Biogas production from anaerobic digestion of organic resources can potentially contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in several sectors and can play a central role in both the bioeconomy and the circular economy. Several European countries have political goals to increase biogas production and to increase the amount of manure to anaerobic digestion. The treatment method is, however, known to be costly and the markets for biogas and for digestate are immature. There is a need for a better understanding of how the biogas value chains should be designed to minimise environmental impacts while at the same time achieving profitability for the actors. In Norway the most common substrates for biogas production are sewage sludge and organic waste from households and industry. Manure is identified as the substrate with the greatest theoretical biogas potential, but there are currently few plants utilising manure. Until recently, biogas in Norway has mainly been applied to generate heat, where a large share has been utilised internally at the plant or in surrounding buildings. In the last few years, however, several new and existing plants have invested in upgrading equipment to produce biomethane for use as a fuel in the transport sector. The most common treatment of the digestate, which is a co-product from anaerobic digestion, is to dewater it and use the dry fraction as a soil improvement product, while the wet fraction is sent to waste water treatment. A few new plants do, however, deliver liquid digestate to agriculture as a biofertiliser. The objective of this thesis has been to make a contribution towards knowledge regarding ways of optimising Norwegian biogas value chains to reduce environmental impacts, by developing models that can provide decision support. The aim is to suggest improvements to the regulatory systems and the preconditions for further development of the biogas industry in Norway. Systems theory and system analysis methodology was applied, and three different domains were assessed: environmental impacts, economy of the actors in the value chain and policies. The case studies were limited to the substrates organic waste from households (food waste) and manure from cattle and pigs. In the economic assessment, only the annual results for the biogas plants and cattle and pig farms were calculated. Four scientific papers were developed as part of this PhD thesis. In the first paper, life cycle assessment methodology and generic results were presented for the BioValueChain model. The model was developed to be able to evaluate the environmental impacts of different options for biogas value chains. In the second paper, environmental assessment was combined with economic assessment of large scale biogas plants for four different value chain configurations. In addition, the most profitable option was used as a reference to calculate the incentives necessary to make the most preferable option in terms of reduction of environmental impacts as profitable as the reference. A comparative assessment of biogas value chains in Norway and Denmark was carried out in Paper 3. Denmark has implemented an end-use support of biogas through a feed-in tariff, while Norway provides investment support and support for farmers per tonne manure delivered to a biogas plant. The objective was to evaluate the effect of different regulatory systems. This was achieved by defining a Norwegian and a Danish biogas value chain, and calculating the costs and income. In addition, the economic results were calculated for the Norwegian value chain when assuming Danish conditions, and vice versa. In paper 4 the methodology of an optimisation model for the use of manure resources for anaerobic digestion in one region was described, and the model was employed to perform a case study on 50 farms in one region in Norway. The model calculated the economic profit for farmers and the greenhouse gas emissions for three options: no biogas production, farm scale biogas production and centralised biogas production. The results in this PhD work showed that the amount of organic waste and manure used for anaerobic digestion should be increased to reduce environmental impacts. The most preferable option for the use of biogas is as a fuel for transport to substitute diesel, and the best use of the digestate is as a fertiliser in agriculture as a substitute for mineral fertiliser, which requires a high level of sector integration in the value chain. To obtain a maximal reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, efforts should be made to avoiding diffuse emissions and reducing emissions from the storage of digestate. The economic calculations showed that large-scale biogas plants in general lack economic incentives to include the agricultural sector in the value chain. Inclusion of the transport sector is the most profitable option for use of biogas only for the largest scale biogas plants and for those who are able to sell biomethane for a high price. The most profitable option regarding the management of manure for cattle and pig farms was the supply of manure to a centralised biogas plant and the return of the digestate as biofertiliser. This was, however, dependent on the agreement between the farm and the biogas plant. As a result of the newly introduced support per tonne manure sent to biogas production, investment in a small scale biogas plant can also be profitable for most cattle and pig farms, all though the majority of farms in Norway would struggle to find a good use for the biogas on the farm. This indicates that the current barriers to increased use of manure resources for biogas production are not principally economic. The current support system has contributed to an increase in biogas production. Based on the assessments performed as part of this thesis, however, some recommendations were made to improve the framework conditions of an optimised biogas production in Norway, to reduce environmental impacts and achieve the political objectives. While the exemption from CO2 tax and road fee has contributed to an increased use of biogas in the transport sector, an increase in the taxes for fossil fuels could contribute to making upgrading of the gas the most profitable option for most large-scale biogas plants. Raising the importance of the environmental aspects in public procurements would enhance the role of biogas in achieving the political objectives of obtaining fossil free public transport and in the reduction of environmental impacts from waste treatment. In addition, it is important to consider measures that motivate large scale plants to use manure as a substrate and deliver digestate to agriculture. An increase in the knowledge regarding the economy of farm scale biogas production in a Norwegian context would make the results from the economic assessment more robust and reduce the risk for farmers in making the investment. These include knowledge with regard to the start-up and operation of small scale plants to avoid unforeseen costs. Political instruments that encourage the development of technology for cheaper small scale upgrading solutions could further reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, as would the use of raw biogas in tractors and other agricultural equipment currently using fossil fuels. In some regions, this could also be achieved by implementing regional development plans for farm scale production with piping infrastructure and centralised upgrading. These measures could promote an increase in the amount of manure for biogas production The work carried out as part of this thesis has shown that models combining environmental life cycle assessment and economic cost assessments can serve as decision support and can make a valuable contribution to policy development. The results are, however, highly dependent on the quality of the data used and the level of detail in the models. In order to increase the robustness of the results, there is a need for more research into the quantification of emissions from the storage and spreading of digestate, and ways in which they can be reduced. In addition, there is a need for a greater understanding of the properties of digestate as a fertiliser, such as the fertilising effect, carbon storage and other contributions to soil quality. More research should also be carried out on the emissions from dewatering and composting of digestate, and its use as a substitute for peat. Furthermore, the cost assessments could be expanded to also to include the economy of the actors in the transport sector and the farmers receiving digestate. ; Biogassproduksjon fra anaerob utråtning av organiske ressurser kan potensielt bidra til reduksjon av klimagasser i flere sektorer og kan spille en viktig rolle i både bioøkonomien og sirkulærøkonomien. Flere europeiske land har politiske målsetninger om å øke biogassproduksjon og øke mengden gjødsel til anaerob behandling. Behandlingsmetoden er derimot kjent for å være kostbar, og markedene for biogass og biorest er umodne. Det er behov for en bedre forståelse av hvordan verdikjedene bør utformes for å minimere miljøbelastningene samtidig som man oppnår lønnsomhet for aktørene. I Norge er de vanligste substratene for biogassproduksjon kloakkslam og organisk avfall fra husholdninger og industri. Gjødsel er identifisert som substratet med det høyeste teoretiske biogasspotensialet, men det er foreløpig få biogassanlegg som bruker gjødsel som råvare. Inntil nylig har biogass i hovedsak blitt brukt til å generere varme, hvor en stor andel har blitt brukt internt i anleggene eller til å varme opp bygninger i nærheten. I løpet av de siste årene har derimot flere nye og eksisterende anlegg investert i oppgradering og produserer biometan til bruk i transportsektoren. Den vanligste behandlingen av bioresten, som er et biprodukt fra den anaerobe behandlingen, er å avvanne den og bruke den tørre fraksjonen som et jordforbedringsprodukt og sende vannfasen til renseanlegg. Noen få nye anlegg leverer derimot den flytende biorest til lanbruket som biogjødsel. Hensikten med denne avhandlingen har vært å bidra til økt kunnskap om hvordan norske biogass verdikjeder bør optimaliseres for å redusere miljøbelastninger ved å utvikle modeller som kan gi beslutningsstøtte. Målet er å foreslå forbedringer av virkemiddelapparatet og forutsetningene for videre utvikling av biogassindustrien i Norge. Systemteori og systemanalyse-metodikk ble brukt, og tre ulike aspekter ble analysert: miljøpåvirkninger, økonomien til aktører i verdikjeden og politikk. Casestudiene er begrenset til substratene organisk avfall fra husholdninger (matavfall) og gjødsel fra storfe og gris. I økonomianalysene ble kun det årlige resultatet til biogassanlegg og storfe- og grisegårder analysert. Fire vitenskapelige artikler ble utviklet som en del av avhandlingen. I den første artikkelen ble livsløpssmetodikk og generelle resultater for BioValueChain-modellen presentert. Modellen ble utviklet for å muliggjøre evaluering av miljøpåvirkninger fra ulike alternativer for biogass verdikjeder. I den andre artikkelen ble miljøanalyser kombinert med økonomiberegninger for storskala biogassanlegg for fire ulike verdikjede-konfigurasjoner. I tillegg ble det mest lønnsomme alternativet brukt som referanse til å beregne hvilke insentiver som er nødvendig for at den mest gunstige løsningen med tanke på reduksjon miljøbelastninger, blir like lønnsom som referansen. En komparativ analyse av biogass verdikjeder i Norge og Danmark ble gjennomført i Paper 3. Danmark har implementert støtteordninger for sluttbruk av biogass gjennom en feed-in tariff, mens Norge tilbyr investeringsstøtte og støtte til gårder per tonn gjødsel levert til biogassanlegg. Hensikten var å undersøke effekten av ulike virkemiddelsystemer. Dette ble utført ved å definere en norsk og en dansk biogass verdikjede og beregne kostnadene og inntektene. I tillegg ble de økonomiske resultatene beregnet for den norske verdikjeden under danske forutsetninger, og vice versa. I Paper 4 ble metodikken til en optimaliseringsmodell for bruk av gjødselressurser i en region til biogassproduksjon beskrevet, og modellen ble brukt til å gjennomføre en casestudie på 50 gårder i en region i Norge. Modellen beregnet årlig økonomisk resultat for gårdene i regionen og utslipp av klimagasser for tre alternativer: ingen biogassproduksjon, biogassproduksjon på gårdsanlegg og sentralisert biogassproduksjon. Resultatene i PhD-arbeidet har vist at organisk avfall og gjødsel i større grad bør benyttes til biogassproduksjon for å redusere miljøbelastninger. Den beste løsningen for bruk av biogassen er som drivstoff slik at biogassen kan erstatter diesel, og den beste løsningen for bruk av biorest er som biogjødsel i landbruket til å erstatte mineralgjødsel, noe som krever et høyt nivå av sektorintegrering i verdikjeden. For å oppnå maksimal reduksjon av klimagassutslipp, bør det fokuseres på å redusere diffuse utslipp og å redusere utslipp fra lagring av biorest. Økonomiberegningene vise at storskala biogassanlegg mangler generelt økonomiske insentiver for å inkludere landbrukssektoren i verdikjeden. Inkludering av transportsektoren er kun det mest lønnsomme alternativet for anlegg over en viss skala eller for anlegg som får en høy pris for den oppgraderte gassen. For storfe og grisegårder er det mest lønnsomme alternativet med tanke på gjødselhåndtering å levere gjødsel til et sentralt biogassanlegg, og å få bioresten i retur. Denne konklusjonen er svært avhengig av avtalen mellom gården og biogassanlegget. Takket være den nylig introduserte støtten per tonn gjødsel til biogassanlegg, kan investering i et gårdsanlegg også gi økonomisk overskudd for bonden, til tross for vanskeligheter med å finne et godt bruksområde for gassen. Dette gir en indikasjon på at barrierene for å øke mengden gjødsel til biogassproduksjon på det nåværende tidspunkt ikke i hovedsak er økonomiske. Det eksisterende virkemiddelapparatet har bidratt til en økning i biogassproduksjonen. Basert på analysene som er utført i denne avhandlingen kan det likevel gis noen anbefalinger til forbedringer i rammevilkårene for en optimalisert biogassproduksjon i Norge, for å redusere miljøpåvirkningene og for å oppnå de politiske målsetningene. Unntak fra CO2-avgift og veiavgift har sannsynligvis bidratt til en økning i bruk av biogass i transportsektoren. En ytterligere økning i avgiftene for fossile drivstoff vil sannsynligvis medføre at oppgradering blir den mest lønnsomme løsningen for de fleste storskala biogassanlegg. Et økt fokus på viktigheten av miljøaspekter ved offentlige innkjøp kan bidra til å oppnå de politiske målsetningene for fossilfri kollektivtransport og reduksjoner av miljøbelastninger fra avfallshåndtering. I tillegg er det viktig å vurdere virkemidler som kan motivere storskalaanlegg til å bruke gjødsel som substrat og levere biorest til landbruket. En økt forståelse for økonomien til gårdsanlegg under norske forhold vil gjøre resultatene fra de økonomiske beregningene mer robuste og redusere risikoen for bønder som ønsker å investere. Dette inkluderer kunnskap om oppstart og drift av småskalaanlegg for å unngå uforutsette utgifter. Politiske virkemidler som legger til rette for utvikling av teknologi for billigere småskala-oppgradering kan redusere klimagassutslippene ytterligere. Det samme kan bruk av rågass i traktorer og annet landbruksutstyr, som på det nåværende tidspunkt bruker fossilt drivstoff. I noen regioner kan det være aktuelt å lage en regional plan for biogassproduksjon med rørnett og sentralisert oppgradering. Disse tiltakene vil kunne bidra til å øke mengden gjødsel til biogassproduksjon. Arbeidet som er gjennomført i forbindelse med denne avhandlingen har vist at modeller som kombinerer livsløpsanalyser og økonomiberegninger kan bidra med beslutningsstøtte og kan gi verdifulle innspill til politikkutforming. Det er likevel viktig å være oppmerksom på at resultatene er svært avhengig av kvaliteten på datagrunnlaget og detaljnivået til modellene. For å øke robustheten til resultatene er det behov for mer forskning på kvantifisering av utslipp fra lagring og spredning av biorest, og reduksjon av disse utslippene. Det er i tillegg behov for en bedre forståelse av egenskapene til biorest som et gjødselprodukt, slik som gjødseleffekt og karbonlagringseffekt og andre bidrag til jordkvalitet. Det er også behov for mer kunnskap om utslipp fra avvanning og kompostering av biorest og på erstatning av torv. Videre kan kostnadsberegningene med fordel utvides til å inkludere aktørene i transportsektoren og gårder som mottar biorest. ; publishedVersion
