瘋狂是人類文明的產物,一直被視為另類、邊緣,與理性對立,因而受到排斥。然而,文學上的「瘋狂」卻有其寶貴的價值,往往是反思與批判固有價值與主流意見的工具,據此發出異議聲音。本文關注這種書寫策略在當代台灣文學場域中的出現方式、文學價值與文化意義,因此以分析小說作品與文學脈絡來說明「瘋狂」的文學脈絡,闡釋當代台灣文學的現象與特色。 ; 解嚴(1987 年)是台灣近三十年來的重大事件,亦是近年來台灣文化與本土論述的焦點所在。其影響不獨改變了政治與社會生態,亦為台灣的藝術文化帶來巨大衝擊。戒嚴成為台灣民眾不能磨滅的歷史記憶,各種異議的思想與言論遭受壓抑,直至解嚴才出現新局面,自九十年代開展多元文化思潮。當時,不少作家藉著「瘋狂」書寫另闢膜徑,重新構想歷史,揭藥文化霸權下的種種不安。台灣文學己藉由不同形式搖動一元論述的霸權,加上西方後現代、後殖民思潮的引入,學院的主動引介和翻譯,民間白發的社會運動等,皆為解嚴後的文化現象埋下種種伏線。從文學史脈絡而言,台灣的文學生產的確迅速回應了政治解禁,並以獨特的方式透露社會文化上的騷動。 ; 為了掌握上述的歷史脈絡,本文以解嚴為時間標竿閱讀當代台灣小說,藉此分析解嚴與文學現象的互動關係,指出文學如何展示解嚴前後的歷史想像。因此,本文以「瘋狂」為切入點,分析以瘋狂為題材的書寫如何與解嚴前後己解放的議題對話,包括性別認同、身分與族群認同,挑戰政治霸權以及後工業經濟環境下的都市文化等,目的在於驗證「瘋狂」對後解嚴文學所起的作用和價值。 ; 本文共分為七章。首章為緒論交代研究動機及方法;第二章為文獻回顧與述評,點出當前的研究成果;第三章旨在交代後解嚴時期小說場域狀況的概述,並界定「瘋狂」的文學意義,藉此論證台灣當代文學與文化的互動關係。第四章題為「國族瘋言與都市病」,借助張大春、李渝與黃凡的作品,切入認同政治與都市化問題對文學書寫的影響。第五章為「虛幻實景與不存在之存在」,旨在察看兩位小說家賀景演與紀大偉,如何藉書寫科幻來展示對未來世界與歷史景觀的想像,以展望當下發展中的文化議題。第六章為「神聖瘋狂與不可能之可能」, 旨在檢視兩位將「瘋狂」書寫演繹得淋漓盡致的作家駱以軍與舞鶴,如何在作品中借助敘述肉體與心靈的瘋狂,探討在多元文化認同觀的氣氛下重思自我主體的問題。末章結論,以總結全文與展望將來的研究方向。 ; 本文認為,後解嚴時期小說每以「瘋狂」的視角重新認知變動的世惰。這些作品透過創造各種怪誕場景與行為,呈現個體與權力之間的角力,反省語言與書寫策略的局限,以及批判自我主體的意識,因而為台灣當代文學場域帶來豐富的收獲。 ; Madness has its own history among civilizations. From time to time, madness is not only simply a kind of pathological disorder, but also takes a significant cultural role to represent the voiceless, the minorities. As in contemporary Taiwan literature,madness gradually becomes a medium to express different opinions to the society. It inquires from margin to centre which is empowered by the political establishment. It is not only a common topic to be discussed, but also an important writing strategy forwriters to proclaim their historical imagination about the past, present and future. ; In 1987, a significant political issue, the Martial Law, was put to an end in Taiwan. After that, due to the liberation of freedom of speech, a booming trend of multiculturalism appeared and brought out great influences to all parts of the society, especially the field ofliterature. Many writers started to change their narration style and inclined their focus on ...
Venture capital and military startup firms in Silicon Valley have begun aggressively selling a version of automated warfare that will deeply incorporate artificial intelligence (AI). Those companies and their CEOs are now pressing full speed ahead with that emerging technology, largely dismissing the risk of malfunctions that could lead to the future slaughter of civilians, not to speak of the possibility of dangerous scenarios of escalation between major military powers. The reasons for this headlong rush include a misplaced faith in "miracle weapons," but above all else, this surge of support for emerging military technologies is driven by the ultimate rationale of the military-industrial complex: vast sums of money to be made.The New Techno-EnthusiastsWhile some in the military and the Pentagon are indeed concerned about the future risk of AI weaponry, the leadership of the Defense Department is on board fully. Its energetic commitment to emerging technology was first broadcast to the world in an August 2023 speech delivered by Deputy Secretary of Defense Kathleen Hicks to the National Defense Industrial Association, the largest arms industry trade group in the country. She used the occasion to announce what she termed "the Replicator Initiative," an umbrella effort to help create "a new state of the art — just as America has before — leveraging attritable, autonomous systems in all domains — which are less expensive, put fewer people in the line of fire, and can be changed, updated, or improved with substantially shorter lead times."Hicks was anything but shy about pointing to the primary rationale for such a rush toward robotic warfare: outpacing and intimidating China. "We must," she said, "ensure the PRC [People's Republic of China] leadership wakes up every day, considers the risks of aggression, and concludes, 'today is not the day' — and not just today, but every day, between now and 2027, now and 2035, now and 2049, and beyond."Hick's supreme confidence in the ability of the Pentagon and American arms makers to wage future techno-wars has been reinforced by a group of new-age militarists in Silicon Valley and beyond, spearheaded by corporate leaders like Peter Thiel of Palantir, Palmer Luckey of Anduril, and venture capitalists like Marc Andreessen of Andreessen Horowitz.Patriots or Profiteers?These corporate promoters of a new way of war also view themselves as a new breed of patriots, ready and able to successfully confront the military challenges of the future.A case in point is "Rebooting the Arsenal of Democracy," a lengthy manifesto on Anduril's blog. It touts the superiority of Silicon Valley startups over old-school military-industrial behemoths like Lockheed Martin in supplying the technology needed to win the wars of the future:"The largest defense contractors are staffed with patriots who, nevertheless, do not have the software expertise or business model to build the technology we need… These companies built the tools that kept us safe in the past, but they are not the future of defense."In contrast to the industrial-age approach it critiques, Luckey and his compatriots at Anduril seek an entirely new way of developing and selling weapons:"Software will change how war is waged. The battlefield of the future will teem with artificially intelligent, unmanned systems, which fight, gather reconnaissance data, and communicate at breathtaking speeds."At first glance, Luckey seems a distinctly unlikely candidate to have risen so far in the ranks of arms industry executives. He made his initial fortune by creating the Oculus virtual reality device, a novelty item that users can strap to their heads to experience a variety of 3-D scenes (with the sensation that they're embedded in them). His sartorial tastes run toward sandals and Hawaiian shirts, but he has now fully shifted into military work. In 2017, he founded Anduril, in part with support from Peter Thiel and his investment firm, Founders Fund. Anduril currently makes autonomous drones, automated command and control systems, and other devices meant to accelerate the speed at which military personnel can identify and destroy targets.Thiel, a mentor to Palmer Luckey, offers an example of how the leaders of the new weapons startup firms differ from the titans of the Cold War era. As a start, he's all in for Donald Trump. Once upon a time, the heads of major weapons makers like Lockheed Martin tried to keep good ties with both Democrats and Republicans, making substantial campaign contributions to both parties and their candidates and hiring lobbyists with connections on both sides of the aisle. The logic for doing so couldn't have seemed clearer then. They wanted to cement a bipartisan consensus for spending ever more on the Pentagon, one of the few things most key members of both parties agreed upon. And they also wanted to have particularly good relations with whichever party controlled the White House and/or the Congress at any moment.The Silicon Valley upstarts and their representatives are also much more vocal in their criticisms of China. They are the coldest (or do I mean hottest?) of the new cold warriors in Washington, employing harsher rhetoric than either the Pentagon or the big contractors. By contrast, the big contractors generally launder their critiques of China and support for wars around the world that have helped pad their bottom lines through think tanks, which they've funded to the tune of tens of millions of dollars annually.Thiel's main company, Palantir, has also been criticized for providing systems that have enabled harsh border crackdowns by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) as well as "predictive policing." That (you won't be surprised to learn) involves the collection of vast amounts of personal data without a warrant, relying on algorithms with built-in racial biases that lead to the systematic unfair targeting and treatment of people of color.To fully grasp how the Silicon Valley militarists view next-generation warfare, you need to check out the work of Christian Brose, Palantir's chief strategy officer. He was a long-time military reformer and former aide to the late Senator John McCain. His book Kill Chain serves as a bible of sorts for advocates of automated warfare. Its key observation: that the winner in combat is the side that can most effectively shorten the "kill chain" (the time between when a target is identified and destroyed). His book assumes that the most likely adversary in the next tech war will indeed be China and he proceeds to exaggerate Beijing's military capabilities, while overstating its military ambitions and insisting that outpacing that country in developing emerging military technologies is the only path to future victory.And mind you, Brose's vision of shortening that kill chain poses immense risks. As the time to decide what actions to take diminishes, the temptation to take humans "out of the loop" will only grow, leaving life-and-death decisions to machines with no moral compass and vulnerable to catastrophic malfunctions of a sort inherent in any complex software system.Much of Brose's critique of the current military-industrial complex rings true. A few big firms are getting rich making ever more vulnerable huge weapons platforms like aircraft carriers and tanks, while the Pentagon spends billions on a vast, costly global basing network that could be replaced with a far smaller, more dispersed military footprint. Sadly, though, his alternative vision poses more problems than it solves.First, there's no guarantee that the software-driven systems promoted by Silicon Valley will work as advertised. After all, there's a long history of "miracle weapons" that failed, from the electronic battlefield in Vietnam to President Ronald Reagan's disastrous Star Wars missile shield. Even when the ability to find and destroy targets more quickly did indeed improve, wars like those in Iraq and Afghanistan, fought using those very technologies, were dismal failures.A recent Wall Street Journal investigation suggests that the new generation of military tech is being oversold as well. The Journal found that small top-of-the-line new U.S. drones supplied to Ukraine for its defensive war against Russia have proved far too "glitchy and expensive," so much so that, irony of ironies, the Ukrainians have opted to buy cheaper, more reliable Chinese drones instead.Finally, the approach advocated by Brose and his acolytes is going to make war more likely as technological hubris instills a belief that the United States can indeed "beat" a rival nuclear-armed power like China in a conflict, if only we invest in a nimble new high-tech force.The result, as my colleague Michael Brenes and I pointed out recently, is the untold billions of dollars of private money now pouring into firms seeking to expand the frontiers of techno-war. Estimates range from $6 billion to $33 billion annually and, according to the New York Times, $125 billion over the past four years. Whatever the numbers, the tech sector and its financial backers sense that there are massive amounts of money to be made in next-generation weaponry and aren't about to let anyone stand in their way.Meanwhile, an investigation by Eric Lipton of the New York Times found that venture capitalists and startup firms already pushing the pace on AI-driven warfare are also busily hiring ex-military and Pentagon officials to do their bidding. High on that list is former Trump Secretary of Defense Mark Esper. Such connections may be driven by patriotic fervor, but a more likely motivation is simply the desire to get rich. As Ellen Lord, former head of acquisition at the Pentagon, noted, "There's panache now with the ties between the defense community and private equity. But they are also hoping they can cash in big-time and make a ton of money."The Philosopher KingAnother central figure in the move toward building a high-tech war machine is former Google CEO Eric Schmidt. His interests go far beyond the military sphere. He's become a virtual philosopher king when it comes to how new technology will reshape society and, indeed, what it means to be human. He's been thinking about such issues for some time and laid out his views in a 2021 book modestly entitled The Age of AI and Our Human Future, coauthored with none other than the late Henry Kissinger. Schmidt is aware of the potential perils of AI, but he's also at the center of efforts to promote its military applications. Though he forgoes the messianic approach of some up-and-coming Silicon Valley figures, whether his seemingly more thoughtful approach will contribute to the development of a safer, more sensible world of AI weaponry is open to debate.Let's start with the most basic thing of all: the degree to which Schmidt thinks that AI will change life as we know it is extraordinary. In that book of his and Kissinger's, they asserted that it would spark "the alteration of human identity and the human experience at levels not seen since the dawn of the modern age," arguing that AI's "functioning portends progress toward the essence of things, progress that philosophers, theologians and scientists have sought, with partial success, for millennia."On the other hand, the government panel on artificial intelligence on which Schmidt served fully acknowledged the risks posed by the military uses of AI. The question remains: Will he, at least, support strong safeguards against its misuse? During his tenure as head of the Pentagon's Defense Innovation Board from 2017 to 2020, he did help set the stage for Pentagon guidelines on the use of AI that promised humans would always "be in the loop" in launching next-gen weapons. But as a tech industry critic noted, once the rhetoric is stripped away, the guidelines "don't really prevent you from doing anything."In fact, Senator Elizabeth Warren (D-MA) and other good government advocates questioned whether Schmidt's role as head of the Defense Innovation Unit didn't represent a potential conflict of interest. After all, while he was helping shape its guidelines on the military applications of AI, he was also investing in firms that stood to profit from its development and use. His investment entity, America's Frontier Fund, regularly puts money in military tech startups, and a nonprofit he founded, the Special Competitive Studies Project, describes its mission as to "strengthen America's long-term competitiveness as artificial intelligence (AI) [reshapes] our national security, economy, and society." The group is connected to a who's who of leaders in the military and the tech industry and is pushing, among other things, for less regulation over military-tech development. In 2023, Schmidt even founded a military drone company, White Stork, which, according to Forbes, has been secretly testing its systems in the Silicon Valley suburb of Menlo Park.The question now is whether Schmidt can be persuaded to use his considerable influence to rein in the most dangerous uses of AI. Unfortunately, his enthusiasm for using it to enhance warfighting capabilities suggests otherwise:"Every once in a while, a new weapon, a new technology comes along that changes things. Einstein wrote a letter to Roosevelt in the 1930s saying that there is this new technology — nuclear weapons — that could change war, which it clearly did. I would argue that [AI-powered] autonomy and decentralized, distributed systems are that powerful."Given the risks already cited, comparing militarized AI to the development of nuclear weapons shouldn't exactly be reassuring. The combination of the two — nuclear weapons controlled by automatic systems with no human intervention — has so far been ruled out, but don't count on that lasting. It's still a possibility, absent strong, enforceable safeguards on when and how AI can be used.AI is coming, and its impact on our lives, whether in war or peace, is likely to stagger the imagination. In that context, one thing is clear: we can't afford to let the people and companies that will profit most from its unbridled application have the upper hand in making the rules for how it should be used.Isn't it time to take on the new-age warriors?This article has been republished with permission from Tom Dispatch
Quotes from Josep Colomer:Constitutional Polarization. A Critical Review of the U.S. Political SystemRoutledge, 2023. CLICK to purchaseA collection of 6 posts. 1 - Why a Federation? The aim of the Convention in Philadelphia was not to experiment with democracy in a large territory, but to create a "stronger", "firmer" government able to defend the new independent states from the British and other foreign troops still over the continent. The priority was to create a standing army, to pay the debt for the War for Independence, and to introduce the subsequent federal taxes. The basic institutions were the states-appointed Senate and the mighty President with war powers.Some delegates warned that in the new and independent United States, people would not accept, again, taxation without representation. That's why the House of Representatives was embodied as the democratic component of the government. Then, the delegates responded to its perils by designing a series of "filters" and "checks" to prevent the House from prevailing over the other components. The separation of powers and their institutional checks were a cap, intended to tame and temper democracy. NOT A DEMOCRACYMadison warned against "the amazing violence and turbulence of the democratic spirit," and stated, "democratic communities may be unsteady, and be led to action by the impulse of the moment." Later, in the campaign to ratify the Constitution in New York, he would hold that, in the past, democracies "have ever been found spectacles of turbulence and contention … and as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths."Alexander Hamilton would allege that "the zeal for the rights of the people has been a much more certain road to the introduction of despotism than the zeal for the firmness and efficiency of government." In his view, democracies are manipulated by people who "commence as demagogues and end being tyrants."Gouverneur Morris was an influential delegate from Pennsylvania who is credited as the main redactor of the final text of the Constitution. He also cautioned against "the turbulence, the precipitation, changeableness, and excess" of democratic assemblies.Other delegates in the Convention referred to "the fury" and "the folly" of democracy. One confessed, "It's the anarchy, or rather worse than anarchy of a pure democracy, which I fear." Another simply stated, "democracy, the worst of all political evils." DIVINE HANDAbout the divine hand guiding the constituents, see, for example: "America felt that the hand of providence was on the young republic … There can be little question that the hand of providence has been on a nation which finds a Washington, a Lincoln or a Roosevelt when it needs him," Seymour M. Lipset, American Exceptionalism, W. W. Norton, 1997, pp. 13–14. "I can't wait to go to Heaven and meet the Framers and tell them the work that you did in putting together our Constitution is a work of genius. Thank you. It was divinely inspired," Mike Pence, Vice-President of the United States in December 2020. Reported by Gregory Jacob, Counselor of the Vice-President, to the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6 Attack on the United States Capitol, June 16, 2022. 2- An elected MonarchyMONTESQUIEUIn the imaginary Constitution of England described by Montesquieu, the powers of the three institutions were so challenged and limited by mutual checks that the most likely result would be governmental paralysis. He held that in order to prevent abuses, "Power should stop ["arrête" in French] power"; brake, not just "check" as it was sloppily translated. In Montesquieu's words, with these rules, "these three powers should naturally form a state of repose or inaction." In the perhaps unlikely or infrequent case that public affairs required some action, he conceded that the three powers should be "forced to move, but still in concert." Madison would only ambiguously paraphrase, "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition." There was a problem: Montesquieu had misunderstood how the British system actually worked. What he described was closer to an old-fashioned, outdated model that, in the best of cases, could be identified with a transitory, provisional past period in England's history. It did not correspond with the political system in motion when he visited London, and even less with practices contemporary to the Framers gathered in Philadelphia several decades later. By following Montesquieu's obsolete account, the authors of the US Constitution misunderstood the source.MONARCHYThe monarchical proposal was most explicitly presented by Alexander Hamilton. He did not attend most of the Convention sessions, but on June 18, he showed up, took the floor, and delivered a prepared speech for more than five hours, no break for lunch, that left the delegates flabbergasted. Hamilton proposed a president that would be chosen by electors and serve for life. Such an "elective Monarch" would appoint the state governors and could veto state laws. At the federal level, the president would also be the arbiter for expected regular conflict between the Senate also appointed for life and the popular House: "This check is a Monarch," he suggested, "capable of resisting the popular current." The president, with absolute veto over congressional legislation, would be "a salutary check upon the legislative body." According to Ron Chernow, his biographer, Hamilton had written in his personal notes for his Convention speech that the president would not only be appointed for life but also "ought to be hereditary and to have so much power that it will not be his interest to risk much to acquire more." Yet, probably sensing the audience's reluctance to his already delivered proposals, he skipped that part. Adams, who would become the US' first vice president and the second president, was suspected of having monarchist leanings. He would propose calling George Washington "His Majesty the President," thought hereditary rule inevitable, and, after Washington's childless tenure prevented it, he would be the first to make his son run for president.3-The Founders' Portraits in WashingtonWhat one can see and guess about these characters by looking at eight portraits, the first five by Gilbert Stuart and the next two by John Trumbull at the National Gallery of Art, and the eighth by Joseph Siffred Duplessis at the National Portrait Gallery. 4- How the System Actually Works CHECKS AND GRIEVANCESAlexander Hamilton clearly lay on the side of scant congressional legislation. He said, "The injury that may possibly be done by defecting a few good laws will be amply compensated by the advantages of preventing a number of bad ones." It was like fasting for the sake of not being poisoned; the result is anemia, not good political health.In practice, there are checks but no balances. The existing blockingmechanisms in the US constitutional system do not produce balances in favor of a few good laws. They are largely unbalanced in favor of the Presidency and its powers, which is aggravated by the biases of the presidential elections.The US constitutional plan, instead of relying upon positive institutionalincentives, such as the expectation of sharing power in the Cabinet, countedon politicians' virtuous behavior. Yet, absent our better angels' motivations, the system of negative checks becomes a machine for sustained conflict. PRESIDENTIALISMThe greatest increase in presidential power has derived from wars. From General George Washington, leader of the Revolutionary War for Independence, through Theodore Roosevelt, a high-level combatant in the Spanish-American War in the Caribbean, eleven of the first twenty-five presidents were war men. Whether as generals, national heroes, or upper-echelon military officers, Andrew Jackson, William Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Franklin Pierce, Ulysses Grant, Rutherford Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, and William McKinley fought in the wars against the British, the Indians, the Mexicans, or, in the Civil War, other Americans, and their military feats helped them to be elected.Alexander Hamilton had already identified the management of foreign affairs as the main way to expand executive powers: "It is of the nature of war to increase the executive, at the expense of the legislative authority." Discussing rates of presidents, historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. observed that war "made it easier for a president to achieve greatness. 5- No Parties, But PolarizationNO PARTIESThe Framers were confident about the future of the republic because they miscalculated that in a great, expanding, and diverse Union with multiple institutional checks, it would be unlikely that nationwide parties could be created. They expected that the best individuals with "enlightened views and virtuous sentiments" would lead the new politics against "the pestilential influence of party animosities" and "the pestilential breath of faction," as scorned by both James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, respectively. Currently, the two major political parties in the US encompass a range of policy proposals and ideological orientations comparable to the typical European system with multiple parties: There are liberals and socialists within the Democratic Party, and conservatives and populists within the Republican Party, with the minor Greens and Libertarians flanking each side. However, the political competition is polarized by two parties or candidates because of the electoral system and the election of the president.POLITICAL, NO SOCIAL POLARIZATION The polarization of parties and candidates is more politically consequential than the polarization of voters. Generally, parties can lead and carry voters in their direction, either to closeness or to distance from each other, but to a limited extent. That is because it is less difficult to coordinate and mobilize a few thousand politicians than millions of voters. If parties and political leaders move to radicalize their positions and provoke polarization, voters may follow and become more polarized in their preferences, but usually less than the politicians and parties come to be. If, conversely, parties moderate and converge in their positions, voters may also moderate themselves but less than the partisan politicians do.FEAR AND NATIONAL FERVOR During the Cold War, many citizens developed a sense of unity, love of patriotic values, and pride in the American way of life. They trusted the rulers, who appeared as their protectors and providers of security. Challenging the government in the middle of a war would have been regarded as treason. In parallel, the ruling officials were able to keep many state secrets, their policy performances were not seriously evaluated, they enjoyed discrete privacy from the media, and gained support and devotion from the public.After the Cold War, without the threat of a nuclear war, the public lost their fear. There was a new openness to indiscretion and transgression. The new political atmosphere became the opposite of the previous period: a general mistrust of government, close scrutiny of corrupt practices, leaks of confidential plans and messages, frequent scandals about politicians' business or private affairs, and loud calls for more transparency and accountability. After the Cold War with the Soviet Union, the "peace dividend" that appeared to be a potential source of domestic progress led instead to domestic mayhem. With just a little exaggeration, one could say that, over the years, the international Cold War was replaced with a domestic cold war. 6- Towards the 2024 ElectionPRIMARIESThe primaries mechanism is a substitute for the formation of multiple parties. To build a majority, in Europe and other democracies, a coalition of multiple parties must be formed after the election; in the US, a coalition of multiple factions within a party must be formed before the election. In European parliamentary systems with multiple parties, the mess comes after the election; sometimes, the formation of a coalition in parliament for the choice of a prime minister takes months. In the US, the mess is before the election; the process of simplifying the pluralistic setting to only two major presidential candidates starts more than a year before Election Day. These alternative experiences both confirm that, in the absence of a traditional monarch, simplifying a complex society to one single executive leader is always a challenging endeavor.The main drawback of the system of partisan primaries is that it may not produce a majority in support for the winning candidate but it can result in the nomination of an extreme or unqualified demagogue who would be rejected by a majority of voters.The turnout in the presidential primaries has increased to nearly 50% of the party voters in the general election since the 2010s. However, the number of primary candidates within each party has also increased, up to double digits in recent seasons, which reduced the support for the winner. In 2016, Donald Trump was voted in the primaries by only 22% of his voters in the general election; Hillary Clinton, by 26% of her votes in the general election; and in 2020, Joe Biden by only 23%.SPLITTING CANDIDATESIf popular participation increases, partisanship becomes more compact, and the potential political pluralism of the country is not well articulated by the party system, third and further candidates reappear. They indirectly made a winner by splitting partisan support in at least four of the first eight presidential elections after the Cold War. The independent Ross Perot split Republican voters twice, in 1992 and 1996, and twice produced a Democratic winner with a minority of popular votes. The other way around, the Green Party's Ralph Nader split Democratic voters in 2000 and produced a Republican winner with a minority of popular votes. Also, the Greens and other candidacies absorbed potential Democratic voters in 2016 and helped make a Republican candidate the winner with a minority of popular votes.CAN TRUMP RETURN?There are also precedents of traitors who persisted in politics, ran for office, were elected, and provoked further turmoil. At least two former presidents joined the Confederacy during the Civil War. Former Whig President John Tyler, who had replaced William Harrison at his death one month after entering office, was first elected to and chaired the Virginia Secession Convention, and during the Civil War, he was elected first to the Provisional Confederation Congress and then to the Confederate House of Representatives. Former Democratic President Franklin Pierce collaborated closely with Confederacy President Jefferson Davis. Also, former President Andrew Johnson was elected senator on an anti-Reconstruction platform.Collection:1- Why a Federation2- An Elected Monarchy3- Psychological Portraits of the Founders and Framers4– How the System Actually Works5- No Parties, But Polarization6- Towards the 2024 Election
Death Instinct In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein Panca Wisetioko English Literature Faculty of Language and Arts State University of Surabaya y.panca.wise@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si. English Department Faculty of Language and Arts State University of Surabaya much_choiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Naluri dapat digambarkan sebagai kekuatan manusia dan dianggap ada di balik ketegangan yang disebabkan oleh kebutuhan dari id. Id dapat berkembang menjadi kekuatan destruktif yang disebut sebagai insting kematian dan ekspresi insting kematian disebut sebagai agresi. Dalam Mary Shelley Frankenstein, dua karakter utama menggambarkan insting kematian yang mempengaruhi pikiran dan tindakan yang bertujuan untuk menghancurkan atau membunuh siapa pun. Studi ini berfokus pada dua masalah , ( 1 ) bagaimana insting kematian digambarkan dalam Mary Shelley Frankenstein? dan ( 2 ) Mengapa si monster dan Dr Frankenstein menggambarkan agresi sebagai komponen dari insting kematian dalam hidup mereka di Mary Shelley Frankenstein? Data tesis diambil dari novel sebagai sumber utama dan membaca secara intensif adalah langkah berikutnya dalam analisis. Konsep yang akan digunakan meliputi konsep naluri dan insting kematian oleh Freud dan Susan , dan juga istilah agresi oleh Subaidah. Untuk menjawab masalah pertama, penelitian ini menggunakan istilah Freud tentang insting kematian dan didukung oleh konsep dari Susan tentang insting. Masalah kedua dijawab dengan menggunakan konsep dari Subaidah tentang agresi. Yang terakhir, analisis mengungkapkan bahwa insting kematian digambarkan oleh monster melalui tindakannya ketika membunuh putra Dr Frankenstein, teman, dan anggota keluarga yang lain. Selain itu, Dr Frankenstein juga menggambarkan insting kematian melalui intensi untuk menghancurkan si monster. Keduanya mendapatkan kesenangan dan kepuasan dari tindakan mereka. Dr Frankenstein dan monster tersebut menggambarkan insting kematian karena rasa marah dan frustrasi antara satu sama lain. Kata kunci : insting kematian, sadar, id, agresi. Abstract Instincts can be described as the forces of human and assume to exist behind the tensions which are caused by the needs of the id. The id can develop into destructive force which is called as death instinct and the expression of death instinct called as the aggression. In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the two main characters depict the death instinct that influence their minds and actions which purpose to destroy or kill anyone. The study focuses on two problems, (1) how is death instinct depicted in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein? and (2) Why do the monster and Dr. Frankenstein represent the aggression as the component of death instinct in their life in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein? The data of thesis are taken from the novel as the main source and intensive reading is the next step of analysis. The concept that will be used includes the concepts of instinct and death instinct by Freud and Susan, and the terms of aggression by Subaidah. To answer the first problem, this study uses Freud's terms about death instinct and supported by Susan's terms about the concepts of instinct. The second problem is answered by using Subaidah's terms about the aggression. Last of all, the analysis reveals that death instinct depicted by the monster through his action in killing Dr. Frankenstein's son, friends, and his other family members. Besides, Dr. Frankenstein also represents death instinct through his intension to destroy the monster. Both of them get pleasure and satisfaction from their actions. Dr. Frankenstein and the monster represent death instinct because the feeling of anger and frustration each other. Keywords: death instinct, unconscious, id, aggression. INTRODUCTION Horror literature is focusing ondeath, theafterlife,evil, thedemonicand the principle of the thing embodied in the person. In stories, there are many gothic creatures, like witches,vam-pires,demonic, werewolves,and ghost. This genre has ancient origins which were reformulated in the 18th century asGothic horror, with publication of theCastle of Otranto(1764) byHorace Walpole. After that century, the Gothic tradition blossomed into the genre modern readers call horror literature in the 19th century. In this era, some great works and characters of horror have been adapted by some films and cinema. It shows to the world that some horror writers have given contributions. Some literary works concern with horror in genre are Mary Shelley'sFrankenstein(1818),Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, the works ofSheridan Le Fanu,Robert Louis Stevenson'sStrange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde(1886),Oscar Wilde'sThe Picture of Dorian Gray(1890), andBram Stoker'sDracula(1897). One of the most famous horror novels is Frankenstein which was written by Mary Shelley in 19th century. In that era, the novel was also being a very important work in literature contributions that had made by women acceptable. Although Mary Shelley wrote many novels, none of her another works was popular like Frankenstein, which still gains its popularity until today. (www.famousauthors.org/mary-shelley) A study of the scientific aspects of the novel is so popular and timely that the present author and others have presented or published papers on this theme (Ginn, 2003; Ketterer, 1997). The National Library of Medicine has developed a traveling exhibit examining Frankenstein's science, and a conference dedicated to this theme (Frankenstein's Science: Theories of Human Nature in the 18thand 19thCenturies) was held in Canberra, in 2003. (nlm.nih.gov/hmd/frankenstein/frankhome.html) The author of Frankenstein, Mary Shelley, is often known asMary Wollstonecraft Shelley. She was one of the famous horror writers in the world. Mary was a British woman novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, travel writer, and editor of the works of her husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley who was a Romantic poet and a philosopher. And she was the daughter of the political philosopherWilliam Godwinand Mary Wollstonecraft who was famous as the writer, philosopher, and feminist. She wrote many horror novels including Lodore (1835), Faulkner (1937), Mathilde (1959), Valperga or the Life and Adventures of Castruccia, Prince of Lucca (1823), The Last Man (1826), and The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck (1830). She also wrote a number of short stories, travelogues and other works, but Frankenstein has been the unforgettable works of her. Mary Shelley herself is best remembered by literature world as the author of Frankenstein. The story of this novel tells about an ambitious inventor named Dr. Frankenstein who forces to create a human from various body parts taken from some corpses in graves. He believes that he can create a perfect human which is stronger and smarter than any ordinary human being. He finally finishes his project in making that creature. But, the result does not alike what he expects before. The creature looks like a monster rather than a human. It makes Dr. Frankenstein rejecting and dumping him. The monster cannot accept how the doctor treats him because the doctor himself is as the creator and the father of the monster who should love him and treat him well like God who creates and loves human beings. The doctor always mocks the monster about his physical appearance condition which is very ugly, even looks like a devil. The monster is very angry with the doctor. He hates the doctor a lot and he wants to kill the doctor as a revenge. Not only the doctor, but the monster also hates human being because people treats him as bad as the doctor even though the monster has given aid to humans. The other thing that makes him hate human is because there is no one wants to be his friends. Everyone who meets him always run, hit and shout that he is a monster. He feels depressed and desperate about his life and his condition. He always asks to himself why he cannot be an acceptable person in his real life. After he got many bad things, he says that he will kill all human being, especially a man who created him and all persons that he loves. One by one, everyone who loved by Dr. Frankenstein were killed by the monster. The doctor himself also promises to kill his creature because of those accidents. Both of them have death instinct to kill each other. In the end of the story, Dr. Frankenstein dies in the way when he looks for the monster. The monster feels very satisfied with his death, after that he falls down to the sea, and no one never see him again. Death instinct which is depicted in Frankenstein and it based on the concepts of Sigmund Freud. According to Orbach (2007), his conceptualization of the death instinct behaviors reflecting self-destructive tendencies, guilt feelings, suicide, melancholia, masochism and sadism are furnished with a motivational force of their own, as well as a specific mechanism of action, that is the repetition compulsion. The death instinct drives man to the ultimate state of quiescence – death through the urge inherent in organic life to restore an earlier state of things. This novel presents death instinct that is depicted by Dr. Frankenstein and the monster as the characters of Shelley's Frankenstein. There is a stage which is being the part of the story that represents the instinct. It is shown when the monster killed Frankenstein's son (Shelley, 1994: 179). The action that has been done by the monster is the representation of the death instinct, especially the purpose of death instinct. It depends on Freud terms (1949: 6), he explained that the purpose of death instinct is to kill someone or destroy something. The another things that are shown in this novel is the reason of the characters when they want to do aggression which is being the component of death instinct (Subaidah, 2012), she also said that anger feeling becomes the one of the reasons or factors to do aggression to another person. The reason is depicted in the part of the story when the monster becomes angry and wants to kill all human and the doctor who is being his creator (Shelley, 1994: 172) Depends on Schultz (2008: 56), Freud also developed three parts of mind. He drew that the parts are the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. Aside from the three levels of consciousness, Freud believed there to be three parts of personality. There are the id, the ego, and the superego. That is why this study is being the study that analysis about death instinct and its reason because there are many statements and actions that has been represented by the characters of the novel, especially about death instinct and its reason. RESEARCH METHOD To reveal the death instinct of the characters, this study applies the concept of human instinct in analyzing the problems. The concept which will be applied to discuss the matter in this study is the psychoanalysis theory especially the concept of death instinct by Sigmund Freud. The main data