Rs. 88,125.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from private sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households partially paid and 50 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 80 per cent of the households partially paid and 20 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 41.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 50 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement and 8.33 per cent opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The results indicate that, around 60 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from non-institutional sources helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 40 per cent opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 30214.15. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62515.40. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 32301.25. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.07.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 44142.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37093.34. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -7048.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.84.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 40607.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 77825.42. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 37217.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 32547.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34671.48. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 2123.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 26959.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41505.76. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14546.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The results indicate that, 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate and green fodder was adequate for 5.71 per cent of the households.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 73,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 98,136.36, for small farmers it was Rs. 4 143,430.77, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 228,333.33 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 255,666.67.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 9,854.07. For landless households it was Rs. 5,320, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,872.73, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,437.87, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 25,777.78 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 35,888.89.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 2 lemon trees and 5 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 tamarind, 5 banyan and 114 neem trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,857.14 for land development.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 2.86 per cent for land development and soft loan was the source of additional investment for 45.71 per cent of the households for land development.  The results indicated that, cotton green gram, groundnut and red gram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 69.44 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 34.29 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 51.43 per cent of them sold in regulated markets and 2.86 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and bore well was the source of drinking water for 17.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 54.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 45.71 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 51.43 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5 57.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 77.14 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 28.57 per cent and eggs were adequate for 14.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 51.43 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 51.43 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 22.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 71.43 per cent, milk was inadequate for 65.71 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 85.71 per cent and meat was inadequate for 80 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (42.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (42.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (25.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (31.43%), less rainfall (60%), inadequate extension services (2.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information (5.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project