Hushållens bidrag av tvättvatten från textiltvätt till de kommunala avloppsreningsverken uppskattas till ca 2% av det totala volymflödet. Registerdata över kemikalier som används vid tillverkning av textilier/kläder samt analyser av tvättvatten visar att textilfibrer, mikroplastfibrer och många miljöstörande ämnen når våra reningsverk via textiltvätt. Dessa fibrer och kemiska ämnen kan bidra till förorening av avloppsreningsslam som används för gödsling av åkermark eller av vattenmiljö nedströms reningsverken. Ett av Sveriges miljömål är En Giftfri Miljö och dess delmål innefattar bl.a. information om farliga ämnen i varor (Ds 2012:23). Textilier är en av de varugrupper som Miljömålberedningen föreslagit (SOU 2012:38) bli föremål för ett regeringsuppdrag avseende innehåll av farliga ämnen och riskbegränsande åtgärder samt frivillig miljömärkning. I det svenska miljömålsystemet ingår också generationsmål om att materialkretsloppen skall vara så fria från farliga ämnen som möjligt och att våra konsumtionsmönster av varor ska ge så små hälso- och miljöproblem som möjligt även i varornas tillverkningsländer utanför Sverige. Generationsmålet innebär att svensk politik behöver ta hänsyn till den miljö- och hälsopåverkan som svensk konsumtion orsakar i andra länder. EU:s ramdirektiv för avfall (2008/96/EG) har vidare slagit fast en avfallshierarki som sätter återanvändning av uttjänta varor, t. ex. kläder, före materialåtervinning av avfall. Syfte Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka i vilken utsträckning som vattentvätt av fem klädtyper (t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, bomullsjeans, arbetsbyxor, fleecetröjor samt allvädersjackor) bidrar till förekomsten av miljögifter i slam samt i utgående vatten från representativt utvalda svenska reningsverk. Utförande Kläder av fem olika klädtyper, enligt specifikation från naturvårdsverket (baserat på en tidigare studie av Swerea) köptes in från affärer i Umeå under januari 2014. Det var 8 st t-tröjor av bomull med plasttryck, 3 st bomullsjeans, 2 st arbetsbyxor, 8 st fleecetröjor samt 3 st allvädersjackor. Kläderna tvättades i en vanlig tvättmaskin 2 gånger efter varandra utan att torka mellan och allt tvättvatten samlades upp. Delprov av tvättvattnet togs ut och analyserades för 126 utvalda ämnena på tre olika laboratorier (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). Ämnena var processkemikalier såsom pentaklorfenol, och triklosan, funktionskemikalier såsom ftalater och organofosfater samt oönskade kemikalier såsom dioxiner, klorfenoler och klorbensener. 2 Resultat Studien visar på att det mängdmässigt främst är funktionskemikalier som släpper från kläderna vid tvätt. Det här var väntat då dessa kemikalier är avsiktligt och oftast inte kemiskt bundet till tyget. Processkemikalier avges i mindre mängd och oönskade kemikalier såsom till exempel klorerade fenoler och bensener hittades i väldigt små mängder i tvättvattnet oavsett vilken typ av klädesplagg som tvättats. Vare sig processkemikalierna eller de oönskade kemikalierna borde finnas i plaggen och därför var det väntat att dessa kemikalier inte skulle hittas i samma utsträckning som funktionskemikalierna. Om man ser till detektionsfrekvensen, d.v.s. hur ofta de ämnen som ingår i en ämnesklass påträffas, blir bilden delvis en annan. Mer än 75% av de funktionskemikalier (38 av 50), ca 50% av funktionskemikalierna (26 av 49) och ca. 30% av processkemikalierna (8 av 27) detekterades i tvättvattenproverna. T-tröjor och skaljackorna var de klädtyper som avgav störst mängd kemikalier per kg 47 mg/kg (0.005% w/w) för t-tröjor följt av 23 mg/kg (0.002% w/w) för skaljackor. Jeans, arbetsbyxor och fleecetröjor släppte mycket mindre mängd kemikalier 0.001, 0.001 and 0.0005% vid tvätt till tvättvattnet. De fem klädtyperna släppte alla bisfenol AF, organofosfater, ftalater, formaldehyd, bromerade och klorerade fenoler samt klorerade bensener till tvättvattnet vid de två första tvättarna. Några föreningar som inte kunde detekteras i tvättvattnet var 4 stycken siloxaner, 9 stycken olika aniliner och majoriteten av de 17 dioxinerna och furanerna som ingick i studien. T-tröjor släppte mer textilfibrer (0,85 mg/kg) jämfört med de andra klädtyperna. De andra klädtyperna släppte betydlig mindre fibrer vid tvätt: jeans 0,46 mg/kg, skaljackor 0,02 mg/kg, arbetsbyxor 0,07 mg/kg och fleecetröjor 0,1 mg/kg. Diskussion Om man tar hänsyn till den årliga användningsvolymen av de olika klädestyperna avger t-tröjorna den största mängden kemikalier (469 kg funktionella kemikalier, 0,5 kg processkemikalier och 0,07 kg oönskade kemikalier) vid de två första tvättarna av plaggen. Arbetsbyxor var den klädestyp som släppte minst kemikalier (30 kg funktionella kemikalier, 7 kg processkemikalier och 0,9 g oönskade kemikalier). Ftalater och organofosfater frigjordes i stora mängder från kläderna (302 kg och 7,6 kg) och bidrar med 50% respektive 5% vardera till vad som återfinns i utgående vatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken. Klorfenoler och perfluorerade ämnen frigjordes i betydligt mindre mängder (430 g och 300 g) men bidrar i teorin med mer (167% respektive 223%) än vad som återfinns i utgåendevatten och slam från avloppsreningsverken för respektive grupp, vilket är orealistiskt. Brister i dataunderlaget eller degradering av föroreningar i reningsprocessen kan vara möjliga orsaker till överskattningen. Det är dock klart att tvätt av kläder ger ett betydande bidrag till vad som återfinns i reningsverksvatten och slam. 3 Slutsatser Kemikalier som är förbjudna enligt t ex Reach ska naturligtvis inte förekomma i kläder. Trots det så hittas de ändå ibland vid inspektion. Det är ett stort problem eftersom kemikalierna fortfarande kan vara lagliga att använda i visa länder. Exempelvis är det förbjudet att använda arylaminer inom EU, ändå återfinner vi en av dessa 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane i tvättvatten från alla typer av kläder i denna studie. Idag sker produktion av kläder över hela världen och det är svårt att få information om vilka kemikalier som har använts för ett visst plagg. Denna spårbarhet skulle behöva förbättras. I den här studien har vi hittat 72 av 126 föreningar, alla icke-naturliga föreningar, i tvättvattnet. De föreningar som frigjordes i störst mängder till tvättvattnet i den här studien var BPS, ftalater (DBP, BBP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organofosfater (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) och formaldehyd. Med hänsyn taget till nettotillförseln av nya kläder kommer den mängden kemikalier på årlig basis som avges från nya kläder som tvättas de två första gångerna att vara betydande. Även om en del av de föreningar som avges från kläderna kommer att brytas ner under behandlingen av avloppsvattnet i avloppsreningsverken så kommer många av dem att hamna i det utgående vattnet eller i slammet. Dessa kommer hamna i recipienten eller där slam används för att tillföra näringsämnen. Fortsatt arbete För att få en ännu bättre bild av hur mycket kemikalier som frigörs från kläder vid tvätt skulle det vara intressant att studera fler klädtyper. Det skulle också vara av intresse att analysera kläderna i sig för att kunna avgöra hur stor andel av det som finns i kläderna som avges vid tvätt, men också vad som finns kvar i kläderna när de så småningom blir textilavfall. Slutligen skulle det vara intressant att genom så kallad "non-target analysis" av både kläder och tvättvatten få veta vilka andra föreningar som förekommer i både kläder och tvättvatten. Rätt använt skulle "non-target anaysis" kunna fånga upp ett brett spektrum av kemikalier och ge en "totalbild" av substansflödet från textilier, via tvättvatten och reningsverk, till olika recipienter. ; Water from household laundry has been estimated to make up about 2% of the total volume flowing into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Records of the chemicals used in the manufacture of textiles/clothing and analyses of both washed clothes and laundry wastewater indicate that a large number of environmentally harmful substances can potentially reach treatment plants. These substances, including fibers and micro plastics fromlaundry, may contribute to the pollution of sewage sludge used for fertilization of arable land, or pollute the receiving waters downstream of wastewater treatment plants. Textiles are one of the groups of consumer goods that the Environmental Objectives Committee proposed (SOU 2012: 38) be subject to a government mandate regarding the use of hazardous chemicals, environmental risk reduction measures and voluntary eco-labeling. The government has also decided (Ds 2012: 23) on interim measures aimed at removing toxic material from the environment, including providing information on hazardous substances in clothing. The Swedish environmental objectives system also includes the so-called "Generation target", that states that material life cycles should be as free as possible from hazardous substances and that consumption of goods should produce as few health and environmental problems as possible, including in all the countries where they were manufactured. The Generation target means that the Swedish government needs to take into account environmental and health impacts that Swedish consumption may cause in other countries. The EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/96 / EC) defines a waste hierarchy that puts the recycling of old products, such as clothing, before the recycling of waste. This study may inform those working on developing such directives. Aim The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which laundering of five types of clothing (cotton t-shirts, cotton jeans, work trousers, fleece sweaters and weatherproof jackets) contributes to the presence of toxic pollutants in sludge and effluent water from a representative sample of treatment plants. Experimental The choice of clothing was based on the study "Kartläggning av kemikalieanvändning i kläder" (Swerea IVF, Report 09/52) and were purchased in Umeå during January 2014. The different categories of clothing were washed twice in a washing machine, without drying them in between and all wastewater was collected from the washer. Immediately after washing, samples of this water were transferred into 2 L glass containers and were analyzed for 126 compounds by three different laboratories (Miljökemiska Laboratoriet, Umeå Universitet, Svenska Miljöinstitutet (IVL) och Stockholms Universitet (ACES)). 5 Results The results show that the main types of chemicals that were released when the clothing was washed, regardless of the type of clothing, were process and functional chemicals. This was expected since functional chemicals are added to the garment and are usually not chemically bonded to the fabric, whilst the process chemicals should not be present in the final product at all. Chemicals belonging to the group unwanted chemicals were released in very small amounts to the wastewater whatever type of clothing washed. The functional chemicals represented 30 % of the analyzed target compounds but accounted for up to 99% (for t-shirts) of the release when the clothing was washed. The lowest contribution of functional chemicals to the total release of chemicals was from weatherproof jackets. Process chemicals dominated those released from weatherproof jackets (90%) and fleece sweaters (72%); for working pants, the contribution was 41%. The unwanted chemicals were present in much lower amounts in the laundry wastewater than the functional and process chemicals: they represented 1% or less of the chemicals detected. T-shirts is estimated to release the largest amount of chemicals (469 kg functional chemicals, 0.5 kg process chemicals and 0.07 kg unwanted chemicals) based on the yearly net supply and the first two washing cycles. Fleece sweaters released the least amount of chemicals; 1.8 kg functional chemicals, 2.9 kg process chemicals and 3 g unwanted chemicals. Phthalates, DINCH (a phthalate substitute), bisphenols, formaldehyde, and organophosphates were the groups of chemicals estimated to be released in largest amounts from the five types of clothing included in the study, contributing 47%, 25%, 12%, 12%, and 3%, respectively, to the total amount. Based on the yearly net supply of clothing included in this study, the estimated release of textile fibers varies between 100 kg for fleece sweaters up to 8,500 kg for t-shirts. T-shirts released 0.85 mg fibers per kg, jeans released 0.46 mg/kg, weatherproof jackets 0.02 mg/kg, working pants 0.07 mg/kg and fleece sweaters 0.1 mg/kg. Discussion Phthalates and organophosphates were estimated to be released in large amounts (302 kg and 7.6 kg) contribute with 50% and 5% respectively to the amounts found in effluents from wastewater treatment plants. Chlorophenols and perfluorinated compounds were estimated to be released in very low amounts (430 g and 300 g respectively). This is however still more, 167% and 223% respectively, than what is found annually in the effluents and sewage sludge of all Swedish WWTPs. The estimated contribution to sewage sludge for the different compound classes was far higher than the calculated contribution to effluent. The estimation produced a contribution figure of over 100% for some compound groups. Short chain chloroparaffins and chlorophenols were estimated to contribute to the amount found in sewage sludge to such a large degree that it exceeded what is actually found in the sewage sludge. Chlorophenols are distributed between both effluent and sewage sludge, but reference data was only found for sludge, so this could be the reason for the overestimation of the amount that ends up in the sewage sludge. It can also not be excluded that the selection of clothing was not representative of what is on the market. 6 Conclusions Chemicals that are banned according to legislation such as Reach should, in principle, not be present in clothing. Even so, they are sometimes found during inspections of manufacturing facilities and analyses of clothing. This is a large problem since the use of a chemical can be banned in some countries but not in others. Arylamines are, for example, forbidden within the EU, but one of those 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane could still be detected in all types of clothing. Now, the clothing that we wear comes from all over the world, and it is difficult to find information on which chemicals have been used in its production since that can take place in many different countries. This tractability needs to be improved. In this study, we detected 72 out of 126 compounds that are non-naturally occurring compounds, in the laundry wastewater. Among the compound groups that could not be detected were anilines, triclosan, triclocarban, and siloxanes. The compounds released in large amounts into the laundry wastewater in this study were the process chemical bisphenol S (BPS), and the functional chemicals phthalates (DBP, BBP, DINP, DIDP), DINCH, organophosphates (TPP, TCEP, TCPP, TEHP, TBEP) and formaldehyde. Considering the net supply of new clothing to Sweden, the estimated annual contribution of the release of such compounds from new clothing being washed for the first time will be substantial. Even though some of these chemicals will be degraded during the treatment process in the WWTP, many of them will end up in effluent or sewage sludge and, to different degrees, contribute to the compounds that risk ending up in WWTPs or where nutrients are recycled from sewage sludge. Future work To obtain a better picture of the volume of chemicals flowing to the WWTPs and, potentially, the environment, originating from the laundering of clothing, it would be of interest to study the release of chemicals from a broader range of clothing types. It would also be interesting to include analysis of the fabric to see what proportion of chemicals are released during laundry, and what proportion remain and are then potentially released during later washing or enter the textile waste stream. It would also be of great interest to carry out non-target analysis on both the textiles and the wastewater to form an even broader picture of which chemicals are present in the textiles and the wastewater.