source of this study is Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, while the data which is used in this study is in the form of statements which are taken from the novel Frankenstein that reveals the death instinct of the characters, Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. This study will be conducted by using descriptive-qualitative method. It means that this study provides descriptive analysis without using any statistic or number in analyzing the subject matter. The concept applied to discuss the matter in this study is death instinct which is mostly described by Mary Shelley in her novel which titled is Frankenstein. Since the focus of the study becomes clearer, data classification is needed. After collecting and classifying such complete data, the study arranges it in order, so that the study is able to get good understanding about the story of the novel and the issue which is going to be analyzed. In the next step, the story is being analyzed by using theory that is Instinct theory. Here, in analyzing death instinct of human being, this study tries to elaborate dialogue, conflict, and action in the novel and applies the concept. Then, the next step is to reveal how is the death instinct of the characters, which is viewed from the theory of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud. Finally, this research provides a deep analysis on the death instinct of Dr. Frankenstein and the monster in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. DEFINITION OF INSTINCT The forces which human assume to exist behind the tensions caused by the needs of the id are called instincts. It can change their aim (by displacement) and also that they can replace one another-the energy of one instinct passing over another. This also consists in the satisfaction of its innate needs. (Freud, 1949: 5) Instinct also can be described as the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Freud's German term for this concept is Trieb, which is best translated as a driving force or impulse (Bettelheim, 1984). Instincts are a form of energy—transformed physiological energy—that connects the body's needs with the mind's wishes. The stimuli (hunger or thirst, for example) for instincts are internal. When a need such as hunger is aroused in the body, it generates a condition of physiological excitation or energy. The mind transforms this bodily energy into a wish. It is this wish—the mental representation of the physiological need—that is the instinct or driving force that motivates the person to behave in a way that satisfies the need. A hungry person, for example, will act to satisfy his or her need by looking for food. The instinct is not the bodily state; rather, it is the bodily need transformed into a mental state, a wish. When the body is in a state of need, the person experiences a feeling of tension or pressure. The aim of an instinct is to satisfy the need and thereby reduce the tension. Freud's theory can be called a homeostatic approach insofar as it suggests that people are motivated to restore and maintain a condition of physiological equilibrium, or balance, to keep the body free of tension. Freud believed that people always experience a certain amount of instinctual tension and that people must continually act to reduce it. It is not possible to escape the pressure of our physiological needs as we might escape some annoying stimulus in our external environment. This means that instincts are always influencing our behavior, in a cycle of need leading to reduction of need. People may take different paths to satisfy their needs. For example, the sex Drives may be satisfied by heterosexual behavior, homosexual behavior, or auto sexual behavior, or the sex drive may be channeled into some other form of activity. Freud thought that psychic energy could be displaced to substitute objects, and this displacement was of primary importance in determining an individual's personality. Although the instincts are the exclusive source of energy for human behavior, the resulting energy can be invested in a variety of activities. This helps explain the diversity people see in human behavior. All the interests, preferences, and attitudes people display as adults were believed by Freud to be displacements of energy from the original objects that satisfied the instinctual needs. Freud grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts. The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex. The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development. The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis. If you like your roommate, for example, Freud would say that your libido is cathected to him or her. The life instinct Freud considered most important for the personality is sex, which he defined in broad terms. He did not refer solely to the erotic but included almost all pleasurable behaviors and thoughts. Freud regarded sex as our primary motivation. Erotic wishes arise from the body's erogenous zones: the mouth, anus, and sex organs. He suggested that people are predominantly pleasure-seeking beings, and much of his personality theory revolves around the necessity of inhibiting or suppressing our sexual longings. In opposition to the life instincts, Freud postulated the destructive or death instincts. Drawing from biology, he stated the obvious fact that all living things decay and die, returning to their original inanimate state, and he proposed that people have an unconscious wish to die. One component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive, described as the wish to die turned against objects other than the self. The aggressive drive compels us to destroy, conquer, and kill. Freud came to consider aggression as compelling a part of human nature as sex. Freud developed the notion of the death instincts late in life, as a reflection of his own experiences. He endured the physiological and psychological debilitations of age, his cancer worsened, and he witnessed the carnage of World War I. One of his daughters died at the age of 26, leaving two young children. All these events affected him deeply, and, as a result, death and aggression became major themes in his theory. In his later years, Freud dreaded his own death, and exhibited hostility, hatred, and aggressiveness toward colleagues and disciples who disputed his views and left his psychoanalytic circle. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTINCT According to Susan (2004: 42), there are some characteristics of instincts. She summarized the four aspects of instincts: source, pressure, aim, dan object. The first is source. All physic energy is derived from biological processes in some parts or organs of the body. There is no separate, exclusively mental energy. The amount of energy a person has does not change throughout a lifetime although it is transformed so that it is invested differently. At first, psychic energy is directed toward biological needs. As development occurs, this same energy can be redirected into other investment, such as interpersonal relationships and work. The second is pressure. It refers to its force or motivational quality. It corresponds to the strength of the instinctual drive; it is high when the drive is not satisfied and falls when the needs is met. For example, a hungry infant has a high pressure of the hunger drive: one just fed has hunger at a low pressure. When the pressure is low, the instinct may nt have noticeable effect; but when the pressure is high, it may break through, interrupting other activities. A hungry baby wakes up, for example, and it depends on Susan (2004: 42). The next characteristic is aim, the function of instinct according to a principle of homeostatis, or steady state, a principle borrowed from biology. Instinct aim to preserve the ideal steady state for organism (Susan, 2004: 42). Changes moving away from this steady state are experienced as tension. The aim of all instincts is to reduce tension, which is pleasurable. Instincts operate according to what Freud called the pleasure principle, they aim simply to produce pleasure by reducing tension, immediately and without regard to reality constraints. Tension reduction occurs when the original biological instinct is directly satisfied, for example, when a hungry infant is fed or when sexually aroused adult achieves orgasm. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that only direct biological drive satisfaction can reduce tension. Some transformations of libido also allow tension reduction (Susan, 2004: 42). Such healthy, socially acceptable ways of reducing tension are termed sublimation. However, indirect expressions of libido do not always reduce the pressure of instinct. Thus a chronic deviation from a restful, homeostatic state occurs in individuals who have not found ways to reduce tension, such as neurotics (Susan, 2004: 42). The last is object, this characteristic of instinct is about the person or thing in the world that is desired so that the instinct can be satisfied, it based on Susan's terms about instinct (2004: 42). For example, the object of the hunger drive of an infant is the mother's breast: it brings satisfaction. The object of a sexually aroused adult is a sexual partner. Investment of psychic energy in a particular object is called cathexis. It is with respect to the object of an instinct that there is the most variation, the most influence of experience on a person's fundamental motivations. Some sexually aroused men look for a woman just like mother; others look for a very different kind of woman or for a man, or even for underwear or a child or any of a vast assortment of sexual objects. Women are also very widely in their choice of sexual objects. The fact that libido is capable of being directed toward so many diverse objects; not fixed biologically, is termed the plaslicily of instinct. This is much greater in humans than in lower animals, who seem to come with instinct "prewired" to very specific objects. Learning from experience-selecting objects from the possibilities in the environment and learning to adapt to reality-occurs in the ego. The ego, in contrast, the functions according to a very primitive mechanism, called primary process. DEATH INSTINCT (THANATOS) Freud believed that every human had a life and death instinct. The life instinct is callederoswhile death instinct is calledthanatos. Death instinct is a destructive force directing us inevitably toward death, the ultimate release from the tension of living. It motivates all kind of aggression including war and suicide. (Susan, 2004: 41) According to Orbach (2007: 266), Freud's conceptualization of the death instinct behavior reflecting self-destructive tendencies, guilt feelings, suicide, melancholia, mascochism and sadism are furnished with a motivational force of their own, as well as with a specific mechanism of action, that is the repetition compulsion. Death instinct drives man to the ultimate state of quiescence – death through the urge inherent organic life to restore an earlier state of things. The purpose of death instinct is to destroy things and to reduce living things to an inorganic state. (Freud, 1949: 5) Freud also explains that death instinct is intended to individuals typically two ways, to himself or others to outside themselves. Death instinct is redirected looking at people in an action of suicide, while the instinct redirected to death outside or anyone else to do something when they want to kill, persecute, or destroy others. Death instinct also encourages people to ruin people, and the aggressive drive pushes the distribution of people who are not killed. To maintain them, death instinct will against life with generally energy which steer out, intended to others. Freud assumes that every human in their subconscious part, will have a passion for dead, a desire is always mightily repressed by ego. The component of the death instincts is aggression. (http://12013pus.blogspot.com/2013/06/sigmund-freud.html) The most influenced component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive. It is described as a wish to against objects rather than a self. The aggressive drive compels us to destroy, conquer and kill. Freud comes to consider aggression as compelling a part of human nature. Freud also recognizes that the object of the aggressive instinct is fighting, and it is always for the gratification of the id. Most aggressive behavioral traits are destructive. They are considered to be the consequence of dysfunctional character formation. However, some of these instinctual traits may be momentary. Freud suggests that the aggressivity is related to death threat. This means that it can apply to the individual as well as to his or her relation with others. According to Subaidah (2012), aggression is a behavior that can hurt others. There are several factors that influence the aggression. Each factors may differed from one's act of aggression in which it is more dependent on an act of aggression itself and where the act of aggression took place. Lately a lot of aggression is going on in the social sphere such as at school and other social spheres. She explains that there are several factors that cause aggression or aggressiveness: 1. Biological factors There are several biological factors that influence aggressive behavior: a. The gene seems to affect the formation of the neural systems that regulate the aggressive behavior. b. Brain systems which are not involved in aggression were found to reinforce or inhibit the neural circuits that control the aggression. c. Blood chemistry (particularly the sex hormones which is partly determined heredity) can also influence aggressive behavior. 2. The Instinct According to Sigmund Freud, he explains that in humans there are two kinds of instincts which are called as eros (life instinct) and thanatos (death instinct). Aggression is an expression of the death instinct and it may be directed to other people or other targets (external) and can also to themselves (internal). 3. The Anger feeling Anger is the emotion that has the characteristics of the parasympathetic nervous system activity which is high. It is the feeling of strong dislike feeling commonly conducted due to an error, which may be manifestly wrong or maybe not. At the moment, there is a desire to attack which includes by angry, punching, destroy or throw something, it usually arises cruel mind. When things are distributed and there is aggressive behavior. 4. Frustration feeling Frustration occurs when someone blocked by something in achieving a goal, needs, desires, expectations or specific actions. Aggression is the way to respond the frustration feeling. Poor time naughty teen is a result of frustration which is related to the amount of unemployed time, financial mediocre and the requirements that must be fulfilled but difficult to achieve. As a result, they become irritable and aggressive. (jambeekidul.blogspot.com/2012/05/agresi.html) The Death Instinct depicted by Dr. Frankenstein and The Monster in Mary's Frankenstein In the novel, death instinct depicted is firstly depicted by Dr. Frankenstein when he meets the monster in the field of ice. When he enjoys the atmosphere of the nature around him, suddenly he sees the figure of man and the creature comes nearly to him with super human speed. He really surprised when he sees the creature that stands in front of him. The creature is the monster that was made by him, but the doctor never wants to see the monster because it looks so ugly and scary. So the doctor wants to kill that monster by himself. The next part which depicts the death instinct is shown by the monster. It happens when the doctor sees something like a human but it looks different from the ordinary human. The creature comes nearly to him, and the doctor is surprised because the creature is the person who is seemed like a monster. The doctor said many bad words to him, but there is the time when the monster wants to make a deal with Frankenstein. The monster is being the unacceptable person in the real life, there is no one can accept his condition. The monster wants to ask about something which is related to his condition but he says that if the doctor refuses his request, the monster will kill him. The next quote is shown by Dr. Frankenstein and his creature. After the monster asked something with the doctor and want to make a deal with the doctor, Frankenstein who is being the creator of the monster answered the kind of thing that has been asked by the monster. Death instinct is depicted in the some words. In those words, the doctor want to take the monster's life or in another meaning, it means that the doctor want to kill the monster. It depends on Freud terms about death instinct, he explains that the purpose of death instinct is to kill someone. The next part which shows death instinct in the novel, there is no deal between Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. The doctor feels very angry and hates the monster because the condition of the monster itself. After that, the doctor does the action that is shown in the quotation as the part of the story. In some parts of the statements, the doctor wants to attack the monster by himself. It shows that Frankenstein want to expressing his feeling that represent the purpose of death instinct. It is like Freud terms, he explains that the purpose of the death instinct of human being is to destroy or kill another creature. The next statement is said by Dr. Frankenstein, it happens when the doctor tries to hit the monster. But the monster can dodge the action of the doctor. The monster still wants to make a deal with the doctor. The monster tells about his sadness feeling to the doctor. But the words that were said by the monster cannot make the doctor's heart follow what the monster wants. In the time of the novel, the doctor feels angry and says many words to the monster. There are some words which depicts the death instinct of the doctor and describe that Frankenstein want to fight with the monster and kills him. The next statement is said by the monster, he continuous his journey, and after that he arrives at Geneva. Directly, he looks for the hiding place. Then he takes a rest, and suddenly the little boy comes to him. He thinks that this boy does not have a negative thought like the other people. But he is wrong, this boy looks so scared, he tries to talk with the boy. Suddenly, the boy says many bad words to him, and he tells Frankenstein as a name of the person that the monster really hates. Finally, the monster wants to kill this boy, it is depicted in the some words. He describes the death instinct and his actions that he will do in this part of the statement. Based on Freud (1949: 6), the purpose of death instinct is to kill or destroy something. The Reason of the Characters Who Represent the Aggression In this Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, there are many aggressions that are depicted in the some parts or in the some statement that were said by the characters, and there are many things that are being the reason of the character to do their aggression to another. Dr. Frankenstein and the monster show the causes or the factors of aggression based on their actions and quotations. The factors will be explained in these parts of thesis based on Subaidah's terms of aggression (2012). Aggression is firstly shown by Dr. Frankenstein when he sees a person in the ice field. When he really enjoys the natural situation around him, suddenly he finds the figure of human and the creature comes nearly to him with super human speed. He really surprised when he sees the creature which stands in front of him. The creature is the monster that was made by him, but the doctor never wants to see the monster because it looks so ugly and scary. In some statement, there is a factor that will be explained. There are some words which show the anger feeling of the doctor as the main factor which influences him and it is the reason of him to do the aggression to the monster. The next statement is continuing the conversation before that happened between Dr. Frankenstein and his creature. After the monster asked something with the doctor and want to make a deal with the doctor, Frankenstein who is being the creator of the monster answered the kind of thing that has been asked by the monster. He said some words to answer what the monster want. Those words describe the anger feeling of the doctor and also show that the doctor really does not like the monster because the psychical condition of the monster. It is to be his reason to do the aggression to the monster. This explanation similar with Subaidah's terms, she explains that the anger is one of the factors that can influence a person to do aggression to another person, and the thing that can cause the anger is because the feeling of dislike so strong. The next part of the story in the novel, there is no deal between Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. The doctor feels very angry and hates the monster because the condition of the monster itself. After that, the doctor does the action that is shown in the quotation as the part of the story. There are some words which show the reason of the doctor when he wants to destroy the monster. The doctor describes his feeling which influences him to be aggressive clearly in this part of his statement. These feeling can influence someone to be an aggressive person, it means that the person wants to kill or destroy the other person. This is has similarity with Subaidah's term, she explains that the reason of the person to do aggression is because their angry feeling. The next statement is said by the monster. It is continuing from the statements before. After the doctor asked him to go, the monster is still trying to tell about the experiences that he got in his life. He tells many things to the doctor, he hopes the doctor will agree to make a deal with him. And in the situation that is described in the novel, the monster says something about his feelings to the doctor. He says the words to Dr. Frankenstein. There are some words that show the anger feeling of the monster. The words describe the reason of him when he wants to do the aggression to his enemies and he really wants to destroy them. Based on Subaidah (2012), anger is the factor for the people to do aggression to another, and the dislike feeling because of the mistaken things that has been done by a person will influence a person angry with the another people. There are also some words which show the mistakes of the doctor and the human that cause the anger of the monster. Dr. Frankenstein has done something that make the monster feel dislike and angry with him, this is also done by the other person. The next statement is still based on the story of the monster. After he went to forest, he lived in a place. He felt desperate because of human actions. He remembered the accident that he got from De Lacey family, especially from Felix. He felt so angry, he wanted to destroy everything near him. There are some words which represent the anger feeling of the monster, it is described clearly in the part of the statement. It becomes his main feeling when he thinks to destroy something or injury the human and it also shows the factor that influences him when he cannot control himself and change into an aggressive person. The anger feeling is the dominant feeling that becomes the reason for him to do aggression to human being. This is similar with Subaidah's terms which describes the aggression can be done by a person because the anger feeling that were caused by the mistake of the another person, it can grow up the dislike feeling of the person. CONCLUSION Based on the analysis in the previous chapter, there are two important conclusions drawn: the death instinct and the aggression which is being the component of death instinct based on the characters. First, it represents death instinct which is shown by Dr. Frankenstein and the monster who is his creature. Death instinct has some steps which include unconscious and id, it also has a purpose to destroy something or kill someone. By those steps and the purposes of death instinct, it can be concluded that the doctor has death instinct when he wants to kill or destroy the monster, and the monster wants to kill the doctor and all people who gave him many bad experiences in his life, such as when he killed Frankenstein's son. They show death instinct by killing or destroy something based on their main feelings and instinct itself. The unconscious is being the important part of instinct because it drives and controls all human mind and action that they want to do to another people. The next step that becomes the part of unconscious is the id of the characters. They will do something that will give them a pleasure or satisfied feeling, it based on their id. These part will develop to death instinct when they have some wishes to destroy anything or kill anyone. It is shown when the monster killed the doctor's wife, some his families member, and his friends, it is also depicted when the doctor really wants to take the monster life by himself because he killed many person that he really loves. The other things which are depicted in those parts are the characteristics of instinct. it includes the pressure, the aim, and the object of instinct. The pressure is described as the motivational things which influence person to do something to get pleasure. It is shown by the monster when he wants to kill all human because his revenge feeling, and the doctor when he wants to fight with the monster because his rage feeling. The second characteristic is the aim of instinct which describe as the actions or wishes that will be done by the person to get pleasure in their life. It is depicted in the characters when the doctor wants to take the monster life with his own hands, and when the monster wants to kill the doctor because he created him with the bad physical condition which make the monster as the unacceptable person in his social life. The last characteristics which is shown by the characters is the object of instinct, it means that the person who do the actions based on their instinct, will get the satisfied feeling from the object of instinct itself. It is shown when the doctor wants to destroy the monster's head, the monster is being the object of instinct that can give a satisfied for the doctor when Frankenstein really can kill the monster by himself. And it is also shown when the monster killed Elizabeth who is being the doctor's wife. She is being the object of instinct that will give the satisfied feeling for the monster when he can kill her by his hands. Besides finding how death instinct is done by the characters, this study also find the reasons why aggression is done by them. Based on aggression terms, there are some factors that influence people to do aggression. They includes the biological factor, instinct, anger and frustration feeling. Those factors are shown by the characters, such as Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. It is described when the doctor hunts the monster, he wants kill the monster because he is very angry, it related to the accidents that has been done by the monster to his friends and families in the novel. It is also shown by the monster, when he destroyed many inanimate things such as tress around him, he feels frustration because he cannot injure a human. These feelings become the reason for them to do aggression to another person or thing. REFERENCES Abrams, M.H. 1999. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Seventh Editio. U.S.A : Thomson Learning, inc. Cloninger, Susan. 2004. Theory of Personality : Understanding Person. Fourth Edition. : Pearson Prentice Hall. Feist, Jess and Gregory J. Feist. 2008. Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. New York: McGraw – Hill Co. Klein, Melanie. 1988. Development In Theory and Practice Volume 1. New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library. Orbach, Israel. 2007. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci Vol 44 No. 4. Israel : Bar-Ilan University. Rickman, Richard M. 2008. Theories of Personality Ninth Edition. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education. Rivers, William H.R. 1920. Instinct and The Unconscious A Contribution to A Biological Theory of The Psychoneuroses. Ontario: Christopher D. Green. Schultz, Duane P and Sydney Ellen Schultz. 2009, 2005. Theories of Personality Ninth Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning (http://www.phobosdeimos.com/History/Frankenstein/Frankenstein%20History.htm. Retrieved on June, 20th 2013) (http://12013pus.blogspot.com/ 2013/ 06/ sigmund-freud.html. Retrieved on June, 20th 2013) (http://jambeekidul.blogspot.com/2012/05/agresi.html. Retrieved on June, 20th 2013)
The articles that make up this issue cover a wide range of topics: the ecological impact of some productive practices, the constitution of the subjects of public policies by the policies themselves, the scope and limitations in the effectiveness of social participation according to the issues that motivate it, the levels in which it operates and the political system that frames it; the institutional organization of power and the negotiation and confrontation strategies to which the actors resort in certain contexts and moments.María Emilia Val's text on the process of restructuring Argentina's external debt in 2005 studies the sovereign debt negotiation strategy developed by the government of Néstor Kirchner, with an orientation that would continue until 2015, setting a novel precedent regarding the policy with which the states can promote debt restructuring processes in the current stage of financial globalization. It is particularly appropriate to return to that experience at a time when Argentina has been led to gigantic indebtedness for reckless and misguided government management - judging by the results, which are what counts in terms of political action - generating an economic, financial crisis. and social depth and dimensions unparalleled in the last seventy years. Val's article allows us to appreciate the subtlety of the Argentine strategy that, in a framework of explicit adversity with the creditor bloc, at the same time knew how to take advantage of internal or specific differences between different creditors, and between them and their political guarantors, to optimize the perspectives of success.One of the greatest liabilities of capitalism throughout its history is the environmental one. Two articles analyze two aspects of the issue. Soledad Nión Celio deals with the social construction of risk in the production of soybeans in Uruguay, based on the perception of different actors - an issue that fully touches Argentina. This item is taken as an example of the changes that agricultural production has experienced in recent decades. Martha Jhiannina Cárdenas Ruiz and María dos Dôres Saraiva de Loreto present the results of a qualitative study on informal mining in a region of Peru and its effects on the quality of life of the families involved in the activity.The text of Jimena Pesquero Bordón focuses on the role of the vice government in the politics of three Patagonian provinces in recent years. The work opens the way for the study of an issue that until now had been ignored by the "subnational" political analysis. The author emphasizes the strategic relevance that the figure of the Vice Governor usually plays in certain institutional situations and the counterpoint of political games that develop within the respective provinces around the Governor / Vice Governor relationship and the gravitation of that relationship in provincial policy and in its articulation with the federal political system. For its part, Catalina Luz Bressán's article is part of the contemporary theoretical reflection on the relationship between the scale of citizen participation and democracy. Criticisms of the effective modalities in which "transitions to democracy" developed in several countries of our region, in particular what these criticisms posed as a growing distance between formal political systems and the demands of broad sectors of citizenship, led to exalt the virtues of the local, the direct, possibly the immediate, to the detriment of representative democracy practices oriented in the best case towards issues and with approaches alien to the specific problems of citizens and to an effectively democratic participation, generating a vision of the local as an idealized area of participation and deepening of democracy. On the contrary, the author argues that democratic participation is not condemned to the limits of the small scale; maintains that democracy is strengthened the greater the scale of participation as it allows to achieve a citizen involvement of better quality and politicity. "Who nominates dominates" says the old apothegm; naming means identifying and also calling, questioning someone or something, constituting it as a subject or object. The state names through its policies and the tools it uses to achieve its objectives. María Florencia Marcos' article inquires about the production of rural development subjects based on the analysis of the Social Agricultural Program (PSA), a state policy that was developed in Argentina between 1993 and 2013.onstitutes the subject; more often the name, the word, does not change, but the identity mutation occurs as a result of substantive policies, particularly those aimed at empowering its recipients. This is the case of Conectar Igualdad, to which Victoria Matozo's article is dedicated. Conectar Igualdad was one of the best known and possibly successful programs designed and promoted by the government of President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, later dismantled and concluded by the Cambiemos Alliance government. It was also a program surrounded by some controversies, referring to the role of ANSES in its implementation and financing, and how to classify the program within the rigidities of academic classifications: social policy? Educational policy? Technological democratization? - not to mention the deployment of denigrative adjectives and social prejudices that were directed against the program and its beneficiaries. Victoria Matozo's article gets into the discussion from a rights perspective, debating with some social questions, popularized by the media, about the recipients of the program and its scope in relation to the objectives of this policy. The massive student mobilizations that took place in Chile in the 1990s and in recent years highlighted, in the field of public education, the limitations of a firmly structured representative democratic system and the inevitability of the formulation of participation claims and greater democratization far beyond the local level. Braulio Carimán Linares focuses them using theoretical methodological approaches developed in the study of social movements and the analysis of public policies. The article also shows the challenges that student demands posed to successive Democratic Concertación government and the different responses with which they tried to agree with organizations, against the background of a power structure that, in the economic-financial field, maintained continuities with which he had supported the military regime that was installed in 1973. ; Los artículos que integran este número cubren un amplio arco de temas: el impacto ecológico de algunas prácticas productivas, la constitución de los sujetos de las políticas públicas por las propias políticas, los alcances y limitaciones en la eficacia de la participación social de acuerdo a los asuntos que la motivan, los niveles en los que se desenvuelve y el sistema político que la enmarca; la organización institucional del poder y las estrategias de negociación y confrontación a las que recurren los actores en determinados contextos y momentos. El texto de María Emilia Val sobre el proceso de reestructuración de la deuda externa argentina en 2005 estudia la estrategia de negociación de deuda soberana desarrollada por el gobierno de Néstor Kirchner, con una orientación que se continuaría hasta 2015 sentando un precedente novedoso respecto a la política con la que los estados pueden impulsar procesos de reestructuración de deuda en el actual estadio de la globalización financiera. Resulta particularmente oportuno regresar a esa experiencia en momentos en que Argentina ha sido conducida a un endeudamiento gigantesco por una gestión gubernamental imprudente y desacertada -a juzgar por los resultados, que son lo que cuenta en materia de acción política- generando una crisis económica, financiera y social de profundidad y dimensiones sin paralelo en los últimos setenta años. El artículo de Val permite apreciar la sutileza de la estrategia argentina que, en un marco de explícita adversariedad con el bloque acreedor, supo al mismo tiempo aprovechar diferencias internas o puntuales entre distintos acreedores, y entre estos y sus garantes políticos, para optimizar las perspectivas de éxito. Uno de los mayores pasivos del capitalismo a lo largo de su historia es el ambiental. Dos artículos analizan sendos aspectos de la cuestión. Soledad Nión Celio trata la construcción social del riesgo en la producción de soja en el Uruguay a partir de la percepción de diferentes actores -un asunto que toca de lleno a Argentina-. Este rubro es tomado como un ejemplo de los cambios que la producción agrícola ha experimentado en las últimas décadas. Martha Jhiannina Cárdenas Ruiz y María dos Dôres Saraiva de Loreto presentan los resultados de un estudio cualitativo sobre la minería informal en una región de Perú y sus efectos en la calidad de vida de las familias involucradas en la actividad. El texto de Jimena Pesquero Bordón enfoca el papel de la vicegobernatura en la política de tres provincias patagónicas en años recientes. El trabajo abre el camino para el estudio de un tema que hasta ahora había sido soslayado por el análisis político "subnacional". La autora destaca la relevancia estratégica que la figura del Vicegobernador suele desempeñar en determinadas coyunturas institucionales y el contrapunto de juegos políticos que se desenvuelven dentro de las respectivas provincias en torno a la relación Gobernador/Vicegobernador y a la gravitación de esa relación en la política provincial y en su articulación con el sistema político federal. Por su parte el artículo de Catalina Luz Bressán se inscribe en la reflexión teórica contemporánea sobre la relación entre escala de la participación ciudadana y democracia. Las críticas a las modalidades efectivas en que se desenvolvieron las "transiciones a la democracia" en varios países de nuestra región, en particular lo que esas críticas plantearon como un creciente distanciamiento entre los sistemas políticos formales y las demandas de sectores amplios de la ciudadanía, llevó a exaltar las virtudes de lo local, lo directo, eventualmente lo inmediato, en detrimento de las prácticas de la democracia representativa orientadas en el mejor caso hacia temas y con enfoques ajenos a las problemáticas concretas de los ciudadanos y a una participación efectivamente democrática, generando una visión de lo local como ámbito idealizado de participación y profundización de la democracia. Al contrario, la autora argumenta que la participación democrática no está condenada a los límites de la pequeña escala; sostiene que la democracia se fortalece cuanta mayor es la escala de participación en cuanto permite alcanzar un involucramiento ciudadano de mejor calidad y politicidad. "Quien nomina domina" reza el viejo apotegma; nombrar significa identificar y también llamar, interpelar a alguien o algo, constituirlo como sujeto u objeto. El estado nombra a través de sus políticas y de las herramientas de que se vale para alcanzar sus objeticos. El artículo de María Florencia Marcos indaga acerca de la producción de sujetos de desarrollo rural a partir del análisis del Programa Social Agropecuario (PSA), política estatal que se desarrolló en Argentina entre el 1993 y el 2013. El análisis del PSA explicita el modo en que el nombre constituye al sujeto; más a menudo el nombre, la palabra, no cambia, pero la mutación identitaria ocurre por efecto de políticas sustantivas, particularmente aquellas encaminadas al empoderamiento de sus destinatarios. Es el caso de Conectar Igualdad, a la que se dedica el artículo de Victoria Matozo. Conectar Igualdad fue uno de los programas más conocidos y posiblemente exitosos diseñados e impulsados por el gobierno de la presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, posteriormente desmantelado y concluido por el gobierno de la Alianza Cambiemos. Fue también un programa rodeado de algunas polémicas, referidas al papel de la ANSES en su implementación y financiamiento, y a cómo encasillar al programa dentro de las rigideces de las clasificaciones académicas: ¿política social? ¿política educativa? ¿democratización tecnológica? -para no mencionar el despliegue de adjetivaciones denigratorias y prejuicios sociales que se dirigieron contra el programa y sus beneficiarios-. El artículo de Victoria Matozo se mete en la discusión desde la perspectiva de derechos debatiendo con algunos cuestionamientos sociales, popularizados mediáticamente, sobre los destinatarios del programa y su alcance con relación a los objetivos de esta política. Las masivas movilizaciones estudiantiles que tuvieron lugar en Chile en la década de 1990 y en años recientes pusieron de relieve, en el terreno de la educación pública, las limitaciones de un sistema democrático representativo firmemente estructurado y la inevitabilidad de la formulación de reclamos de participación y mayor democratización mucho más allá del nivel local. Braulio Carimán Linares las enfoca recurriendo a abordajes teórico metodológicos desarrollados en el estudio de los movimientos sociales y el análisis de políticas públicas. El artículo permite ver asimismo los desafíos que las demandas estudiantiles plantearon a sucesivos gobierno de la Concertación Democrática y las diferentes respuestas con que estos intentaron acordar con las organizaciones, con el trasfondo de una estructura de poder que, en el terreno económico-financiero, mantenía continuidades con la que había servido de sustento al régimen militar que se instaló en 1973.
A video has been released that purportedly shows Omar al-Bayoumi, a man with ties to Saudi Arabia's intelligence apparatus who has been alleged to have assisted 9/11 hijackers in California, engaging in what appears to be a reconnaissance mission a year before the attacks. Families of 9/11 victims are now in civil litigation with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and have been alleging there are reams of documents including this video that prove Saudi Arabia's official backing of the 2001 terror attacks. A federal judge in New York City is now deliberating a Saudi motion to dismiss the case.This video, recently unsealed in court, shows Bayoumi taking shots of Washington monuments and buildings and talking about "a plan" back home, while zeroing in on entrances and exits to the U.S. Capitol, the Washington monument, and other places. At one point he says to his intended audience that he will go to the monument and "report to you in detail what is there."The video was shown on "60 Minutes" last weekend. The plaintiffs in the civil case say the U.S. government has been in possession of the video, along with tons of other evidence, collected at Bayoumi's apartment in England, since days after the 9/11 attacks, but all of it is still classified. On Monday, RS spoke with Brett Eagleson, president of 9/11 Justice, a grassroots organization of 9/11 families that have been pushing for the declassification of evidence they say proves the Saudi connection to the 2001 terror attack. The transcript has been edited for length and clarity.RS: So tell me first, what is 9/11 Justice?Brett Eagleson: 9/11 Justice is a grassroots campaign of family members that lost loved ones or that were hurt or injured the day of the attack, and goal of the organization is to bring about public education and awareness about not only what the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia did in their capacity to facilitate and assist the hijackers, but also this fight that we've had to have with our very own government on transparency regarding documents surrounding 9/11. Everything has been kept under lock and key for over 20 years now. (We) are passionate about pushing for transparency and pushing for the truth to hopefully one day, finally bring peace and closure to our 9/11 community.RS: So tell me about this video that's been recently released. Why is it so important?Brett Eagleson: This video should make everybody upset. That should make not only the family members enraged, but it should make America enraged. The public at large should be up in arms about this. This is a video that our government has had for over 23 years. In the days after 9/11 the FBI asked (London's) Metropolitan Police, which is known as Scotland Yard, to raid the individual Al Bayoumi's apartment in Birmingham, England. So we know that our FBI knew about the existence of this video. It was our FBI that instructed the British authorities to raid his apartment. They came upon a trove of documents, hours and hours of videotape, handwritten notes, notebooks containing the names and phone numbers of Saudi government officials as well as senior al-Qaida operatives. But some of the most damning stuff is this video that we now are made aware of 23 years later. How can it be that the former deputy director of the CIA claims that he was not made aware of this video?So the importance here is everything we know about 9/11, everything that we've been told about the Saudi role in 9/11 needs to be re-examined. History needs to be rewritten, because in 2004 the 9/11 Commission came to its conclusion, saying that the Saudi government, as an institution, probably wasn't involved in the funding of Al Qaida and probably wasn't involved with supporting the 9/11 hijackers. But the 2004 commission, nobody, had the benefit of this latest trove of documents. Nobody saw this video that was partaking in that commission, senators, Congress people, the commissioners themselves, didn't get a chance to see this video. RS: So the U.S. government would have known all of this from the beginning, is your contention?Brett Eagleson: Of course. And now what they're saying is the DOJ has been writing letters to our judge in our civil litigation against Saudi Arabia, and they're saying that they need more time to vet these materials and to vet these videos, and they've had over 23 years, and they've denied the existence of any of these documents. First they said that they didn't have them, and then they said that these documents don't exist. Well now that the truth is out there, and we actually have them, because it was the British authorities that gave us these documents, now they're saying, well, they need time to vet them. Yeah, and they've had over 20 years.RS: So let's go to the court case. How long have the 9/11 families been battling the Saudi government in court? And can you tell us where that legal battle is today?Brett Eagleson: Sure. So originally, the 9/11 families filed suit against Saudi Arabia, and this was prior to the inaction of the law called JASTA, which stands for the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act. That lawsuit was dismissed because of what's called Foreign Sovereign immunity, so American citizens can't sue a foreign country, because countries have immunity, and the judge threw the lawsuit out on that technicality. So in 2014 there was a massive effort by the families to create a law in Congress called the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Law, and it's referred to as JASTA. (It) created a loophole in the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, and it said that if you're a foreign sovereign or foreign entity, there is credible evidence that the actions of your government harmed or killed Americans on American soil. President Obama, at the time, vetoed it, and we couldn't understand why, like, why would he veto this kind of no nonsense, no brainer legislation? We spent a lot of time and pain and effort overriding that veto, and we delivered to President Obama his one and only veto override of his entire eight years of his presidency. We finally got our law, and that is what allowed us to reintroduce Saudi Arabia as a defendant in our litigation, which we did in 2017. So from 2017 until today, we've been in active litigation against the kingdom. In 2018 the kingdom moved to dismiss our lawsuit, and their arguments were that we still didn't have jurisdiction, despite JASTA, so nothing on the merit, but more so on a technicality. They said that we didn't have enough evidence at that time. The judge said, no, actually, there is enough credible evidence here, and I'm going to deny your motion to dismiss, and I'm going to grant limited discovery on Southern California itself. So, all information related to Omar Al Bayoumi and (9/11 hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar) and any individuals associated with those two working in and around Southern California.That was the cell, the terror cell, that we were really focused on. He allowed discovery on that, and that is when things started to get really interesting. Because every attempt at gaining information from our own government about what they knew and what they investigated in Southern California, was met with resistance to the extent that we actually had to subpoena the FBI. The FBI did not cooperate with the subpoenas. Everything that the FBI would produce to us was completely redacted. You would think that the FBI would be salivating, chopping up the bit to finish an investigation that they never were allowed to finish. You would think that they would be overwhelmed that we were stepping in to try to finally close the gap here and close the loop. But it was the opposite. We were personally invited to the White House to meet with President Trump in 2019 because the ongoing battle of obtaining documents and obtaining evidence was persisting, and we begged President Trump at the time for help. The Constitution says that the president can declassify whatever he deems necessary. And the president looked us in the eye, shook all of our hands, and promised to help us. And he said he was going to declassify the documents, and was going to help us. So we left that meeting elated. Less than 24 hours with Trump's approval (AG) Bill Barr invoked what's known as the State Secrets Doctrine, an executive privilege which basically labeled all the information we were seeking in the courts from the FBI and DOJ a state secret. And it was like a gut punch to us. So that set us back a while. It wasn't until campaign season, when Trump was up against Biden, that we reached out to then candidate, Biden, asking if he was elected president, would he help us? At that point, he wrote up the letter saying that if he was, in fact, elected president, he would declassify the documents. So when Biden got into office, we kind of gave him the space and allowed him to get settled in a little bit. And you know, his first year in office was the 20th anniversary of 9/11. Up until that point his administration had been unresponsive to our requests. So we actually organized a protest because we knew that President Biden wanted to mark the 20th anniversary at Ground Zero, and we wrote him a letter signed by 5,000 family members, saying that if you come to Ground Zero, and if you talk about how important our loved ones are to you and how important this day is, and you still haven't honored your campaign promise to us, we will protest your appearance at Ground Zero. So I think that really moved the needle. Biden enacted a Presidential Executive Order which called upon the declassification of all 9/11 documents. So we've had this executive order for two years now, and his current administration is, one, not even honoring it fully, but two, they're fighting it in court. So they're now, as we talk about this video and all these documents, Biden DOJ officials are writing letters to the court saying this information is too sensitive. It's not appropriate. They've been fighting against us to try to continue to keep this information under lock and key. Thankfully, we have the video out.RS: What is the message that you would like the American people to get out of this case and the evidence coming out about it?Brett Eagleson: Saudi Arabia, if they, in any way, want to try to enjoy normal relations with this country, if they want to do business with our country on a state to state level, they need to fess up. They need to take accountability, and they need to come clean about what their own government did 23 years ago. And until that happens, it should not be that we're able to do engage in security agreements with them, that we're able to sell them the devastating weapons, that they're able to buy into our PGA Tour and have LIV Golf here — like none of those things should be happening until there's an acknowledgement and a reckoning of their wrongdoing.
[ES] Ha pasado un año más en el que al frente de este Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, y junto a todos vosotros, hemos seguido trabajando para situar la ciencia de calidad y el desarrollo tecnológico de este país en el lugar que merece. El año 2010 fue el año de comienzo de un nuevo Plan de Actuación, el 2010-13, que, como el Plan de Actuación anterior 2006-09, fue evaluado en su totalidad por científicos externos a la institución. En esta ocasión, el Plan de Actuación incluye a todas las unidades funcionales del CSIC, siendo la primera vez que esto ocurre con una institución de investigación de similares características. Además, el nuevo Plan de Actuación introduce elementos de medición de cumplimiento de objetivos no contemplados en el Plan de Actuación anterior, como la calidad de las publicaciones, la comunicación de la ciencia y la internacionalización. En este escenario de cambio en los indicadores de cumplimiento de objetivos del Plan de Actuación, que hace más exigente la obtención de resultados, el CSIC debió de afrontar, como el resto de los OPIs, un descenso notable de los presupuestos derivado del marco presupuestario restringido impuesto por la Administración General del Estado. A pesar de ello, y como puede comprobarse en los datos de esta Memoria, la actividad de las áreas científico- técnicas creció en todos los indicadores de cumplimiento de objetivos marcados en el Plan de Actuación 2010-13, e incluso se han alcanzado valores superiores a los previstos. Esto refleja, de una parte, que la inversión realizada en investigación en años anteriores ha dado sus frutos y, de otra, que la voluntad de esfuerzo incluso en un amenazante escenario económico sigue viva. Durante el año 2010 se celebró el Año Internacional de la Biodiversidad, declarado por la UNESCO, y el CSIC se unió a esta celebración con múltiples actos e iniciativas, además de sólidos programas de investigación, entre los que cabe destacar, por su magnitud y trascendencia científica, el Proyecto Consolider Malaspina, integrado por más de 200 investigadores a nivel nacional y liderado por el CSIC. El proyecto comenzó en ; diciembre de 2010 con la salida de los buques Hespérides y Sarmiento de Gamboa, en una expedición que recrea el viaje de Alejandro Malaspina en el siglo XVIII, y que tiene como objetivo general estudiar el impacto del cambio global en el océano profundo. El CSIC lidera además desde 2010, entre otros, programas europeos de Capacidades e Infraestructura (EcoGenes Adapting to Global Change), destinados a reforzar la institución en las áreas de Genómica, Modelación Ecológica y Ecofisiología en relación con el cambio global. Pero el año 2010 marcó un hito no sólo en el área de la biodiversidad, sino también en el campo de la física de partículas, ya que fue durante este año cuando se registraron las primeras colisiones del LHC a TeV de energía en centro de masas, con la participación destacable de investigadores del CSIC en el análisis de datos relativos a estas primeras colisiones. Además, el CSIC lidera desde 2010 el Proyecto Consolider MultiDark, cuyo objetivo es contribuir a la identificación y detección de la materia oscura del universo. En el campo de la Astrofísica, el CSIC firmó en diciembre de ese mismo año, con la institución alemana Max-Planck- Gesellschaft, una adenda al convenio de colaboración entre ambas instituciones para el Observatorio Astronómico de Calar Alto en Almería hasta 2018, con el que se inicia la construcción de un nuevo instrumento de observación destinado a la búsqueda de exoplanetas de tipo terrestre. Sería imposible enumerar aquí todos los hitos científicos del año 2010 en que el CSIC ha estado involucrado, llevando el liderazgo en muchas ocasiones. Una institución que abarca más de 130 centros e institutos tiene el deber de contribuir significativamente al avance de la ciencia y estar presente en las actividades de relevancia nacional e internacional. Para ello, concentra capacidades y masa crítica investigadora como ha hecho en el 2010, año en que se ha aprobado el Reglamento de funcionamiento del Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales de Madrid, que agrupa el 70% de la investigación que se realiza en el área de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Institutos emblemáticos como la Escuela de Historia y Arqueología de Roma, ha celebrado en 2010 el centenario de su creación. Además, se han puesto en marcha las instalaciones de los nuevos Centros de Física Teórica y Matemáticas, y el Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación en el campus de la UAM, y se han creado el Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea y el Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio. Por otra parte, la presencia del CSIC en los Campus de Excelencia Internacional (CEI) se ha incrementado en 2010 con la aprobación de 10 nuevos CEI, que se suman a los 9 aprobados en 2009 y en los que el CSIC figura como socio promotor y/o colaborador, corroborando que la cooperación con las universidades avanza por el camino correcto de integración efectiva y de excelencia. Nuestra institución, ya centenaria, se compone de un personal comprometido con la ciencia y convencido de que, incluso en circunstancias económicas adversas como las que dieron la cara en 2010, merece la pena seguir apostando por la generación de conocimiento y su transferencia a la sociedad como motor de desarrollo y recuperación económica. Gracias a todos por el esfuerzo realizado y por mostrar claramente nuestra vocación de que esta institución siga ocupando el lugar de relevancia y competencia que siempre la ha caracterizado. ; [EN] Another year has gone by during which we, at the helm of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), and all of you have pulled together and continued working towards putting this country's quality science and technological development in its rightful place. The year 2010 saw the start of the new Action Plan 2010-13 which, like the previous Action Plan 2006-09, was fully assessed by scientists external to the institution. This time round the Action Plan includes all CSIC functional units, this being the first time it caters for a research institution with such characteristics. Furthermore, the new Action Plan includes elements designed to measure the achievement of objectives, such as the quality of publications, science communications and internationalization, something that the previous Action Plan did not contemplate. Within this scenario incorporating new indicators to assess the achievement of goals outlined in the Action Plan, thus placing greater emphasis on the attainment of results, the CSIC has also had to cope with substantial budgetary cutbacks imposed by Central Government, as have other National Research Institutions. Notwithstanding, as evident from the data presented in this Report, our activity in scientifictechnical fields rose for all performance indicators assessing achievement of the goals set in the 2010-13 Action Plan, attaining even higher values than expected. This reflects, firstly, that investment in research in past years has paid off and, secondly, that even in this ominous economic scenario, our willing endeavour is still very much alive. The year 2010 was declared "International Year of Biodiversity" by UNESCO, and the CSIC joined in the celebration by holding numerous events and initiatives, as well as running important research programmes. Among these, the Consolider Malaspina Project should be highlighted for its scale and scientific impact, involving over 200 researchers nationwide and directed by the CSIC. The project began in December 2010 ; when the research vessels Hesperides and Sarmiento de Gamboa set out on an expedition to retrace the voyage made by Alejandro Malaspina in the eighteenth century, with the general aim of studying the impact of global change on the deep ocean. Since 2010 the CSIC has also been leading, among others, European Infrastructure and Capacities programmes (EcoGenes Adapting to Global Change), designed to strengthen the institution in the areas of Genomics, Environmental Modelling and Ecophysiology in relation to global change. Not only did 2010 mark a milestone in the area of biodiversity, but also in the field of particle physics as this year also witnessed the first collisions in the LHC of centre-of-mass energy of TeV, with the direct involvement of CSIC researchers, who participated in analysing the data on these first collisions. Furthermore, since 2010 the CSIC has been directing the Consolider MultiDark Project, which aims to contribute to the identification and detection of dark matter in the universe. Also in the field of astrophysics, in December 2010, the CSIC and the German Max-Planck-Gesellschaft institute signed an addendum to the cooperation agreement between both institutions regarding the Calar Alto Astronomical Observatory in Almeria, in force until 2018. Accordingly, construction will begin of a new observational instrument designed to search for Earth-like exoplanets. It would be impossible to list all the scientific achievements in which the CSIC has been involved or has directed in many cases, during 2010. An institution that encompasses over 130 centres and institutes is bound to make a significant contribution to the advancement of science and to play a role in activities of both national and international relevance. So doing, research capacity and critical mass have been consolidated in 2010, the year in which Regulation was passed concerning operating guidelines of the Area for Humanities and Social Sciences in Madrid; an area which now comprises 70% of the research conducted within the aforementioned Area. The year 2010 has also seen the 100th anniversary celebration of flagship institutions, like the Escuela de Historia y Arqueología de Roma (Spanish School of History and Archaeology in Rome). Moreover, new facilities are up and running to house the Centres for Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, and the Food Science Research Institute on the UAM campus. This year has also witnessed the creation of the Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea (In¬stitute of Mediterranean and Subtropi¬cal Horticulture and Fruit Growing) and the Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio (Institute of Cultural Heritage Sciences). What is more, the CSIC's presence in the Campus of International Excellence (CIE) has grown in 2010 with the approval of 10 new CIEs, in addition to the nine approved in 2009, and in which the CSIC is listed as sponsoring partner / collaborator. This verifies that our cooperation with universities is moving in the right direction, attaining actual integration and excellence. Our century-old institution embraces a workforce committed to science, who believes that -even in adverse economic circumstances like those arising in 2010- it is worth continuing to invest in generating knowledge and transferring know-how to society, as it is a driving force of development and economic recovery. I wish to thank everyone for their effort and for showing clear commitment to our organization, which continues to hold the place of relevance and competence that has always been its hallmark. ; Peer reviewed
The Mercury November, 1909 HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Mak^« °f CAPS AND GOWNS To Gettysburg College, Lafayette, Lehigh, Dickinson, State College, Univ. of PeMi -ylvania, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods of Degrees To The Class of '10. We have begun our college campaign for next Spring and Summer. Over 25,000 employers look to Hapgoods for their men in sales, offices and technical positions in all departments. Most of these Arms use college men. They arrange with us to cover the en ire college world for them. We have a unique preposition of in mediate interest to any college man who will be open for a propo-sition. Let us tell you about it. Write to-day. TXL _,_^ _j c^ 17^ ,-~ " TIM JVJtTJOJVJJ, ORGJJYMZJITtOJV Of HfipGrOQEltB, BMUMM- BUOHMUBS. Commonwealth Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. HOTEL GETTYSBURG, Headquarters for BANQUETS. Electric Lights, Steam Heat, All Conveniences. Free Bus to and from station. Convenient for Commencement Visitors. RATES $2.00 PER DAY. -/i/very G-ttaartea. B. B. Cqwoll, Proprietor. All our drugs aud chemicals are sold to you under a positive guarantee, pure and full strength. H. C. LANDAU, DRUGGIST. EVERYTHING A FIRST CLASS Drug Store should have Opposite Eagle Hotel. lfm0Vmmt*f^mt^mftlwt^n GETTYSBURG COLLEGE Gettysburg, Pa. - LIBRARY - I WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. Established 18S7 by Allen Walton. ALLEN K. WALTON, Pres. and Treas. ROBT. J. WALTON, Supt. HUMMELSTOWN BROWN STONE COMPANY QUARRYMEN and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING and TILE. Waltonville, Duphin Co., Pa. CONTRACTORS FOR ALL KINDS OF CUT STONE WORK Telegraph and Express Address, Brownstone, Pa. Parties visiting quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. R. For Artistic Photographs —GO TO— TIPTON The Leader in PHOTO FASHIONS Frames and Passapartouts Made to Order. D. J. REILE, Clothing, Gent's Furnishings Sole Agent for the CRAWFORD SHOES, 13-15 Ohambersburg St. Come and Have a Good Shave or Hair Cut —AT— HARRY B. SEFTON'S BARBER SHOP 35 Baltimore St. Barber's Supplies a Specialty. Also choice line of Cigars. R. E. ZINN & BRO. DEALERS IN Groceries and Choice Provisions. Carlisle St., Gettysburg. THE GETTYSBURG DEPARTMENT STORE Successors to the L. M. Alleman Hardware Co., Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of ' HARDWARE, OILS, PAINTS AND QUEENSWARE, GETTYSBURG, PA. The only Jobbing House in Adams County. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. * 2 a, ft ft * « « » » *w ft *« a * * «« ft * ft ft .-■> a» * « Seligniqq ARE GETTYSBURG'S MOST RELIABLE TAILORS And show their appreciation of your patronage by giving you full value for your money, and closest attention to the wants of every customer. Give Them a « »»« *««* » « ft Your Patronage * « *»« » a »« »a * » «» ft ** ft »« « « ft «««»« * « ft « e» ft « ** »« « «« «« « ft * » « ft »* PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. A Special Proposition Is open for the first person ID any com-munity who will deal with us for a Piano or Organ. WEAVER ORGANS AND PIANOS have no question mark to the quality. I IIII I .__ _ _ Z WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO., MANUFACTURERS, I YORK, PA , U S A. MAIL THIS COUPON TO US. Send me special proposition for the purchase of a Piano. Name Address m * .-I-. •I" •■!•■ T\ •*■ ± Students' Headquarters —FOR— HATS, SHOES, AND GENT'S FURNISHINGS. Sole Agent for WALK -OVER SHOES ECKERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right He Lutheran PubliGatiori Society No. 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitutions with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY 8. BONER, Supt. THE [UIERCORV The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1909 No. 6 CONTENTS. THE WBONG OP WASTE 2 DAVID M. CRIST, '10. FEESCOING A LOST ART 3 ELMER STOUFFER, '11. A HALLOWE'EN STOEY 7 SAMUEL BOWER, '10. THE VOTEE'S DOMINANT PBINCIPLES: WHAT THEY SHOULD BE 12 ROT V. DERR, '10. IS GEEMANY A MENACE TO THE WORLD'S PEACE? 15 C. M. ALLABACH, '11. A NAEEOW ESCAPE 16 R. L. MCNALLY, '13. THE "BACK HOME" BOY 20 EDWIN C. MORROW, '12. THE EVOLUTION OP THE BEAST 22 EDWARD N. FRYE, '10. THE SPIEIT OP THE PLACE 24 HARVEY S. HOSHOUR, '10. EDITORIALS '. 29 EXCHANGES 31 GETTYSBURG COLLEGE Gettysburg, Pa. | - LIBRARY - I THE MERCURY. THE WRONG OF WASTE. DAVID M. CRIST, '10. jO the contemplative mind one of the saddest things in the world is the waste that is going on, and has gone on ever since civilization dawned. Much of this waste is wretched, needless, wicked; it means human efforts thrown away; it is one form of homicide for it sacrifices life and the material that life thrives on, and thus it hampers progress. What does a grain of corn amount to? Nothing, we hear the wasteful man say. Yet the secretary of agriculture of Missouri computes that one grain on every ear of corn grown in his State alone would add one hundred thousand dollars to the wealth of the State each year. We have all been told what a large sum the saving of a few cents a day will amount to, if allowed to roll up for a period of years, yet we all go through life really unmindful of the possi-bilities there are in such little things. A Kansas statistician has recently figured that the men of that State are constantly wearing on their coat sleeves eighty thousand dollars worth of buttons which serve no earthly use. It is easy enough, of course, to over do economy and make it ridiculous, and it is often most difficult to say whether a given policy is wasteful or economical. In this country our railroads work their locomotives very hard, and wear them out in a few years, whereas in England locomotives are used very carefully, and are kept in service several times as long. The English blame our railroads for being wasteful in this, whereas our au-thorities hold that it is better to get the best wear out of any ma-chine in a reasonable time, and then scrap-heap it, and replace it with something newer and better. Large scale producers such as the Carnegie Steel Company of Pittsburg, have owed their success in no small degree to their lavish expenditures, or industrial experiments, and for the in-stallation of new machinery as soon as its superiority to that in use has been demonstrated. So ideas to what is waste will differ. Unquestionably we are wasting our coal, oil, natural gas, and THE MERCURY. 6 timber supplies in this country, but under the conditions it does not pay to husband these material resources. A few years ago the world became alarmed because its fuel supply seemed to be coming to an end. Now, we are harnessing the rivers, water-falls, and even the glaciers, and making them do much of the work that coal hitherto has done. There is no small doubt that before the coal supply is ex-hausted the world will be so completely electrified that the use of coal will have become obsolete. The waste of timber is more serious, and yet as lumber rises in price other materials will be developed to take its place, witness the present rapid introduc-tion of concrete for building purposes. This country would not be what it is if it had been developed UDcler such a saving policy as has necessarily dominated the rise of European nations, so it would be well for us to remember the words of Benjamin Franklin when he said: "What maintains one vice would bring up two children. Eemember many a little makes a nickle. and farther, beware of little expenses; a small leak will sink a great ship." FRESCOING A LOST ART. ELMER STOUFFER, '11. EW people realize that the frescos which they see on the walls of buildings are the remnants of a once great art. An art which for the number of men who were engaged at it and scope of application never had an equal. The history of this great form of art is long and of itself interesting to read. It is not the purpose in this article to give the history beyond what is necessary to the illustration of the subject in hand. It shall be our purpose to discuss the art as we know it, and the methods of the frescoer of to-day. It is claimed by many that the art of frescoing was known to the ancient Egyptians, but this is doubtful. If they knew any-thing at all about it, it could not have been more than enough THE MERCURY. •to cover the walls of their houses with the crudest and coarsest kinds of earth colors mixed with water. True one can find buildings decorated in patterns which are supposed to be genu-ine reproductions of ideas found on the walls of Egyptian ruins, but the methods of getting these actual designs are never told. The whole is fanciful and not certain enough to receive much consideration. The Greeks were familiar with the art of fres-coing but the extent to which they developed the art is uncer-tain. The excavations of Schlieman have brought forth some old decorated pieces of walls which were thought to be frescoes, but careful examination has shown them to be mere earth colors applied in various designs. The Hebrews it is certain knew nothing of frescoing. It was not until the beginning of the Christian era that the art rose to its fullest development. The Christian artist wanted an art which would properly express the emotions. The stirring scenes of the early Christian times were the subjects for the •church decorator to work upon. The art which he would use must be able to express faith, hope, joy, sorrow, grief, pain and things of that nature. Sculpture, the art of the Greeks, would not answer his purpose for that is essentially an art of repose. Frescoing seemed the only one capable of answering his purposes so he employed it. Even then the early decorator was held in check by ecclesiastical interference. In decorating the churches he was not permitted, even though he had the impulse, to use any type not traditional. For this reason we find nearly all the fres-coes of this period consist of the gaunt, pinched bodies of an-chorites and saints. In the sixteenth century this art reached its highest state of development. In this period some of the world's most famous frescoers lived, and some of the most noted frescoers were executed. Several of the works produced in this period are extant to this day. The wave of Iconoclast fanaticism which swept over Europe in the sixteenth century struck the art a blow from which it has never wholly recovered. In England nearly all the paintings were destroyed. In some churches they were merely defaced, hut in those churches where the frescoes could not be destroyed without permanently injuring the buildings, the despoilers cov- THE MERCURY. «red them up with lime. On the continent of Europe the hatred was not so intense, and it is doubtful whether any works of real value were destroyed. It is true, however, that when the Icono-clastic wave had swept away, the art was practically dead. In America very little is known about frescoing. Our near-est approach to it are the distemper paintings with which we decorate our theatres and churches. Several reasons might be mentioned for this, but the most reasonable seems to be that Americans are too impatient to apply themselves to a trade in which the first and chief requisite is painstaking precision. The Americans as a class are too much in a hurry to take the time which it is necessary to do a good work of frescoing. The aver-age American does not care what a piece of work costs but he invariably does want his work done at once. So little interest is taken in the art in America that not one color manufacturer is to be found who so much as manufacture the kind of color which mural decorators use. The American decorator must depend upon the shops of Germany for the colors which he uses. German workshops also supply America with her supply of deco-rators. Frescoing as clone in former times required a great deal more skill than it does to-day. The work was all done while the plaster was still soft. The decorator decided in the morning just about how much surface he wished to cover that day. The plasterer, who worked right with him, then finished that much. With a sharp pointed awl or some other instrument the deco-rator then marked the design in the plaster, and proceeded to his task. Sometimes a small design of the work in hand was made and kept lying by to refer to in case the decorator became puz-zled as to how to proceed. The necessity of this can readily be seen when one remembers that some of the great works of this kind were fifteen and sometimes twenty years in the accomplish-ment. If all which was marked could not be done in the day the plasterer cut the unfinished portion off and they began all over again. An almost perfect knowledge of pigments was ab-solutely essential to the decorator of the old time. Lime in dry-ing causes many colors to fade and some to become darker. It was necessary for the mechanic to know just what effect the lime tf**ftiufvrxv GETTYSBURG COLLEGE * Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY 10 THE MEBCURY. "An unlucky spot," sighed Proud Patrick. "He ain't the first, nor thirteenth to be tuk tar." Hattie came running in with the holy water bottle and Mis-tress Proud Patrick eagerly bathed poor Oiney's head. As the cold drops fell showering upon his face Oiney winced in spite of himself. "The color is comin' to his cheeks," said Hattie as she knelt over him solicitously. "The fire is warmin' him. He's comin' roun' all right." "God be thanked for holy water bottle said Mrs. Proud Pat-rick. "Let's raise him up a bit," said Del. "An' a drop of nice warm sweet milk with a pinch o' ginger and sugar might do the poor fello' good," said Hattie. "Bether couldn't be," said Del. "An' a bowl o' tea," added Chris. "An' a drop o' spirits," said Joe. At this insinuation a perceptible glow over-spread the features of the unconscious one and to the delight of Del and eve^one there, a sigh escaped his lips. "God be thanked," said Hattie. Del bent over his patient and softly whispered, "Oiney." Oiney slowly opened his eyes and looked wonderingly and in-quiringly about him. "Del—is—is—thet—you ?" "Yis, yis, me darlint." "Del—where an' where can I be?" "Make yer min' aisy, ye are in a dacent house an' with dacent folks. Mister Proud Patrick and Mistress and Hattie McPher-son. Del then asked for a drop of whiskey and tried to persuade Oiney to take it but he refused. "Just a drop," said Del. "Only a toothful," said Mrs. Proud Patrick," and take it as medicine. It'll send the blood through yer veins." But Oiney looked gratefully at Mrs. Proud Patrick and ten-derly at Hattie, but still refused to touch the whiskey. The patient grew rapidly stronger on the beef tea which was THE MEKCURY. 11 tendered by loving hands and thanked the whole family for the trouble they had gone to in his behalf. "But ah, ye knows I can't be kapin' ye dacent folk out o' bed all night—it's almost mornin' now." "Oh, that's all right," volunteered Hattie. "It's no bother an' as to me uncle an' aunt, there, they can go to bed any time now seein' ye are on the fair way to mendin' yerself; an' me an' Eosie-an' Matthew 'ill tarry a while an' git ye somethin' to eat." "Uncle," she continued, "you an' me aunt can now take yer-selves off to bed seein' poor ill Oiney here is gettin' along bet-ter. Myself an' Eosie an' Matthew 'ill take care of him jes as good as if you was here." So with more thanks Oiney bade them good night and wished them a sound sleep and pleasant dreams, and assured them he would never forget their timely generosity. Then Hattie warmed some sweet milk and supported Oiney while he drank it. He was soon sufficiently strengthened to make his way to the fireside with the help of Hattie and Eosie, where he and Hattie sat down together. Oh, I'm ever so glad you're comin' roun' so fast," Said Hattie. "Faith an' I know the doctor I'm thankin' for the same," re-plied Oiney, his eyes beaming upon her. "Och, don't bother me Oiney, it's a poet you should a' been born—you've a tongue as sweet as any poet's." "Well, it's no poet you should a' been born, darlin' but in the Garden of Aiden." "Array, go way with ye." "Yis. in the Garden of Aiden, when man was alone an' com-fortless." "But the Bible never mentioned Adam takin' 'fever gortach," and Oiney reflected. "Oh, Adam would a' got it some how if he had a thot that it would a brot you in its wake." "Houl on Oiney. Take yer arm away out o' that. Take it away. Tre' ain't no danger o' my takin' waikness—no fear of it." "An' thr' all blamin' poor Adam 'cause he ate the apple"— went on Oiney, philosophical!}', gazing into the fire, still keeping ^■^■i^^n^^^^^^^^^^^H 12 THE MERCURY. his arm across her as if absentmindedly. "I know well if I was Adam an' some people I know was Eve, an' that if this partick-ler Eve offered me the same size o' rat pizen and sayed, Here Adam, my sweet, take this, its good, I'd swallowed it an' swared it was honey." "My, what a nice fellow you'd make for the lucky woman that gits ye," said Hattic. "But will ye take away yerself an' take yer arm out o' thet." "Oh," said Oiney in surprise. "Is that where my arm is?" Yet absentmindedly he went on philosophizing upon man's lonely lot had not God given him lovely woman to be a joy and a blessing forever. Del whiled away the early morning hours for Eosie, the maid, and poor Chris and Joe Eegan smoked their pieces of pipe. When the gray dawn began to filter through the blackness of the night, Hattie and Eosie who now had to begin their day's work, bade their sweethearts a merry good-bye after promising to meet them on Sunday evening at the Crooked Bridge. THE VOTER'S DOMINANT PRINCIPLES SHOULD BE. WHAT THEY ROY V. DERR, '10. .NDIVIDUAL right of franchise is the heart of a demo-cratic government. The stability and perpetuity of a nation such as ours depend upon the righteous use of the ballot-box j while corruption and dissolution are the fruit of its abuse. The right to vote becomes a cherished privi-lege by the young man as he approaches twenty-one. At this point a searching question confronts him. Will he be influenced by seductive tradition and paternal inheritance? Will he con-tinue to cast his vote as father always did? Or will he permit his privilege to be directed by certain guiding principles? This is the vital question. When one thinks of the untutored multi-tudes who become the prey of scheming politicians, it becomes an THE MERCURY. 13 important question. But what should these dominant motives, of action be? If our voter is a man of any education or good judgment, he will seek to have a general knowledge of the country's condition and needs. He aims to know the issues at stake, and the plat-form of his chosen party with regard to them. Why ? That he may decide whether the candidate in question is fully qualified for the position. In other words he will endeavor to vote intel-ligently. Not merely boasting a long ancestry who were stal-wart Democrats or life-long Eepublicans. Very often such a spirit is but ignorant pride and betrays the lack of intelligence and reason. The voter should not only be able to state his party,, but also to tell why it is his preference. But the careful voter will not stop with an investigation into the ability of the candidate to fill the duties of office. He goes further and deeper. He will seek to know the aspiring office seeker as a man. What is his character? A man of self-con-trol and integrity ? Will he prove faithful to the trust ? These questions must be answered affirmatively by the conscientious voter. Strict sense of civic duty demands nothing less. The loyal citizen will not cast his vote for incompetent or unworthy men out of mere favor or friendly acquaintance. To do so weak-ens the dictates of his moral conscience. The highest motives should control our franchise; the prosperity of the State, the-welfare of the community, and the best interests' of all concerned. This is true loyalty and genuine patriotism. Above all, for the thoughtful man the dominant principle will be party subordinate to the man. Some one may ask would not such universal independent voting destroy political parties? They are essential to counter-balance one another in government. In answer the true voter will use his influence in securing the best men on the party ticket of his preference, if for some reason these are not chosen, but undesirable nominees instead, the strict sense of civic duty will compel him to refuse to vote for those men. Partisanship must bow before right and duty. Prejudice and tradition must yield to justice and intelligence. It is bet-ter to cut one's ticket and prove traitor to one's party than to iise one's franchise in voting for incompetent or unworthy men. Then he will have nothing to regret. L GETTYSBURG COLLEGEI Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY ^^^■^^^^B^^^H 14 THE MERCURY. Who is to blame for corruption in politics? For partisan legislation and bad government? Those holding office we say. But our nation is a democracy! We boast of the rule of the-people! The boomerang springs back upon the voter himself. Corrupt legislation reflects itself upon the public at large. If office holders prove unloyal to their country's trust, it shows that the voters were not careful enough to elect the best men. This situation is but a practical application of the fable in which the indulgent master gives shelter, under his tent, to the imploring ass who in turn ungratefully kicks him out! What, then, should be the voter's dominant principles? To serve his country and State, not only party and self. To know the needs and conditions of his nation or community. To elect the man best fitted to fill the position, that is the man of capabil-ity and character. The former involves the ability to discharge his duties well and efficiently. The latter includes those quali-ties of honesty and integrity as will enable the office holder to stand fearlessly against bribery, partiality or injustice. Such is the type of man whom the true voter will strive to elect. So long as the right of franchise is jealously guarded and highly prized, there will be no need to fear the downfall of our repub-lic. But she shall ascend higher as a moving power in the eyes of the civilized world. Her destiny will not approach soon, but with the oncoming years, she shall exert an untold influence-among the nations of the world. THE MERCURY. 15 IS GERMANY A MENACE TO THE WORLD'S PEACE ? C. M. ALLABACH, '11. T can hardly be denied by those who have noticed the trend of international politics that Germany is the greatest obstacle to the world's peace to-day. This has become strikingly evident in recent years. Diplomatic relations between the English and Germans have been strained for more than a decade. The famous Kruger tele-gram of 1896, the intense commercial rivalry, the hostile attitude of the German people during the Boer War, the biting criticism of the press, and finally, the manifest intention of Germany to wrest from Great Britain her maritime supremacy, have all com-bined to make the situation critical. To England, this mari-time supremacy is a matter of life and death; to Germany, it is an object of mere desire or ambition. Examples of German aggressiveness are numerous. The first American experience of it was in the Samoan Islands in 1888, and a second in 1898, when Germany sent a powerful fleet to the Philippine Islands. Japan felt it in 1895 when Germany joined Russia and France in forcing her to recede from the Liao-Tung Peninsula which bore no small weight in furthering and hasten-ing the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War. All Europe and America was unfavorably impressed by the attitude of the Ger-mans in the Boxer uprising. Then, too, it is generally known that Germany took the initiative in the Venezuelan blockade in 1M2, and since the power of Russia has been considerably les-sened by the Russo-Japanese War, the Germans appear to be even more aggressive than before. These actions truly speak louder than words, but the words are not lacking either. The German Kaiser's speeches are teeming with expressions which clearly reveal the German attitude. Among many others he said at Cologne in 1897: "We have great duties in the world. There are Germans everywhere whom we must protect. German prestige must be preserved abroad. The trident belongs in our hands." In 1900, upon delegating to Prince Henry the command of the Oriental fleet, he said: "Im-perial power is sea power. The two are mutually dependent. 