From the pages of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte by Marx and understanding the political and social events in France between 1848 and 1852, several interpretations have been made, by Marxist and non-Marxist authors alike, regarding the role played by the lower middle class in moments of crisis. Particularly, after the advent of fascism in 20th century Europe, many voices have risen to signal the XVIII Brumaire as Marx's call of attention on the dangers set by the lower middle class's counterrevolutionary and reactionary spirit. Even more, some think of the XVIII Brumaire, and Marx's take on Bonapartism as the first, and extremely prophetic, definition and description of a modern fascist regime. The purposes of this essay are to: first, define and describe the lower middle class and its social and political consequences according to Marx; and, second, to explore how the lower middle class has been analyzed by a selection of Marxist and non-Marxist authors as a crucial sociological and historical problem. The latter has been taken to the extent of even comparing the political phenomenon of Bonapartism to Fascism and the lower middle class historical relationship in both of them. Bonapartism and Fascism are very distinct types of political regimes, even if they share some similarities. Nevertheless, it would be ahistorical to describe Louis Bonaparte's regime as fascist. Even so, Marx's typically coined reactionary or counter-revolutionary role played by the lower middle class in both cases was similar. (1)Several designations have been used to differentiate the lower middle class from the higher middle class or big bourgeoisie: petite bourgeoisie, Kleinburgertumand, the unpleasant, lumpen-bourgeoisie. It is impossible to assign fixed meanings in distinct times and places to those concepts. What they mean, and enfold, in different historical moments is determined by historically concrete political, social and economic structures and conditions. A social lower middle stratum was economically, but not so much politically, active during the preindustrial era. Its internal structure, predominantly formed by independent peasants, corporate-guild artisans and shopkeepers, and the nature of its relationship to the rest of society was particularly different from the economically, socially and more politically active, lower middle class of primarily dependent clerks, independent peasants, technicians, professionals and small shop owners of capitalist society (2). From Marx to the present there have been few attempts to define the lower middle class because the main issue was not the Kleinburgertum's own historical, social and political particularities; but, the fact that the petite bourgeoisie conformed a "classes class". In Marxist terms, the lower middle class was a class in but not foritself. This meant that the petty bourgeoisie was dependent on its own fate but not on its own existence. The lower middle class was torn, and it still may be today, between two possible outcomes: proletarianization or embourgeoisement (3). In the first one, the petite bourgeoisie is condemned to being proletarianized. In fact, during the early industrialization period of England the small artisans and some specialized technicians were dissolved or forced into the industrial working class (4). In the second scenario, they would integrate with the big bourgeoisie finally accomplishing a long social aspiration. It would, certainly, diminish the fears and concerns of being proletarianized and, lastly and possibly, would allow clerks and professionals to be the frontrunners of a classless postindustrial society (5). Accordingly, as Marx said in the XVIII Brumaire, the lower middle class should be viewed as a transitional class whose members would finally end up being part of the proletarians or the bourgeoisie. Nevertheless, the lower middle class has had a pivotal role in certain historically crucial events: revolutions and counterrevolutions. Marx attributed no apparent class-consciousness to the petite bourgeoisie, except in times of severe crisis. The lower middle class, following Marx, lacked its own class-consciousness because it was afraid to become proletarian and aspired to attain the bourgeoisie's style of living and class standing in society even though it also despised the big bourgeoisie's productive means and way of life. Marx, in a prophetic Freudian style analysis, would ascribe this apparent contradiction to the lower middle class own self-hate. Nevertheless, lacking its own class-consciousness did not mean that the petite bourgeoisie was not capable of generating its own separate culture, life-style and Weltanschauung. The problem was that it engendered its own ethos in direct opposition to the proletarian and bourgeoisie ones; affecting, then, its own cultural authenticity. All this said, the lower middle class may not have been self-conscious but it certainly was self-aware. It had distinctive class awareness (6). The interest of Karl Marx in the lower middle class was provoked by the role the author gave to it during the events that unfolded in France between February 1848 and December 1852, particularly the role played by the petite bourgeoisie in the ascendance to power of Louis Bonaparte in the coup d'état of December 1852. First of all, it is imperative to define how Marx understood the social composition of the lower middle class in mid-nineteen century France. Small independent peasants, clerks and small artisans and shopkeepers were Marx's main petty bourgeoisie members. All of them were part of this classless class because they lacked the property of the main means of capitalist production, that in mid-nineteen century France Marx attributed to the industrial, large-retail and financial sectors; and, because they were not even proletarians either because they were small owners (particularly small peasants and shopkeepers) or because their work did not constitute an intensive manual waged labor (artisans and specially State's clerks). Marx did not see in them any economic conditions of existence, under which they lived, that could separate their mode of life, their interests and their culture from those of other classes. Given this situation, the small peasants, clerks and shopkeepers were not in any hostile opposition (as a clearly defined class with its own interests, culture and mode of life) to the bourgeoisie or the proletariat. Marx did not witness any sense of class-consciousness in them. He only viewed a local interconnection among small peasants, shopkeepers and clerks; but there was no sense of identification of interests between all of them that could beget unity and political organization. But even if they did not conform a class on itself, they were aware of their own uncertain socio-economic circumstances: at any given moment the big bourgeoisie, either by the action of retail competition or that of bank executions of failed mortgage payments, could toss them into the proletarian class. This socio-economic fear of becoming part of a propertyless class put them in direct opposition with the working class and drove them into the arms of the big bourgeoisie in moments of severe political crisis. Only here did Marx perceive the existence of class-consciousness in the petty bourgeoisie. In the XVIII Brumaire Marx distinguishes three moments where the lower middle class acted as a class in itself: in the February Revolution of 1848 when they rebelled, alongside sectors of the big bourgeoisie and the proletarians, against the Orleanist monarchy; in June 1848 when they actively collaborated with the big bourgeoisie in crushing the proletarian rebellion; and finally, in December 1852 when they endorsed Louis Bonaparte's coup d'état against the bourgeoisie republic. In the first episode, Marx observes a revolutionary role embedded in the lower middle class. He recognizes a class-consciousness in them; a strive to enact political and social change in the wellbeing of their own interests. In June 1848, Marx assigns them a counter-revolutionary role. They react out of fear and misguided by the bourgeoisie. They are afraid that a proletarian revolution would forever kill their socio-economic aspiration to become part of the bourgeoisie. According to Marx they are right to be fearful. A proletarian revolution would lead to a dictatorship of the proletariat and to the end of all classes. Alas, their desire of a bourgeoisie life-style as a "heaven on earth" would be tromped. A classless society would take away from them what distinguished them from the proletariat and what would, eventually, provided them upwards-social mobility: small private property and better paid and socially-respected professional labor. It has to be added that Marx also makes the bourgeoisie responsible for the lower middle class actions in the June rebellion. The former convinced the latter not to support and even to fight the proletarians by guaranteeing them access to better social standing, better financial and trade benefits and inclusion into the higher middle class. These were all false promises, which lack of satisfaction led to the events of December 1852. The lower middle class, betrayed by the bourgeoisie and immersed in deeply economic despair (which they made the big bourgeoisie responsible for) decided to fully endorse Louis Bonaparte's coup d'état. Again, and maybe more than ever if Marx's argument is to be followed, the lower middle class acted as a fully conscious class and had a counter-revolutionary and, even more, a reactionary role against the French bourgeoisie republic. Why did the lower middle class support Bonapartism? According to Marx, Napoleon III was the only one that could represent the petty bourgeoisie's interests. They did not have any sense of class-consciousness, which meant that they were unable to express their interests in a collective way. Meaning, that they were, like Marx says, incapable of enforcing their class interests in their own name through a parliament or any other democratic convention or institution. The lower middle class needed, and were also longing for, a paternalistic, authoritarian and charismatic figure that would represent their interest and implement policies accordingly. Louis Bonaparte mirrored everything the lower middle class was pursuing: the protection of their interests by identifying them with France's interests; the understanding of France as an economically based petite bourgeoisie country in opposition to big bourgeoisie enterprises (banks and big retails companies); and, the conversion of the lower middle class's aspiration forgrandeur through the Second French Empire's expansionist foreign policy (7).Bonapartism protected them from the rapacious big bourgeoisie, assured their vital place in society as France's economic engine protecting small private property from socialist distribution of wealth drives coming from the working class and satisfied their sumptuousness desires by establishing a lower middle class based Empire as Europe's major power. Marx's perceptions and warnings on the lower middle class counter-revolutionary and reactionary roles in periods of political and economic crisis has been regarded, by Marxist and non-Marxist authors alike, as an indication for future revolutionary moments and as a prophetic alert on future authoritarian regimes like fascism. Lenin himself defined the petite bourgeoisie as a "half-class" or "quasi-workers" or "quasi-bourgeois" class that would be more difficult to eradicate than the big bourgeoisie and that would be politically unreliable (8). The lower middle class unpredictable behavior and dislike for radical policies could produce a reactionary backlash that could only be prevented by a rapid proletarization of all society. Nevertheless, even if Lenin was afraid of the possibility of an authoritarian government led by Kornilov and backed by the petty bourgeoisie (9); he later acknowledged, particularly by implementing the New Economic Policy, the lower middle class economic importance and envisaged them as a transitory class towards a proletarian society (10). Lastly, several authors have taken the XVIII Brumaire in order to compare Bonapartisim to fascism, even affirming that Napoleon's III rule was the first fascist regime in history, or to seek the social origins of both kinds of regimes in the lower middle classes. Jacob Schapiro not only sees the origins of 20th century fascism in 19th century Bonapartist France, he even defines Bonapartism as a type of fascism based on Marx's description of the regime in the XVIII Brumaire (11). Jost Dulffer analyses such comparison and, even if similarities are found, completely rejects its. He actually trends the historical origins of such comparisons to Trotsky's and August Thalheimer's writings on Nazism during the 1920s and 30s (12). Finally, Seymour Martin Lipset popularized the notion that fascism, just like Bonapartism, was an expression of the lower middle class resentments. According to Lipset, fascism was politically transformed rage of independent artisans, shopkeepers, small peasants and clerks that found themselves squeezed between better organized industrial workers and big businessmen and were "missing the boat" within the rapid social and economic changes of modern society (13). However, Ian Kershaw, Robert Paxton and Thomas Childers empirically confirm that fascism was not only a lower middle class phenomenon and that without the acquiesce of the conservative elites and sectors of the big bourgeoisie it would never had have come to power (14). Even if the comparisons between Bonapartism and fascism are historically pointless it is worth noticing, like Arno Meyer did, that Karl Marx was the first one to tackle the problem of the lower middle class lack of class-consciousness (15). Marx is correct in pointing out the lower middle class's awareness of itself and its dysfunctional and contradictory relationship vis-à-vis the big bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Even more so, Marx accurately identifies the social, political and historical role of the petty bourgeoisie: to gain consciousness in moments of crisis and pivotally function either as a revolutionary actor, alongside the bourgeoisie and the working class, or as a counter-revolutionary one, against the proletariat, or as reactionary one against the big bourgeoisie. This is, maybe, Marx's most important and timeless legacy from The Eighteen Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.(1) Crossick, Geoffrey and Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard, The Petite Bourgeoisie in Europe 1780-1914, Rutledge, New York, 1998, pp. 16-38.(2) Mayer, Arno J., "The Lower Middle Class as Historical Problem", The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 47, No.3, Sep. 1975, pp. 409-436. (3) See Thompson, Edward, The Making of the English Working Class, Random House, New York, 1963.(4) See Bell, Daniel, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting, Basic Books, New York, 1999. (5) See Giddens, Anthony, The Class Structure of Advanced Societies, Unwin Hyman, London, 1989.(6) See, Zeldin, Theodore, The Political System of Napoleon III, Macmillan, London, 1958.(7) Lenin, V. I., "Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder: A Popular Essay in Marxian Strategy and Tactics, University of the Pacific Press, San Francisco, 2001, pp. 9-52. (8) Fitzpatrick, Sheila, The Russian Revolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, pp. 60.(9) Ibid, pp. 93-149.(10) Schapiro, Jacob S., Liberalism and the Challenge to Fascism, McGraw Hill, New York, 1949, pp. 308-31.(11) Dulffer, Jost, "Bonapartism, Fascism and National Socialism", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 11, No.4, 1976, pp. 109-128.(12) Lipset Seymour M., Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1981, pp. 127-182.(13) See, Childers, Thomas, "The Social Bases of the National Socialist Vote",Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 11, No.4, 1976, pp. 17-42; Kershaw, Ian,"The Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001; Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000; and, Paxton, Robert, The Anatomy of Fascism, Random House, New York, 2004.(14) Mayer, Arno J., "The Lower Middle Class as Historical Problem", The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 47, No.3, Sep. 1975, pp. 409-436. *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.E-mail: guere469@newschool.edu
The Political and Social Natures of the State of ExceptionThe main questions regarding the political and social natures of the state of emergency concern: the restriction of individual freedoms as an innate power of the State to assure its continued existence –and of its democratic regime- in times of national crisis; the exception as being a transitional phase from democracy to autocracy or dictatorship; and, the legitimization of a permanent state of exception through consensus.Carl Schmitt stated that 'sovereign is he who decides on the exception' (1). This means that the exception, which he defined as the application of extraordinary measures, is what constitutes the essence of the highest power of the State. Schmitt, following Bodin and Hobbes, emphasized the extralegal nature of the State's sovereign power. The State could not exist without the possibility of exception. In fact, the State was born from the exception and relied on it for its survival (2). Therefore, the state of exception could not be framed within the legal order. Sovereignty cannot be limited; it is an absolute. Laws are created by the State, but the State's sovereign power –the exception- has to remain outside the boundaries of the rule of law. This was the only way that the exception could function as the mechanism that guaranteed the State's survival in moments of grave peril. To Schmitt, there was no point arguing about lesser or greater evils. The State had to prevail always. Order, even a dictatorial one, was preferable to revolution and anarchy. The permanent elimination of individual freedoms was, at all times, more desirable than the extinction of the State. Schmitt was deeply influenced by the 1918-1919 Revolution, following Germany's defeat in World War I, and by the early chaotic years of the Weimer Republic. He considered, taking on Weber in extremis, that the State was the absolute embodiment of the monopoly of the use of violence. Legitimacy did not matter because authority –the sovereign- was the real source of law, not a Rousseaunian state of nature or the people's will (3). The State creates and maintains law through force. When the monopoly is broken, because violence is being used against the State from outside or within, the exception assures its reestablishment. Other authors have considered the survival of the sovereign body at all costs, perceived as a lesser evil when weighted against the greater evil of its possible decease, as the driving force behind the state of emergency's employment in moments of real or perceived national crisis (4). Exception, to them, is a legal tool that restores order by rapidly extricating the threats to the polity's existence. Supporters of this view consider that in times of foreign war or internal strife the State is compelled to undermine individual freedoms. Dictatorships react to crisis in a much effective way than democracies. The very nature of the latter –mainly enacting decisions after deliberation, consensus and the rule of law- may be its own Achilles' heel. In order for modern democracies to survive, they have to recur to non-liberal, but legally framed and provisional, measures (5). After 9/11, the War on Terror has been defined as a national crisis that cannot be overcome within the 'normal' rule of law. The long term peril to democracy, which terrorism poses, is far greater and more permanent than the one that the state of exception causes to democratic liberties in the short term. The suspension and restriction of fundamental freedoms are a small price to pay when a democratic regime is faced with the kind of foe that terrorism is. Even such strong advocates of liberal democracy, like Michael Ignatieff, believe that the state of emergency is a necessary tool to protect society from terrorist attacks (6). To him, the exception in a modern democracy can be effectively restrained from committing the kind of human rights violations and abuses that were present during the French-Algerian War and the Dirty War in Argentina. Ignatieff considers that those cases can be avoided, in the current War on Terror, by setting up contradictory procedures after targeted killing and aggressive interrogation have been implemented(7). Lastly, the provisional characteristic of the state of exception must also be properly defined by introducing a time limit or by setting up attained objectives. The problem with the latter is that it is difficult to discern when terrorism has been actually defeated. Regarding the temporal nature of the exception, it has been the case that governments have continued to extend, indefinitely, the state of emergency (8). In this sense, Charles Tilly was right when he noticed that once the State acquires more power it is extremely difficult, or almost impossible, to go back to the previous situation (9). Ignatieff's notion that the state of exception can be controlled if it is properly framed within the legal order is mistaken. First, following Tilly, the State's behavior is not controllable, particularly within a legal framework. Even if the State seems to be making concessions, it is actually gaining more command. It is in the State's nature to increase its control over society in order to assure its survival(10). Therefore, the state of exception will never be controlled by the legal order. Terrorism overtly defies the essence of the State: its monopoly of the use of violence. To protect itself the State will disregard the rule of law if necessary. Secondly, the exception cannot be legal in any sense because, as said by Giorgio Agamben, it is the negation of law (11). Agamben considers exception as it has been defined by Schmitt: the nature of sovereign power. Consequently, it can never be framed by the rule of law. In fact, when the exception is enacted law ceases to exist. When national crisis occur, a State will make decisions based on necessity, not on lawfulness. Accordingly, if the rule of law is negated and the newly acquired faculties are not relinquished after the crisis has passed, the exception represents the transition of a democratic regime into an authoritarian or autocratic one. There is a divide in literature regarding this issue: some deem that the exception creates a provisional dictatorship but once the crisis is over democracy returns in full force, others see the exception as a one way ticket ride. According to Rossiter when the state of exception is declared, a democratic regime turns into a provisional dictatorship by granting extraordinary authority and powers to the executive (12). Ignatieff, following Rossiter, considers Italy and Germany during the 70s, by naming them 'selective dictatorships', to show how modern democracies used the state of exception to tackle terrorism and returned to the rule of law once the threat had ended (13). However, the provisional and extraordinary measures passed in both countries have never been suspended. They are still in place and sporadically and selectively used. As a result, the provisional feature of the exception never actually materializes. Authors, like Hannah Arendt and Frances Fox Piven, explain how the suspension, restriction and infringement of constitutional rights and individual freedoms by the necessity of the state of exception permanently erode democracies by introducing autocratic measures (14). Arendt wonderfully describes how democracy died in the Weimer Republic when Chancellor Bruning declared the state of emergency in 1930, and not the moment Hitler raised into power in 1933 (15). For Arendt, from the moment the exception was enacted until Hitler took over the Chancellery, the path to dictatorship was irreversibly one. Piven regards the declaration of the state of emergency in the United States in September 2001 as the crucial moment where democratic liberties started to irrevocably fade away in the name of necessity (16). The subsequent restrictions to individual freedoms were accepted as necessary sacrifices to avert a catastrophe. It was not considered that the greater evil was not the one posed by terrorists; but, the permanent damage made to democracy by the State. Democracy is still far from dying in the United States, but its agony may have already started. The state of exception requires another ingredient to remain in effect indefinitely and permanently harm democracy. The State's intentions –if there is such an oxymoron- are not sufficient alone. Legitimacy, as Weber so cleverly insisted upon, is also needed (17). Arendt showcased how the transformation of the Weimar Republic, from a democracy into a totalitarian regime, mainly depended on the masses (18). In modern democracies it is the general public, the citizenship or the masses who always have the final voice on any matter. Governments' actions have to be legitimized by the public in order to be truly effective. They are accepted if they are not broadly contested or if they are enthusiastically received. They are not perceived as legitimate when they produce protests against them (19). The measures taken by the U.S. Government after 9/11 have received its share of criticism, but they have not been openly contested by the public in a massive way. In fact, there has been a strong consensus from the American citizenship. It may have been a tacit consensus between the executive, Congress and the citizens; but, the case remains that the suspension, restrictions and infringement to fundamental liberties have been seen as a necessary sacrifice to assure the security of the nation (20). Even controversial and dangerous measures as targeted assassination or torture have been widely accepted -in an extremely cheerfully way in some cases (21)- by the general public. Perhaps, the public truly considers them appropriate and it is willing to risk democracy for security. However, it would seem that the compliance comes from the perception that they will never be subject to those measures. The majority of the people of the United States do not consider themselves targeted by the restrictions to individual freedoms, and will never feel that way. For them it is easy to make sacrifice a minority's fundamental liberties. It has been the case in every country where the state of exception has been declared for terrorist activities. The idea that 'it will never happen to me' precludes the perception of being on the verge of loosing any kind of freedom. Interestingly, Karl Marx, in the XVIII Brumaire, warned us about the dangers of a massive support for an autocratic State in the name of security (22).ConclusionThe current War on Terror shows how close a stable and mature,democratic regime is to absolutely disregard the rule of law in favor of necessity. History and political theory has demonstrated that many authoritarian governments and dictatorships originate with a declaration of the state of exception. The measures taken by the enactment of the exception are not only immoral, they are unnecessary and illegal. The lesser evil is always less when it is not applied to the majority of the population. No matter how small the amount of individuals affected by the restrictions on their liberties, the damage done to democracy –and to their lives- is permanent and with grave repercussions for the future. Terrorism is a strategy used by a small group of people that pose no vital danger to the State's institutions or to democracy. The real danger to a democratic regime is the State's reaction to terrorism and the public's acceptance of them. Terrorists can be effectively persecuted within the rule of law. No worst case scenario can justify the torture, the indefinite imprisonment and the assassination of an innocent individual. The possible avoidance of a worst case scenario is never the lesser evil when it requires fundamental freedoms to be sacrificed. Finally, it is the public who always has the last word, and who is ultimately responsible for the known actions taken by their government. The choice between the rule of law and necessity, eventually, relies on them.(1) Schmitt, Carl; Political Theology. Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty; Chicago University Press; Chicago; 2005; pp. 5.(2) Ibid; pp. 7-12.(3) Ibid; pp. 35.(4) See Huntington, Samuel; Political Order in Changing Societies; Yale University Press; New Heaven; 2006; and Krasner, Stephen;Sovereignty. Organized Hypocrisy; Princeton University Press; New York; 1999.(5) See Walzer, Michael; Just and Unjust Wars; Basic Books; New York; pp. 335-360.(6) See Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 130-143.(7) See Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 150-156.(8) See http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2010/09/10/letter-president-continuation-national-emergency-with-respect-certain-te(9) See Tilly, Charles; Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992; Wiley-Blackwell; New York; 1995.(10) See Tilly, Charles; "War Making and State Making as Organized Crime," Bringing the State Back In, Eds. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Theda Skocpol. Cambridge University Press, 1985.(11) See Agamben, Giorgio; State of Exception; University of Chicago Press; Chicago; 2005; pp. 32-40.(12) See Rossiter, Clinton; Constitutional Dictatorship - Crisis Government In The Modern Democracies; Rossiter Press; New York; 2008. Rossiter takes the cases of the United States and the United Kingdom during the Second World War and analyses the 'dictatorial' powers held by Roosevelt and Churchill to command both countries during the crisis.(13) See Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 174-178.(14) See Arendt, Hannah; Origins of Totalitarianism; Benediction Books; New York; 2005; pp. 305-341; andSee Piven, Frances Fox;The War at Home: The Domestic Costs of Bush's Militarism; New Press; New York; 2006.(15) See Arendt, Hannah; Origins of Totalitarianism; Benediction Books; New York; 2005; pp. 389-400.(16) See Piven, Frances Fox; The War at Home: The Domestic Costs of Bush's Militarism; New Press; New York; 2006.(17) See Weber, Max; "Politics as a Vocation," in From Max Weber, Eds. Gerth and Mills.(18) See Arendt, Hannah; Origins of Totalitarianism; Benediction Books; New York; 2005; pp. 305-341(19) See Piven, Frances Fox; and Cloward, Richard; Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail; Random House; 1979; pp.1-41.(20) See, Posner, Richard; Law, Pragmatism and Democracy; Harvard University Press; Cambridge; 2003. (21) Like it was seen immediately after President Obama announced the targeted assassination of Osama Bin Laden.(22) See Marx, Karl; "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte," in The Marx/Engels Reader, Ed. Robert Tucker. *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.E-mail: guere469@newschool.edu
In: Lehmann , M 2008 , Conceptual Developments & Capacity Building in Environmental Networks : towards Public-Private-Academic Partnerships for Sustainable Development . Aalborg Universitet .