16 THE MERCURY. Should anyone infringe our rights, then use the mailed fist and earn your laurel wreath." To departing soldiers he used such terms as these: "Spare nobody." "Take no prisoners." "Give no quarter." Such expressions are not the mere workings of an individual's maind, but are the sentiments of a nation expressed through its chief executive. It is true, too, that Germany is the greatest obstacle to the policy of limitation of armaments and obligatory arbitration. It was with great difficulty that the German government was per-suaded to consent to the establishment of the permanent Court of Arbitration. She opposed nearly every policy advocated by England. She held strict views of belligerant rights and voted against every specific proposal of obligatory arbitration. The Germans have rejected the advances since made by the English to enter upon an Anglo-German understanding concern-ing the cost and extent of their naval programs, claiming that no formal proposal has been made and therefore no official transac-tions have followed. Since Germany was not in harmony with the proposals of the Hague Conference, there seems to be but one remedy to check the steadily growing martial spirit of the sturdy Germans, namely, an alliance between the two greatest branches of the Anglo-Saxon race, England and America. Unless some such alliance is formed, the law of "the survival of the fittest" will be the outcome; of which the fittest is the strongest, the best or-ganized, and the most unscrupulous. A NARROW ESCAPE. R. L. MCNALLY, '13. JHNEAKEY was feeling blue that night as we sat together in the lobby of The Eoyal. He awaiting the arrival of a certain well-padded person, whom he pleased to call his victim,—and very impressibly informed me would be his last one,—while I was trying to pass away the night of idleness. Sneakey started to tell me all about his intended re- THE MERCURY. 17 form, and was in the midst of a "profound resolve" with his fist in the air intending to bring it down on the handle of my chair, when the arrival of a ponderous white steam car arrested his at-tention and without a sign or signal he arose from where he sat walked over to the door where the fat and hearty autoist would have to enter. Only once did he glance back at me, and then very quickly. I thought 1 noticed a shade of distress in that glance, but dismissed the thought of the fact that Sneakey, above all, would ever shrink from a job. Sneakey followed this particular individual over to the desk and watched him register, lighting a cigarette in a cool and un-interested fashion, but carefully noticing in his mind the rooms to be occupied by this person. He didn't return to where I was sitting, a very wise thing on his part, but strolled over to the bil-liard room, where fifteen minutes later, I found him actively en-gaged in a game with a stately looking, shifting-eyed sport. I walked on through and out on the street, took a car, and was soon in my room snugly seated in my large chair, planning, and thinking I had spotted a large elegantly finished mansion across the park, occupied solely by an old gentleman of eccentric habits. his brother, two house maids, and a general utility man. Next morning after breakfast I strolled across the park to in-vestigate my intended loot and map out a course that would be sure to bring me safely to my goal. I bought a paper afterwards and nothing could be printed clearer, nor more prominent to me than the little three-lined announcement that Sneakey, the one and only friend I had to depend upon, had been intercepted in an attempt to enter the rooms of a wealthy guest and was being held for trial. Of all the news, this was the most distressing. But what could I do but accept it as a present from our dreaded enemies, the plain clothes men. I did not know what to do for tools, and to attempt such a task alone would be almost fool-hardy, and Sneakey's presence was an excellent solution to both of these quanderies. But, since he was taken into the strong arms of the police, I could do nothing else than depend on luck. It was now 10.30 A. M., and I thought I might run across an old acquaintance, but there was none I could think of, let alone trust as an accomplice. After dinner I made a list of what I t^^^m^^^m 18 THE MERCURY. was in need of and among the things I needed most was a pair of wire nippers in case I would need them. Now I knew that Sneakey had a pair so I walked over to his room, having to pass the seat of my night's work, and picked the lock. Hanging across the back of a chair was a coat made up with the lining of a smoking jacket. I quickly realized its value and took it over to a tailor's and ordered it pressed, and put into proper shape. In the pocket of this coat I found a cigar which I took as a charm for my safety because I found it in the pocket of the most valuable tool I could have possibly came across. Placing the cigar carefully in my pocket the next thing to do was to get a mate at all hazzards. Scotty kept a rather notable pool room where I had been in the habit of spending some time and where I knew I could find a collection of choicest men of my profession. On entering I could hardly believe myself when who should step up and shake my hand but Harry Musser. I hadn't seen him for years, and why, I'm sure, is not because he had fallen into the same ill luck as Sneakey. I told him all of my plans and asked him to go along and help "cinch it," but woe for my hopes; he had a job on hand at White Flains, and was leaving that night on the 11.30 boat to ge to White Plains about 2 A. M., and be safe from all view to carry out his aim. Well, this was the last hope, and I decided to go alone. I saw Harry off and returning to my room put on the coat nicely tailored, and walked across the park and on around to the rear entrance of this house. Just as I entered the hedge I heard West Hall Hedge clock strike one. Walking up to the porch I started operations by climbing the vine, since I had to dispense with Sneakey's excellent tact of pitching a rope ladder. Gaining the level of the window sill I swung across and caught hold of the sill and hung suspended until I could grasp the shutter and pull myself up so that I could place my foot against the opposite side of the window frame and gradually work myself up inch by inch until I was standing on the sill holding on to the shutters. I was starting to work on the win-dow when I heard somebody walking on the pavement. When he got opposite the place where I was he stopped, lit a cigar and gazing aimlessly about, turned his steps and walked up the gravel walk and sat down on the porch almost under me and smoked. THE MERCURY. 19 After about fifteen minutes I did not see or hear him stir, and concluded he was asleep. Much was my chagrin when I found the window pulled up tight against the upper frame. To get in was almost impossible, and to get back to where I came from, was impossible. I had to decide some way. I knew that it would be safer to get out through the house than to get past that night watchman below, so taking a small finger-nail clip from my pocket, I dig two crescent shaped holes in the window frame, and placing my fingers in them bent all my effort toward pulling it down. It yielded, and carefully lowering it, I climbed in, down on the floor and I thought noislessly over to view my room in general, when all of a sudden, the lights were turned on brightly and a small buz sounded on the wall which I knew was a signal. Then locating the door, I made for it, but was barred by a huge porpous of a man whom I concluded was the butler. I had to pass him to liberty, and being much smaller, knew a struggle would be useless. I waited until he charged, then side-stepping I gave him a lucky stroke in the stomach. He wasn't long in the fight. Throwing my hat in a corner, I ran my fingers through my hair, put the coat inside out, the cigar in my mouth, ran down to the front door, to escape, preparing lest the police should arrive before I got away. Two officers were coming down the pavement at a good speed. I did not know what to do in so-tight a place. I decided to use strategy, so assuming a horrified expression, I called to them that here was the place, and ex-plained that the old gentleman had became suddenly worse, and that I was sent by him to bring his son, who lived some distance-from the house. That story wasn't believed in full by them, and! they decided to go along with me to bring his son. The two fol-lowed me for a square, and then stopping, I reasoned that two of them should go back to the old man, and assist the butler in car-ing for him, while the other officer and I went for the son. To this they agreed, and we two sped, where, I did not know until, reaching into the pocket of this coat, my hand fell upon the wire nippers. I just happened to think of Sneakey. I knew he wouldn't be in his room so I made a short cut there and pound-ing on the door received no reply, until a doctor next door put his head outside the door and informed us that that gentleman mi^^^^^^^^^^^^mwg^^^^^^^^^^^^^m 20 THE MEECUET. had left yesterday morning and had not returned yet. Now I knew to go along back to the house would mean my arrest so I told the officer that he should go on back to assist the other officer and the butler, while I awaited until this doctor would dress and go along with me, that we would follow in a few moments. When the officer left, I feigning that I intended to wait, followed after him down to the street level and proceded over by a back street to my rooms. Next day I learned of Sneakey's sentence of two years and went around, packed up his furniture to store it. In the pro-cess of this packing I was assisted by this doctor who told me of the very strange call he had last night. THE "BACK HOME" BOY. EDWIK C. HOBBOW, '12. EE we, the great American people, interested in the farmer boy? "We are. Why should the attention of the richest, most commercial nation of the earth turn to the humble youth of sunburnt face and freckled nose "back home ?" There are several conspiring reasons which cause the lines of national interest to deflect from their normal course toward that obscure spot on the map where is growing to man-hood the average country boy. One of the first reasons, perhaps, is to be found in the fact that he is "the boy back home." Somebody has said, "God made the country, but man made the town." Well, what man made the town? It was the man from the country; and it is the man from the country who is making the town grow and prosper to-day. It is from the hay-field rather than from the gutter; from the garden rather than from the crowded quarters of the town, that men are being drafted to fight the great battle of the world's market place and public halls. The bulk of brains, the brawn, and the character of this country has come from the country; and from the country will come at least many of our big men of the succeeding gen-eration. THE MERCURY. 21 The country boy is running America to-day; his name is legion. Abraham Lincoln, the greatest monument in American history, has established a standard of idealism for all American frontier boys. President Eoosevelt was a western rancher. William Jennings Bryan, who, despite conflicting views and re-gardless of politics, is an international character, wears overalls on his Nebraska farm. Anthony Comstock, one of the greatest and best moral forces in America to-day, came from a New Eng-land farm. Homer Davenport, one of the best known political cartoonists in the country, grew up on a far western farm. And so the list may continue down along the directory of the "Who is Who"—including United States senators, merchant princes, economic, scientific and philosophic authorities; light of the bar and pulpit; writers, artists and musicians; there is no seat of the mighty where the farmer boy has not sat. If there is anybody in this whole country of ours who is a free citizen, it is the country boy. He is as free as everything about him,—the air, the sunshine, the birds, the snow. Out here in God's own country, a boy can not help growing to manhood brave and strong and clear-minded. Simple taste, simple appe-tites, a simple home, these are a wholesome curriculum for a boy's individual education. Plain food, regular hours, and plenty of healthful exercise,—these create a strong body, the only fit setting for a strong mind. The farmer boy grows up away from the atmosphere of riotous vice. He is not bred in the shadow of corporate domination and "higher ups;" he recognizes no "higher up" in this world than his Father. He is imbued with the faith that a man who dares can, and that a man who can should. He has confidence in himself, and belief in his future. That is what we by times call by one of several names: Energy, backbone, enterprise, jasm, initiative, perseverance, grit, gump-. tion. Whatever it is, it is a winnig quality,—it is power. The thoughtful men are realizing this to-day as they never-did before. Employers know it and want young men from the country; educators feel it and rejoice over the country bred scholar. The voter knows it; and the politician knows that he knows it, with the result that we get in office to-day some honest and fearless men, who stand for the best in American polities,, though tied until almost powerless. 22 THE MERCURY. It is no disgrace to have come from the country, and the boy from the country need not be afraid to apply for a job. His record is good, and nothing need stand between him and success. THE EVOLUTION OF THE BEAST. EDWARD N. FRYE, '10. |OWJST from the mountains came two beasts into a plain upon which grew a few blades of grass; they stood facing each other with snarls. Finally the battle be-gan to rage as to which should get those few blades. It became a life and death struggle, and the turmoil was great. It was a case of the survival of the fittest. The strong one con-quered and the grass was his. The other lay in the dust and gore with his life slowly ebbing away. Thus as I look out over this great country and see the strug-gle of man for life, for liberty and for progress, and then think that he is called beast and materialist, I am reminded of the story of the beasts. The charge is not wholly untrue. Man is a materialist, but a materialist by necessity, a materialist because he is a creature of society and society is warring to keep him bound. His materialism is a bread and butter problem. His materialisms are the necessities of life, nourishment of the body and a life with its comforts. The problem is how shall he pro-cure those necessities upon which his life depends, and how can he add to his daily life those comforts. These are the foremost thoughts in his mind. His hunger must be satisfied and his body clothed, likewise he must care for his wife and his children. Of course he is a materialist and what else could he be. What would give him existence? Surely not spiritualism. The life of man is made up of more or less materialistic wants. And he has been called a materialist because he is forced to center all thought on these wants. He has been called a materialist be-cause he is demanding that which by right is his and which so-ciety will not grant. He has been called a materialist because the other big beast, capitalism, is contending with him for the THE MERCURY. 23 last blade of grass. He is being driven to the very brink of de-spair with only one thought: "How can I live," and with one problem to solve: "How can I procure bread and butter." He is forced further and further to the point of starvation and still that mighty hand reaches out to grasp more from his little to swell its fortune or fill its coffers. Thus the working man is forced to lift up his voice and cry for his rights when the Ameri-can aristocracy consider him nothing more than a machine to further their interests. Whentheworkingman is reduced to a thing he becomes a materialist by necessity. He cannot lie back on the oars and pray that the Almighty God may give him bread, for then he would starve. He is therefore compelled to concentrate his energy, to rise up against such conditions and let his voice be, heard in order that he may receive that which by divine right is his. Then only when he receives that right can he turn his at-tention to the other phase of life, the spiritual side. To bring this about there must be an evolution of social condi-tions, not a revolution as the one who stands without the turmoil describes. The working man must rise up out of his present condition and let it be known that he is not a mere beast for the purpose of serving capitalistic interests and when of no more use to be turned off to starve or to be an object of charity. The capitalist, who is the real materialist, and in a sense a pragma-tist, must realize that the so-called brute is his social brother, born with all the privileges of a human being and with a soul that is equally precious in the sight of God. The capitalist must recognize that life is not a mere dream for the other fellow, but that it is a reality demanding a certain share of this world's goods to make it a joy and to prepare that soul for its rightful inheritance. This will take place when he ceases to say of his social brother: "Beast, beast," and in turn shows him his love. If the capitalist would change his perspective what a change would surely be in human affairs and in human lives. How much strife would be eliminated and how much deeper would be the spiritual life. Then man could think more seriously of things that are spiritual. The stomach of the working man would be filled and his physical wants attended to. You must satisfy those physical wants before you can hope to have him seek the wants of the soul or to develop him spiritually. 24 THE MERCURY. THE SPIRIT OF THE PLACE. HARVEY S. HOSHOUR, '10. S the autumn twilight closed in upon the old Thomaaton campus, so fraught with traditions and memories of a century's existence, there seemed to be an element of discontent, quite foreign to the place indeed, which per-meated everyone. Grant Hilsey, if the conversations which were conducted in low tones throughout the quadrangle were correct, the cause of all this discord, was throwing off his football togs in a room luxuriously furnished in every appointment. He then took a quick shower and dressed thoughtfully. Yes he was right. Something would happen tonight. Something must happen. What should he do ? Should he go to the mass-meeting or stay in his room? What was best for the college? All these ques-tions played havoc in Hilsey's mind while he was dressing and while he ate a late supper at the training table: The old chapel on the hill was that night the scene of the largest mass meeting Thomaston had ever known. Tomorrow-was the day for the "big" game with Greenvale, and the slogan of the meeting was, "Thomaston expects every man to do his duty." After speeches short and to the point by various mem-bers of the faculty, the 'Varsity men were called for one by one, and responded with short talks, promising their best efforts on the morrow. "What's the matter with Captain Hilsey?" shouted the cheer leader. The answer was an irresolute, "He's all right," amid a hubbub of hisses and jeers. The cheer leader looked aghast. "Let's see him. We want Hilsey," clamored the crowd, seem-ingly ashamed of its first action. Every one turned to the rear whence they expected Hilsey to come but there was no answer. Hilsey was not there. The captain had come into the meeting late and had sat in the rear, listening to his men as they spoke. He, too, would do his best to win. How could he lose, leading men with such spirit? Then came the jeers. He had known they must come, but he could not check the hot tears that kept swelling to his eyes. There was still one chance. He was in the rear seat and had not THE MERCURY. 25 been noticed in the excitement of the evening. H suited his ac-tion to the thought, and when the crowd turned to look for him, he had gone forth, unseen and alone. The leader shook his megaphone for silence and said in a voice that quivered just a bit, for he was a friend of the captain, "Pel-lows, tonight we have insulted one of the best captains Thomas-ton has ever known. He has picked the team with the best in-terests of the college at heart, regardless of what his enemies may say. For four years we have seen Grant Hilsey fighting for Thomaston honor. Where is the man who ever saw him betray the college. We have elected him captain, and upon him our hopes of beating Greenvale depend, and yet we hear criticisms, "improvements," and even jeers on the eve of our gratest game. It's mighty fortunate he isn't here to see this, for you know the Hilsey pride and its hard to tell what any one of us wouldn't do under his circumstances. Now fellows, lets make it so he can hear it. "What's the matter with Hilsey?" "He's all right," came back witht the roar of thunder. The dissatisfaction over the picking of the team and the captain himself seemed to be go-ing fast. "Who's all right?" Hilsey," re-echoed the crowd. "We want Hilsey," they yelled, but none appeared. The leader again motioned for silence. "Boys," he said, "one more rick-etyax for Captain Hilsey." The yell was given with a lust. All feeling was gone now in the spirit of the place which gripped every man in a way which was irresistible. With a "last long ray for the 'Varsity," the most successful mass meeting Thomas-ton had ever seen was over. When Grant Hilsey emerged from the building all seemed a confused mass. He had been publicly insulted and even jeered at. Last year, after the season which had ended by "sweeping Greenvale off the face of the earth," as the Thomastonian had it, he had been the hero of the college. He had made the run that had won for his Alma Mater, and it was quite natural that Hil-sey should be elected captain of next year's eleven. The election had been unanimous. He had come back this fall eager to pro-duce another victorious team, but the material was new and hard to get into shape. He had done his best, fairly and squarely, with the result that his associates characterized him as a deserter, for he had not chosen the, team entirely from his own "clique." 26 THE MERCURY. He was too fair for that. He was also criticized by that class of students—all too common everywhere—whose chief concern it is to kick, who are too good for everybody, yet whom nobody wants, and who still, somehow or other, exercise an influence,—probably only due to their persistency,—on every college community. The result was that Hilsey had become the most unpopular man in the college. As he walked through the campus he had grown to love, his mind was crowded to overflowing. What should he do? The Hilsey pride asserted itself. He would show them. No Hilsey could be played with in this manner. They had said that his team was "crooked." Let them improve on it. They would see that they couldn't do without Grant Hil-sey. Eevenge would be his and sweet would be his revenge. Instead of going to his room Hilsey went across the campus to his fraternity house. It too was deserted. He would send for his trunk after the game. As he sat musing on the porch the old walls loomed up before him. How he longed to graduate. But he was a Hilsey and a Hilsey never gave in. What did he care for the place anyhow? There were surely others just as good. The night train for Watauga was almost empty that night. All traffic was turned toward Thomaston for the morrow's big game. It was too late for Hilsey to go home when the train got in, so he resolved to stop at the hotel till the next day. Through-out the night and the morning his mind was in one vast whirl. He would wait till evening before going home. He remembered that all his people were at Thomaston to see the game. Some-how or other he felt that he was shirking something. Maybe he ought to go back to Thomaston even though his fellows had de-serted him. What did these unworthy sons have to do with old Thomaston anyhow ? He remembered a little essay of his on college spirit, on which he had been complimented highly. He was a Freshman then. He remembered the past three years, their ups and downs, their fortunes and misfortunes. Yes, they were happy years, all too happy but they were gone for good now. The Hilsey pride had shown itself. But that essay on college spirit kept forcing itself into his mind. That was theory he knew, rather sentimental at that. Was there such a thing at Thomaston as real live college THE MERCUKY. 27 spirit? He had done his best but did he have the spirit which could endure all for the sake of the college. Anything but gibes, he thought. But what else had he endured. He had failed at the first trial. He was a failure, a quitter, and Thomaston had expected every man to do his duty. Again the college walls loomed up in his mind. Yes, he loved them, he loved their •every stone, he loved their traditions and their lore. He looked at his watch. Could he make it? The Thomaston spirit asserted itself. He signalled a passing car, which he recognized as one of his father's. "Fast as you can to Thomaston," were his orders. It was a long ride but never for an instant did Hilsey's intentions change. There was such a thing as college spirit, Thomaston spirit. He was completely in its spell. As the car neared the campus he heard the cheer leader call, "Now then Thomaston." It thrilled his very heart. That was Thomaston, his Thomaston. "To my room," he fairly yelled to the chauffeur. The campus was de-serted. Over the green hedge which surrounded the athletic field, he could see a mass of crimson and gold. That meant Thomaston, the Thomaston he longed to fight for. It was the work of a few minutes to jump into his togs. Never was he so proud of the hugh "T" on his sweater. To think that he was so near forfeiting the privilege of wearing it. As he neared the field he heard a count—one-two-three—and then a long drawn out —nothing, all from the opposing side. His heart gave a throb. There was a chance yet. He flung off his sweater. He would show them that the Hil-sey pride was swallowed up in his college spirit. A great shout arose as the wearers of the crimson and gold saw Hilsey. They forgot enmities. He, their only hope, had come back to make them win. His judgment had been vindicated for his team had played wonderfully, and, but for a beautiful kick would have held Greenvale to no score. "Ten minutes to play," announced the time-keeper as Hilsey took his place at quarter. The team had been holding well be-fore. Now with a leader they played an aggressive game. Slowly they marched up the gridiron. Once they lost the ball, only to regain it on downs. Thomaston enthusiasm knew no bounds. There were no spectacular runs, ten yards being the greatest 28 THE MERCURY. single gain. With one minute to play a touch-down was made and the goal kicked. "What's the matter with Hilsey?" again shouted the leader. Never was such a yell heard as when they cried, "He's all right." The game was over. Again the colors of Thomaston flew high. Hilsey was late for supper again that evening. The sun was setting beyond the chapel hill with a blaze of crimson and gold, which seemed to him to be in honor of Thomaston's victory, his victory. The old chapel looked dearer than ever. In a few short months he would receive his diploma there. "It's the spirit of the place," he murmured as a crowd of students came down the street, wood in one hand and oil cans in the other. "There he is now. We want Hilsey," they cried." Yes," he muttered, as he was being hoisted upon the shoulders of his ad-miring fellows, "its the spirit of the place, the college spirit, the Thomaston spirit." I H E HE RCU RV Entered at the Postoffi.ee at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVII GETTYSBURG, PA., NOVEMBER, 1909 No. 6 Editor in-Chief SAMUEL FAUSOLD, 'IO. Exchange Editor G. E. BOWERSOX, 'io Business Manager PAUL S. MILLER, 'IO Ass't Bus. Managers C. M. ALLABACH,'ii S. T. BAKER, 'II Assistant Editor RALPH E. RUDISILL, 'IO Associate Editors E. J. BOWMAN, 'II C. M. DAVIS, 'II Advisory Board PROF. G. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, FH. D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary Societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies IS cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be ac-companied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. fore, his duty to cultivate it. THE CONYERSA- What a world TIONALIST. of meaning this word contains! What a flood of memories it brings to us! Un-consciously there leaps to the im-agination the pictures of talkers who have given us many a pleas-ant hour. The human voice is probably man's greatest gift. It is his dis-tinguishing feature. It is, there- Indeed this should be his ambi- ^■■■^^^■H 30 THE MEECUEY. tion: to be affable, clear, optimistic and pleasant; to develop a ready wit and the happy accomplishment of speaking the right word at the right time. Indeed to keep silent always is as great a fault as constant babbling. Franklin expressed the idea as follows: "As we must account for every idle word, so we must for every idle silence. Conversation is not a wooden thing; it is elastic, happy and free; it runs, hops and skips. Indeed man's greatest asset is speech and harmonious conversation between two or more should be made the supreme pleasure of life. Conversation costs us nothing in dollars and cents; it com-pletes our education; discovers friends for us and can be enjoyed at all times and in all places. Although conversation is common to all ages, we believe the golden age of youth makes most of it. The young man or woman—particularly the college man or woman—uses the gift of speech to give expression to the bright-est hopes for the future. The collegian, in fact, lives in the fuT ture and oh! what a loss it would be to him to be deprived of the pleasure of building castles in the air. Talk is the great instrument of friendship. By it as Steven-son says, "Men and women contend for each other in the lists of love like rival mesmerists. By it friends can measure strength and enjoy that amicable counter-assertion of personality which is the gauge of relations and the sport of life." Conversation generally drifts to the two great subjects, "You and I." Of course the third party may be given passing consid-eration but vain humanity can not long escape the subjective. This fact is quite noticeable in the chat of two college chums. It invariably has to with the welfare of the speakers directly or in-directly. This being the case the conversationalist should be careful to clothe his old subjects in new garments and to bring them forth from the mint, as it were, with new and ever delight-ful aspects. Yes, let us continue to talk! Let us enjoy our talks, but let us seek to find more and more ways to benefit from them. THE American business world is a rapidly flowing river. To get into this rapidly moving stream, man must hustle and not be slothful. The competitions of modern life have become so keen THE MERCURY. 31 that there are no opportunities for the lazy. Man must either work or go to the wall. In every community this fact is under-stood but too often not believed. Should not these student days be hours of industry and benefit ? Many a night is spent in folly and the following day suffers. The only real and lasting enjoy-ment in life is to be found in work. Everything which man creates decays when neglected, but nothing in nature goes to pieces so fast as man in idleness. The conditions of all our faculties and enjoyments are found in the full exercise of all our powers to the limit of their capacity. There are examples of college men ad inflnitissium whose voice touches no sympathetic chord in the activities of to-day. Their thoughts never got beyond college politics and rivalries of secret societies. They have always been idlers and now are hopeless failures. As in the lower life the busy bees have no room for the drone, so in a college community the diligent students have no room for the dilatory. Let us conscientiously answer the ever-present question would our parents approve of their money's time and benefit ? and give tireless attention to our own work and advancement and when the commencement clock strikes we shall all be ready for our liberal professions. EXCHANGES. | GAIN it becomes our pleasant duty to examine and com-ment on our exchanges. We are gratified to see so many of the former papers again appear this year; as well as many new ones. A few of the former ex-changes have not yet made their appearance, but we trust it is only a matter of a short time until we shall again have the pleas-ure of receiving them. The matter of criticism is quite a relative one; some papers choose to tear every thread of good out of productions by hostile criticism; others are too apt in praising. It has always been our custom to act the part of appreciative critics in dealing with our friends. Of course there is often a necessity to make the harsher 32 THE MERCURY. kind of criticism, but in so doing we shall always do it with a friendly spirit and trust no offense is taken. Of the few exchanges to reach our hands this year one of the best is "The Gilford Collegian;" its departments are all well ordered and literary contributions are of a high order. The ora-tion, "The Solid South," is a very pertinent production; it deals in a broad and sensible manner with the reasons of southern solidity and shows how the causes for it no longer exist and that the idea belonging to a past time should be relegated to its pro-per place by the thoughtful citizens. The story, "The Heart of a Woman," in the same issue is very clearly written and not only causes much amusement but some serious thought. The October issue of "The College Student" is filled with well written articles. "The Crime of the Congo" and "The Crucible of Life" show much preparation and skillful arrangement of material. "We gratefully acknowledge all exchanges received. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. IN this Drama of Four Year's Course, Play your part without dad's horse ; This to do is up to you With just a little tact between each yearly act, In some domain take a stroll And sell ALUMINUM for next year's Role (roll). 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Every year, through mass drug administration (MDA), hundreds of millions of the world's poorest people receive a single annual dose of one or more drugs to eliminate certain parasitic worm or bacterial infections. Some of these infections, mostly prevalent in tropical areas, have traditionally been neglected from the public health and research point of view. These conditions, collectively known as the neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), still cause, at the cusp of the second decade of the 21st century, a significant amount of morbidity and mortality. The existing control measures for NTD have an enormous potential, although there are still some challenges that require further investigation. For some diseases, alternative strategies may be needed, including longer duration of MDA programmes or modified drug regimens. For other diseases, such as yaws, the work must start almost from scratch, since little has been achieved in terms of control of this disease in the past 50 years. Although eight NTDs affect the region, two diseases pose a major public health problem in the South Pacific Islands, namely yaws and lymphatic filariasis and are the basis for his thesis. These two infections were selected for a number of reasons. First, they affect the South Pacific region disproportionately. Secondly, little research has been conducted in the past years. And third, but more importantly, several epidemiological, technological and historical factors make these two diseases amenable to elimination. Safe and effective tools and interventions to achieve these targets are available and concerted efforts to scale them up are likely to lead to success. Yaws is one of the most neglected of the NTDs. Yaws was one of the first diseases to be targeted for eradication on a global scale, efforts which almost led to the disease disappearance as a result of a massive treatment program started in the 1950s. After the successful eradication campaigns the primary health care systems were supposed to give the last push towards eradication of yaws. However a combination of various factors including poor political commitment and limited funding resulted in a progressive abandonment of efforts and the resurgence of the disease. Every new case of yaws was the disappointing confirmation that the public health world had missed a great opportunity. Today yaws has resurged in many tropical areas and presents new challenges including its unknown epidemiological situation, the attenuated clinical forms of the disease, a poor awareness and knowledge among health care workers, the lack of knowledge about the effectiveness of classic treatment with penicillin and, an obvious need for research into simplified administration schemes or new antibiotic treatments, particularly oral ones. There is an enormous knowledge gap regarding current reliable epidemiological information about the disease. Certainly we know little about the burden in the three Melanesian countries where the disease is highly endemic, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and, Vanuatu. In Solomon Islands and Vanuatu there are indications that Yaws is widespread and prevalent, but we know that the diagnosis is unreliable. This takes us to the next point, what does a diagnosis of yaws mean? Overall the natural history of the disease in this era, where it is often subject to inadequate antibiotic pressure, is very unclear. Some authors have suggested that yaws appears to be attenuated in both Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. They state that bone involvement in yaws is now rare and implies that yaws is a mild disease not requiring efforts for elimination. However, the first paper of this thesis describes the epidemiology of yaws in Lihir Island (Papua New Guinea, PNG) and shows a high rate of classical primary ulcers (almost 60%) and significant bone and periosteal involvement (more than 15%), suggesting that "attenuation" is not an important issue. When we look at the diagnostic criteria for yaws, signs and symptoms alone are still used often in many areas to diagnose the disease. This reliance on clinical findings was the result of the difficulty of performing serological tests in remote areas. Today, available rapid serological tests are simple, rapid, inexpensive and useful for guiding confirmation of cases, making them adequate tools for the diagnosis and monitoring of the disease. The clinical diagnosis of yaws is complicated because its clinical manifestations may be unspecific. Thus, it is possible that a significant proportion of yaws cases may in fact have been falsely diagnosed. We show, in the first article, that in our experience only 60% of the cases with a clinical suspicion of yaws were finally confirmed by serologic tests. Therefore, a proper diagnosis of yaws requires the interpretation of clinical findings with reference to laboratory results and the epidemiologic history of the patient. Serological testing in yaws is not only important for diagnostic accuracy, but also is very helpful in defining the disease's evolution and eventual cure after treatment. Rapid plasma regain (RPR) titres should decline within 6-12 months, becoming negative in less than 2 years. The second article of this thesis combines a clinical and serological approach to assess the response after treatment with benzathine benzylpenicillin, and it identifies an overall 20% treatment failure. This could be related to resistance to the antimicrobial drug used or to re-infection caused. The distinction between re-infection and true resistance to antibiotic treatment is difficult to make but these failures are worrisome. This article also proposes a multivariate model performed to identify independent determinants of failure that affected the outcome after treatment. The risk for reinfection caused by repeated contact with infected children seems to be a pivotal predictor of failure. Low baseline titters (<1:32) of RPR are also an important and independent predictor of failure, possibly as a result of the greater difficulty in resolving chronic infections which are usually accompanied by low titters. With yaws re-emerging, the development of new strategies against this infection aimed at simplifying its treatment and potentially re-focussing strategies towards its eradication seems essential. Injectable penicillin is still effective but management with an oral drug that can be easily administered on a large scale should be the preferred method for treatment. To date, there had been no studies that directly compared the efficacy of penicillin with any of the potentially alternative agents shown to work in the treatment of the non-venereal treponematoses. The fourth paper in this thesis has shown that a single-dose of oral azithromycin is non-inferior to benzathine benzylpenicillin for the treatment of yaws in children in PNG. In an open-label randomised trial, at 6-month follow-up, 96% of patients treated with azithromycin were cured, as were 93% in the benzathine benzylpenicillin group. The prospects of eliminating and eventually eradicating yaws may now be enhanced by the use of a single-dose of oral azithromycin in mass drug administration campaigns. Community based mass administration of azithromycin has been widely used in many locations for the control of trachoma, which, like yaws, is a disease of poor rural communities in developing countries, and has been used in a more limited way to control granuloma inguinale and outbreaks of venereal syphilis. Elimination of yaws and lymphatic filariasis in the South-Pacific Islands is now considered biologically feasible and programmatically attainable. The Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) has expanded quickly to reach the target of elimination by 2020. On the other hand the strategy to eliminate yaws is again at the centre of discussions and given that infected humans are the only source of disease, its eradication could be achieved within a very relatively short time. The fifth article of the thesis comprehensively reviews antimicrobial treatments and elimination strategies against yaws. In order to control yaws and push it towards elimination, we propose to move away from penicillin to azithromycin and use mass treatment campaigns of the entire population in endemic communities irrespective of the prevalence. Also, to make sure all cases are tracked down and treated, strict follow-up measures and selective mass treatment will be required until zero case prevalence is reached. Importantly, we suggest testing the principle of interrupting transmission in pilot implementation studies, including prevalence surveys to assess the impact of the intervention and macrolide resistance monitoring which in our opinion will be essential evaluation tools to guide us towards a sustainable elimination. Lymphatic filariasis (LF), caused by the mosquito-borne nematode Wuchereria Bancrofti, is a major public-health problem in the Melanesian countries. Annual MDA over five years is currently the WHO's recommended strategy to eliminate lymphatic filariasis. This approach aims to suppress microfilaraemia in infected individuals and bring the infection below a threshold that leads to interruption of transmission. However theoretical work and clinical field experience has highlighted how the ecological diversity between different endemic regions can result in elimination thresholds that vary between local communities. This means that the duration required might be different for different areas. Other variables have also been previously identified as potentially having an influence on the outcome of the program, including baseline prevalence of infection, vector density or the treatment coverage. The last article of this thesis provides data about the impact of a five-year filariasis control program in Papua New Guinea. The findings reported support this strategy for areas with low-to-moderate rates of transmission in regions where anopheline mosquitoes transmit this infectious disease. Additional measures or longer periods of treatment may be necessary in areas with a high rate of transmission. The experience acquired on Lihir Island in MDA programs during the campaigns for the elimination of filariasis, will be very valuable when implementing a pilot strategy for yaws control. Also, in the near future it might be important to link yaws mass treatment with other mass programmes to increase efficiency. The plan for elimination of lymphatic filariasis in PNG was approved as a pilot project in 2005 but the program still needs to be extended to the total of 20 provinces in the country where filariasis is endemic. In this context, an integrated approach to NTD control could represent an important global public health solution in PNG and other South Pacific Islands. Little has been achieved in the past decade in NTDs. We are now in a good position to translate into policies the results of our research projects. A new elimination policy for yaws around the azithromycin pillar has been sketched a WHO consultation meeting held in Morges, Switzerland last March. In the intentions of the organization, a last global mass campaign to tackle yaws should permit to reach zero cases in 2017, and the subsequent certification of worldwide interruption of transmission by 2020. ; Cada año, a través de la administración masiva de medicamentos (MDA), cientos de millones de personas, las más pobres del mundo, reciben una dosis única de uno o más medicamentos para eliminar ciertas infecciones, parasitarias o bacterianas. Algunas de estas infecciones, frecuentes sobre todo en las zonas tropicales, han sido tradicionalmente desatendidas desde el punto de vista de salud pública e investigación. Estas enfermedades, conocidas comúnmente como las enfermedades tropicales desatendidas (ETD), aún causan, en el inicio de la segunda década del siglo 21, una cantidad significativa de morbilidad y mortalidad. Las medidas de control actuales para ETDs tienen un enorme potencial, pero todavía existen algunas cuestiones que requieren investigación. Para algunas de estas infecciones, son necesarias estrategias alternativas, incluyendo una mayor duración de los programas de MDA o regímenes modificados de medicamentos. Para otras enfermedades, como la enfermedad de pián, el trabajo debe comenzar casi desde cero, ya que poco se ha logrado, en términos de control de esta enfermedad, en los últimos 50 años. Aunque ocho ETDs afectan a la región, dos enfermedades constituyen un problema importante de salud pública en las Islas del Pacífico Sur, a saber: el pián y la filariasis linfática y son la base de esta tesis. Estas dos infecciones fueron elegidas por muchas razones. En primer lugar, afectan a la región del Pacífico Sur de forma desproporcionada. En segundo lugar, pocas investigaciones se han llevado a cabo en los últimos años. Y en tercer lugar, pero lo más importante, varios factores epidemiológicos, tecnológicos e históricos hacen que estas dos enfermedades sean susceptibles de eliminación. Existen armas terapéuticas seguras y eficaces para lograr este objetivo, y esfuerzos coordinados para ejecutar los programas de control pueden conducir al éxito. El pián es una de las más olvidadas de las ETDs. Ésta fue una de las primeras enfermedades en ser objetivo de erradicación a escala global. Los esfuerzos de un programa de tratamiento masivo, que se inició en la década de 1950, casi llevaron a la desaparición de la enfermedad. Después de las exitosas campañas de erradicación, los sistemas de salud de atención primaria debían dar el último empujón hacia la erradicación del pián. Sin embargo, una combinación de varios factores, incluyendo un pobre compromiso político y una financiación limitada, dieron como resultado el abandono progresivo de los esfuerzos y el resurgimiento de la enfermedad. Cada nuevo caso de pián era la decepcionante confirmación de que el mundo de la salud pública había perdido una gran oportunidad. Hoy la enfermedad de pián ha resurgido en muchas áreas tropicales con nuevos desafíos: una situación epidemiológica desconocida, formas clínicas atípicas o atenuadas, poco conocimiento de la enfermedad entre el personal sanitario, la falta de datos acerca de la eficacia del tratamiento clásico con penicilina inyectable y la necesidad de desarrollar esquemas terapéuticos simplificados o investigar en nuevos tratamientos antibióticos, en especial de administración oral. Actualmente hay una enorme brecha de conocimiento entorno a la información epidemiológica fiable sobre la enfermedad. Ciertamente, sabemos poco acerca de la incidencia en los tres países melanesios, donde la enfermedad es altamente endémica, Papúa Nueva Guinea (PNG), Islas Salomón y Vanuatu. En las Islas Salomón y Vanuatu, las cifras de incidencia son muy altas lo que demuestra que el pián es una enfermedad frecuente y ampliamente extendida, pero sabemos que el diagnóstico no es muy fiable. Esto nos lleva al siguiente punto: ¿Cuáles son los criterios diagnósticos del pián? En general, la historia natural de la enfermedad en la época actual, donde la bacteria es objeto de presión antibiótica inadecuada, no es muy clara. Algunos autores han escrito que el pián parece presentar manifestaciones "atenuadas" en las Islas Salomón y Vanuatu. Afirman que la afectación ósea en el pián es poco frecuente, lo que implica que el pián es una enfermedad leve que no requeriría esfuerzos para su eliminación. Sin embargo, el primer trabajo de esta tesis describe la epidemiología del pián en la Isla de Lihir (Papúa Nueva Guinea) y muestra una alta tasa de úlceras primarias clásicas (casi el 60% de casos) y una afectación significativa del hueso y periostio (más del 15%) que sugiere que la "atenuación" no es un tema importante. Cuando nos fijamos en los criterios diagnósticos, únicamente signos y síntomas todavía se utilizan en muchas áreas para el diagnóstico de la enfermedad. Esta confianza en los hallazgos clínicos fue el resultado de la dificultad de realizar pruebas serológicas en las zonas remotas. Hoy en día, las pruebas serológicas rápidas son simples, rápidas, económicas y útiles para orientar la confirmación de los casos. El diagnóstico clínico del pián es complicado debido a que sus manifestaciones pueden ser inespecíficas. Así, es posible, que una proporción significativa de los casos de pián puedan haber sido falsamente diagnosticados. En el primer artículo, presentamos que, en nuestra experiencia, sólo el 60% de los casos con sospecha clínica de pián fueron finalmente confirmados por pruebas serológicas. Por lo tanto, un diagnóstico adecuado del pián requiere la interpretación de los hallazgos clínicos con referencia a los resultados de laboratorio y la historia epidemiológica de los pacientes. Las pruebas serológicas en el pián no sólo son importantes para el diagnóstico de la enfermedad, también son muy útiles en la definición de curación después del tratamiento. En la prueba de la Reagina plasmática rápida (RPR) los títulos deben descender a los 6-12 meses, llegando a ser negativa en menos de 2 años. El segundo artículo de esta tesis combina un enfoque clínico / serológico para evaluar la respuesta a bencilpenicilina benzatina, e identifica una tasa de fracaso terapéutico del 20% a los 12 meses del tratamiento. Esto podría estar relacionado con resistencia al fármaco antimicrobiano, o bien indicar una re-infección por re-exposición. La distinción entre la re-infección y la resistencia verdadera al tratamiento es difícil, pero estos fracasos terapéuticos son preocupantes. En este artículo se describe un modelo multivariante realizado para identificar los factores determinantes del fracaso terapéutico. El riesgo de re-infección causado por el contacto repetido con otros niños infectados parece ser un predictor fundamental de fracaso. También es un factor de riesgo, los títulos basales bajos (< 1:32) de RPR. Este último factor podría estar relacionado con la mayor dificultad para resolver infecciones crónicas (en estadio secundario), habitualmente acompañadas de títulos bajos. Con la enfermedad de pián re-emergiendo, el desarrollo de nuevas estrategias contra la infección para hacer más fácil los esfuerzos de erradicación es esencial. La penicilina inyectable sigue siendo eficaz, pero el tratamiento con un fármaco por vía oral que pueda ser fácilmente administrado a gran escala es el método preferido para el tratamiento, prevención y finalmente eliminación en todas las regiones endémicas del mundo. Hasta la fecha, no ha habido estudios que comparen directamente la eficacia de la penicilina con cualquiera de los agentes alternativos en el tratamiento de las treponematosis no venéreas. El cuarto artículo de esta tesis ha demostrado que una dosis única de azitromicina por vía oral no es inferior a la bencilpenicilina benzatina intramuscular, para el tratamiento del pián en niños en Papúa Nueva Guinea. En un ensayo abierto, aleatorio, el 96% de los pacientes tratados con azitromicina estaban curados a los 6 meses de seguimiento, al igual que el 93% en el grupo de bencilpenicilina benzatina. Las perspectivas de finalmente erradicar el pián son ahora mayores, mediante el uso de una dosis única de azitromicina oral en campañas masivas de tratamiento. El tratamiento masivo con azitromicina ha sido ampliamente utilizado para el control del tracoma, que, al igual que el pián es una enfermedad de comunidades rurales pobres de países en desarrollo. También se ha utilizado de una manera más limitada para controlar el granuloma inguinal y brotes de sífilis venérea. En general, el uso de azitromicina ha demostrado ser seguro, y de hecho ha habido beneficios inesperados de salud en algunos programas. La eliminación del pián y la filariasis linfática en las Islas del Pacífico Sur se considera ahora biológicamente factible y operacionalmente alcanzable. El Programa Global para Eliminar la Filariasis Linfática (GPELF) se ha expandido rápidamente para alcanzar la meta de eliminación en el año 2020. Por otro lado la estrategia para eliminar el pián es nuevamente centro de atención. Además, dado que los seres humanos infectados son la única fuente de la enfermedad, su eliminación podría lograrse en un plazo relativamente corto. El quinto artículo de la tesis revisa de forma integral el tratamiento con antimicrobianos y las estrategias de eliminación contra el pián. Con el fin de controlar el pián hasta la erradicación, se propone pasar de la penicilina a la azitromicina, y el uso de campañas de tratamiento masivo de toda la población en todas las comunidades endémicas. Además, para asegurar que todos los casos son encontrados y tratados, serán necesarias medidas estrictas de seguimiento y tratamiento masivo selectivo hasta llegar al objetivo de cero casos clínicos. Es importante destacar que el principio de interrupción de la transmisión se debe probar en estudios piloto, incluyendo estudios de prevalencia, para monitorizar el impacto de la intervención, y también la valoración de resistencia a macrolidos, que en nuestra opinión, serán herramientas fundamentales que nos guíen en el camino hacia una eliminación sostenible La filariasis linfática (FL), causada por el nematodo Wuchereria bancrofti, es otro de los grandes problemas de salud pública en los países de la Melanesia. Un curso de MDA anual, durante cinco años, es la estrategia que la OMS recomienda para eliminar la FL. Este enfoque tiene como objetivo suprimir la microfilaremia en los individuos infectados y disminuir los niveles de infección por debajo de un umbral que conduzca a la interrupción de la transmisión. Sin embargo, trabajo teórico y experiencia práctica clínica han puesto de relieve cómo la diversidad ecológica, entre diferentes regiones endémicas, puede resultar en que los umbrales de eliminación varíen en diferentes comunidades. Esto significa que la duración requerida podría ser diferente para diferentes áreas. Algunas variables que han sido previamente identificadas como potenciales determinantes en el resultado de un Programa para la eliminación de FL (PELF) son la prevalencia basal de infección por filariasis, la densidad de vectores (mosquitos) o la cobertura del tratamiento en la población. El último artículo de esta tesis, proporciona datos sobre el impacto de un PELF de cinco años en PNG. Los resultados obtenidos apoyan la estrategia descrita para las zonas con baja a moderada tasas de transmisión en regiones donde mosquitos anofelinos transmiten la infección (pe. Melanesia, África). Medidas adicionales o períodos más largos de tratamiento pueden ser necesarios en áreas con una alta tasa de transmisión. La experiencia adquirida en la Isla de Lihir en los programas de tratamiento masivo durante las campañas para la eliminación de la filariasis, será muy valiosa en la aplicación de una estrategia piloto para el control del pián. Además, en un futuro próximo podría ser importante vincular los programas para el control del pián con otros programas de tratamiento masivo (por ejemplo, filariasis) para aumentar la eficiencia y reducir los costos. El plan para la eliminación de la filariasis linfática en PNG fue aprobado como proyecto piloto en 2005 en la provincia de Milne Bay. El programa todavía tiene que ser extendido a un total de 20 provincias en el país, donde la filariasis es endémica. En este contexto, un enfoque integrado para el control de enfermedades tropicales olvidadas podría representar una importante solución global de salud pública en PNG. Poco se ha logrado en la última década en enfermedades tropicales desatendidas. Ahora estamos en una buena posición para traducir los frutos de nuestra investigación en políticas de salud. Durante una consulta celebrada en la sede de la OMS en Ginebra el pasado mes de marzo, ya se ha esbozado una nueva política de eliminación para el pián que toma como pilar el tratamiento con azitromicina. La intención de la OMS es que una última campaña global debe permitir llegar a cero casos de pián en 2017, y la posterior certificación de la interrupción de la transmisión en todo el mundo en el año 2020.
The papers in the present SUERF Study is a selection of the papers presented at a SUERF Workshop and Special OeNB East Jour Fixe held at Oesterreichische Nationalbank in Vienna on 23 January 2009. In his opening remarks (chapter 2), Ewald Nowotny, Governor of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank referred to Austrian banks? engagement with neighbouring Central and Eastern European Countries. The current crisis should not make people forget the fact that Austrian banks? deep engagement with the neighbouring countries is one of the success stories in Austrian economic history. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, Austrian banks have become one of the driving forces of the process of structural adjustment, modernization of business practices, and deepening of financial intermediation in the region. At end 2007, in Central Europe, the share of Austrian banks surpassed a fifth of aggregate sector assets, in Southeastern Europe even a third of the respective total. A considerable share of the earnings of Austrian banks comes from banking activities in Central and Eastern Europe. Austrian bankers can claim to be among the pioneer foreign investors in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakstan and Belarus. The international financial crisis has from September 2008 demonstrated Russia?s structural vulnerability. The comprehensive countermeasures by the Russian authorities to assist the banking sector and the economy are characterized by the Governor as worthy endeavours. Chapter 3 is based on the keynote speech by Pekka Sutela, BOFIT, Bank of Finland ?Russian Finance: Drag or Booster for Future Growth?? The author praises the Russian authorities for having made prudent decisions in recent years. The Putin-Kudrin regime chose a stability-oriented macro policy. The very strong increase in the global oil price up to 2008 implied a strong growth in the value of Russian exports and lead to an impressive GDP growth. The author uses the term ?windfall?. The Russian Government decided to pay back practically all foreign debt, much of it ahead of schedule. The regime wanted to bring back what they see as Russian sovereignty and in particular to avoid being dependent on IMF or other foreign financiers. Their policy contributed strongly to an improvement of Russia?s general credit-worthiness and to a growth in foreign reserves. During the 1990s, lack of trust in the rouble had as consequence that the US dollar was applied to a considerable extent in payments between Russians. The stability oriented policy after 2001 contributed to a de-dollarization of the economy up to 2008. It follows from the stability-oriented policy that Russia was relatively well prepared when it was hit by the global financial crisis in 2007?2008. In the autumn of 2008, however, the general public started to withdraw bank deposits and the relative share of foreign exchange deposits increased again. The public shifted towards foreign currency cash assets. The author explains that Russia has a dual economy. The natural resource based sectors are clearly globally competitive but the sectors outside the resource sectors are not. The big resource based companies have relied on foreign markets for their financial needs. The home market is primarily serviced by domestic banks. At the end of September 2008, government-controlled banks had 47.8% of all bank assets. The state maintains banking sector stability primarily through state banks. The author?s answer to the question in the headline is: ?The Russian financial system is rather a drag than a booster for future growth?. In addition, it is unlikely that Russia will become a regional financial centre or an inventionbased society in the foreseeable future. Chapter 4 by Stephan Barisitz, Oesterreichische Nationalbank, is ?Russian Banking in Recent Years: Gaining Depth in a Fragile Environment.? The author shows tables with macroeconomic, monetary and financial indicators for Russia for the years 2002?2008. Key observations are: Strong economic growth, strong dependence on oil prices, inflation problems, recent volatility of private capital in- and outflows. Banking development initially featured rather slow recovery from the financial crisis of 1998, coupled with sluggish reforms. This was followed by a stepped-up pace of institutional and structural adjustments in 2003?2005, which brought about major improvements of banking activities and of the regulatory framework. The return on equity (ROE) of banks was in 2006?2007 above 20%. The solvency ratio of banks declined steadily up to 2008 due to strong growth in bank assets. The oil price driven improvements in Russia?s terms of trade over the period 1998 to 2008 combined with political stability, prudent macroeconomic policies and some successful institutional and structural reforms have supported Russian economic expansion. Not only exports, but also consumption, have driven strong GDP growth. Financial intermediation continued to deepen swiftly in Russia up to the fall of 2008, despite important repercussions of the US subprime crisis. As the interbank market tightened during 2008 and capital outflows increased, Central Bank of Russia reacted quickly with repeated liquidity interventions. Following the continuous oil price decline and pressures on the rouble, Central Bank of Russia intervened extensively in the foreign exchange market and draw down foreign exchange reserves. The controlled depreciation strategy initiated in November 20078 has not stopped the decline in foreign exchange reserves. Due to the still sizable foreign reserves, the relatively high profitability of banking activity and the satisfactory capital adequacy level as shock absorbing factors, Russia seems to be in a better position to handle the financial crisis than many other countries. Chapter 5 by Alexander Lehmann, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development has the headline ?Banks and Financial Reform: Their Role in Sustaining Russia?s Growth.? The paper focuses on the strength of the link between economic growth and financial development. Even in East European transition countries where a positive correlation between finance and growth developed in the 1990s, there was little microeconomic evidence that the financial sector actively supported growth. Investments were overwhelmingly financed through retained earnings, and what little external finance was raised came from foreign direct investment. Around year 2000, this changed. Regulatory improvements, better enforcement and rapid development of individual institutions meant that the financial sector undoubtedly has supported economic growth since year 2000. The disruption to credit growth since 2008 and the simultaneous downturn of the Russian real economy has made the link abundantly clear. EBRD evaluates the progress in structural reforms in transition countries by means of ?transition scores?. The author shows an exhibit which illustrates the development of the EBRD transition score for Russia from 1989 to 2006. It shows that the fastest progress took place from 1995 to 2003. The improvements in the regulatory framework for banking activity supported financial intermediation and Russian banks expanded their balance sheets and diversified into lending to retail customers and SMEs. For corporate investment as a whole, however, the share of new investment financed through bank credit remained relatively small. The sectors that saw sharp increases in investment and accounted for the bulk of capital spending, predominantly benefited from internal cash flows, or benefited from public support or ownership. Chapter 6 by Cyril Pineau-Valencienne, CEO, CPV Conseil, is ?Russian financial institutions and the oil and gas sector: funding and recycling.? The paper first outlines the importance of the oil and gas sector for the Russian economy. Capital expenditures in the sector grew strongly from 1999 to 2007. The huge investments were to a large extent financed by internal operating cash flows and by borrowing in international financial markets. The big oil and gas companies are important customers for foreign banks. The companies also have their own so-called raw material banks but these banks have not played a major role as related parties in the financing of the investments of these groups. The willingness of the oil and gas companies to incur debt denominated in foreign currency must be understood in the light of their revenue structure. Contracts in the global energy markets are primarily denominated in US-dollars and the companies are therefore to a considerable extent able to match currency revenues from exports with currency payments of principal and interest. Recycling of funds related to the oil and gas sector has partly been carried out by the state and by the sovereign funds controlled by the state. Revenue from export duties has been accumulated in the funds and applied in accordance with the funds? investment strategies. Chapter 7 is based on the presentation by Zuzana Fungácová, BOFIT, Bank of Finland ?Risk-taking by Russian banks: do location, ownership and size matter?? The paper is co-authored by Laura Solanko. The rapid growth of the assets of Russian banks has in the last 6?7 years contributed to a decrease in the capital adequacy ratio, thus influencing the ability of banks to cope with risk. In the paper, the authors investigate the relationship between bank characteristics and risk-taking. The banks are divided into different subgroups by size, ownership and location. The authors distinguish between state-controlled, foreign-controlled and domestic private banks. Risk is measured in two different ways: By group-wise comparisons of financial risk ratios i.e. accounting data, and by regression analysis of bank insolvency risk as measured by a Z-score indicator. The average level of financial ratios are all well above the regulatory minima set by Central Bank of Russia. Large banks in Russia have higher insolvency risk than small ones. Foreign-owned banks exhibit higher insolvency risk than domestic banks. State-controlled banks are on average more stable than the private domestic banks. Similar to the case of foreign banks, large state-controlled banks are more stable than the others. Regional banks are significantly more prone to risk-taking than their counterparts in Moscow. Chapter 8 is based on the keynote speech ?Russia?s Financial Crisis: Causes, Consequences, and Prospects? by Zeljko Bogetic, World Bank, Moscow. Until mid-2008, Russia was viewed as a ?safe haven? during turbulent times in global financial markets. Record high oil prices, strong macroeconomic fundamentals, lack of exposure of Russian banks to the US sub-prime mortgage markets, strong ratings and a strong appreciating currency explained the confidence in Russia. After mid-2008 Russia was hit. There was an oil price shock, a sudden stop in capital flows, and a sharp tightening of external borrowing conditions. The paper contains a diagram that documents an almost perfect correlation of the Russian stock index RTS with the price of oil. From the peaks in May-June 2008 to the end of the year, the RTS moved from 2400 to 440 and the oil price from USD 144 per barrel to USD 45 per barrel. The non-oil external current account deficit continued to deteriorate very fast in 2008 as import volumes grew faster than non-oil exports. Incoming FDIs declined and worsened the composition of capital flows towards borrowing. While public external debt remained moderate, private (corporate and bank) debt grew rapidly. In the balance sheets of Russian banks, the loan-deposit ratio increased from approximately 107% in 2005 to 127% in the autumn of 2008, making the banking sector more exposed to the interbank market and to rollover risk. As response to the crisis, the Russian authorities have loosened their monetary stance and provided fiscal support to ease the liquidity crisis. The exchange rate has continuously been managed with progressive widening of the bi-currency corridor. After a gradual depreciation since November 2008, the rouble was devalued in mid January 2009. The speaker described the 2009 outlook for the Russian economy as very uncertain. It is likely that the twin surpluses on the Government budget and the balance of payments current account will disappear, but thanks to the prudent macroeconomic policies in recent years, these deficits can be financed for some time. The speaker reflected on the social impact of the crisis. If the recession in 2009 becomes deeper, it might require an introduction of a fiscal stimulus package focusing on domestic demand and the poorer segments of the population, including strengthening of the unemployment, training and social assistance and possibly well designed public works. Chapter 9 is based on the presentation by Peter Havlik, The Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies (WIIW) ?Russian Economy and the Global Turmoil.? The paper contains very illustrative exhibits that show the development of Russian GDP, exports, imports, inflation, money supply, stock prices and nominal and real exchange rates. Among the Putin administration?s key achievements, he lists improved living standards, rising employment, more FDI inflows, repayment of external debt, ballooning foreign exchange reserves, restoring stability, stronger role of the state but also deteriorating external relations. Despite strong economic fundamentals, Russia has been seriously hit by the global crisis. The Medvedev administration faces serious challenges. It plans to use industrial policy instruments in order to reduce the dependence on energy proceeds. The Government offers targeted support to various public-private partnership projects in the automotive, aviation, shipbuilding and selected high-tech industries. According to the speaker, some of the envisaged industrial policy tools could well be in conflict with WTO rules and make Russia?s WTO accession more difficult. Chapter 10 is based on the workshop contribution by Debora Revoltella, UniCredit Group ?The Russian Banking Sector: What to Expect? The paper is co-authored by Vladimir V.Osakovsky and Valery Invushin. It is divided in three sections: 1) The past: Russian economic renaissance, 2) The crisis: Politics and Economics join forces, and 3) Longer term prospects are brighter. Up to 2008, Russia enjoyed strong growth in domestic investment, consumption and GDP. Prudent fiscal policy and massive capital inflows helped to amass the world?s third largest international reserves. The country was, however, exposed to global commodities prices, a demographic crisis, a rigid labour market and an increasing dependence on foreign sources of funding. The crisis in 2008 was triggered by collapse of global commodities prices, massive capital flight, failures of some large market participants and general loss of confidence abroad and at home. As reaction to the challenges posed by the crisis, the Government and Central bank of Russia initiated corporate debt refinancing assistance, liquidity infusion into the banking system and fiscal stimuli. The authors expect a major restructuring of the Russian banking sector including a considerable reduction of the number of financial institutions.
El ser humano a lo largo del tiempo ha buscado en la construcción de su hábitat satisfacer la necesidad de protección ante los elementos ambientales. Necesidad por la flexibilidad y la capacidad física que tiene a la adaptación, lo cual es relativamente débil comparada con la de otros seres vivos. Es por ello que la arquitectura ha creado el enfoque bioclimático, que persigue la eficiencia energética en los espacios, con el objetivo de ser autosuficientes y confortables gracias al aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales.El diseño de la vivienda en la historia de la humanidad ha reflejado diversas soluciones adoptadas para ser construida de manera controlada e insertada en un ambiente natural, el cual es por lo general variable y adverso con el frío, el calor, el viento, las lluvias y el sol. Sin embargo, el crecimiento y aglomeración de la población a partir del siglo XX ha fomentado una serie de problemáticas derivadas por no atender la tarea de adaptar de una manera adecuada la vivienda al entorno. El factor biológico en el sitio y los criterios de diseño y construcción han dejado de lado la consideración de atributos que propician el confort térmico, como componente determinante en la definición de una vivienda eficiente energéticamente. En el contexto institucional, se tiene más de una década en que la Unión Europea instauró en las viviendas, la obligación universal de Certificar la Eficiencia Energética (CEE) en el momento de su compra venta. Es así, que el mercado inmobiliario de Europa tiene una calificación institucionalizada para dar transparencia energética a las operaciones inmobiliarias y, sobre todo, incentivar la construcción/renovación de edificios eficientes. Sin embargo, no se han tenido los avances planeados y ha quedado como meras buenas intenciones. En el contexto mexicano se han creado diversos programas para mejorar la eficiencia energética en la vivienda, tal es el caso de la hipoteca verde. No obstante, el resultado no ha sido el esperado. La investigación nace ante estas inquietudes, en donde se pretende conocer el impacto de la eficiencia energética en el valor de la vivienda.Para ello se han establecido dos objetivos:1) Analizar si los potenciales compradores de vivienda estarían dispuestos a pagar (DAP) más por viviendas energéticamente eficientes.2) Saber si las unidades con las que se expresa la eficiencia energética inciden sobre la DAP.El método empleado es el de valoración contingente, el cual consiste en simular un mercado hipotético mediante una encuesta a los consumidores potenciales. Se le ha preguntado por la máxima cantidad de dinero que están dispuestos a pagar por el bien si tuviera una serie de atributos ligados a la eficiencia térmica al compararlo. Razón por la cual se ha situado a la valoración contingente como un procedimiento razonable para medir la pérdida de utilidad en personas que no van a disfrutar de forma inmediata un bien singular, pero que estarían dispuestas a pagar algo por la opción de disfrutarlo en el futuro.Entre los hallazgos obtenidos se tienen aproximaciones acerca del efecto de la eficiencia energética sobre las preferencias de las personas, y más particularmente sobre la disposición a pagar por las viviendas más eficientes. Se identifican confusiones en la manera de mesurar y la conceptualización de eficiencia energética. Adicionalmente las personas están dispuestas a realizar un pago adicional por la vivienda eficiente energéticamente, cabe señalar que relacionado al ahorro que se obtiene en la factura de gas y electricidad. ; L'ésser humà al llarg del temps ha buscat en la construcció del seu hàbitat satisfer la necessitat de protecció davant els elements ambientals. Necessitat per la flexibilitat i la capacitat física que té a l'adaptació, la qual cosa és relativament dèbil comparada amb la d'altres éssers vius. És per això que l'arquitectura ha creat l'enfocament bioclimàtic, que persegueix l'eficiència energètica en els espais, amb l'objectiu de ser autosuficients i confortables gràcies a l'aprofitament dels recursos naturals.El disseny de l'habitatge en la història de la humanitat ha reflectit diverses solucions adoptades per a ser construïda de manera controlada i inserida en un ambient natural, el qual és en general variable i advers amb el fred, la calor, el vent, les pluges i el sol. No obstant això, el creixement i aglomeració de la població a partir del segle XX ha fomentat una sèrie de problemàtiques derivades per no atendre la tasca d'adaptar d'una manera adequada l'habitatge a l'entorn. El factor biològic en el lloc i els criteris de disseny i construcció han deixat de banda la consideració d'atributs que propicien el confort tèrmic, com a component determinant en la definició d'un habitatge eficient energèticament.En el context institucional, es té més d'una dècada en què la Unió Europea va instaurar en els habitatges, l'obligació universal de Certificar l'Eficiència Energètica (CEE) en el moment de la seva compra venda. És així, que el mercat immobiliari d'Europa té una qualificació institucionalitzada per donar transparència energètica a les operacions immobiliàries i, sobretot, incentivar la construcció / renovació d'edificis eficients. No obstant això, no s'han tingut els avenços planejats i ha quedat com a meres bones intencions.En el context mexicà s'han creat diversos programes per millorar l'eficiència energètica en l'habitatge, tal és el cas de la hipoteca verda. No obstant això, el resultat no ha estat l'esperat. La investigació neix davant d'aquestes inquietuds, a on es pretén conèixer l'impacte de l'eficiència energètica en el valor de l'habitatge.Per això s'han establert dos objectius:1) Analitzar si els potencials compradors d'habitatge estarien disposats a pagar (DAP) més per habitatges energèticament eficients.2) Saber si les unitats amb què s'expressa l'eficiència energètica incideixen sobre la DAP.El mètode emprat és el de valoració contingent, el qual consisteix en simular un mercat hipotètic mitjançant una enquesta als consumidors potencials. Se li ha preguntat per la màxima quantitat de diners que estan disposats a pagar pel bé si tingués una sèrie d'atributs lligats a l'eficiència tèrmica en comparar. Raó per la qual s'ha situat a la valoració contingent com un procediment raonable per mesurar la pèrdua d'utilitat en persones que no van a gaudir de forma immediata un bé singular, però que estarien disposades a pagar una mica per l'opció de gaudir-lo en el futur .Entre les troballes obtingudes s'han aproximacions sobre l'efecte de l'eficiència energètica sobre les preferències de les persones, i més particularment sobre la disposició a pagar pels habitatges més eficients. S'identifiquen confusions en la manera de mesurar i la conceptualització d'eficiència energètica. A més a les persones estan disposades a realitzar un pagament addicional per l'habitatge eficient energèticament, cal assenyalar que relacionat a l'estalvi que s'obté en la factura de gas i electricitat. ; The human being over time has sought in the construction of their habitat to satisfy the need for protection from environmental elements. Necessity for the flexibility and physical capacity that has adaptation, which is relatively weak compared to other living beings. That is why architecture has created the bioclimatic approach, which pursues energy efficiency in spaces, with the aim of being self-sufficient and comfortable thanks to the use of natural resources.The design of the house in the history of humanity has reflected various solutions adopted to be constructed in a controlled manner and inserted in a natural environment, which is usually variable and adverse with the cold, heat, wind, rain and the sun. However, the growth and agglomeration of the population since the twentieth century has fostered a series of problems derived from not addressing the task of adapting housing in an adequate way to the environment. The biological factor in the site and the design and construction criteria have left aside the consideration of attributes that promote thermal comfort, as determinant components in the definition of an energy efficient house.In the institutional context, there is more than a decade in which the European Union established in housing, the universal obligation to Certify Energy Efficiency (EEC) at the time of purchase sale. Thus, the European real estate market has an institutionalized rating to give energy transparency to real estate operations and, above all, encourage the construction / renovation of efficient buildings. However, the planned progress has not been made and has remained as mere good intentions.In the Mexican context, several programs have been created to improve energy efficiency in housing, such as the green mortgage. However, the result has not been as expected. The research was born in response to these concerns, where the aim is to know the impact of energy efficiency on the value of housing.For this, two objectives have been established:1) Analyse if home buyers are willing to pay (DAP) more for energy efficient homes.2) Know if the units with which energy efficiency is expressed affect the DAP.The method used is contingent valuation, which consists of simulating a hypothetical market by means of a survey of potential consumers. He has been asked about the maximum amount of money they are willing to pay for the good if he had a series of attributes linked to thermal efficiency when comparing it. Reason why it has been placed to the contingent valuation as a reasonable procedure to measure the loss of utility in people who will not immediately enjoy a singular good, but who would be willing to pay something for the option to enjoy it in the future.Among the findings obtained are approximations about the effect of energy efficiency on the preferences of people, and more particularly on the willingness to pay for the most efficient homes. Confusions are identified in the way of measuring and the conceptualization of energy efficiency. Additionally, people are willing to make an additional payment for energy efficient housing, it should be noted that related to the savings obtained in the gas and electricity bill. ; Peer Reviewed
Hace menos de una semana, a los 62 años, falleció Tony Judt. Estrictamente hablando, Judt se desempeñaba como profesor de historia europea en la Universidad de Nueva York. Su rol como intelectual público, sin embargo, era –y seguirá siendo- muchísimo más amplio. En los pasos de la venerable línea de un Raymond Aron, Judt se había convertido en un polifacético observador de la sociedad; observaciones que conjugaba con un erudito conocimiento de la Historia -particularmente la historia intelectual. En tiempos en que escasean los pensadores eclécticos -aquellos dedicados a las grandes ideas-, y en que el rígido corset del especialista es cada vez más común, la demasiado pronta partida de Judt se va a hacer sentir. Tony Judt nació en Londres en 1948, en el seno de una familia secular judía, con antepasados que provenían de Rusia y Bélgica. Después de una juventud marcada por un intenso sionismo (pasó varios veranos en kibutz en Israel) ingresa al prestigioso King's College de la Universidad de Cambridge para estudiar historia –profesión que según él, había escogido a la temprana edad de 12 años. Luego cruzaría el Canal de la Mancha para asistir a la École Normale Supérieure –haciendo sus primeras armas en el pensamiento francés. Judt dio clases en su propio King's College, en Berkeley y Oxford, para arribar a fines de los ochenta a la Universidad de Nueva York, donde fundó el Remarque Insitute. Varios artículos en honor a Tony Judt están disponibles en la web (ver aquí, aquí, yaquí). No vale la pena reproducir el contenido de éstos. Prefiero reflexionar sobre mis experiencias intelectuales (y en cierta medida personales) en torno a Judt. Mi primer acercamiento a la obra de Tony Judt estuvo marcado por una compartida admiración por Raymond Aron. Como experto en los debates intelectuales europeos de post-guerra, Judt había trabajado seriamente sobre la obra de Aron. El magro volumen de discusiones sobre Aron en la academia anglo-estadounidense me decidieron a darle una oportunidad a este historiador del que poco sabía. Naturalmente, el primer libro que escogí fue The Burden of Responsability: Blum, Camus, Aron (University of Chicago Press, 2007). El trabajo es un retrato de estos tres intelectuales franceses que según Judt compartieron la voluntad de ir en contra de la corriente, de primar sus convicciones sobre la "moda" de los tiempos. Si bien no es un tour de force, The Burden of Responsability es un buen ejemplo de algo más importante para Judt que la historia particular de estos individuos: la necesidad de valorar a aquellos pensadores con coraje y honestidad intelectual.Past Imperfect: French Intellectuals, 1944-1956 (University of California, 1992) prometía ser un trabajo más sólido. Mi pronóstico se cumplió. Past Imperfect es un libro genialmente logrado. Judt conoce al detalle los debates intelectuales de pre y post guerra en Francia (ya tenía otros libros sobre la izquierda francesa), además de escribir magníficamente y potenciar esa cualidad -muy característica de la academia anglo-estadounidense- de hacer entendible lo extremadamente esotérico. En un interesante pasaje, Judt deja plasmada su concepción acerca del rol del intelectual:"…the writer or scholar who aspires to that public position which defines intellectuals and distinguishes them from mere scribblers has always had to choose between being the apologist for rulers or an advisor to the people; the tragedy of the twentieth century is that these two functions have ceased to exist independently of one another, and intellectuals like Sartre who thought they were fulfilling one role were inevitably drawn to play both…The most that one may ask is that those who thus engage themselves in the public arena, and who place on the scales of political or moral choice the weight of their intellectual prestige, do so with more care, coherence, and responsibility that their predecessors, and that they measure the meaning and impact of the thing they say and how they express them." (Past Imperfect, p. 319). Judt, por su valor y prudencia como intelectual público, y su convicción de la imposibilidad de dar una "Gran Respuesta Política," como tantos creyeron poder hacer en el siglo XX, cumplió con su propia concepción del intelectual. En 2005 vino su magnum opus, Postwar: a History of Europe since 1945(Penguin). Postwar se ha transformado rápidamente en un clásico moderno. Su posicionamiento como el texto de referencia para estudiar la Europa de postguerra es indiscutible. El libro es una detallada (tiene más de 900 páginas) historia de cómo Europa pudo salir de los desastres de la primera mitad del siglo XX y del experimento político al que entusiastamente se arrojó –i.e. la Unión Europea. Además de ser enciclopédico en los temas que abarca, el texto expone brillantemente su defensa del "modelo europeo." Su apoyo al estado de bienestar europeo, aún en los momentos en que fue más atacado, marca la constancia y honestidad con que Judt perseguía sus ideas; y esto es así esté uno de acuerdo o no con las conclusiones del historiador. Los libros a través de los cuales me acerqué al pensamiento de Tony Judt generaron un vínculo puramente académico e intelectual. Lo cierto, sin embargo, es que de haber conocido solamente esa faceta de su trabajo, seguramente no estaría escribiendo este artículo. Hace dos años Tony Judt se enteró que padecía el mal de Lou Gehrig. Una enfermedad que progresivamente lleva a un estado vegetal. Hasta la fecha de su muerte Judt podía hablar pero no podía moverse. Esto no impidió que el historiador siguiese trabajando y diciendo lo que pensaba, aún bajo las terribles condiciones de tener que dictar todo a un colaborador. Sorpresivamente, ésta fue una etapa muy prolífica. A partir del año pasado el historiador comenzó una serie de mini-memorias en The New York Review of Books. Fueron estos artículos los que generaron el vínculo que ahora siento hacia Judt, que sin poder definir bien de qué se trata, sin dudas va más allá de lo puramente académico. Las memorias de Judt se tornaron apasionantes. En mi calendario, era la publicación más esperada del mes. Sus recuerdos de la infancia en un austeroLondres de post-guerra. Sus reflexiones sobre los beneficios que el estado de bienestar de los años 50 y 60 generó en su educación. Las memorables anécdotas en Cambridge y la reflexión sobre eventos tan dispares como la participación en la guerra de los Siete Días y Mayo de 1968. Bajo una pluma como la de Judt, era imposible sentir otro cosa que no fuera una honesta empatía y una mezcla de alegría por una vida que pareció haber tenido de todo y la terrible conmoción de saber que su camino se había truncado bruscamente. Tampoco faltaban sus arrojos de honestidad que desafían hábilmente al sentido común. Un comentario sobre el rol de la suerte en la formación de las carreras profesionales y la tan común (¿e hipócrita?) idea de que "el trabajo dignifica" –sin importar cuál sea ese trabajo- es un buen ejemplo:"We remain in thrall to the industrial-era notion that our work defines us: but this is palpably untrue for the overwhelming majority of people today. I ended up doing what I had always wanted to—and getting paid for it. Most people are not so fortunate. The majority of jobs are tedious: they neither enrich nor sustain. All the same (like our Victorian predecessors), we once again regard unemployment as a shameful condition: something akin to a character defect. Well-paid pundits are quick to lecture "welfare queens" on the moral turpitude of economic dependence, the impropriety of public benefits, and the virtues of hard work. They should try it some time."Este tipo de comentarios provocadores, que muchos piensan y pocos se animan a señalar, eran parte rutinaria de los escritos de Judt. Los artículos más conmovedores fueron aquellos vinculados a su salud. En una suerte de precipitada colisión contra la realidad, el lector reconoce que el disfrute en las memorias de Judt no podía ocultar que, en realidad, éstas eran una terrible carrera contra el tiempo. La valentía de afrontar su condición, comentarla públicamente y seguir adelante a pesar de ella, es una lección que siempre voy a recordar. Frente a la pregunta de un periodista sobre las razones de su apertura a la hora de hablar de la enfermedad, Judt comentaba:"This is an imprisoning disease, and every now and then there is a desperate desire to break out of the prison and tell people what it is like. The disease is like being put in prison for life, no parole, and the prison is shrinking by six inches every week. I know that at some point in the future it's going to crush me to death, but I don't know exactly when." La muerte de Tony Judt me afectó más de lo que hubiese imaginado. Mi inmersión en su trabajo había generado una sincera preocupación por este historiador, o mejor, intelectual, que decía cosas tan interesantes, y que las decía de manera exquisita. El mundo de las letras va a extrañar a Tony Judt. Para mi sorpresa, debo confesar que yo también. *Profesor Universidad ORT.Maestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella (Tesista).