Med bevægelsen væk fra 70ernes og 80ernes reguleringsmekanismer præget af tilsyn, kontrol og påbud, over renere teknologi og selv-regulering i 90erne, er det nye årtusinde karakteriseret ved en partnerskabstankegang og brug af netværk som mekanisme til at fremme grønne markeder og en miljøvenlig privatsektor. Fortrinsvist siden Rio Topmødet i 1992 har virksomheder i stadig højere grad efterspurgt og deltaget i partnerskaber med offentlige parter, herunder regeringer, internationale organisationer og NGO'er; partnerskaber, der har til formål at medvirke til aktiviteter til sikring af en bæredygtig udvikling. Partnerskaber er blevet mere fremherskende i takt med at virksomheder reagerer på et stadigt stigende pres fra forskellige interessenter, herunder civilsamfundet, nationale og lokale myndigheder, i forhold til ansvarligheden af deres handlinger. Såkaldte grønne netværk, renere teknologi centre og affaldsminimerings-klubber er nogle af de fremhævede alternative tilgange til traditionel myndighedsregulering. Mens disse alternativer bliver udnævnt som mulige løsninger for myndighederne i det globale Syd til at rette op på manglende miljølovgivning, tilsyn og kontrol, er det rent faktisk sådan, at de fleste eksempler på sådanne partnerskaber stammer fra lande i det globale Nord. Et af de mest succesrige offentlige-private partnerskaber i Danmark er Green Network beliggende i det tidligere Vejle Amt. I dette initiativ, der blev startet af de lokale myndigheder og erhvervslivet i amtet, er der i dag mere end 280 aktive partnere, dækkende såvel den offentlige som den private sektor, dvs. lokale virksomheder, offentlige institutioner og myndigheder. Netværket startede i 1994 og har siden da vokset i både omfang, indsats og vigtighed. Helt fundamentalt er dets formål at udvikle, afprøve og indføre nye former for samarbejde mellem de offentlige myndigheder og de private virksomheder. Til at starte på var redskabet til dette en frivillig miljøredegørelse (Grønt Regnskab), som især virksomhederne kunne gøre brug af. Som tiden er gået er der dog generelt kommet et både større og bredere dækkende pres på de offentlige institutioner og myndigheder såvel som virksomheder, og der stilles stigende krav til, hvad samfundsmæssigt ansvar dækker over. I takt hermed har både værktøjer og metoder – og deres brug – udviklet sig. Dette gælder i netværket såvel som i samfundet i bredere forstand. Selvom sådanne typer netværk kan anses for relativt succesfulde i en Nord kontekst, er ukritisk donorfinansieret overførsel af disse koncepter til Syd kontekster ofte mundet ud i i skuffende resultater. Det er nødvendigt at diskutere og være opmærksom på nøgleelementer i det institutionelle landskab og på institutionelle bæreres vigtighed for succesen af grønne netværk i Syd. Med reference til tidligere igangværende initiativer i Thailand, herunder specielt netværket Cleaner Production for Industrial Efficiency, samt den føromtalte succesfulde case Green Network her i Danmark, er det dette ph.d. projekts formål at undersøge og vurdere disse initiativer, diskutere dem i relation til en institutionel og interessent tilgang (til partnerskaber) og foreslå hvorledes de forskellige erfaringer kan forstås og relateres i forhold til et bistandsperspektiv. Der er dog en tostrenget tilgang til dette. På den ene side universitetets-samarbejder, som er den verden, jeg personligt befinder mig i, og på den anden en betoning af, at den private sektor så småt er ved at acceptere en bredere (end snævert økonomisk) funderet rolle i samfundet, herunder også en stigende tendens omkring partnerskaber og virksomhedernes medvirken heri. Dette sidste har ledt mange til at stille sig spørgende overfor, hvilke faktorer, der reelt motiverer virksomheder til at efterspørge og forfølge partnerskaber. Disse underliggende kræfter kan indeholde legitimitets-behov såvel som interessent-pres. Det er dog sådan, at med det konstante flow af opskrifter, standarder, regler osv., som virksomheder præsenteres for, afhænger deres overlevelse af evnerne til at kunne overskue dette flow, optage og indlejre relevante systemer og procedurer, og skille sig af med de unyttige eller de, der er eller bliver overflødige. Denne egenskab kalder Røvik (1998) "multi-standard organisationen", og han identificerer den ved fem fundamentale kapaciteter: • Høj absorptions kapacitet • En dekoblingskapacitet af de 'opskrifter', der ikke passer ind i virksomhedens kernefelt eller med andre 'opskrifter' • En kapacitet til at kunne oversætte nye 'opskrifter' hurtigt og effektivt • En afkoblingskapacitet, så brugen af 'opskrifter', der ikke længere er nyttige, kan stoppes, og • En lagrings- og reaktiveringskapacitet, så engang nyttige opskrifter hurtigt kan gendannes og bruges påny. En undersøgelse af Green Network viser at disse fem kendetegn, som er skitseret i Røvik's teorier, faktisk alle er tilstede i netværket. Green Network har udvist en forbløffende evne til at følge med i udviklingerne i relation til ideerne om økologisk modernisering og bæredygtig udvikling. De har i relation hertil kunnet følge trit med alle de vigtige udviklinger de seneste 15 år, optaget hvad de har fundet vigtigt og kasseret det, de ikke har fundet passende i forhold til deres egen visioner og programmer. De resulterende værktøjer, manualer og måder hvorpå viden udbredes er alle en refleksion af den særlige Green Network måde at gøre tingene på, det vil sige gør det ikke sværere end det er, samarbejd og del jeres viden med hinanden. Konklusionen er, at gennem dialog, refleksivitet og etableringen af en fremmende frem for begrænsende kontekst, kan offentlige private partnerskaber blive et ganske brugbart element i samfundets indsats for en bæredygtig udvikling. I relation til den thailandske kontekst må det siges, at de umiddelbare succeser med at indføre renere teknologier gennem en netværksbaseret tilgang er blevet afløst af frustrationer om endnu et bistandsdrevet projekt, der viste sig ubæredygtigt og kun korttids-holdbar. Det er på dette punkt, universiteternes rolle som centrale elementer i udvikling og innovation – 'universities as development hubs' – finder sin anvendelse. Gennem universitetskonsortier og -netværk er kapacitetsopbygning indenfor miljø og udvikling blevet indført og afprøvet gennem de seneste 10 år. Universiteter fra Afrika (Botswana og Sydafrika), Asien, (Malaysia og Thailand), Mellemamerika (Costa Rica, El Salvador og Nicaragua) og Europa (Danmark) har samarbejdet med studerende og forskere. Til at begynde med fokuserede nogle programmer på forskning og andre på uddannelse, men over tid er resultatet en kombination af højere uddannelse og forskning, der synes at være mere effektiv og relevant. Samarbejder med partnere både indenfor det offentlig og det private er blevet etableret og har vist sig succesrigt og til fælles gavn. Aktiviteterne i disse konsortier har indebåret udvikling af nye studier (herunder i flere tilfælde også et paradigme skifte til problem-orienteret og projekt-baseret læring), lærer- og studenter-udveksling, fælles forskningsprojekter og fælles udviklingskonferencer. Resultaterne har været lovende, ikke mindst i relation til de konkrete typer af aktiviteter, der er foregået, men også samlet set, hvor de i fællesskab bidrager til en overordnet kapacitetsopbygning indenfor højere uddannelse og til forbedrede udviklingsmuligheder og miljøforhold. En styrkelse af højere uddannelse anses for at være en forudsætning for økonomisk og demokratisk udvikling i alle lande, i- såvel som u-lande. Men, i særdeleshed i udviklingslande er der behov for speciel støtte, for eksempel gennem international bistand til programmer for højere uddannelse, herunder forskning og innovation i samarbejde med andre forskningsinstitutioner såvel som med myndigheder og virksomheder. Universiteter bør selvsagt spille en central rolle i sådanne globale anstrengelser for at styrke højere uddannelse. I samarbejde med eksterne partnere (eksempelvis private virksomheder, konsulenter, NGOer, og civilsamfundet generelt), lægges der her vægt på universiteternes rolle som nøgleaktører og formidlere af ny viden og læring, herunder udviklingsværktøjer som IKT og PBL; som formidlere af kompetente og motiverede kandidater, der kan indtræde i nøglepositioner i samfundet; og som uundværlige partnere i at skabe det innovative og selv-lærende samfund, som synes en nødvendighed for begrænse fattigdom og facilitere økonomisk og social fremgang. Reelt operationaliserbare modeller er måske stadig mangelfulde, men "Public-Private-Academic Partnerships" foreslås her som et realiserbart løsningsforslag og som et koncept til yderligere undersøgelse og modifikation. Nogle af resultaterne og disses implikationer er præsenteret i denne afhandling, og flere er dokumenteret i referencerne. Ganske kort, universiteter, i tæt samarbejde med de øvrige af samfundets aktører, er helt nødvendige for opbygningen og vedligeholdelsen af innovative og bæredygtige samfund. ; Moving from largely command and control measures in the 70s and 80s, through cleaner production and self-regulatory initiatives in the 90s, the emphasis in the new millennium is more on using networks and partnerships as levers for promoting a greening of industry. Predominantly since the 1992 Rio Summit, corporations have been increasingly pursuing these partnerships with public institutions including governments, international organizations and NGOs that aim to contribute to sustainable development activities. Partnerships have become more common as corporations react to mounting pressure from corporate stakeholders, civil society and government on the responsible nature of their business practices. So-called 'Green Networks', 'Cleaner Production Centres', 'Waste Minimisation Clubs' are among the highlighted alternatives to governmental regulation. While being promoted as an option for governments in the South to make up for lack of sufficient environmental legislation and enforcement, the majority of these examples, however, stem from countries in the North. In terms of public–private partnerships, one of the foremost Danish initiatives is the Green Network in the former county of Vejle. This initiative, initiated by local governments and businesses in the county, currently involves more than 280 partners from both the private and the public sectors (local companies, public bodies and local governments). The network started in 1994 and has grown in size and importance ever since. Fundamentally, it aims at providing new forms of co-operation between public authorities and private companies. The vehicle for this was initially a voluntary environmental statement by companies, who wished to be members. With the passing of time, however, the demands and pressures on both companies and public bodies have increased as has their innovativeness. Hence, the tools and means employed—outside as well as inside the network—have developed accordingly. Even though they are successful in a Northern context, uncritical transfer of such concepts to contexts in the South along with substantial, external donor funding have in many cases led to disappointing outcomes. It is necessary to discuss and be aware of key factors in the institutional set-up and the importance of institutional carriers for the potential success of Green Networks in the South. With reference to at that time ongoing initiatives in Thailand, especially the Cleaner Production for Industrial Efficiency (CPIE) network, and the successful case of Green Network in Denmark, this PhD project sets out to examine and assess these initiatives, discuss them based on an institutional and stakeholder approach (to partnerships) and suggest how the experiences can be understood in their own rights. Inherent in this is the context of development aid. The point of departure is, however, twofold. From one side, university collaborations and from the other a signification of a corporate awakening towards a broader role of business in society and the trend of corporations embracing partnerships. The latter has led many to question the driving factors that motivate corporations to pursue partnerships. Underlying drivers of corporate organizational behaviour include both legitimacy and stakeholder needs. However, with a constant flow of recipes or standards being the order of the day for modern companies and organisations, their survival also relate to their ability to cope with this flow, adopting relevant recipes from it and incorporating these into their organisation - and dispensing with them when they become outmoded. This ability is exhibited by what Røvik (1998) calls the "multi-standard organisation", and he identifies five fundamental capacities that define it: • High absorption capacity • The capacity to decouple recipes that do not fit in • The ability to translate new recipes in a quick and easy way • The ability to detach old or worn down institutions, and • The ability to preserve and reactivate older forms of institutional recipes An evaluation of Green Network reveals that the five capacities outlined in Røvik's theory are all present. Green Network has exhibited a remarkable ability to keep up with trends in the development of the idea of ecological modernisation and sustainable development. They have been able to keep pace with all the important developments during the last almost fifteen years, absorbing what they find important and discarding aspects that do not fit into their vision and programmes. The resulting manuals, tools and ways of propagating knowledge all reflect the "Green Network way of doing things", i.e. keep it simple, work together and share knowledge. The conclusion is that through dialogue, reflexivity and the establishment of an enabling environment, public–private partnerships can become useful vehicles in societies' move towards sustainability. In relation to the Thai context, the initial successes of implementing cleaner production through the network approach have been substituted by frustrations of yet another aid-driven project that was unsustainable. This is the point where "universities as development hubs" enters the stage. Capacity-building in environment and development has been implemented and tested over the last decade through university and university consortia networking. Universities from Africa (Botswana and South Africa), Asia (Malaysia and Thailand), Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador and Nicaragua) and Europe (Denmark) have collaborated with graduate students and faculty. Initially some programmes emphasised research and others higher education, but eventually a blend of research and higher education appeared to be more productive. Links to external partners in public and private business have been established and proved successful in terms of mutual benefits. Activities comprise evolution of new study curricula (including a shift of the learning paradigm to problem-based and project-organised learning), exchange of students and faculty, joint research and joint development conferences. The results have been promising in terms of concrete results within each type of activity and together they provide vital steps in capacity-building in tertiary education to the benefit of development and environment. Strengthening of tertiary education is assumed to be a prerequisite for economic and democratic development in all countries, be they industrialised, in transition or developing. However, particularly in transition and developing countries there is a need for special support, e.g. through international aid programmes to tertiary education, including research and innovation in an interplay with other research institutions, business and government. Universities should play a central role in such global efforts to strengthen tertiary education. In co-operation with external partners such as business, consultants, NGOs and civil society at large, universities as key agents and providers in new learning, including developing tools such as project-based and problem-oriented learning (PBL) as well as information and communication technology (ICT); as providers of competent and motivated graduates to fill key positions in society; and as indispensable partners in creating the innovative and auto-learning society necessary to curb poverty and facilitate prosperity is emphasised. Modes of operation are still deficient, but ''Public-Private Academic Partnerships' is suggested as a concept to study further and modify to needs. Some of the results and their implications are presented in this thesis and more are documented in the references that are cited. In short, universities, in joint action with business and society at large, are necessary for constructing and maintaining innovative and sustainable societies.