Issue 6.2 of the Review for Religious, 1947. ; ¯ Revi ew for Religious MARCH 15, 194Y Gifts to Reficjious--I ¯ ¯ ¯ ~. . Adam C. Ellis The Rosary and th~ Will of God . T. N. ~Jorge.se. Effects of Holy Communion on the Body c.A. Herb~st Difficulties in Meditation--Ii . G. Augustine Ellard Subjective Sin . . . Gerald Kelly Communicatioris Book Reviews Questions Answered Decisions of the Holy See VOLU~E VI ' ~ NUMBER '2 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME VI MARCH, 1947 NUMBER 2 ' "¢ ' CONTENTS GIFTS TO RELIGIO.US--I. THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY-- Adam C. Ellis, S.J . , 65 DECISIONS OF THE ~tOLYSEE' . 80 THE ROSARY AND THE WILL OF GOD--T. N. Jorgensen, S.J. 81 PAMPHLETS AND BOOKLETS . 88" THE EFFECTS OF HOLY COMMUNION ON THE BODY-- C. A, He_rbst, S.J . ; . 89 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . ' . 9~7 ¯ DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION---II~. Augustine Ellard, S.J . 98 ~ COMMUNICATIONS . 10 9 SUBJECTIVE SIN~erald Kelly, S.J . 114 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 8. Authority to Change Rule or Custom and to Refuse Visiting Per-missions . , 1,20 9. Workingmen's Indult Applied to Lay Brothers . 121 10. Tipping Pullman and Dining Car Attendants . ¯ ~12i BOOK REVIEWS~ Speaking of Angels; Send Forth Thy Light; Christianity; The Fair Flower of Eden; Our Lady of Sorrows; Ursuline Method of Education 12Y BOOK NOTICES . 127 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, .1947. Vol. VI, No. 2. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's COllege, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class mat[er January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J. Copyright, 1947, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due~ credit be given this review and the author. \ Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. if s' toReligious Ad~im C. Ellis I. The Simple Vow of Poverfy [EDITORS' NOTE: Gifts to religious have/~presented rfiany problems froth to supe-riors and t,,o, subjects, as is evident from the numerous questions we have-received. Hence it was tho~ight desirable to give our readers a statement of sound practical principles ~,hich will help both superiors and subjects to solve such problems as they arise. Before establishing practical p~inciples it will be useful if not necessary0 to havea clear understanding of the obligations which are binding upon religious when t, here is question of the acceptance and~use of gifts. Articles. therefore_, will be published on t~he following ,sabjects: I. The~simple vow of poverty: II. Com.- moil life and peculium: III. Practical principles regarding' gifts to religious. ] Distinction obet~een the ,Simplq and the "Solemn Vow of Poverty. IN GENERAL, the difference between a s61emn vow and a simple vow is one which arises entirely from the will 6f the Church; ~for there is nothing intrinsic in the notion of a vow to warrant such a distinction. Two facts ~stablished by th, e la~of the ffhurch explain thisdistinction as it now exists: (1) ,A religious who has-taken a solemn vow 6t: poverty loses:his-right to, own property, and hence cannot acquire property after he:: has, taken, the solemn, vow; whereas,~he religious who has t~i'ken a simple vow of pov-erty retains hih right to the ownership o,f propetty already possessed at the time of his.profession, as well as the right to acquire more personal property ~ifter profession, (c: 580; ~,§~1). (2) The solemn vow of poverty makes-all contrary" acts invalid, whereas the simple vow of poverty general1)" makes cdntrary acts illicit but not invalid (c. 5 .79.). A religious who h~s taken a solemfl vow of poverty is no 19nger c~pable of acquiring anything for himself; hence everything that comes to him even by way of persor~al gift he acquires for his o~der (canon 582). Hence there will be 65 ADAM C. ELIolS Review for Religious no problem aris~ing from the vow in regard to per~sonai gifts to~' the: rellglous wlt~ a solemn vow 0f poverty. They are simply turned ~ver to his order. In this exp6sitign, there-for~, we shall confine ourselves to the simpl~ vow. of poo-ertti. The Simple Vow of Povertti ~, ,Although it is true, a~ stated above, that a rtligious kvho has taken a simple vow of poverty retains' his right toown-erihii~ of propdrty possess.e,d at.the time, and also retains the capacity tO acquire more pe, rsonal property,, still he restrict~ed in the use and disposition o'~fsuch pi0pe~rtyl~he vb~2 he has taken, as well as by the laws of the Church enacted to_ safeguard°thiS ;cow.° .Both the vow.itself and the laws of the. Church made to'safeguard it must be considered ih order to have a fomplete, picture of the o~imple vo~ of. poverty. Definition.of thb Simple Vow (~ne hundred years ago Popd Pius IX defined the obliga-tion involved in the simple ,vow of poverty' of religious'as follows: "'The vow of povertg which- the Sisters,take con- ~ists in this that the~ are deprived of the right;to freelti~ d~s'- pose of antithing'~" (Apostolic Letter; Quam ~maxima, No-vember 13,, 18~y') ~., ~his ~definition has.bedn" retained and. consistently adhered to by t~e S. Congregation in approving" cons'titutions"shbmi__tted to the Holy See. °Th~S in the N6rmae of 1901 undei art: 1i3, ,we read: "'Bti the'simple vow of pover~ti th~ "Sisters renounce the right tO' tawfutlti dispose of anti t, emporal thing without th~ ~.permissibh of the lawful s--uperioL'; We, shall come'back to a study of the definition of the simple vow of pove.r~y after~, we have con-sidered ,the legislation o.f the Church on th.e ,s~ubjeq,t, since-such legislation throws.much light on the m.e.a__ning of ~this 66 March, 1947' ~ THE SIMPLE Vow oF POVERTY ~,:~ O?igin of Congreg.ations with Simple, Vbws~ ~ Fob many c~nturies the Church considered solemn Vows .as a requisite for the religious life., "Time an~ again¯ the Popes insisted that all thffse p~rsgns who ~with the permis-sion of, the local ~rd~nary ~had joined togetherto live~a life in common with simple vows must either, take solemn vows ~nd Observe p~apal effclosure or cease to receive n6vice~, and t~us die but. Howe~er; frffm the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries certai~n popes~appyoved a number of,institutes of religio~ men ~who h~d only simple vows. The obligations arising from these vows were determined by private legisla~ tion fg~r each particula~ institute~ ~ ~ .- ".During'~ the- eighteenth century, ,the Popes. gradually began to tolerate (in, the technical se'nse), a~d then finally approoe~congregations of~religious, wo~en with simple vo~s. ~hese simple vows also-were, regul~ted~.by private legislayion for each respecfige institute. The~e. was~ no. gen-eral: legislation: for the simple vo~ 'o~ povert~ ~ that time. The only legislation of a papal character, that gpplied, to the simple vow of poverty was contained in an occasional rescript given to one or.a~0th~r of t~e approve~ institfites. ,. ~Legf~(~tiOn Regafdmg the Simple Vo~ . On March 19, 1857, by the encyclical, letter Ne~inem latet of the recently gstablisbed S. Congregation regarding the State of Regulars, Pius IX pr¢scribed that in all orders of men all novices should take simple vows for a period of at least three years, before being admitted ,tOsolemfi vows, A year-later the same" S. Congregation issued~ declaration regarding these simple vo~s. Though given~ origiffally to the Master General 6f the Order of Pr~acher~ in answerto a number of questions proposed, this declaration, dated June 12, 1858, was soon extended to other religious orders on request and becam~ the established policy of the Holy See 67 ADAM C. ELLIS. Review [o~ Religious reg~irding simple vows taken as a preparation for the solemn. vows. The.part of the text pertinent to thd. simple.vow of poverty runs ~s follows: Document I IX. (l)! The professed of ~simple Vows may retain the bate ownership (dom, inium radicale) as it is called, of their_property, but the administration, spqnding ofincome, and use of their property is absolutely_forbidden to them. (2) Hence, before tl~e profession Of their .simple vows, they.anust, for the entire time during.which they Will be bound by siinple vows, cede the-administration, the usufruct, and use to whomsoever' they please, even to their order,, should they freely choose to do so . The Council of Trent had required that a novice was. to give away all Bis property before taking solemn vows. This was to be done only within tw~ months of the solemn profession. With the~introdt~ction of .simple vows as a preparation.for~olemn vows, the question arose as to when _,this ~enunciation was'to be made. The S. Congre.gation ~egardinl~ the State "of Regulars answere~l the .question on August 1, 1862, as follows: Document II In an audlence hdd August 1, 1862, His Holiness stated and determined by his apostolic authority that the renunciation referred to in chapter" 1-6, session 25 of the Council of Trent, should take place on the part of the ~rofess~d of simple vows within two m6nths, ~receding the profession of'solemn vows, all thin'gs to the contrary notwithstanding. The above formulae applied onlyto orders ot: then. A formula similar to Document I above was introduced into ~the constitutions of congregations of both men and' womem with simp(e vows only: and Since Msgr. Andrew Bizzarri (later Cardinal) was secretary of,the .Congregation" at the~ time and was considered to be the author of this particular legislation, it ~ame to be known as.the/:orroula~Bizzarriana. Htali(s as well as divisional numbers used in these documents are the author's. 68 March,J94.7 ~ , THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY We'shall hereafter call it "Bizzarri's formulary." Here is a g~pical copy "of its text, taken from a set oOcof n;s 'tl t"u t'lons appr6ved by~ t~e SI ,Congregation of Bishops and Regular~ 6n3uly 12, 1861: -. " " ~ Docum;nt III, ,Animadversions: N. 8. Regarding the vow of p0v~rty the fol~ lowing &sposltmn has been prescribed by the Holy See .for some.of these institutes- (of simple vows) : . .(1) The professed may retain the.bare ownership, as ~t ~s called: of their .p'rdp'ert~; but~ the~ administration!~ spending of~ income, and i~se'~of 4hei~ ~prop~ert~ , i~,~,absolutelg forbidden-to them as long as.they rehaaifi in,the institute. (2) Hefi~e, ~before profession they must cede. even privately, the administration, and use to whomsoever they please, even~to their own institute should they. freely choose to do so.~ (3) This cession, however,, will no longer have'any force in case they leave the institute. (4) A condition may~ be attached stating that th'ecessioh.is revocableat.any time even though.they per-severe in the institute:; but as long as :they,h're bound by vows the professed~0may not in.conscience u.~e .this "right of revocation without the permission of the Holy See. (5) They may, however,~dispo.se of their ownership eithey by way of last will and testament, qr, with .the superi.gr gen.eral's~ permission, b~ absolute gift ,(pdr actus inter uiuos~). (6) Nor are they forbidden to~ place s.uch acts as are pre-scribed by the law, but with the p.e.rmission of the same ~uperior general. , Bizzart:i's for,rnulary c~fftinued to be used ~n individual se~s ofconst~tutmns apprbved by the S. Co.ngregation of ¯ Bishops and ~eg~il~rs from 1860 onwards. On December 30, 1882, .the S. Congregation presCribed'an-officml formula containing, thd same prgvisions in almost the same words, with a fev~ rn'odifications and some additions, to'be inserted henceforth in all constitul~ions to be approv, ed by. it. ,Here ~sthe text of-this, official formula: Docdment IV The~foll0wing rules concerning the simple vow of pov~rty'have been adopted b~' the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, and it ,is customary to prescribe that they be inserted in constitutions WhiCh 69 Reuieto~6r Reti~idds ~ , i (~1) Th~.p'~ofesse~d~may, ~etain tl~e;bare own~rship,oas,it is~called, pf. their .pr0peity ;~butlthe.~ administration~ ~sp.endin'9 of ~'~com~,-~d use of tbdw prope?tg ~s absolutelg [orbrdden to~,tbem. ~ (2) before profession they must cede~ even "privately, ~h~ ad~in~t~ti~ usufruct, and use to whomsoege~ .they please, even to their own insti- ~u~e,.s~ould t~ey fr~dy~ch~pse to dq~so. '~(~ A,qgngi£~on ~gY be attached to this~cession stating that it is'revocable, at aKy time: but the professed may not in conscience use this rig~t~refv,ocation ~ ~ithout ~-~ ~s~ (4,~),,~,~he same ~disvo~ition is to be, made. of~any- goods,~hich~ may. come ~to.the~profess~d, after~theix~prQfessio~,~*under,tifie~o~ inheritances. ~ (5) ~:The~ may~. hbw~v~r,~dispbse 6f theii owners~ip,.either,.by Wa~.of last will and~test~ment, with~the~permission'~of the superior-ok'the superiore~ ,general, b#. b~ Way of absolute,gift (~c actus dioos). In,the latter casd the cession of ad~inistration:~ihfruct, and ase's~all cease, unlessthey wish these latter'to remain nnChanged for a definiidy stated time i~spite of:th~cession .of ownership: ,- "" ~'(6)? They ~re not forbidden to place such acts as ard~prescribed b~-the~law,, bu~ they 'mu~t first have~ the" permission of the-S6#erior or supeiioresL . ~ -~. ,.~ (7) Wha~ever~hep ~r6fess"e"d "r e" h"g~ous have acquired b~ their'own ,ndustry, or for t5ear socaetyithey must not'ascribe or reserve'to~them-selves,~ but alFsuch things must*be added to the~commumty funds for the common benefit of the society. ~ ~ ~ " By, is constitutiqn,, onditae a Cfiristo, dated De&m ~'~*~,X~;~ '~ i~ k~r~ ~",;~ ,. : ~ii *,~.~ ,~ ~.~ ~ ~,~ - per ~,~Lyov, t=ope ~eo,,A~t~ puDnc~y acgnow~geO congre-gations ~tn s~m~le vows to ~ a part ot t~e economy -th s consmutxon he defined the &fference between d ocesan anO Rapalt~ approved congregatxons and la~O down~ general regulations tot ~ne goyernment ot both. Ires constitution ~s,~nOeea t~e Magng ~arta otrel~g~ous congre~tx0ns s~mple vows. ~ Leo s~legxslatton gave a new impulse to ,man:g &ocesan congregatibn~g~ to~ seek, .papal ~ approval.~, Meanwhile the S+tCong, regation ofl~ishops and ,,Regul~rs,~: 70 March, !,9~7 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERT': experience in'dealing with these congregations had provided much of the material for the Cor~clitae a Christo, drew up for itself, a new-set of rulesto be~follow~d henceforth in the . . approyal of institutes with simple vovc~,as well as in the approval of the constitutions of such institutes. These Norrnae,.as they were called, did not have ~the force of law, since they~remained a private guide for the use of the S. Con-gregation and .were never published (it w~is~forbidd~'n¯ to ~reprint th~in). However, their became t~ liv'iiag mind of .the C14urcfi with regard to cor~gregatiofis o~ religious with simple vows, and much of their content was embodied in the Code of Canon Law. It will'be useful for our present sttidy, therefore, to give those articles of-the Norrnae ,of 3une 28, 1901, which dealt with the matter of~ the. simple vow, of poverty. " Docur~ent V Nbrms which the S. Congregation of~Bishops and 'Regulars is accustomed to follow-in ~approving new institutes with simpl~ vowsl 113. By the simple vow of poverty the Sisters~ renounce the right to dispose licitly of anything having a temporal value, except with the permission of~the legitimate superiorS. t.14. The Sisters are forbidden to retain the personal ad~ninis-tration of any of their personal goods. 1 15. Therefore, before the first profession of vows. they must dispose of the use °~nd '~sufruct of their income, or of the fruits ot~" their goods in the manner which pleases them, even infavo~ of their _ institute, if they~ freely choose to do so. They must also, before their first vows, transfer the administration of their goods to any person or persons the~y~°cho'ose; and, if they freely choose, even to their own institute, provided the.latter is informed and accepts the trust. °- 116. This cession of administration, use, and usufruct will cease to h~ve for~e in case the religious leaves the institute: nay more, a condition may be placed, stating that it is revocable at any time. 117. Such_a revocation, however, as well as. any chang~ in the acts of cession, miay not be made lawfully ~luring [the time they are '~Fhough Sisters are specifically mentioned, the Norraae were intended to be applied to ,congregations of religious men also unless the contrary was stated. 71 ADAM C. ELLIS' boi~nd by~] their vows, except with the permission of the superior general. ~ 118. The dispo~sition of the use andusufruct and the designation of the admlnistrator mentioned above may be.made either by pub!ic or by private act. 119. The p'rbf~ssed retain the bare owner'sh!p (dorai'nia~ radica[e) of'-their goods, and t1~y are forbidden to abdicate .their ownership~ by an .absolute. gift (per actas~inter uivos) before their profession~ of perpetual vows. 12"0. It is redommended (cor~uer~it) that all freely dispose of all their good~, pre~ent and future, by last will and testament,lbefbre taking their first vows. ° ' 12 I. Sisters professed of perpetual Vows nded the ~permi~sion of the Holy See in order to give away the ownership~of all their goods~ 122. Professed Sisters need the permission of theoHoly-See'both to make or to change their Will: but ~ truly urgent cases the permis-sion of the~ ordinary or bf the superior general will suffice, or even that of the local superior if it cannot .be done otherwise. 123. The Sisters are not forbidden to place acts of ownership which may be requiied by law: but t~ey must first.oStain permission of the.superior general or, in cases of urgency~ of the. local superior. 124; Regarding goods which shall, com~ to theSisters by any legitimate tide after they have taken their vows, they must or may,. respe.ctively, dis1~oie of them according to the norms given above con-cerning the goods they had before first profession. ¯ Thus far we have seen the devel0prnei~t of legisbition regardir~g'the s!mple, vbw of poverty for orders of .religious rnen and foi congregations of both men andw0rnen. During all.'~his time nuns in tl~e strict sense c6ntinued to take solemn vows. irnrnediately-after the one year of novitiate .prescribed b~r the Council of Tten~. ,By the decree Perpens.is,, dated May~3, 1902, and issued in the narne of Pope Pius.~X by-the S. Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, all novices in orders of religi6us women were obliged to take Simple vows for at least three years in preparation for the solemn vows -later on. The detailed legislation regarding the s~mple vow. of poverty" repeated almdst literally. ~_sirnilar provis~ioh~ 72 March, 194Z THE SIMPLE VOW~OF POVERTY which had been made for-orders of religious men in 1858 (see above). Here is the pertinent text bf the Perpensis: ~ Document VI N. 1 1. (1) The Sisters professed of .simple vows retain the bare --ownership (.dominium radicale) of all their goods, (,2) arid they cannot definitively dispose of it except withih two months immedi-ately preceding their solemn profession, ,according to the Sacred Council of Trent. . . (3) The administration, spending of income, and rise of their. goods is absolutely forbidden to them." (4) Hence before the pro-fession of simple vows, they must, for the time during which they will be bound by simp.le vows, cede the administration, usufruct, and use to whomsoever they please, even to their own order or monastery, provid.ed t~a~t.~hey freely consider this opportune, and prov!ded that the order or monastery has no objections. (5) If, during the period of sire, ple vows, other goods come to them by legitimate title, they acquire the oVcnership of them; but they must transfer the administration, usufruct, and us+ as above,as soon as possibIq; ol~serving also the law_,~0f not renouncing their ownership ,until within two months before their ~ole'mn profession. Such v~as th~ development-of legislation.and practice , on the part of the Holy See with regard to the simple vow. of poverty up ,.to the promulgation of the Code of Canon Law.on May 27," 1917.~ While adop~ing,th~ terse form introduced b~r the Normae of 1901, the Code re_rained sub-stantial. l~i thebld 1.egislation as di~velope~ in the documents previously qdoted (I, II, III, IV" and VI)', wl~ich, witl~ the exception of Bizzarr~'s formulary (III) are listed among l~he sources of the canons on.poverty. - . After the i~ublication of the Code, all religious institutes were obliged to revise their rules .and constitutions so as to b~ing them into conformity with the Code. Contrary privileges granted by the Holy See were safeguarded.by canon 4 and could be retained unless explicitly revoked by some canon of the Code. All other rules and particular constitu.tions of individual religious institutes which were ~)AM C. ELLIS cont*rary to the:canons of the Code were~ abrogated (cahon 489) " -, " ~ " , ' Since most'constitutions of:m~odern congregations now contain ~the pr~escripti6ns of the Code without chan, ge !n the matter.of the simple vow of poyerty, we think it helpful to give the-tex-t of the'canons involuted in our stui:ly_before going on t6 comment UlSOn"them: Canon 568. If, during the novitiate,, the novice in any ~vay whate'v.er renounces his benefices or his property or encumbers them, such a renti~ciation or encumbrance is not only illicit but also null and void. " Can0fi 56~, § 1. Before the profess!on o.f si,rnple vows,., wrieil~e; temporary or perpetu,,al, i~he novice '~must cede, for the ~rhole° period during whl~h he will be bound by simple vows', "~he ~dm~nistration of ¯ his property to whomsoever, he wishes, and dispos~ of its use an~t usdfruct, except the,constitutions determine otherwise. . § 2. If.the nox;ice, because he possessed no property, omil~ted to m~ake this cession, and if ~s~bsequently propertycome into his posses-sion, or if, after making the provision, he becomes finder whatever title the .possessor of other property, he must make provision~ according to the regula.tions ~f § 1, for the newiy acq~iired pibperty, even if he hhs already made ~imple piof~ssion. § 3.~ In every religious Congregation the novice, before ma.king profession of,~tempprary, vows, shall freely~'di~pose by "will of all the property he actually' possesses or. may subseque.ntly,' possess . ~Canon~ 5~.9.,. -Simple~ pr~p~fession, ~heth,er t.empo~ary~or pe~ petual, rendeis acts contrar2y, t? the vows illicit; but not invalid, unless it°be Otherwise formally expressed; while s61(mff professton rehd~is Such acts ev~a invalid, if they can be nullified. Canon 580, § i. All those who have inade professio~i-of simp1~ yows, whether i~erpe~ual or temporary, except the constifutions declare otherwise, retain the proprietorship of their property and~the capadty to acquire other property, while safegu.arding the presc.rip-tions o~ canon 569. . § 2. Bul~ whatever "the religious acquires by his o~r~ indhstry or in respect 6f his:'Inst!tute, .~elongs to the Institute. § 3. AS r~gards :the cession or disp0'siti0n of pr6pdrty trea~ed Of in canon 569, § -2, the professed religious can modif¢ t.he"arran~e- March; 1947 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY ment,, nbt ho~wev~ei of his own free cho_'ice.except, the; constitutions ~ allow it, but with ~t.he p~ermission of the Superior-General or, in the 0 cause.of nu~s, Of the lo,cal ordinary, as well'as with that 0i~ the R~ular S~perior if them ~o "n'a;s~t_e r"y be s: u~B" J"e 'c't .t.o. .R.e.gulars; the modification, however, must not be ~ade, at least for a'n0tabl~ pa~[-of" the ~rop? drty, in favgr of the Institute; :in the~,case of withdrawal from~ the Institute, this cession and dispositidn ceases, to have effect. ~. ,Canon 58~. Those who have made profession of ~imple vows in.any religious ~ongregation: 1° May. not abdicate. ,gratuitously the dominion-~ver their propert~ by a voluntary deed of conveyance (~er ~tum inter oibos).: ~ *Eet us now analyze:the~on~e~ts coataified in these canons iffthe light off,past legislation given imour pregious db~uhefit~, putting them in logicaborder,, with ,a word" of cOmment/upon ea~h.,, ~. -- ~- . '-., . " " The Si~pl~ Vdw,of Pove?ly,:i6 P?acti'ce , 1. A~ nootce ts ~orbtdden to give away ~hts property during the~ time o~ nootttate,~under the pare of nulhty (eanp~ 568). This is the legislatioh of Trent forno#ices ~n,an order. Amcle 8# of thg ~ormae of 190,1~d~a~proved " o~ 4onat~on~ made, to ~ir 1~)~stitu~e Con~egdti~n.'; N0~h~fi~ was~sald ab~ug d~nhfi~ns toga thi~ - ~af~y~duriEg t~e.ti,me q~nov~tiate. ~N0r wa~ a d~gafion- ~de~to the. institute in~ii~ ._ " . :~ ~ 2~ Shortt~ before. Oronoenc~ng his grst~.simpld a noqice mus~ appoint an.;administrato~,:to take ,care ~of his p)rsonal~p~opert.y;during the, entire time during.which -:will be bound by simple vows ~canon~ 569, ~ ~&;_ Docu~ ments:.I, 2; HI, 2;~Ig, 2; V, Normae, art. 115; VI; 4). "" In a congregation, this time will be for the lifetime of the religious; in an order, it will be for the time preceding sol-emn. profession., Strictly speaking; .the persopal Xd~inis-trati0n of his own property by a religious is not contrary to his few ofp0verty as defined b~ Pius IX b~cause it is not 75 ADAM C. ELLIS~ ~ " Revieto FOr Religious a disposa~l of proper.ty., Still, from t858 to the~ Codq inclusive, such administration has been forbidden by'the positive law of the Church to 'all religious'~with simple vows. ~ Hence, no superior can gi~e a s~ubJect permission to "administer his own-private property after he has made his . first profession of vows. Only the Holy See can do so.- 3. Before takin9 hi's [~rst vows, a novice must gioe. away, to whomsoever he pleases, the use and incomd of his personal property (canon 569, § 1; Doc'um~ents: I, 2; .III., 2; IV, 2; V, Normae, a~t. 115~; VI, 4). This dispositionl once made, holds good for the entire time that he will be bound by simple vows, and he may not change it without the permission of the superior general (canon. 580, § 3). Legislation prior to the Code required the' permissibn of the Holy S.ee (Documents: Iii, 4; IV, 3; V, Normae, art. 117). With regard to this disposi~:ion" of the use and income of his property', canon 569, § 1 makes allowances for contrary provisions Of the' constitutions. Whu'sln some older congregations 6f men, approved before 1860, the reli-gious must give~ the use and.ir~come of his property .to ~i~ela-tires ffho ~ire within-the foiirth ~degree of kir~slhip; or in 0thers~ he must g~ive, a phr~ of the iricbme to his institute, the r~ai~der to his relatives!' or aga~in in other~ tl~ ~onstitU-tions oblige the novice to give all his income to pious ~and charitable causes exclusive of his relatives and of ~his ~own institute. ~.Suc.h. con~rary provisions Will hafdly~'be found in congiegations whose constitutions ha~e been ,~approved" by the Holy See'since 1860. 4. A r~ligious with a simple°v~w of poueriy may not use 6r~ "spend the income of his property for l~imsetf (Docu-. ments:.I,.1; III, 1'; IV, 1; VI, 3). Canon 569 does,,not state this negative precept, explicitly, l~ut ~its positive precept obliging the religious with simple vows-to give away the use and usufrtict bf l~s personal property indicates quite 76 ~March, 1947 THE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY clearly that he may not use it himself,;nor,~p_end~h_i_s oin.come On himself.,- Thi~s~is confirmed, in the writer:s judgment, by the fact that the documents, referred to all state this explic-itly, and are listed as sources of canon 569 in the Code. 5. The same provisions regarding the administration, use; and income are tom be applied to any other persona1 property whiCh may come toga religious at:ter he has made prot:ession oh simple vows (canon 569, ,§ 2: Documents: IV,'4; V, Normae, art., !24; VI,~5). 6. Mag a religious give awag his personal propertg? In answering this que.stion we must distinguish h~tween the religious wit_h~simple vowsdn an order,~ and a ~religious with" ~imple vows in a "cong, regation.: ~ (a) In an order, the religious with simple vows is abso!utely forbidden_to give awa~:y .his property ,under pain of'invalidity. However, since h.e will lose his right to"o.wn-ership v~hen he takes his solemn~ vows, he is qbliged by.law to ' freely . give ~ all his property to whomsoever,he wishes wi~thin si}ty day_s preceding his s-ol,emn profession. This renun~'at_ion;as it is_ technically.called,., is subject~ to the c.on-dition that his solemn profession will follow (canon-581, § 1 ;. Documents'.' II; VI, 5). (b) In a congregqtion~,.~every religious, whether with temporary or perpetual vows, is forbidden to give away his property during his lifetime. (c. 583, 1 °); . Should h4 do So, howgver, the act would be valid but unlawfu!'(c. 57,9). In this m.atter the Code,.is stricter,than, .the preceding legisla5 tion, which,is not referred to in the sources of canon 583, 1 °. Hence it seems reasonable to conclude that this canon is to be interpreted at its face value, and not in the light of preceding legislation. Let us .consider the problem in detail. As we have seen, up to 1860 there were no uniform~ regulations regarding the simple:vow of poverty in a con- 77 ADAM~ C. ELLIS Review forReligiov.s greg~tion[ Bizzarri's formulafry~of 18 61.i:as~well ~is ',the~ru, les ~Of th~ S. ~dng~e~afion sf Bishops and ~Reghlam~-of~q*8 8 (s~D0cUme~ts:~I~II, 5~; IV~ 5),. gave t~e r~ligious with a simple ~vow,~-of, poverty the choic~.of-~exther kee~ing ~his pr6per~g~'an~d making.a last~ wilt~.ahd testament~ to 'determine Who~was t~ inherit Jrafter his death, or ih either':, case witb;the,permiss~on~ of the-~supe~ior general~ of 1901 ~hmtted this right in two ~hys: Art. 119 forbade the religious~ith temporarg ~ows ~to -give .away ~ang~'of ,his propertyo;~., art. 1~ L forbad~ ,the' reli-gioUs wit~ p~rp~tual :vows to give away all ?~is property witho~t, t~e~ per~issi0n of the~ Holy ,See: "~So~e congrega-tions had the following ~rticle. ifl their donsti[utions - ~pproVed by~ the H01y See: ~ "~he~permissiofi~o~ the Hol~. S~e is-required in 6fder that~ a~ r~ligious ~ith~p~pet~al vows pf6perty;~'.:but the ~wntten permass~on of the superior gen-eral su~ces to give away a'part of it." This latter pro~ision,~ based on art.121~ ~f the~Normd~, was interpreted t6 mean tha~ a religious ~wi'thV~imolg p~- petuat vows .coul& g~ve away a~ part~ of his proffe~ty,~i~h the permission of the superior general, ,prowded'~t was not ~'~Otabte~ p~a?t, that As, ~not~ble in pro~bftiO~, tb~th(~entire . of the'r~ligi6u~ ence m th~s.ma~ter betw(en, t~m~brary and perpetual vows. Wiih)o~t,fi{stinghishing.between', ffo~de c~n~nists of.rank a~d~:iMobrtance' who'b01d-that a .rehgxous,,w~tH a 7,8 TIlE SIMPLE VOW OF POVERTY perpetual. ~imple, vbw ~of poverty may still,follow-the pro; vision of the Norraae. In other words~ th'ese' ~iuthbrs ~hold that~ with the p~rniission ofothe .stiperior general, ,the~reli-giousmay give away' even. a large sum, provided this sum is. no't a: notable parffof his. entire patrimony. -They~ agree more or/less ~that~anything ~ore ~than a [ifth~ of ~:the who!e~ patrimong would be .such~ a notable-part; .and 'they-.point out,,, that shah a:gift could be.made onlg once. It' is the present'~writer'.s firm con:viction that this liberal 61~ihion concerning Jarge~ gifts 'does n~ot ,sqtiare ~ith~ the~ wbrds ~ off'the' Code, and.that."the Code designedly. :dhanged the Normaefin thi~ matter: I.n, l~is.op~nion,~.therefore,:e~ren the~superior general~-can, not ~give--permissi0n .f0r sfl~h, large gifts, ounle.s~s the' coffstitutions,~,approved ~ by~,~th~, Holy~ ~ See aft~ero,she,.Code stil,1 contain a clause to!that effect. _~ v . _ ~- The~case'Js"tlui~e~diffe~ent ~ith~,regard to very~small gifts:. Almost, alkafithorsallow the applicati6n~of~the prin- ~ciple, "'parum pro', nibilo~reputa.tur;"" _to~ small~'~donadons fr9m their patrimony made .even b~ novices, and a fortiori by professed religious.~, For example, a religious would be allowed to use;a;part ~f, fi~s own.money'.to l~av, e_some Masses said. fpr ~ deceased pare.nt, relative, or benefactor, or .to. con-t. ribute a small alms to some;.,~worthy cause inowhich he is interested. It. should be, noted that the "smallness',' in, this chse is absolute, ,and is not to be estimated'~with teferenee .to the ~en tird'patrimony; 'also, "that such' ~mfill gifts" are: n'o. t, to be freqfient, lest the~r.gr&duaUy amount tba large S,~um and ~hus Ynake a~ockery of, the~v~ery" principle on ~hich t,hey are,'allowed, ',,'a~ little bit_ may be, considered as nothing.',' Conclusion Such is ~the' doctrine reg'ardihg the simi~le ~vow of~,pOv-erty which hadst be k~,t in iriifid in ~ulra t~er' d-~scuss~on o~fi "gi'f~s to religious." We may~call attention l~ere to the 79 DECISIONS .OF THE HOLY, SEE ".main points d~duced from this survey which will have spe~ cial application later:~ -, 1. :The personal administration of his property by~'.a _religious' is ~r~ot forbidden by the simple vow of poverty, since administration does not come under the term "to dis- "pose" which is used. in the definition~of Plus IX; but such administration is forbidden by pos*itive law. 2. A religious may not spend the inco~ne of his property on'. himself,-nor_mayohe use his .personal property. As far as the vow of poverty alone is ~c0ncerned, either could be done with the permission of the superior. But positive legis-lation reserves such a permissior~ to the Holy See. " 3. For the rest, a religious with a simple vow ofpove~rty. may not dispose qf anything whatsoever haying a mone-tary value (whether it be his personal property; or th.at of the community, or that of any third party) without the permission of his superior. These permissions willbe regu-lated by~ the constitutions of each institute. DecisiOns o{ Holy See Current n~ws reports fr6m VatiCan City announce 'the dates for solemn canonizations'and"beatificati6ns: April 13: Beatification of Venerable Contardo Ferrini, I~alian jurist 9~d university professor at Modena and Messina, who qied' in 1'90.3. April 27: Beatification of Venerable. Maria Goretti of Anzio, who in 1902 at ihe age of twelve died a ma[tyr's death in defense of her Vir-ginity. May 4Z Beatificatibn of Venerable Marie Therese :(Alexia Le Clerc); f0Undress of th'e C~nonesses of St. Augustine of the Congre-gation df Our Lady. May ~5:°Canonization of Blessed Nicholas 0f Flue, hermit and national hero of Switzerland. duns 22: Canffniza-ti0n of Blessed 3oseph Cafasso, onetime rector of the papal University of ,Turin; of Blessed aohn de Britto, Portuguese 3esuit and martyr; of. Blessed~Bern~rd~ Realin0, Italian 3esuit and home missionary. July 6: Canomzat~on of Blessed Joanne Ehzabeth B~ch~er des' Ages, (Continued on p. 128) 80 /he i<~.sar~y; ano OD became.~.ma, n, not.,.~ .,0~lyl.t~. ._ redaeenmd, tuos ,.t.e ,a ~c h.,.u .s His Ipvable.ness,~but alsq,~o be an. ~exampl.e ~nd. :for us ~on our 'peri,l.ous way.to heaven. Spiritua.1 writers agre¢~ tha.5 the m~ost, i~mp0rtan~ !~sson. His. iif,eo us,, the most, impor,t~nt girt~e !~n .our, life as .well as in His,.is .t~at~ of~liumb, le submi_.s~sion to .the will of.the Father. ~: God's.inLention in creatin~g ,,us is. ~hat .we may, i become members of,His 0wn.~,~awily, Jivi~g eterna!iy:~ith,;Him~.:ion , l~e~iven, a~ .ii~ our own h,,gme. Only ~ove can° secure'this desired un.ion, h uriion ~bringing,g!o~E to G0~ and h.app~in~ e,ss t6-us. This love, thi,s.~:unign, .lies ,i,.n our. will ,"He.whb k,eeps my~.comma, ndmepts, ,he it is who loves.m~:, Christ." For us in this life .s~iritual perfection is prin_ci: pally not in our intellect or emo.tion but in our will. if we would be perfect, if we would love God,. if we wguld Be one with Him, we must conform our will to His: This union is- the purpose of o~ur cre~tioi~, the core of our spir-itual growth, the one thing-God-desires. - Those who pri~e themselves on power, wealth, talents, and so forth forget tha~t with a passing wish.God could give everyone ~in intelligence quotient of two ~hundred. or two , thousand, could give every0ne~ a million d611ars 6r a bil~lion. ¯ In his eagerness to save~sou!s, God humbled' Himself exceed-ingly, suffered exceedingly. Surely He would make th~ - ,wish which would_ lavish Wealth and talent 6f eve.ry,, ki~id upon His. followers if that would help sprea&Nis kingdom ,up~gn.~earth:~,~: T.hings hke:~that He~, can handle:,qtfite, adea ~q~.ately ~i.thou_t any ~helR 4tom Us': ~; Tile one;thing,,~hicli; . T. N, ,~ORGENSEN ~e~oW for ~ligious \ ¯~y its,.ver~ nature, is beyond God's force is the free submis-s, on~ of ~our wills.~ Th~s free return t~each_i n~g-s ;~ 't_ ~ ~s. "th ~e. ~s ~m ~l t" of our perfection. God's will and ours must agree if-we would, live ~Ogeth~r ifi ~ace~ ~But His will cannot be perverted and circumscribed anti whittled down to harmonize with ours: Ours;'therefore, ~ust be molded ahd e~pa~ded~o~become one~itb ~is. ~ ~is ~omplete sdrrefider of~ our wilis[~t6 God'~ is not" too hard.' God'~i~ Wisdom hnd 'knows best" ~h~t course we ShoUld take in ~very action big-or Small. God is Lo~e and has a deep, abiding, personal, loving inte~.- est in our every~concern. Surely His will is just th~ thing we Wduld naturally choose if we were ,wis~, even if it ~ere hot commanded. If we were Commanded td d0something ~bicb God saw ~as Unwise, something out of harmony With His planS' and love--that wofild be hard ifideed. But to be commanded to do the very things which"are be~t for us in every way, that is an easy and attractive road to fol-low on our ~ay to perfecyio~. ~ The Rosary, which is one of the best methods of learning the lessons of the Incarfiation, should teach us with exact emphasis all the important lessons of our growth in grace. It should, therefore, teach us with unusual force the lesson of'humble obedience, of surrendering our will 'to God. And it does. In the Annunciation Mary gives us.a splendid exfimple of humble conformity to the will of God. When the angel has finished explaining to her just what God wi~hes and how He wishes it, Mary ans&ers, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord. Be it done unto me according to thy word." She has no thought of her own honor, rio fears ~f her 0wh grave responsibility, no anxiety even though the message changes her whole life making her a mother and a martyr, the mother of all the living-and,queeh of all martyrs: She 82 March, 1,9_47 . ,,'~ THE ROSARY'AND'GOD'S WILL ~lbes~nol~ h~itate0-a~ mbment ;in, spite of: ~ill tb(s~# great ~-gj~ts and,~gia~es and ~sfifferiff~s[and ~.duti~s,~ ~Sh~' does~not .e~en dwelkon the~ l~fi~erkthhn- it,-t~kes~to,anderstan~them.-,Sbt is so filled with desire to know and to do God~stwill~that'sbe bas.ng~fob~,~eft~in,~er~soul~ f0r _~anity b~fe~:~,~ ~his~ispo-sition~ of ~co~lete ~ubmissi6n tO ~God'~s .will~ leads~tarpoise and p~ace;afid ~p~iness inehny situation:that ~l~ife can bff~r~ Surely_ this~first Ros~ry:~yst~ry ~gi~u~:a p'0werf~l~r~e ,to ,pra~tice.,hu~ble,~gb~dience." ~Ma~y,;s-exam~le d~a~s us,~itb tendgr strength gg~.~oin her~ in saying?in:M1 ,the, tests?of~:offr life~,/,)Bqhold,O~,Lord, ~Your h~ndmaiden, ~our~ready, ser~ va,fit, ~Nour trusting child;, ~Be it~ donff~unt~me;~a¢cOrding ; ~:~,~herVisttatlon~,rehF~s the lesson~./Li.ke al.1 great,souls~ Mar.~ l~as ;of~ X,~reflectiy~ trend. of mind:~ th¢ gospel~.tha.t ~it~,~as-~ber ~habit~ to .~.ponder, ~n.,her ~hea.rtv~ thel ~ords:o£,othefs ,7.~Euke. 2~:d.9,f~:2:~:5~l,)~. ~e knoW~t06; Lha.t,,"Mary's ~,l~ove ~ifor,, ,,God ,~as .~ great,; -h~r,-~sire for~ the coming, ofbthe, Messiah~as dntense.° :~hen"ithe ahgel left her~,~therefore,~it Would hav~,,been pleasant, ind~'ed to reflect leiso;~ely.~up~n :his,,~ gl6ri0u~ ~message, ~,to~ meditate, ~on,, the unique love and tru~tiGod,had~shown her, to?adore in(the silenc~ of h~r_own oroom :the. God-man who~had~ just come :tolife Githin~her, womb~ B'ut ~he kne~th~t Eliza'beth,and 3ohn the Baptist needed her. "And she arose and went. in hast~ into, the hill country to~visit her cousin.~ ~This prompt .response,to the slightest suggestion:of God'~ d~si~e. couple~ W, ith, the~ever-presefit hffmility ~hich .urges her .(the Mother of God) to go forth.doing good ,instead 6f waiting for Others to ~ome in. service to h~t~this again is, a togent Aesson to, us of humbleobedience. The happy maiden in 5he:springtime of¯ l'[fe, jub~!ant ~in Go'd's~,love as,,she has_tens over ~the~hills,xsh~ws.,us thavobedience~is;n~t~a sad~or .sober thing:f0r ~I1 of its yseri~sness; ~God ~gi~es Mary to T. N. JORGENSEN Review ~or Religious as an example. , If we surrender~ to His gra,ce, His love will~ bless us and Christ will truly abide ~nd grow within Us. Our gay journey over the hills of life-will end in our own joyous Magnificat~ Thethird joyful m~rstery pictur,es the happy, Mary- and Joseph in a cave, 'the shepherds running to join them, the Magi coming frorfi afar with their symbolic gifts. It was through 'humble obedience that all these arrived at this. haven of joy.- ~Mary and Joseph humbly made the trip to Jerusalem in obedienc~ tothe census-t, aking edict of AUgus~- tus Chesar, their civil ,superior. They might have consid-ered themselves excused under the circumstances, ,but they did not, arid their obedience led to the fulfillment of the prophecies and to the joy of the shepherds and of the Magi and of all Christians. The shepherds believed and acted upon the almost'unbelievable words of the angels that they .- should find God wrapped in swaddling '~lothes and laid in a manger. They belie,veal and followed' humbly and, found happiness. The Magi were obe~tient to an impulse of grace and to the light of a st~r, traveling great distances on what; no doubt, their friends called a wild,goose chase. They also found God and happiness~ All~ these were humble enough to see God in a helpless Babe and obedient enough to come in search of Him and adore Him. ,Thus they found joy,andpeace. The Presentationfifids Joseph and Mary offering Christ in tile ~emple in respons~ to the command of the Jewish law/"Every male~ opening the womb shall be called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23). Again Mary might have held herself exempt, for the virgin birth kept her from coming directly under the law. But Christ was her first-born,'anit so she complied even though her virginity wasuntouched. H:id she failed to comply, her neighbors, who did not kno~ of the miraculous nature of the birth, would have be~n 84 Marcb,'1947. ,~ THE ROSARY AND GOD'S WILL scandalized. Because she did comply, some people have doubted her virginity. Mary chose the second'~horn of this dilemma. Whatever Mary may have foreknown, God cer-tainly foresa.w that heretics would use this obedience of Mary's as an argument against her perpetual virginity'. God is most zealous.of Mary's honor; ye~ He inspired her to fulfill the law. For "obedience is better than sacrifice," because by obedience the whole man body, mind, and will is given entirely to God. On another occaslon, too, God taught.obedience at the risk of some people's misunder-s~ tanding Mary's glory. Christ, while speaking to a crowd. was told that His mother and brethren stood outside seeking t9 speak to Him; and'pointing to His-f011owers about Him He said, "Behold my mother and my brethren. Forwho~ soever shall do the will of my Father is my brother and sister and mother.'.' (Matthew 12:50.) And again .when the woman in. the drowd cried out blessing His~ mother, Christ answered, "Yea, rather~ blessed are~ they who hear the word of God ~ind keep it" (Luke 11:28). ,We know tha~,.the true understanding of these passages gives Mary praise; but nevertheless they urge us to praise her more. l~ecause her will is one With His than because she is mother. ' The Findin~ in the Temple orecalls these words of Christ,-"Did you not know that I must be about my Father's business?" (Luke.2:49.) Mary's question had u~ed the word "Father" in reference to Josdph;-Christ used it in reference to God the Fathers"from whom comes a11 paternity" and all authority. Doing His Father's business was, of course, submitting Himself to His Father's-will, was being obedient. These are the first words of Christ recorded in Scripture. His first lesson is a lesson of obedi-ence. His last lesson is the same, for "He,was obedient unto death, even unto the death Of the cross." 85 T. N. JORGEN~EN \ Revieu~ for Religious ~ In foretelling the characteristics of Christ, .the Psalmist says in His name, '~Sacrifice and oblation. ~ burnt offering and sin offering thou didst not require~ Then said I, 't3ehold t~c~me: In the h~ad of the book it is written of.me that I should do thy' will. O my God, I have desired it, and thy law is in the depth of my h~ar't.' " (Psalms 39:8ff.). A,fter ° the finding.in the Temple, "3esus went down into. Nazareth With Mary and 3oseph and.,was subject tothem." His thirty years of life in Nazareth give, in. point of time at least; ~a tenfold emphasis upon obedience over all the l~ssons which He crowded into'the three .years of public'miniStry! " The Sorrowful Mysteries carry on 'the lesson of humble obedience.- A.week before the Passion, Christ said to His - protesting apostles; "Shall I not drink the chalice which my Father has prepared for Me?" Looked upon as medicine which the perfect Doctor has carefully prepared,, sufferings become endurable, even most desirable. And they are jus.t that--the best of medicine. We' never have faced and never will face any suffering which God has not,prepared or per-- mitted for a very definite good in our spiritual life. ._ At the beginning of His Passion Christ spent hours in the agony in the garden praying over and over again~ "If it ¯ be possible let this chalice pass from me, howev~er,, not my ~ill but Thine be done.~" Not my will but Thine be donee-how perfectly these words of the first sorrowful mystery echo Mary's words of the first joyful mystery, "'Be it done unto me-according to thy word."-With this prayer to strengtl~en Him, Christ overcame His fear' and went forth bravely with unwavering poise to endure the worst that man and devil could devise. All that He endured, He looked upon a~ providential, the fulfilling of the prophecies;., the sanctifying, of the human race, the chalice prepared by His loving Father. Even when manifested only indirectly tlSrough civil authority, the will o~ God was His "meat / 86 Marcl~o i ~ ~ 7 'THE 'ROSARY AND GOD'S.XX~IKL indeed." Like P~ter He was subj~ct to human authority "for God's sake." Like Paul He taught that "there is no power butofrom God and. those that are ordained by God: therefore he that resists lawful superiors, resists God" (.Ro-mans 13 : 1 ). -The Glorious Mysteries take, up where the sorrowful ones leave off, fob they picture the reward which Christ gained by His Passion. "He humbled himself becoming obedient unto death, .even to the death of the cross. For which cause. God has exalted'Him and has given Him a name" which is above all other names, that in the name 6f 3esus-every knee should bow of those that are in Heaven, on earthl and under the.earth, and that eyery_tongue should confess that the Lord ,Jesus Christ.is in the glory of,Ggd the Father."- (Ph!lippians 2:8ft.) The reward which ,we meditate upon in the glorious mysteries, Christ's and Ma~y's and the saints', is the pledge and protot~rpe, the promise and the pattern, of.the glory that c6hae~ to all who through. humble obedience gain gl0ridus triumph. "The obedient man shrill speak of Victory" (Proverbs 21:28): Runqir~g ~tfirough .all the mysteries~-joyfgl, sorrowful, and glori6us--we have the "Thy will .be. d6ne on earth ;is. it is in Heavefa" of the Our Father. Virtue means being like.the blessed in heaven; their'ob~dience is c~mplete and therefore their freedom and.happiness are perfect. This/ prayer.at the beginning of each decade keeps reminding us,. in .our subconscious mind at least if not in ou~ conscious thoughts, that the road to peace and joy and triumph is identical with the road to the fulJ surrender of ou,r will to Gbd. At times it may. not seem so to us, of course, because oub ignorance and emotion may blind us to a great degree. We are like men walking a straight and well-marked road in a fo~ or darkness which gives, it a strange and d~u.btf, ul appearance, It is just b~cause of this deception that we, x - T. N. JORGENSEN \ ~must renew and enliven our faith with frequent Rosaries.' All of the foregoing shows us how the vital lesson of_ humble obedience is taught, and taught with the great insistence it deserves, in the Rosary. _It would be an inter-esting and a highly profitable exercise to see how other import,ant lessons and virtues ruin through the fiifteen mys-teries. They a, re there.~ All that we need is there, for ~the Rosary is the story of the Incarnation, and the Incarnation is God's answer to original sin, God's o;,vn wonderful'plan for our perfection and salvation. " PAMPHLETS AND BOOKLETS~ Some time ago we announced that we could not accept pamphlets for review. Up to this time we have tried to print at least an occasional list of pamphlets received: but even this is becoming increasingly difficult. The present list includes most.of the pamphlet literature we have received in recent months. With the pub-lication of this list. we cease all listing of pamphlets except those 'which might have , a verg special pertinence to our readers. ¯ ~ I. From the Radio Replies Press, St. Paul 1, Minnesota: First Fridays, 15 cents: Wh~t A Mission $ister,~15 cents:The Three Hours and All Fridags of the Year, 35 cents: The Music of~th~ ~Mass. 25 cents: Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament, 15 cents; The Blessed Virgin and the Jews, I0 cents: General Devotions to the Blessed Virgin, 15 cents: The Paraclete Novenas to the Holy Spirit, 15 cents; What is the CarBolic Faith, Anyway? 20 cents:~Way of the Cross for Chddreno 15 cents: Qmzzes on Christian 8ciencei 15 cents: T, be Death of Christ the Warrior, 50 cents; Forty Hours for'Priests and People, 35 cents. II. From The Grail, St. Meinrad, Indiana: Christ and the Soul, 10 cents; The Role of the Priest in tbe Apostolate of Reading, 10"cents: What is the Answer? 10 cents: Imitate Your Blessed Mother, 25 cents; Fruitful Days, 25 cents; This,is Jesus,~ 15 cents: Way,of the Cross for Religious, 10 cents:. Manual of the 8errant of Mar~ , 25 'cents; Digest of the Liturgi-cal Seasons, 25 cents; Liturgical Essays, 25 cents:~,Rouse Tby Might, 25 cents: The Ma~s Year, 30 cents (4 copies. $1.00; 50 copies, $10.00);_Newness of Life, 25 cents; A More Exce, llent Way, 15 cents: Polnt~ for Meditation, 15 cents; Some Hints on Prayer, 15 cents: The Charity of Jesus Christ, 15 cents: T~ Seek ¯ God, 10 cents (vo'cationabl o~oklet. otnhe life ofa Benedictine Sister); Come and See, 25 cents (an insight into the life of the Benedictine monk): Follow Christ, 25 cents (the'vocation numbers for 1945. 194'6, 1947): Christ ~alls,~25.cents (vocation guidebook for use of'teachers). - ~ III. Various publishers: Attention Miss Ares?ira. A vocational booklet pub~lished 'by the DominiCan Sisters, Immaculate Conception Convent, Great Bend, Kansas¯ ~ (Continued on p. 97) 88 The I:fl:ects o1: Holy Communion on the Body C. A. Herbst, S.J. THE effects of Holy Communion are wrought primarily in the soul. By a most intimate union through~char-ity, Christ taken as food sustgins and nourishes the soul, causes it to grow in grace, builds up the ravages wrought by sin, .and brings delight. But it would be strange indeed if Holy Communion "had no effect on-the body. We consider holy .the altar on which the body and blood of Christ is Offered; afad the tabernacle in which He rests, a sacred place. Ought not our bo'dies, into whic~ He has entered so often,-be sacred too? During His lifetiine here on earth, great healing power. wentout from the mortal body.of Christ.~. "And all the multitude sought to touch him, for virtue went out from him, and healed a11" (Luke 6:19). These wonders were worked by a mere paS~ing contact. Now that the body of Christ is glorified, what wonders ought we not to expect from His coming into ofir very bodies? "For no man hateth his own flesh: but--nourisheth and-cheris'he'th it, a.~' algo Christ doth the church: because we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of ~is bones~' (Ephes.ians 5:29, 30). Man is composed of two elements, a body and a soul. These twoare most ihtimately joined and greatly influence each other. This is well illustrated by the transmission of original sin. ~ " If the. flesh of the first man made poisonous and° mortal com-municates death to the soul, shall not the Flesh of Christ. wbich is l~ealthful 'and life-giving, bestow upon it life and safetg? Therefore as the soul contracts all its ills by flesh, it ought by flesh to receive all its benefit. If it is to be freed from the evil which came to it by the / 89 C. A. HERBST Review for R~tigious 'flesh of the first man, it must'have society" and union witl~ the Flesh of Christ, the Sec0hd Man. And as by the single flesh of the first' man all souls are infected and destroyed, so are all souls washed, .cleansed and quickened b~ the Flesh of Christ. As the flesh of" the first man is the storehouse of all vices, sins and crimes, so ali virtues. al~ spiritual treasures and all blessings ale stored up in the,Flesh of Christ. As the former flesh separates the soul from God and unites it wi'th Satan, so the Flesh of Christ separates it from Satan and uniters. it to God. For as Satan lurks in the flesh of the firs~ man, so the Godhead abides in the flesh of the Second'Man. (Catholic Faith in the Holy Eucharist, edited by C. Lattey, S.J., p. 191.) --- Because of the intimate union between the body and. the sob1 and because of the intimate union of Christ with both the body and the soul in Hbly Corrimunon, this .sacrament sanctifies both. St. Clement of A1exandkia says: And the mixture 6f b6th--of the drink and of the Word.---is Call~d Eucharist, renowned.and glorious grace: and they who by faith p~rtake of-It are sanctified both in body and in soul. For the divine mixture, man, the Father's will has rhystically compounde~d bY the, Spirit and. the Word. For, in. truth, the Spirit is joined to.the soul, which is inspired by It: and the flesh, by reason of whichthe Word. became flesh, to the-Word. (Paedogog., 1.2, c.2.) B~r reason of the uriion of the body of Christ with our bodies in,Holy Communion, a sort of relationship arises between our bodies and His. There is a certain affinity, of c0~ncorpo~ration everi,, between our bodies and His. The Fathers of the Chu, rch speak of_this not merely as of a passing state existing only--as 10ng as the sacred- species remain with us, but as of a permanent effect in-our bodies, setting up something of a blood relationship with Christ. He considers our bodies as somethihg of His own and sur-rounds 'them with a special" protection. According to the promise of Christ and the declaration~ of the Fathers it seems that we must say that Christ the Lord considers the very flesh,of tho~'e who_worthily receive the sacrament as I~is own flesh b~t special a~nitg, as though consecrated by contact with His. most sacred flesh . This mystical 9O 2 EFFECTS OF HOLY COMMUNION union of our flesh with the flesh of Christ receives its fuller consum-mation and as it were sacramental consecration through, conjunction of His glorified body and blood with our own b6dies. In thi~, union ire celebrated th~ nuptials of the Lamb with His Spouse the Church still pilgrimaging in the single members; which will be celebrated more happily and in more complete union only in our heavenly l~ome. (Franzelin, De 85. Each., c. 19.) Holy Communion" restores to .us something of our 6riginal integrity. St. Gregory o'f Nyssa says: Since we have tasted (of the forbidden tree) which has wounded our nhture, we must have something that will "heal what has been wounded . ~Now what is this? Nothing other than. that body that has showed itself stronger than death and was_the source of our life. For'as a little leaven, as the Apostle says, fermenteth the-whole mass, so the body give~ over by God to death thoroughly changes us into itself when itis within us. (Patrologia Graeca, 45, 94.) Thii does not mean, of course, that. concupiscer~ce is .completely extinguished by receiving the Holy Eucharist. But by means of the Sl~eciaI abundance of grace the sacra-ment ,brings to the soul, it is much easier to overcome the temptations o'f the flesh and the devil. (~oi~cupiscence is gre~itly restrained arid we are able to dominate ~it more easily. Such chanriels of grace are opened in the soul that they overflow, so to speak, to the Body whidh is so inti- ~atelyJconnected with it. But there is an even more immediate effect upon ~he body:Z Sometimes the presence df Christ in us weakens our propehsity~to be aroused by carnal excitations. By a cer-tain preternatural tempering of the bodily dispositions, it restrains,our natural incliiiation t0ward-things.6f the flesh. Although this is not certain, it dods seem that at times Christ has almost fettered concupiscence in the bodies of His saints, This would seem more .proBable since the sacrament of extreme unction affects the body when God sees fit. We ,must also take into consideration the fact that God can exercise His special providence in this regard by 91 C. A. HERBST Review for Religious removing external occasions that are the cause of sinf~l movements in man and by exciting in him thoughts and affectibns that lead to t.emlSerance. De Lugo explains that the Eucharist affects the body di/ectly and immediately "b~ro diminishing the intensity of the fire of_ concupiscence,' partly by putting the demons to flight so that they will not present images of sinful objects, partly by quieting and'sup-pressing the activi.ty of the humors, lessening their inten-sit, y, and so" forth" (De Sac. Each., 12, 5). The effect of Holy Communion on the body most dwelt upon in Christian tradition is that indicated by Christ in John 6, 55: "He that eateth my flesh, _and drinketh' my blood, hatheverlasting life: and I will raise him up in the last ~tay." Although it is decreed for every man once to die and for his body to return to the earth from whence it was taken, there results from the reception of this sacrament some beginning of incorruptibility and immortality already in this life. St. Ignatius speaks of "breaking one and_the same bread, which is the medicine of immortality, and the antidote to prevent us from dying, but (which causes) that we .should live forever in Jesus Christ" (Eph., 20). St. Irenaeus says: "Thus also our bodies, receiving the Eucharist, are no longer corrut~tible, having the hope of-tl~e ~esurrection"; and "How do they deny the flesh to be "capable of the gift of'God, which is eternal life, Which is nurtured by the body and blood of Christ, and is a member of rus. (Patroloqia Graeca, 7, 1029; 1126.) St. Cyril of Alexandria comments thus on John 6, 55: I, He says, being in him that is, by My flesh will raise him who eats up again, even on the last day. For, of course, it cannot be that He who accordihg to nature is life shoul'd not prevail over cor-ruption and vanquish de~th. So although death, which has taken hold of us by the Fall, has reduced the human body to the necessity of corruption, still, because Christ by His flesh is in us, ~e shall cer-tainly rise a~gain. For it is unthinkable, quite impossible even, that March, 1947 EFFECTS 0~- HOLY COMMUNION the Life should not restore life to those in whom He dwelt. For as we put a spark in a heap of straw that the seed.of the fire may~be preserved, sb also Our Lord Jesus Christ through His flesh enkindles life in us and, as it were, sows in us the seed of immortality which removes.all the corruptio.n that is in us. (Patrologia Graeca, 73,582.) In the dogmatic teaching of ~he ChurCh, one finds little about the effects of Holy Communion on the body; but .tra.dition-is heavy with it. Perhaps no better indication of its burden can be given than is contained in these words Of St.~ Irenaeus: ~ ~ 'Wherefore,also the Blessed Paul says in the Epistle to the Ephe: sians: "For we are members of his body, of his flesh and of his bones" (Epl~esians 5:30): not of some spiritual orinvisible ~an s~ying this :. "for a spirit has neither bones' nor-flesh" (Luke 24: 39) ~ but Of that disposition which is of a true man, which consists of flesh and nerves and bones. (Patrologia Graeca, 7, 1126~.) As indicated, modeln theologians have als0 made~m~fch of it. About ali that can be~said on the_whole matte~ has been summarized masterfully by qne of.the greatest of them. ~ W.hen Christ' is worthily received.,He is .r~eally joined ,witia the recipient, because He is truly and properly within him~ and as it were ~aken in a. bodily embrace. From this it follows that, as 10rig as Christ is present, in so far as it is from His sacramental power, He excites the recipient, to love, and in affection also embraces him cor-porally, who has Him corpora.11y within himself. Then again, from the same bodily reception and.as it were commingling, as the s~ints say, there remains,'~ven after the real presence of Christ is gone, a. certain relationship between Christ and the recipient. For by reason of that cont.act, by special title this one is considered something of Christ. Christ has special care not only~of his soul, but even of his bod~. He sanctifies it. He makes it partaker of His glory." (Suarez, .93 News Views Summer Sessions Two years ago-we volunteered~to publish information on summer sessions for (eligious, if the deans would send us the information. Since the experiment was not entirely sati~sfactory from our point of view, we decided to discontinue' it. It seemed, as the old saying goes, "more bother than it was worth." - However, some deans have shown su~fficient interest in the plan.to send information spontaneously;and we are quite willing to co-operate with them b~, publishing the" fol-lowing ann.ouncements. The University of Detroit will offer four institutes during the 1947 summer session, in addition to.a serie's of four lectures on Mental Hygiene in the Religious Life, and over a hundred different credit courses in nineteen departments. Doctor Francis J. Donohue, Direc-tor of the Summer Session, describes the Detroit program for. religious . as follows: ¯ "Rev."T. L. Bouscaren, S.J.', Profe.~sor of Canon Law at the Jesuit House of Theological Studies at West Baden Springs, Indiana, ~'- will give from July 7thto July 18ththe second of a series of'~hree Institutes on Canot~ Law. The Instituie for 1947- will consider problems concerning the confessions of religious women, religious services, obligations of Religious, the cloister and dismissal. During .the" same two-week period ihe Rev. Robert B. Eiten, S.,I., author of The Apostolate of Su~ering, will offer an Institute on the Proper Concept of the Religious Life, devoted to the practical application of the principles of Asceticism in the religious life. "During the next two-week period the University will-present an Institute on Hoipital Ethics, .given by the Rev. EdwiaF. Healy, S.~I., Professor of Moral Theology a~ West Baden College, and an Institute on Palochial Elementary School Curriculum directed by Sister Mary Edana, Ph.D., of Mercyhurst College, Erie, Pa. This secbnd series of Institutes will run from duly 21st to August 1st. "The daily schedule of the Institutes is so arranged that a student could take both Institutes if desired, or could take one'Institut~ and at least one course for either undergraduate~qr graduate credit. "In addition to tlX Institutes, the Rev. H. P. O'Neill, S.,I., will, present a series of four lectures on.Mental Hygiene in the Religious 94 NEWS AND VIEWS .I~ife, from'July 21st through July 24th. Father O'Neill's lectures will be open only to local superiors and to responsible officials of the various~ Motherhouses and have be~n scheduled so as not to conflict " in time with either of the two Institutes offered during the same week. "Religious who desire further informa~tion-are invited to com-munciate with Dr. Franci~ J. Donohue at the University of Detroit, Detroit 21, Michigan." . Father Adam C. Ellis, a member of our own editorial board, _will. conduct an Institute in Can6n Law-for Religious at St. Louis Uni-versity, June 23 to July 5, ificlusive (twelve day~). 'The institute is open to all religious; but it is intended particularly for superiors, mas-ters and mistresses of novices, bursars, find others charged with some - direction, of religious communities. For further informationJ on this . and other_courses of special value to religious, v~rite to the Dean of the Summer SeSsion, St. Louis University, St. Louis 3, Mo. "The theological .faculty of the Jesuit Seminary, Toronto, will conduct two summer schools for religious in July. Courses i'n Canon .Law and Fundamental Moral Theol09~ will be given at Mount St. Vincent, HalifaX;. July 21 to August 2. Cot~rses in Dogma, Scripture, and Ascetical Theolo~l~ will be given at Rosary Hall, Toronto, July.7 to 19. For further information write to the Dean of Summer School, 403~ Wellington St., West, Toronto, Ontario.° Conce~rnlng Pamphlets As we mention elsewhere in this number,-it would be impossible for us to review all the pamphlets sent to us; One reason is that we simply have not-time to read them; and a second reason is that, even if'we could read them all, we should not have sufficient space for the reviews. In fact, in a magazine the Size of ours, even, book reviews -present a serious problem. Our original idea was to confine our reviews to books of kpecial interest or value to religious. We still hope to achieve this~but hardly in the immediate future. As for the pamphlets, it seems only fair to call attention~to some of those listed in our present number. For instance, it might be noted' that The.Grail now publishe~ the pamphlets'of. Archbishop Goodier: Hints on Pra~/er: The C.hari~t~l o~ Jesus Christ; Points /~or Medita-tion; and ~1 More Excellent VCa~t. We had read these before, and we can recommend them all, especially the last-named. Our reading knowledge of the pamphlets received is limited to those four. However, if a scanning of, the'~contents is reliable, .95 o : NEWS AND VIEWS Review for Religious. 'think we might recommend two other Grail bool~lets (This, is desus, by the Ver, y"Rev. Emil Neubert. S.M.; ,and Imitate Your Blessed Mother, by Peter A. Resch, S.M.) because they seem to contain good" meditation matter. The Grail list also includes a set of booklets on the liturgy that might be aids to meditation. Reflections on the Introits are found in Newness,of Life; on the Collects, ,in Rouse Thy Might; on the Gospels, in The Mass Year; and on the Communion in Eruifful Days . Radio Replies Press is another publishing house that has .favored us with an abundance 6f pamphlets and booklets. ,Among those listed, the folIowing seem to be of special value for religious: First Friday¯ and June Devotions; Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament'; and Gen-eral Devotions to the Blessed Virgin because these booklets contain splendid collections of indulgenced prayers that can be used in public and private',dev0tions. Forty Hours for Priests and People offers complete explanation of this devotion, and gives the Latin of the three ,Votive Masses, with English translation, and explanation of the ceremonies. The Three Hours contains prayers for priest,~ and people to be used during the Tre-Ore, and a very brief Way of.the Cross, With the prayers arranged under the fourteen ~tchings of the Holy. Face by Hippolyte Lazerges. Way of the Cross for Childreff also include~ these etchings. The'Paraclete contains novenas illustrating the-gifts and, fruits'of the Holy Spirit. Religious might find much material for meditation in tlsis booklet. New Lay Apostolate ~ Before we leave °the subject of publications, we must say a ~word about a rather recent and°truly gigantic apostolic enterprise of one Cathohc family.- This is a hturg~cal calendar ent,tled Saints_ and Devotions. It covers the whole liturgical year, from Advdnt to. Advent, gives the Ma~s of eacfi day, a brief sketch of each of~tl'ie principal saints, an app~ropriate indulgenced aspiration, information concerning special novenas and indulgences, and so forth. In fact, the amount of helpful and. inspiring information woven into this artistic calendar is scarcely short of marvelous. You ha% to see it to believe it. The,present number of Saints and Devotions covers the liturgical ye, ar beginning with~Advent, 1946. We regret that we are sg.tardy in calling it to the attenti0n.of our readers. But we trust that the project :will go on through many years; hence, even if~ we are too l.ate March, 1947 NEWS AND VIEWS for the current year, we hope that by mentioning it now we shakl encourage our readers to write for, in~Ormi~tion ,and° thu_s.~be .,pre: pared for the years ahead. For the desired information, write to:, La Verna Publishing Company, Stowe, Vermont, ~ PAMPHLET~ .AND BOOKLETS .- o. , (Continued from p., 88) ¯ " Arise,. My Love. and Comet At vocational booklet published, by. the Sisters of Mercy ~'the Union, Scrant~t Province. (Mother of Mercy Novitiate; Dallas, Pennsylvanla.)~ Vocational Digest--Parents" Edition, 1946. Published ,by the Holy~ ~Cross Fathers. (The Director of Vocations, "Holy Cross seminary, Notre Dame, Indi-ana.) ' - TheoWorld We XVant. 35 refits. .(The Catechetical Guild, 128 E Tenth,. St. Paul 1, Minn.) Bits of Information for Sacristans, 15 cents: with proportionate rates on quantity orders. Bertha Baumann, the Little Guardian Angel of the Priest's Sat-urday. '(The Salvatonan Fathe'rs, Publishing'l~epartment~ St. Nazianz, Wisconsin.) The_~ Wron'9 Tar9et-lChats on Chatting. 10 cents. Words of Eternal Life, (The Pallottine Fa.thers, 5424 W. Blue Mound Road, .Mil.wauke~ 13, Wis.) ¯How to Pray the "Mass. - I/. (The Mercier Press, Cork.) ~$ister Annunziata's First Communion Catechism.20 cents. (Benziger Brothers, Inc., 26 Park Place, New Yor~.) Unifging the Teachim2 of Catechism and' the Spiritual Life. (Pontifical Col-le~ e Jose[ahinum, Worthington, Ohio.),~ Racial Myths. Single copies. 25 cents:~25 copies, $5.00:50 c~pies, $9.00: IO0 copies, $16.00. (Rosary-Col'lege Bookstore. Rosar~ C611e'ge, River Forest, Manual of the Reparation 8ociery of the Immaculate Heart of Marq~ (The Reparation~ Society,720 North Calvert St., Baltimore 2, Md.) ,Our Neighbors the Koreans. - 35 cents, (Field Afar Press, 121 East~39th St., New York, N.Y.) Brie~ Commentary on the Texts of Matins and Lauds of the Romai~ Breviary for .the 'Sundays of Passiontide. Mimeographed, 50 cents. (Rev. Michael A. Mathis, C.S.C., St. Joseph's Hospital; South Bend 17, Ind.) OUR CONTRIBUTORS C. '~A. HERBST is Director of Scholastics at St. Mary's College, Saint Marys. Kansas. T. N. JORGENSEN is a Professor of~ English at Creighton UnivCrsity, Omaha, Nebraska. ADAM C.ELLIS, G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD, and GERALD KELLY are the Editors of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 97 Dit:l:icuit:ies G~ Augustine Ellard, S.3. IN A "PREVIOUS.ARTICLE an effort ivas made to point , out the facts Of .the.difficultie~ pe.ople experience in medi-tation and their causes. Then two remedies were sug.- ~e-sted: namely, (I) to remove the obstacles thht'could be got rid of; and (II) constructively to develop interest both in the truths of faith and in mental prayer !tself. Positive cultivation of interest is by all means the great means-to .- progress in prayer. Now it is proposed to add some other III. A third way to vitalize meditation i,s clearly to conceive the end or purpose of it and. then to feel quite free to choose any means that are suitable. Different persons -~ would express the aim of meditation differently, but/,11 such ¯ formulations should eventually .come to ~omething like- .these: namely, to ady_ance in the knowledge/, love, and work of God; or, to achieve wholehearted love of God, both affective and effective; or, intelligently and "earnestly to- - accomplish the divine plan for one. More particularly and more proximately mental prayer should give one a keener kno~-wled~e and a more. nearly adequate appreciaf!.on Of divine realities and ~v, alues, and thus greater good will," indeliberate and deliberate. To this end, clea.rly and s.teadily held before the mind, all contributive means are legitimate. Herein lies one of the great differences ~etween vocal and mental prayer. In. reciting the Office, for example, one has rio freedom; all that one can do is pre-cisely that which has been prescribed. In mdntal prayer one c~n follow any good-idea or"affecti0n or discuss any- -thing with God. God's own infinite_ magn.itude is an 98 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION~II unlimited field to be explored and talked over with,Him. His whole universe, so far-reaching in space and time and scope, all conducive in some way or other to our supernat-ural d.estiny, is also appropriate matter for consideration with Him. Naturally an~ laudably in any particular.hour of prayer a person would have a specific purpose; but if ,he finds it too difficult to pursue that, he can always fall back upon. the general end of prayer. This is always available, and alway~s al~o great and inspiring. ¯ If one should find that he has nothing tO think about or nothing to say to God, he cofild prayerfully consider jhst this problem with God. He .might find exci~l.lent material °for humiliation and shame; and an advance in humility is one of the best .things possible in the spiritual life. ".In fact it would seem that in whatever situation or predicament a man can find hiinself, he could have a little conference about it with his heavenly Father a'nd turn it to 'good account. He could help verify the principle that to those who love God and-see their opportunities everythifig Works out for the best. IV. It has just been pointed out that in mental prayer one is free to do anything that promotes one's purpose. The intelligent ,6se of method enables one to make the most this freedom. Method may be necessary, in the beginning esp~ecially, and it may be most useful, but it is' not to be fol-lowed for its own sake. Like other means, to .which it assigns order and measure, it should be used when it con-tributes to the result sought: otherwise one should, feel at perfect'liberty,to abandi~n it. If.prayer comes naturally and spontaneously; so mudh the better. If it has to be kept going by deliberate effort, method may be a i~owerfut aid. ~If one comes to a dead stop and sees no way Qf gettin~ .started.again, it is method that may.do one that service: ;A" - priest 'reading his breviary never comes to "a dead stop; th~ G,AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious rubrics are there to tell him what to do next. If he.dbes not understand them at once,.he investigates, decides as wdl~ as he can, and then proceeds. He is never at a complete loss for something to do. Similarly in meditation method indi-cates What'is~ to .be done next when Sl3ontaneity fails. It will be an aid, not a burden, if it be used intelligently.and rightly. . To help different people or the same person at different times, there are at least eleven methods of meditation that are more or less ~ell. known. As listed by, zimmermann- Ha.gge.ncy in Grundriss der Aszetik (pp. 86 ff.),.th~y are as'follows: (1) The fundamental 6r three-faculty~method; ('2) the same simplified and reduced~to a few, le~ding ques-tions; (3) contemplation in the Ignatian sense (persons, 'words, actions): (4) application of~ the senses;~ (5) port, dering a serie~,: for example; the seven capital sins, ithe. eight beatitudesLand so~ forth; (6) rumination on the successive wof'ds or phrases 6t; a vocal prayer,~ like the Our Father.; (7)"meditative reading; (8) °method of. St. Peter of Alcari-tara (concentration on the~idea of beiaefits received and thanksgiving for them),; (9,) the. method of St. Francis de Sales (considerations, affections, resolutions, thanksgiving, offerings, petitions) ; ,(10) the method of.St. Alpho~nsus ISiguori (prayer of petition emphasized);' (11)~ the~, Sul-pician method (a.~6ratiqn, communion, c0-operation. doubt there are many persons sufficiently .intelligent and interested who could in the light of one or more of these sys-te. ms devise still another one peculiarly'suited to their own indi~cidual mentalities.' In any case one can hardly com-plain that there is not enough variety, or that meth6d, if properly used, weighs the soul down, ~ In addition to these formularies it could be an aid to some people to have ready-made lists of the affections and also of the motives to which they could turn for~suggestion I00 ' March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION II. in times of need. Such schemes could be of great assistance in moments of temptation as well. as during the hour~ of meditation. To illustrate what is meant, an example or t,wo may be given. When in the course of one's mental prayer it is appropriate that one should feel moved and still one is ~o torpid that no emotion arises.spohtaneously, one could ask : ','Which of these affections should I feel ?- Love, hatred; desire, aversion; joy,~ sorrow; hope, despair:~cour-age,', fear; anger?" If a man has been thinking of some good person, or thing, perhaps he should feel moved to compla-cence, admiration, awe, a sense of sublimity,, reverence, desire, hope, confidence, courage; love, joy, gratitude, zeal, loyalty, emulation. , An evil object might call forth displeasure, hatred, aversion, horror, disgust, pity, fear;- grief, shame, humiliation, confusion, contrition, and so forth. To move or stren.gthen the will, one might consider such motives as these schemes propose: ~ ~x 1. Holy happy they~are who carry ou~ the divine plan; nega,- tively, positively.--Hqw lovely, God is! 2. The consequences, good or bad7 of.possible courses of action; for self, for God, for others; in time, in eternity.---Their intrinsic.~ - values; the pleasant or unpleasant features about them: their proprie-ties or improprieties. " ¯ ~ 3. Necessity, (possibility), facility,uPleasure, utility, .nobility. 4. Truth, goodness, beauty.--Accomplishment, joy, peace: b~atitude, imperfect in time, perfect in eternity. " V. Lindworsky "in his book, The Psychology o[ Asceti-cism (pp. 58 ft.), makes an.effort to point out how in the ~Iight of modern psychology meditation m, ay be facilitated, ¯ The follow.ing is a very brief summary. When first learning to meditate, try what is reall~, a combination of vocal and ~nental\prayer. Take a formula, for example, the ten commandments, recite a few words, pause, reflect, app.ly the ~matter to yourself~ be sorry for past failures, 101 G. ,AUGUSTINE EI~LAI~D Review [or Religious renew your good will for the future~ ask God's assistance: then go on to the next few words, trea~ them shni!arly; and thu~ proc~ed through the whole forrdula, XVhen medi-tating upon some abstract truth or some scene fro~ the ¯ Gospel, expect to go over old ideas that you have learned rather than toexcogitat'e new ones of your own. There are. not many .minds that can do much origir~al thinking. Then to"evoke and guide thought, have some "anticipating scheme," such as the familiar questions, "Who?'~ What? When?. Why?" and so fbrth. Try to develop imagery that-is- rich and realistic. Do. not expect the process of repro-ducing ideas to b~come much easier by repetition. When One is contemplating something that. is or was visible, for example, an incident in the life Of Christ, it is advisable to visualize it, that is, to reconstruct it as fully as possible before the e~es of the.imagination. Then, also one should .cultivate empathy/, that is, feel oneself, as it were, into the situation of those who a~tu~lly' took part in the historical occurrence; how, for instance, should I '.have felt if I had been one of the spectators at the-resurrection of Lazarus? Finally, in all mental prayer one. should keep in mind and be guided in the first place by the though~ of one's ~rocation, its purpose, its requirements, values, and so ¯forth. .VI. Amgng other aids to meditation the-following deserve mention or further consideration: 1. Pra~lerful and reflective reading is perhaps the' most obvious help and one that hardly any.literate person could normally 'excuse himself fr6m. It is not at all equal in commendability to m'ental prayer, but is a very excellent means of prayer and sanctification, andincomparably better than, say, sleeping. Nor is .it so lowly and mean as may at first appear. For many years no less a mystic tfaan the great St.Theresa needed a book to pray over. Of course the ,book Chosen should be suitable for the purpose, rich, mdaty, March, 1947 ' DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION II suggestive., ~. From rime'to time one sl~ould pause;, reflect, apply the ideas-to oneself; and confer with God. Medi-tative reading would,seem to be the absolute minimum to, be exPecte~ from an intelligent and earnest-person. 2. Thoughtful vocal prayer can also be.a great.~help,. In prayers of one'sown choice it is not the ~aumber of words that counts, but the disposition of mind, of .feeling, and of --will with which they, are said. Hence the de~ir~ibility of imp[oving these qualities. To recite one's prayers slowly, deliberately, emphasizing appropriate phrases or repeating them, and to throw as much heart and spirit ,,as possible into them, are so many ways~0f augmenting the efficacy of. therri. One of St. Teresa's nuns could not pray except vocally : .but in this case it was discovered that the recitation was accompanigd by a high form of mystical contempla-tion (The Way of ,Perfection, chap., ,41). Very -probably the best way to recite the Divine Office--I do not _say tile easiest or the fastest-~--would be to try to accompany it with a ~entle sort of diffuse contemplation. This way-,would .als0 be felt as .less burdensome-than some others. For St. Ignatius in-his last years, the breviary was so potent a stimulus to contemplation that he could not get on with-saying it andhad to be dispensed from the obligation. 3. All°~uthorities on prayer are agreed that for success in it'a minimum measure of morti~cation is ,required. It would not be possible except for a short time since'rely and earnestly to strive during° meditation to prefer the better things and ask God to help one unless at other times one tried, and to some extent successfully, to forego the worse ~hings. Bodily mortification is one of the first means to spiritual iidvankement and a person could not neglect it altogether, and then decently and wholeheartedly beseech God for His graces. Interior mortification, or self-coxitrol, rn'astery of~one's emotions, is even more ~learly and closely 103 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for. Religiot2s connected with prayer and imperatively demanded by it. Mental prayer is" almost synonymous with cultivating a good moral disposition, and this in .turn is almost synony-mous with holding one's inferior ificlinations in check. -Nobody who complains of too much difficulty or of failure in meditation need fe~l discouraged until he has given mor-tification, one of the standard means, a fair trial. Pro-ficiency in mental prayer is not one of thOse good things. that one can get for nothing. 4. Distractiot~S are a teasing and perennial prbblem-. We can hardly hope for a complete victory over them. But even when involuntary and inculpable they involve a real loss of precious,graces, and. to reduce this it is all the more necessary to make our conquest of them as nearly complete as possible.1 How close to perfect victory it c~in come is shown b'y the records of ~ome of the saints, notably of St. Aloysius. There is no simple remed~ for distractions. ~Tbe saints seem to have combated thein with a multiplicity _ o~:weapons. Each one must find out for himself what com-bination of means is most effective foi him. A little knowledge of t~he psychology of a~ttention will make one's effort more ,intelligent. We may distinguish three stages in the development of attention. In the first it is instinctive or exploratory and depends upon native or acquired interests. With this, for instance, a teacher of small children mus~.begin. Then for a time attention.may be forced; tb~at is, it m, ay need to be supported'by extraneous motives. The. old-fashioned teacher's hickory, stick may exemplify thi~ phase, or a college student toiling for credits. 1The statement in the text to the effect that even involuntary distractions involve a loss of precious graces may sound startling to some. However, it should be kept in mind that strictly mental prayer is incompatible with distractions, whether volun-tary or involuntary. A distraction really brings mental prayer to a dead stop; and thus the fruits that belqng precisely to the mental prdyer itself are lost. It is true, 0f course, that the effort made to avoid distractions is highly pleasing to God: and it may well be that God rewards this effort with graces that equal or even sutpass the fruits that would be obtained from a prayer made without distractions. ED. 104 March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDITATION--II Finally, wheri the matter is fit to excite and' hol._d interest and one has,got sufficiehtly far into-it to see and feel that fact, attention becomes spontaneous. This of-cot~rse is the Kind that is desirable .and to be aimed at. Determinants .o~ attention, as enumerated by psy-chologis, ts, may be either external (objective) or internal (subjective). In the case of meditation the.external factors are likely to be sources of, trouble. Change attracts notice; witness lights that flicker on and off. Loud noises and bright colors are more apt to get attention. The larger,a ~hingis, the more probably, other.things being equal,, it will be remarked. .R_epetition makes for attention in many cases; thinl~ of certain advertisements or slogans. Nov~etty of any kind or unusualness is one of the .very best stimu-- Iantsof attention. Position may give an object a b~tter chance for notice, for instance, if it is nearer the observer or in the center, say, of a picture or display. Lastly, and mostly, significance br meaningfulness is a. potent .cause of attention; for a soldiel on guard in the combat zone the slightest noise or movement may be mo~t important and get his ,rapt consideration. These external stlmull,-are in general .just what one who is trying to pray without dis-tractions must as far as possible avoid. ., Tl~e internal, subjective factors are much more rele-vant to our l~urpose. It is easy and natural for us to aitend to whatever is in accord with our fundamental instinctive inclinations; an example would be anything that touches our pride or inherent tendency to pleasure. The same is true of the leading emotional "tendencies that we have admit'ted into our lives or deliberately built up therein. A strong and long fostered zeal for the foreignmissions would make one attentive~to anything that concerns th, em. Our moods have a similar effect. When we are glad we are inclined to notice what makes us more glad and w.hen we !05 G. AUGUSTINE ELEARD ~ Retffeu).for Religious are- d~pfessed we-are only too ~apt to concentrate on any-- thing that fits in Wi~h our melancholy humor. Habitual attitudes are another determinant. "A kindly ~lispo~ed per--. son will attend to. th~ better-things in others, a'rfd a con-firmed fault-finder will rather see~ their weaknesses. Edu-cation and training prepare us to attend to special fields.: Think of the differences in this respect between, say. teaching nuns, hospital workers, and'_cloistered contempl.a-tires. Of all these interior conditions pertinent to atten-. tion.and it~ opposite, distraction, perhaps ~he most i.mp~)r-. rant for those who are cultivating mental prayer is one's °purpgse, whether it. be passing' or permanent. Ifi for e~ample, a man's aim be to make a particular sale or to amass millions of. dollars before he dies, it will .be natural for him to .give his attention tO Whatever seems to conduc~ to that.purpose or to interfere with iL One wh~ is seeking fame and. honor is~ sensitive to_. all that pertains to if'and indiffereni: to other~ things. A saint is alert and resporisive to whatever'makes for progress in the love. and service of God,', an~ apostle_to anything that appears to promise help ifi sanctifying souls. Henc~ the, supreme importance and necessity of knowing, with the, ~utmost clarity, w15at ,we should want, of appreciating its value ~.fully, and then of really ~and earnestly. ~anting it. ~Naturally enough we attend to what we really want. ~ In r.addition to ,knowing and respecting the psycho-logical law~ that govern attention and: diversibn of it, one's. effort to ~ivoid distractions might well include o'the~ "fol-lowing: to acknowledge, with the proper, sense of humili-ation, that the force of distractions is greater for one,than the .attrac,tion~of God or of union with Him; to feel and appreciate as realistically as possible wha~ great.priv~ation~a in the spiritual order distractions cause for us, foroGod, and for souls: to understand that abi!ity to concentrate is One 106 March, 1947 DIFFICULTIES IN MEDI~FATION--II" 6f the most elementary desirable t?aits ii'n a p,ersonality, and that~ it is moie or less necessary for any kind of success. (nobody would expect much from a scatterbrained crea, tute.); and, ~finally, when distrac'tions do Occur and are noti.ced, to turn them to good account by a-vigorous recall of attention~ by hu,mbling oneself, by deploring the losses suffered, by talking the matter over with Gqd from differ, ent~ points of view, andby begging grace to profit even f, ro~ bne's weakneises. 5. An aid:to progress-in meditation that is especia11~ in place for American religious and priests of the twentieth century is rnoderatibnin external activities. For some~there always was the danger of.neglecting one's own interior 'life and giving oneself e~cessively to works of zeal for others, Various r~asons now seem to make this danger greater than ever before, In any man, thought.should, hold h certain primacy overaction, and above all in one who profes, ses to specialize, in the spiritual life. Overabsorption in wprk, even if it be the best possible kind of work, leaves one too tired physically for mental prayer, unbalances one's intdr- f._ :. ests and preoc~cupations, and, perhaps worst bf all, involves a certain necessity of being more or less distracted while attempting to deal with God and one's own soul. ~ 6. One of the. best means to progress iri Virtue and in prayer-is what ~e may call the general discipline of one's imagination., and emotions. It is about .the same as interior mortification or, what is more pertinent now, recollection. It is both an effect of prayer and a condition of success in subsequent prayer. If a man leave his imagination and emotions free to drift fo_r'themselves, at the very leasth~ will squander much of his energy and time, accomplish l~ss for himself and for souls, give God so much less glory, and be less happy in heaven for eternity. But it is hardly pos-sible that such a man's losses should he"merely negative. :107 G. A~GUSTINE ELLARD ~ Re~iew for Religiot~s Sooner or later he will also com~it more s~in andothus incur positive penalties. So much for the effect upon his moral ,status in general. As for prayer, he will come to it less well prepared, with less taste for it, ,with greater tendencies to all that is contrary to it, and naturally therefore with less facility in it. ~ Provin~ ~he good will protested to God in this morning's meditation will keep one better recollected during the day, better disposed in every way to avoid, evil and do good,~and betterfitted to deepen that good will in tomorrow morning's prayer. 7. Bodily posture ,is a factor of success or failt~re in prayer. Those who are free should find out by experiment what position helps them most at the time of meditation. It could.hardly be the one whichis also the most conducive to sleep. In any case it must be reverent. 'At °different times or in different states of mind or of nerves, various positions may be best. During an hour both kneeling and standing might be used., Gentle walking back and forth in some suitabl~ place is a distinct aid to some people. "One possible advantage about it is that it helps to keep away drowsiness. 8. If the aim be prayer, rather than something else, there dhould-be intelligent choice or: subject matter. The needs, capacities, graces, and so on, of all the individual members in a community are not just the same; still less are t,hey the same on, say, the fifteenth of March every year for a lifetime. Therefore, from the pqint of view of prayer it is not desirable, generally speaking, that points be read to a whole community, especially from the same book, year after year. Here again th~ guiding principle should be, "Know your objectiye and select the most suitable means!" Often-times, for instance, subjects taken for meditati6nshould be such as will reinforce one's efforts in the particular examen. T6 those whb are in earnest the Holy- Spirit may suggest at, the oddest moments lights that would make excellent 108 Ma~cb, 19,17 ~ COMMUNIGATIONS starting points for meditation. 9. Finally, it would.be a distinct aid to proficiency, in mental prayer to read, say. every fe.w years, one after another of the great classical works on prayer. As weil known and fairly recent works dn prayer one might men-tion ~the following :-R. De Maumigny, S.3., The Practic~ of Mental Pra~/er (two volumes, one on ordinary, the Other 6n extraordinary, prayer; 1905) ; Vital Lehbdey, O.Cist., .W a s of Mental Pra~]e~" (1908): E. Leen, C.S.Sp., ~ress Through' Mental ~Prayer,~ (!935); R. Garrigou- " Lagrange, O.P., .C~hristian Contemplation and Perfection "-" ,(!923), or bett~er xlow:~ The. Three Age£ of the lntertor Life (two volume.s;' 1938) ~, " ~. _ ' To conclude our~.whole study, it seems,upon analysis of the facts .and-comparison with other pertinent activities that the great difficulty in meditation is neither more nor less than lach of interest, "Whence the solution suggests itself: Read, reflect, andpray over these three questions: W/~ should I be interested? Wha¢ difference does it make? What can Ido to become interested? ~ ° ~ Reverend Fathers5 ¢ In my opinion, much of the prevailing difficulty that exists for religious in the exercise .of mental prayer is owing to the fact that so -little is known by religious of a'nything beyond the discursive method of prayer (cofisiderations, affections, resolutions). Many guides of souls (particularly in novitiates and houses of formation) la~y little or no stresson the continuity that exists between the ascetical and the mystical life, between the discursive meditation of the beginner and trheseu vlta mrioanuys ~s traegliegsi ooufs a, cwqhueirne din c tohnetierm sppilraittiuoanl odfe vthyel gpprmofeicnite"n tth: eAys't iaave 109 ÷ COMMUNICA~fIONS Review "out~rown" d~scurs~ve medhafion~and~ ~thet¢~ is .reasontto~el~e aft r a weII-~mded nowtmte~, many~reh~xous are alread~ .~r~pe~ for a~ect~ve prayer) are left to sh~tt, tot themselves. ~ed~tat~on ~tscu~s~ve variety) -becomes ~cult,. eveK ~mposmble"~ ~ut thert ~s no gulaance~as to~w~ere to'go next.~ e ~'~ %~ ~ ¯ ~ - ~Perso~hlly ~ h feeb that at: .the~ very startsof, religi6Us'dife ~every ~ovi~e at mental~ pra~er ought ~to:b~, made acquainted ~ith t~e short ~t£eatise of~ Bossuet entitled "A Short,and Easy Me~hbd¢of~Making the~Prayer oLFaitb~and of. the Sim~le Presence of God." An Eng-lish vermon ot t~s will be round ~n t~e~ ~ppenfl~x o~rogress ~fo~ef~ a'~transiat~on +or t~e lnstr~ct[ons~splflt~e~les or ~ere ~aus-s~ de,'STd.~ (pu~i~sh~d by H~rder, 190~). . ~Ee methoffrecommen~ed~ , ~by. Bossuef will" be of hel~ to'every &age.df'spiri~ual' developmen~/, bu~ ~speci~Ily to~the ~eligi~us wh6 has ~be~un ~o-find~ djsquCsiye meditation di~cult or impossible. "I might also,recommend P~re Caussade~s ~work Abandonment to Divine~Provfaenqe, with the many practical h~nts on prayer;~n'~m~letters of dxrect~on to S~sters. .~Rega~di~g.~di~c~ti~s in.m~nt~l ptayer:~ABBot'J~hn chapman givts~a~simple~rule: .~'Pray as you can~ and d6 not try to, pray,as y6u can't.;' ~vtry to~keep~,to.~d~scurmye.+med~tat~on whenz~that longer su{ts one's needs is harmful to spiritual growth. ~ But at same ttme ~bbot ~napman tnststs t~at prayer, tn the sense ~t umon w~th God, ts the most crucifying thing there is.+ One must do tt God's-+ake:+but one will not get+any s~tisfacmt'~on+ out ~f+'it+, :ih' the sense of feeling 'I am good at prayer,' 'I have an infallible method." That would be disast+ous, sine+ what we want to lear+ is precisely ou~own weakness, powerlessness, unworthiness . And one should wish for no prayer, eg~ept pr~isely the prayer that God gi~e+ probably+very di+trac+ed-and ~unsatisfactory in every wayt" (The Spiritual Letters of+"Dom John Chapman, Sheed ~ ~ard, N. Y., 1935 unfortunately out of print.) Finally,, I,should~like t6 ,list a few books that I 'have found very helpful,_in :unraVeling my own di~culties in prayer: Mental according to the teaching of~Saiht ~h~mas Aquinas, by Rev. +Denis Fahey,,~.s.sp. (D~blih: Gill ~ ~Sbn, 1927),: Tbe Practice oUtbe Presence~ o£G0d ~(the spiritual teachings of ,Brother ~awrence of:~the Resurrection), (Newman Bookshop, Wt~tminster, Md., 1945); Cbristiaff, Perfection -and,; Contemplation,,,~,:by Garrigou-k~grange (H~rder;.1;9.37)'~. ~Add to:these., of, sourse, ~the. wor~ by t Caussade and~Ch~pman mehti~ne~ab6ve. . +~ +. q~l 0 Maixb,:l 9 4 7" COMMUNICATIONS ~ 'Before ~losin-g I should like' to comment .on one: remark of Abl~ot Chapman ,quoted. above: "One ih0uld~ wish"for" no prayer;.exc~pt precisely theprayer that God gives"us. ':." Prfiyer is precisely,that-L-a gift of G6d: the effect'of His grace in our s6uls.,. Perhaps if is, f6r-getfulness of thi~ point°ithat occa.~ions so much preoccupation .with following partidular mefhods, in prayer: ,.Tbe,:perfectidn of otir spiritual "life :(hence 6f out'prayer, life) cbnsists in ufiion ,with' God; a'~d ,the greater the. simplicity in our prayer, th[~ more perfect ,'~our union".'. "Any way~ that:we have of praying that succeeds in ,bringing usdoser to God is a~'good way for us individtially---, it is 'disasirou~ to "regulate" inethods of
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This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Lao PDR. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).