Quantifying the genetic correlation between cancers can provide important insights into the mechanisms driving cancer etiology. Using genome-wide association study summary statistics across six cancer types based on a total of 296,215 cases and 301,319 controls of European ancestry, here we estimate the pair-wise genetic correlations between breast, colorectal, head/neck, lung, ovary and prostate cancer, and between cancers and 38 other diseases. We observed statistically significant genetic correlations between lung and head/neck cancer (rg = 0.57, p = 4.6 × 10-8), breast and ovarian cancer (rg = 0.24, p = 7 × 10-5), breast and lung cancer (rg = 0.18, p =1.5 × 10-6) and breast and colorectal cancer (rg = 0.15, p = 1.1 × 10-4). We also found that multiple cancers are genetically correlated with non-cancer traits including smoking, psychiatric diseases and metabolic characteristics. Functional enrichment analysis revealed a significant excess contribution of conserved and regulatory regions to cancer heritability. Our comprehensive analysis of cross-cancer heritability suggests that solid tumors arising across tissues share in part a common germline genetic basis. ; he authors in this manuscript were working on behalf of BCAC, CCFR, CIMBA, CORECT, GECCO, OCAC, PRACTICAL, CRUK, BPC3, CAPS, PEGASUS, TRICL- ILCCO, ABCTB, APCB, BCFR, CONSIT TEAM, EMBRACE, GC-HBOC, GEMO, HEBON, kConFab/AOCS Mod SQuaD, and SWE-BRCA. The breast cancer genome-wide association analyses: BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/ A10118], the European Union ' s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST, respectively), and by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/ A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministère de lÉconomie, Science et Innovation du Québec through Genome Québec and the PSR-SIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. Funding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from: the European Community 's Seventh Framework.Programme under grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978), and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065, and 1U19 CA148112 — the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, and Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The DRIVE Consortium was funded by U19 CA148065. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily re fl ect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Aus- tralia), and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) is generously supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The ACP study is funded by the Breast Cancer Research Trust, UK. The AHS study is supported by the intramural research program of the National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute (grant number Z01-CP010119), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant number Z01-ES049030). The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia and acknowledges funding from the National Breast Cancer Foundation (JS). For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, and BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily re fl ect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. For BIGGS, ES is supported by NIHR Comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre, Guy ' s & St. Thomas ' NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King ' s College London, United Kingdom. IT is supported by the Oxford Biomedical Research Centre. BOCS is supported by funds from Cancer Research UK (C8620/A8372/A15106) and the Institute of Cancer Research (UK). BOCS acknowledges NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/Institute of Cancer Research NIHR Specialist Cancer Biomedical Research Centre. The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Co fi nanciado FEDER; Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Consellería de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigación Aplicada, PEME I + DeI + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica de la Consellería de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigación Clínica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Gali- cia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The CAMA study was funded by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) (SALUD-2002- C01-7462). Sample collection and processing was funded in part by grants from the National Cancer Institute (NCI R01CA120120 and K24CA169004). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l ' Alimentation, de l ' Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Cáncer and grants from the Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer and the Fondo de Investigación Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). COLBCCC is sup- ported by the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany. D.T. was in part supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. The American Cancer Society funds the creation, maintenance, and updating of the CPS-II cohort. The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. H.A.C eceives support from the Lon V Smith Foundation (LVS39420). The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charit.No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is fi nancially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l ' Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Neth- erlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC- Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC- Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Kreb- shilfe). FHRISK is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The GC-HBOC (Ger- man Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713- 241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, and 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0, and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GEPARSIXTO study was conducted by the German Breast Group GmbH. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). GLACIER was supported by Breast Cancer Now, CRUK and Biomedical Research Centre at Guy ' s and St Thomas ' NHS Foundation Trust and King ' s College London. The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf- Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was fi nancially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HERPACC was supported by MEXT Kakenhi (No. 170150181 and 26253041) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, Culture and Technology of Japan, by a Grant-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from Ministry Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan, by Health and Labour Sciences Research Grants for Research on Applying Health Technology from Ministry Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan, by National Cancer Center Research and Development Fund, and " Practical Research for Innovative Cancer Control (15ck0106177h0001) " from Japan Agency for Medical Research and develop- ment, AMED, and Cancer Bio Bank Aichi. The HMBCS was supported by a grant from the Friends of Hannover Medical School and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scienti fi c Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014, and 17-44-020498. ICICLE was supported by Breast Cancer Now, CRUK, and Biomedical Research Centre at Guy ' s and St Thomas ' NHS Foundation Trust and King ' s College London. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (A.L. F.) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was fi nancially supported by the special Government Funding (E.V. O.) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [DAMD17-01-1-0729], Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). G.C.-T. and P.W. are supported by the NHMRC. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. The KOHBRA study was partially supported by a grant from the Korea Health Technology R&D Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), and the National R&D Program for Cancer Control, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI16C1127; 1020350; 1420190). LAABC is supported by grants (1RB-0287, 3PB- 0102, 5PB-0018, 10PB-0098) from the California Breast Cancer Research Program. Incident breast cancer cases were collected by the USC Cancer Surveillance Program (CSP) which is supported under subcontract by the California Department of Health. TheCSP is also part of the National Cancer Institute ' s Division of Cancer Prevention and Control Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, under contract number N01CN25403. L.M.B.C. is supported by the ' Stichting tegen Kanker ' . D.L. is supported by the FWO. The MABCS study is funded by the Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology " Georgi D. Efremov " and supported by the German Academic Exchange Program, DAAD. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Edu- cation and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects " 5 × 1000 " ). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057 and 396414, and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839, and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foun- dation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286, and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the " CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer " program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. MYBRCA is funded by research grants from the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/ 06) and Cancer Research Malaysia. MYMAMMO is supported by research grants from Yayasan Sime Darby LPGA Tournament and Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (RP046B-15HTM). The NBCS has been supported by the Research Council of Norway grant 193387/V50 (to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen) and grant 193387/H10 (to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and V.N. Kristensen), South Eastern Norway Health Authority (grant 39346 to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and 27208 to V.N. Kristensen) and the Norwegian Cancer Society (to A.-L. Børresen-Dale and 419616 - 71248 - PR-2006-0282 to V.N. Kristensen). It has received funding from the K.G. Jebsen Centre for Breast Cancer Research (2012-2015). The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC- BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manu- script does not necessarily re fl ect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, and U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NGOBCS was supported by Grants-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive Ten-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan, and for Scienti fi c Research on Priority Areas, 17015049 and for Scienti fi c Research on Innovative Areas, 221S0001, from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The OBCS was supported by research grants from the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Academy of Finland (grant number 250083, 122715 and Center of Excellence grant number 251314), the Finnish Cancer Foundation, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, the University of Oulu, the University of Oulu Support Foundation, and the special Governmental EVO funds for Oulu University Hospital-based research activities. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997- 1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI- NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/ A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956, and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). The SASBAC study was supported by funding from the Agency for Science, Technology and Research of Singapore (A*STAR), the US National Institute of Health (NIH) and the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. The SBCGS was supported primarily by NIH grants R01CA64277, R01CA148667, UMCA182910, and R37CA70867. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The scienti fi c development and funding of this project were, in part, supported by the Genetic Associations and Mechanisms in Oncology (GAME- ON) Network U19 CA148065. The SBCS was supported by Shef fi eld Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre and Breast Cancer Now Tissue Bank. The SCCS is supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA092447). Data on SCCS cancer cases used in this publication were provided by the Alabama Statewide Cancer Registry; Kentucky Cancer Registry, Lexington, KY; Tennessee Department of Health, Of fi ce of Cancer Surveillance; Florida Cancer Data System; North Carolina Central Cancer Registry, North Carolina Division of Public Health; Georgia Comprehensive Cancer Registry; Louisiana Tumor Registry; Mississippi Cancer Registry; South Carolina Central Cancer Registry; Virginia Department of Health, Virginia Cancer Registry; Arkansas Department of Health, Cancer Registry, 4815 W. Markham, Little Rock, AR 72205. The Arkansas Central Cancer Registry is fully funded by a grant from National Program of Cancer Registries, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data on SCCS cancer cases from Mississippi were collected by the Mississippi Cancer Registry which participates in the National Program of Cancer Registries (NPCR) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The contents of this publication are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the of fi cial views of the CDC or the Mississippi Cancer Registry. SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/ A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. SEBCS was supported by the BRL (Basic Research Laboratory) program through the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2012-0000347). SGBCC is funded by the NUS start- up Grant, National University Cancer Institute Singapore (NCIS) Centre Grant and the NMRC Clinician Scientist Award. Additional controls were recruited by the Singapore Consortium of Cohort Studies-Multi-ethnic cohort (SCCS-MEC), which was funded by the Biomedical Research Council, grant number: 05/1/21/19/425. The Sister Study (SIS- TER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation. The SZBCS was supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004. The TBCS was funded by The National Cancer Institute, Thailand. The TNBCC was supported by a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The TWBCS is supported by the Taiwan Biobank project of the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taiwan. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Bio- medical Research Centre. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. The US3SS study was supported by Massachusetts (K.M.E., R01CA47305), Wisconsin (P.A.N., R01 CA47147) and New Hampshire (L.T.-E., R01CA69664) centers, and Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. The USRT Study was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. The WAABCS study was supported by grants from the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA89085 and P50 CA125183 and the D43 TW009112 grant), Susan G. Komen (SAC110026), the Dr. Ralph and Marian Falk Medical Research Trust, and the Avon Foundation for Women. The WHI program is funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the US National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHSN268201100046C, HHSN268201100001C, HHSN268201100002C, HHSN268201100003C, HHSN268201100004C, and HHSN271201100004C). This work was also funded by NCI U19 CA148065-01. D.G.E. is supported by the all Manchester NIHR Biomedical research center Manchester (IS-BRC- 1215-20007). HUNBOCS, Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study was supported by Hungarian Research Grant KTIA-OTKA CK-80745, NKFI_OTKA K-112228. C.I. received support from the Nontherapeutic Subject Registry Shared Resource at George- town University (NIH/NCI P30-CA-51008) and the Jess and Mildred Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research. K.M. is supported by CRUK C18281/ A19169. City of Hope Clinical Cancer Community Research Network and the Hereditary Cancer Research Registry, supported in part by Award Number RC4CA153828 (PI: J Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the of fi ce of the Directory, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the of fi cial views of the National Institutes of Health. The colorectal cancer genome-wide association analyses: Colorectal Transdisciplinary Study (CORECT): The content of this manuscript does not necessarily re fl ect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the CORECT Consortium, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products or organizations imply endor- sement by the US Government or the CORECT Consortium. We are incredibly grateful for the contributions of Dr. Brian Henderson and Dr. Roger Green over the course of this study and acknowledge them in memoriam. We are also grateful for support from Daniel and Maryann Fong. ColoCare: we thank the many investigators and staff who made thisHHSN268201600001C, HHSN268201600002C, HHSN268201600003C, and HHSN26 8201600004C. The head and neck cancer genome-wide association analyses: The study was supported by NIH/NCI: P50 CA097190, and P30 CA047904, Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute (no. 020214) and Cancer Care Ontario Research Chair to R.H. The Princess Margaret Hospital Head and Neck Cancer Translational Research Program is funded by the Wharton family, Joe ' s Team, Gordon Tozer, Bruce Galloway and the Elia family. Geoffrey Liu was supported by the Posluns Family Fund and the Lusi Wong Family Fund at the Princess Margaret Foundation, and the Alan B. Brown Chair in Molecular Genomics. This publication presents data from Head and Neck 5000 (H&N5000). H&N5000 was a component of independent research funded by the UK National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) under its Programme Grants for Applied Research scheme (RP-PG-0707-10034). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. Human papillomavirus (HPV) in H&N5000 serology was supported by a Cancer Research UK Programme Grant, the Integrative Cancer Epidemiology Programme (grant number: C18281/A19169). National Cancer Institute (R01-CA90731); National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES10126). The authors thank all the members of the GENCAPO team/The Head and Neck Genome Project (GENCAPO) was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (Grant numbers 04/12054-9 and 10/51168-0). CPS-II recruitment and maintenance is supported with intramural research funding from the American Cancer Society. Genotyping per- formed at the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR) was funded through the U.S. National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) grant 1 × 01HG007780- 0. The University of Pittsburgh head and neck cancer case-control study is supported by National Institutes of Health grants P50 CA097190 and P30 CA047904. The Carolina Head and Neck Cancer Study (CHANCE) was supported by the National Cancer Institute (R01-CA90731). The Head and Neck Genome Project (GENCAPO) was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) (Grant numbers 04/ 12054-9 and 10/51168-0). The authors thank all the members of the GENCAPO team. The HN5000 study was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) under its Programme Grants for Applied Research scheme (RP-PG-0707-10034), the views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. The Toronto study was funded by the Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute (020214) and the National Cancer Institute (U19-CA148127) and the Cancer Care Ontario Research Chair. The alcohol-related cancers and genetic susceptibility study in Europe (ARCAGE) was funded by the Eur- opean Commission ' s 5th Framework Program (QLK1-2001-00182), the Italian Associa- tion for Cancer Research, Compagnia di San Paolo/FIRMS, Region Piemonte, and Padova University (CPDA057222). The Rome Study was supported by the Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC) IG 2011 10491 and IG2013 14220 to S.B., and Fon- dazione Veronesi to S.B. The IARC Latin American study was funded by the European Commission INCO-DC programme (IC18-CT97-0222), with additional funding from Fondo para la Investigacion Cienti fi ca y Tecnologica (Argentina) and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (01/01768-2). We thank Leticia Fernandez, Instituto Nacional de Oncologia y Radiobiologia, La Habana, Cuba and Sergio and Rosalina Koifman, for their efforts with the IARC Latin America study São Paulo center. The IARC Central Europe study was supported by European Commission ' s INCO- COPERNICUS Program (IC15- CT98-0332), NIH/National Cancer Institute grant CA92039, and the World Cancer Research Foundation grant WCRF 99A28. The IARC Oral Cancer Multicenter study was funded by grant S06 96 202489 05F02 from Europe against Cancer; grants FIS 97/0024, FIS 97/0662, and BAE 01/5013 from Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias, Spain; the UICC Yamagiwa-Yoshida Memorial International Cancer Study; the National Cancer Institute of Canada; Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro; and the Pan-American Health Organization. Coordination of the EPIC study is fi nancially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The lung cancer genome-wide association analyses: Transdisciplinary Research for Cancer in Lung (TRICL) of the International Lung Cancer Consortium (ILCCO) was supported by (U19-CA148127, CA148127S1, U19CA203654, and Cancer Prevention Research Institute of Texas RR170048). The ILCCO data harmonization is supported by Cancer Care Ontario Research Chair of Population Studies to R. H. and Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health System. The TRICL-ILCCO OncoArray was supported by in-kind genotyping by the Centre for Inherited Disease Research (26820120008i-0-26800068-1). The CAPUA study was supported by FIS-FEDER/Spain grant numbers FIS-01/310, FIS-PI03-0365, and FIS- 07-BI060604, FICYT/Asturias grant numbers FICYT PB02-67 and FICYT IB09-133, and the University Institute of Oncology (IUOPA), of the University of Oviedo and the Ciber de Epidemiologia y Salud Pública. CIBERESP, SPAIN. The work performed in the CARET study was supported by the National Institute of Health/National Cancer Insti- tute: UM1 CA167462 (PI: Goodman), National Institute of Health UO1-CA6367307 (PIs Omen, Goodman); National Institute of Health R01 CA111703 (PI Chen), National Institute of Health 5R01 CA151989-01A1(PI Doherty). The Liverpool Lung project is supported by the Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation. The Harvard Lung Cancer Study was supported by the NIH (National Cancer Institute) grants CA092824, CA090578, CA074386. The Multi-ethnic Cohort Study was partially supported by NIH Grants CA164973, CA033619, CA63464, and CA148127. The work performed in MSH-PMH study was supported by The Canadian Cancer Society Research Institute (020214), Ontario Institute of Cancer and Cancer Care Ontario Chair Award to R.J.H. and G.L. and the Alan Brown Chair and Lusi Wong Programs at the Princess Margaret Hospital Foundation. NJLCS was funded by the State Key Program of National Natural Science ofChina (81230067), the National Key Basic Research Program Grant (2011CB503805), the Major Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81390543). The Norway study was supported by Norwegian Cancer Society, Norwegian Research Council. The Shanghai Cohort Study (SCS) was supported by National Institutes of Health R01 CA144034 (PI: Yuan) and UM1 CA182876 (PI: Yuan). The Singapore Chinese Health Study (SCHS) was supported by National Institutes of Health R01 CA144034 (PI: Yuan) and UM1 CA182876 (PI: Yuan). The work in TLC study has been supported in part the James & Esther King Biomedical Research Program (09KN-15), National Institutes of Health Specialized Programs of Research Excellence (SPORE) Grant (P50 CA119997), and by a Cancer Center Support Grant (CCSG) at the H. Lee Mof fi tt Cancer Center and Research Institute, an NCI designated Comprehensive Cancer Center (grant number P30- CA76292). The Vanderbilt Lung Cancer Study — BioVU dataset used for the analyses described was obtained from Vanderbilt University Medical Center ' s BioVU, which is supported by institutional funding, the 1S10RR025141-01 instrumentation award, and by the Vanderbilt CTSA grant UL1TR000445 from NCATS/NIH. Dr. Aldrich was supported by NIH/National Cancer Institute K07CA172294 (PI: Aldrich) and Dr. Bush was sup- ported by NHGRI/NIH U01HG004798 (PI: Crawford). The Copenhagen General Population Study (CGPS) was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council and Herlev Hospital. The NELCS study: Grant Number P20RR018787 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The Kentucky Lung Cancer Research Initiative was supported by the Department of Defense [Congressionally Directed Medical Research Program, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Com- mand Program] under award number: 10153006 (W81XWH-11-1-0781). Views and opinions of, and endorsements by the author(s) do not re fl ect those of the US Army or the Department of Defense. This research was also supported by unrestricted infrastructure funds from the UK Center for Clinical and Translational Science, NIH grant UL1TR000117 and Markey Cancer Center NCI Cancer Center Support Grant (P30 CA177558) Shared Resource Facilities: Cancer Research Informatics, Biospecimen and Tissue Procurement, and Biostatistics and Bioinformatics. The M.D. Anderson Cancer Center study was supported in part by grants from the NIH (P50 CA070907, R01 CA176568) (to X.W.), Cancer Prevention & Research Institute of Texas (RP130502) (to X. W.), and The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center institutional support for the Center for Translational and Public Health Genomics. The deCODE study of smoking and nicotine dependence was funded in part by a grant from NIDA (R01- DA017932). The study in Lodz center was partially funded by Nofer Institute of Occupational Med- icine, under task NIOM 10.13: Predictors of mortality from non-small cell lung cancer — fi eld study. Genetic sharing analysis was funded by NIH grant CA194393. The research undertaken by M.D.T., L.V.W., and M.S.A. was partly funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. M.D.T. holds a Medical Research Council Senior Clinical Fellowship (G0902313). The work to assemble the FTND GWAS meta-analysis was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) grant number R01 DA035825 (Prin- cipal Investigator [PI]: DBH). The study populations included COGEND (dbGaP phs000092.v1.p1 and phs000404.v1.p1), COPDGene (dbGaP phs000179.v3.p2), deCODE Genetics, EAGLE (dbGaP phs000093.vs.p2), and SAGE. dbGaP phs000092.v1.p1). See Hancock et al. Transl Psychiatry 2015 (PMCID: PMC4930126) for the full listing of funding sources and other acknowledgments. The Resource for the Study of Lung Cancer Epidemiology in North Trent (ReSoLuCENT)study was funded by the Shef fi eld Hospitals Charity, Shef fi eld Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre and Weston Park Hospital Cancer Charity. The ovarian cancer genome-wide association analysis: The Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium (OCAC) is supported by a grant from the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund thanks to donations by the family and friends of Kathryn Sladek Smith (PPD/RPCI.07). The scienti fi c development and funding for this project were in part supported by the US National Cancer Institute GAME-ON Post-GWAS Initiative (U19-CA148112). This study made use of data generated by the Wellcome Trust Case Control consortium that was funded by the Wellcome Trust under award 076113. The results published here are in part based upon data generated by The Cancer Genome Atlas Pilot Project established by the National Cancer Institute and National Human Genome Research Institute (dbGap accession number phs000178.v8.p7). The OCAC OncoArray genotyping project was funded through grants from the U.S. National Institutes of Health (CA1X01HG007491-01 (C.I.A.), U19-CA148112 (T.A.S.), R01-CA149429 (C.M.P.), and R01-CA058598 (M.T.G.); Canadian Institutes of Health Research (MOP-86727 (L.E.K.) and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund (A.B.). The COGS project was funded through a European Commission ' s Seventh Framework Programme grant (agreement number 223175 - HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) and through a grant from the U.S. National Insti- tutes of Health (R01-CA122443 (E.L.G)). Funding for individual studies: AAS: National Institutes of Health (RO1-CA142081); AOV: The Canadian Institutes for Health Research (MOP-86727); AUS: The Australian Ovarian Cancer Study Group was supported by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (DAMD17-01-1-0729), National Health & Medical Research Council of Australia (199600, 400413 and 400281), Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and Tas- mania and Cancer Foundation of Western Australia (Multi-State Applications 191, 211, and 182). The Australian Ovarian Cancer Study gratefully acknowledges additional support from Ovarian Cancer Australia and the Peter MacCallum Foundation; BAV: ELAN Funds of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg; BEL: National Kankerplan; BGS: Breast Cancer Now, Institute of Cancer Research; BVU: Vanderbilt CTSA grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH)/National Center for Advancing Translational SciencesNCATS) (ULTR000445); CAM: National Institutes of Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre and Cancer Research UK Cambridge Cancer Centre; CHA: Innovative Research Team in University (PCSIRT) in China (IRT1076); CNI: Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI12/01319); Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (SAF2012); COE: Department of Defense (W81XWH-11-2-0131); CON: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA063678, R01-CA074850; and R01-CA080742); DKE: Ovarian Cancer Research Fund; DOV: National Institutes of Health R01-CA112523 and R01-CA87538; EMC: Dutch Cancer Society (EMC 2014-6699); EPC: The coordination of EPIC is fi nancially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by Danish Cancer Society (Denmark); Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l ' Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); ERC-2009-AdG 232997 and Nordforsk, Nordic Centre of Excellence programme on Food, Nutrition and Health (Norway); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council and County Councils of Skåne and Västerbotten (Sweden); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC- Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom); GER: German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Programme of Clinical Biomedical Research (01 GB 9401) and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ); GRC: This research has been co- fi nanced by the European Union (European Social Fund — ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program " Education and Lifelong Learn- ing " of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) — Research Funding Program of the General Secretariat for Research & Technology: SYN11_10_19 NBCA. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund; GRR: Roswell Park Cancer Institute Alliance Foundation, P30 CA016056; HAW: U.S. National Institutes of Health (R01- CA58598, N01-CN-55424, and N01-PC-67001); HJO: Intramural funding; Rudolf- Bartling Foundation; HMO: Intramural funding; Rudolf-Bartling Foundation; HOC: Helsinki University Research Fund; HOP: Department of Defense (DAMD17-02-1-0669) and NCI (K07-CA080668, R01-CA95023, P50-CA159981 MO1-RR000056 R01- CA126841); HUO: Intramural funding; Rudolf-Bartling Foundation; JGO: JSPS KAKENHI grant; JPN: Grant-in-Aid for the Third Term Comprehensive 10-Year Strategy for Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare; KRA: This study (Ko-EVE) was supported by a grant from the Korea Health Technology R&D Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), and the National R&D Program for Cancer Control, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI16C1127; 0920010); LAX: American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124; LUN: ERC-2011-AdG 294576-risk factors cancer, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Beta Kamprad Foundation; MAC: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA122443, P30-CA15083, P50-CA136393); Mayo Foundation; Minnesota Ovarian Cancer Alliance; Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation; Fraternal Order of Eagles; MAL: Funding for this study was provided by research grant R01- CA61107 from the National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, research grant 94 222 52 from the Danish Cancer Society, Copenhagen, Denmark; and the Mer- maid I project; MAS: Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (UM.C/HlR/MOHE/06) and Cancer Research Initiatives Foundation; MAY: National Institutes of Health (R01- CA122443, P30-CA15083, and P50-CA136393); Mayo Foundation; Minnesota Ovarian Cancer Alliance; Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation; MCC: Cancer Council Victoria, National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC) grants number 209057, 251533, 396414, and 504715; MDA: DOD Ovarian Cancer Research Program (W81XWH-07-0449); MEC: NIH (CA54281, CA164973, CA63464); MOF: Mof fi tt Cancer Center, Merck Pharmaceuticals, the state of Florida, Hillsborough County, and the city of Tampa; NCO: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA76016) and the Department of Defense (DAMD17-02-1-0666); NEC: National Institutes of Health R01- CA54419 and P50-CA105009 and Department of Defense W81XWH-10-1-02802; NHS: UM1 CA186107, P01 CA87969, R01 CA49449, R01-CA67262, UM1 CA176726; NJO: National Cancer Institute (NIH-K07 CA095666, R01-CA83918, NIH-K22-CA138563, and P30-CA072720) and the Cancer Institute of New Jersey; If Sara Olson and/or Irene Orlow is a co-author, please add NCI CCSG award (P30-CA008748) to the funding sources; NOR: Helse Vest, The Norwegian Cancer Society, The Research Council of Norway; NTH: Radboud University Medical Centre; OPL: National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) of Australia (APP1025142) and Brisbane Women ' s Club; ORE: OHSU Foundation; OVA: This work was supported by Canadian Institutes of Health Research grant (MOP-86727) and by NIH/NCI 1 R01CA160669-01A1; PLC: Intramural Research Program of the National Cancer Institute; POC: Pomeranian Medical Uni- versity; POL: Intramural Research Program of the National Cancer Institute; PVD: Canadian Cancer Society and Cancer Research Society GRePEC Program; RBH: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia; RMH: Cancer Research UK, Royal Marsden Hospital; RPC: National Institute of Health (P50-CA159981, R01-CA126841); SEA: Cancer Research UK (C490/A10119 C490/A10124); UK National Institute forHealth Research Biomedical Research Centres at the University of Cambridge; SIS: NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033; SMC: The bbSwedish Research Council-SIMPLER infrastructure; the Swedish Cancer Foundation; SON: National Health Research and Development Program, Health Canada, grant 6613-1415-53; SRO: Cancer Research UK (C536/A13086, C536/A6689) and Imperial Experimental Cancer Research Centre (C1312/A15589); STA: NIH grants U01 CA71966 and U01 CA69417; SWE: Swedish Cancer foundation, WeCanCureCancer and VårKampMotCancer foundation; SWH: NIH (NCI) grant R37-CA070867; TBO: National Institutes of Health (R01-CA106414-A2), American Cancer Society (CRTG-00-196-01- CCE), Department of Defense (DAMD17-98-1-8659), Celma Mastery Ovarian Cancer Foundation; TOR: NIH grants R01-CA063678 and R01 CA063682; UCI: NIH R01- CA058860 and the Lon V Smith Foundation grant LVS39420; UHN: Princess Margaret Cancer Centre Foundation-Bridge for the Cure; UKO: The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre; UKR: Cancer Research UK (C490/A6187), UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centres at the University of Cambridge; USC: P01CA17054, P30CA14089, R01CA61132, N01PC67010, R03CA113148, R03CA115195, N01CN025403, and Cali- fornia Cancer Research Program (00-01389V-20170, 2II0200); VAN: BC Cancer Foun- dation, VGH & UBC Hospital Foundation; VTL: NIH K05-CA154337; WMH: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, Enabling Grants ID 310670 & ID 628903. Cancer Institute NSW Grants 12/RIG/1-17 & 15/RIG/1-16; WOC: National Science Centren (N N301 5645 40). The Maria Sklodowska-Curie Memorial Cancer Center and Institute of Oncology, Warsaw, Poland. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academia Reserve. The prostate cancer genome-wide association analyses: we pay tribute to Brian Henderson, who was a driving force behind the OncoArray project, for his vision and leadership, and who sadly passed away before seeing its fruition. We also thank the individuals who participated in these studies enabling this work. The ELLIPSE/ PRACTICAL (http//:practical.icr.ac.uk) prostate cancer consortium and his collaborating partners were supported by multiple funding mechanisms enabling this current work. ELLIPSE/PRACTICAL Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) (U19 CA148537 for ELucidating Loci Involved in Prostate Cancer SuscEptibility (ELLIPSE) project and X01HG007492 to the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR) under contract number HHSN268201200008I). Additional analytical support was provided by NIH NCI U01 CA188392 (F.R.S.). Funding for the iCOGS infrastructure came from the European Community ' s Seventh Framework Pro- gramme under grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/ A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, and C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065, and 1U19 CA148112; the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defense (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer, Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, European Commission ' s Seventh Framework Programme grant agreement n° 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175), Cancer Research UK Grants C5047/A7357, C1287/A10118, C1287/A16563, C5047/ A3354, C5047/A10692, C16913/A6135, C5047/A21332 and The National Institute of Health (NIH) Cancer Post-Cancer GWAS initiative grant: No. 1 U19 CA148537-01 (the GAME-ON initiative). We also thank the following for funding support: The Institute of Cancer Research and The Everyman Campaign, The Prostate Cancer Research Founda- tion, Prostate Research Campaign UK (now Prostate Action), The Orchid Cancer Appeal, The National Cancer Research Network UK, and The National Cancer Research Institute (NCRI) UK. We are grateful for support of NIHR funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. The Prostate Cancer Program of Cancer Council Victoria also acknowledge grant support from The National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia (126402, 209057, 251533, 396414, 450104, 504700, 504702, 504715, 623204, 940394, and 614296), VicHealth, Cancer Council Victoria, The Prostate Cancer Foun- dation of Australia, The Whitten Foundation, PricewaterhouseCoopers, and Tattersall ' s. E.A.O., D.M.K., and E.M.K. acknowledge the Intramural Program of the National Human Genome Research Institute for their support. The BPC3 was supported by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute (cooperative agreements U01- CA98233 to D.J.H., U01-CA98710 to S.M.G., U01-CA98216 to E.R., and U01-CA98758 to B.E.H., and Intramural Research Program of NIH/National Cancer Institute, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics). CAPS GWAS study was supported by the Swedish Cancer Foundation (grant no 09-0677, 11-484, 12-823), the Cancer Risk Prediction Center (CRisP; www.crispcenter.org ), a Linneus Centre (Contract ID 70867902) fi nanced by the Swedish Research Council, Swedish Research Council (grant no K2010-70 × - 20430-04-3, 2014-2269). The Hannover Prostate Cancer Study was supported by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society. PEGASUS was supported by the Intramural Research Program, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. RAPPER was supported by the NIHR Manchester Bio- medical Research Center, Cancer Research UK (C147/A25254, C1094/A18504) and the EUs7Framework Programme Grant/Agreement no 60186. Overall: this research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource (application number 16549). NHS is supported by UM1 CA186107 (NHS cohort infrastructure grant), P01 CA87969, and R01 CA49449. NHSII is supported by UM1 CA176726 (NHSII cohort infrastructure grant),and R01-CA67262. A.L.K. is supported by R01 MH107649. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the NHS and NHSII for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, WY. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. ; Sí
Background The main instrument on EU level to control industrial releases is the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED), particularly through the publication of BAT reference documents (BREFs) and related BAT Conclusions, which is the reference for setting the permit conditions throughout EU for IED installations. However, the BREFs published so far do not contain adequate information on specific hazardous chemicals used and released from industry which makes the control difficult for the industry and the permitting and supervising authorities. One of the case sectors in the HAZBREF project is the surface treatment of metals and plastics (STM). This sector was chosen due to the use of chemicals, potential emissions, the wide range of products as well as technological processes and the upcoming STM BREF review. The other HAZBREF case sectors are textile industry and chemical industry which are addressed in separate reports. The lack of knowledge on the use and flow of specific hazardous chemicals in the industrial processes makes chemical control and reduction measures difficult. The problem is that often neither plant operators nor authorities know which substances are relevant to be treated and which handling measures are needed. Surface treatment of metals and plastics is covered by the STM BREF document, published in 2006. According to the last work programme of the EIPPCB the review of the EU STM BREF is planned to start in 2021. Purpose of the document This sectoral guidance contains information on uses of hazardous chemicals, the best practices in chemical management and recommendations on enhancing the permitting process in the STM sector. This document sums up the findings from HAZBREF project and is based on industrial case studies, interviews with authorities and expert judgment. The aim is to describe good practices in chemical management to be utilized by STM installations as well as environmental and chemical authorities. These include technical, organisational and management aspects and concrete tools supporting chemical management. The report addresses the STM sector as a whole in Europe, although the main part of the findings is generated from HAZBREF case installation and other experiences in the Baltic Sea Region. The document provides also general descriptions of BAT proposals related to management of hazardous chemicals and substances. These findings of the guidance will feed into in the forthcoming revision of the STM BREF. They are also to be used for HELCOM recommendations on how to reduce the discharge of hazardous substances into the Baltic Sea. Moreover, the document provides an overview of applicable legal requirements, procedures and other obligations of installation operators regarding use of chemicals and releases of hazardous substances. This includes guidance for tools to identify and assess relevant hazardous substances used and released from the STM installations. Main findings and proposals Improvement of chemical management system A Chemical Management System provides a systematic way of managing chemicals through the whole process on the site. Most of the companies have implemented quality management standards such as ISO 9000, ISO 14000, EMAS and integrated EHS programs which also address certain aspects of chemical management. The quality of chemical management systems in the companies differs depending on the scale of operation, ownership and awareness. Integration of good practices of chemical management within already implemented management systems strengthens the ability to reduce environmental risks. HAZBREF project strongly recommends the establishment and regular use of a chemical management system at IED installations. Development of a chemical inventory The establishment and maintenance of a chemical inventory is an importantprerequisite for effective and responsible chemicals management in the STMsector. All chemicals and raw materials along with information on their propertiesused in all processes and activities at the site should be listed in a database. Such adatabase is a key part of chemical management allowing for systematic riskassessment, management of chemicals flows and their storage. The information in the chemical list/database must be searchable and should be updated regularly. Most of the information needed is available in the safety datasheets (SDS). If some information is missing from the SDS, the supplier should be asked to provide this. Good routines to handle new and updated SDSs are crucial to have an up to date and reliable chemical database. These routines should involve on-site handling and updates as well as communication with suppliers on how SDSs are delivered. Well-managed chemical inventories can significantly simplify the environmental permit application process both for the operators and the permitting authorities. Better use of Chemical Management Tools and training of staf Numerous references and tools are available to support STM companies and competent authorities in implementing the good chemical management required in the IED. HAZBREF recommends that operators use proper tools for risk assessment and evaluation of the efficiency of chemical management. Use and improvement of risk assessment tools such as extended SDS and material flow analysis should be promoted among installation operators in this respect. The HAZBREF project has developed a comprehensive tool that helps the operators to identify the site-specific hazardous substances that should be considered in strategic and operational decisions. Awareness raising and training of staff in the use of chemical management tools and systems is crucial for implementation of good chemical management practices at the installations. Substitution A regular check aiming at identifying potentially new available and safer alternatives to the hazardous chemicals used is an important measure to minimise chemical risks at the installation. A successful substitution work can be performed in four stages: - Identification of hazardous substances - Screening for possible alternatives - Evaluation and choice of alternatives and Development of new alternatives. Substitution can be aimed for any hazardous chemical used at installation level where it is needed in order to protect environment or human health. However, regrettable substitution (i.e. move to use new chemical that is equally or more hazardous than the substituted chemical or results in cross-media effects) must be avoided. Assessment and improvement of SDS Efficient chemicals management requires high quality of the Safety Data Sheets (SDS). The SDS should sufficiently describe the chemical properties and include information about exposure (including use and emissions), eco-toxicology and proper storage and handling. A SDS must also contain information on whether the chemical product contains substances on the SVHC list, priority substances under the Water Framework Directive WFD and the POPs convention. In case a chemical supplier fails to provide a SDS of sufficient quality, it is the duty of both the operator and the competent authority to demand the missing information. This is already required by law in some countries, e.g. Germany. It is also important that the operators know how to extract and consolidate the relevant information from the SDS to their permit applications and verify the quality of different information sources. The development of an extended SDS including exposure scenarios and improved data on environmental effects would facilitate better risk assessment of individual chemicals used in specific processes. This would lead to more efficient monitoring and help focusing on substances of concern. Improved SDSs for raw materials with information on impurities or additives would facilitate more complete chemical inventories. Continuous improvement of BAT implementation The implementation of BAT needs to be continuously monitored and improved at the installation considering site specific technological, economical and environmental aspects. The findings from Polish HAZBREF case studies is that fulfilment of BAT requirements can be challenging if all improvements need to be done in a short time period. For example, closed-loop systems are considered necessary additional process-integrated techniques that it is important to implementstep by step in the installations. Circular economy The STM sector is a significant user of non-renewable resources (metals), and recycling of recovered metal containing materials such as metal substrates orelectrolytes back to the process is good practice. Such recovery processes are widely used for basic metals, such as zinc, copper and nickel, which are used as valuable secondary raw materials SRM. High costs of recovery processes and high energy consumption as well as the variety of chemicals and metals used in STM processes often hinders recycling. In cases where recycling is not feasible, pretreatment of contaminated waste water on site and subsequent off-site treatment of generated metal containing sludges is standard practice. Permitting process Beside best practices in chemical management, the project also elaborated recommendations on enhancing the permitting process in the STM sector. It can be concluded that the existing general structure and content of the permit application procedures are as such sufficient to deal with hazardous substances and chemicals. Nevertheless, in practice the permit process could be improved with more communication between the applicant and the permitting authority during the application phase. More co-operation between chemical, environmental and occupational health authorities is suggested to achieve a smooth information flow and reduce double work regarding requirements under different legislations concerning chemicals and hazardous substances. In some countries, for example in Finland, the supervising practices in different parts of a given country need harmonising so that all installations are treated equally. This requires more and better communication between the respective environmental and chemical authorities within the country. The improved exchange of information and examples of good experiences between Member States would also, in the long run, contribute to more harmonised and better practices on European level. ; Bakgrund Det huvudsakliga instrumentet på EU-nivå för att kontrollera utsläpp från industrin är industriutsläppsdirektivet (IED), särskilt genom publicering av BATreferensdokument (BREF) och relaterade BAT-slutsatser, som är referensen för att fastställa tillståndsvillkoren i hela EU för IED-verksamheter. De hittills publicerade BREF-dokumenten innehåller emellertid inte tillräckligt med information om specifika farliga kemikalier som används och släpps ut från industrin vilket gör kontrollen svår för industrin och tillstånds- och tillsynsmyndigheterna. En av sektorerna som valts ut i HAZBREF-projektet är ytbehandling av metaller och plast (STM). Denna sektor valdes på grund av användningen av kemikalier, potentiella utsläpp, det breda utbudet av produkter samt tekniska processer och den kommande STM BREF-revideringen. De andra sektorerna HAZBREF har fokuserat på är textilindustri och kemisk industri, som behandlas i separata rapporter. Bristen på kunskap om användning och flöde av specifika farliga kemikalier i de industriella processerna gör det svårt att kontrollera och minska kemikalierna. Problemet är ofta att varken verksamhetsutövare eller myndigheter vet vilka ämnen som är relevanta att åtgärda och vilka skyddsåtgärder som behöver vidtas. Ytbehandling av metaller och plast omfattas av STM BREF-dokumentet, som publicerades 2006. Enligt EIPPCB: s senaste arbetsprogram planeras revideringen av STM BREF att börja 2021. Dokumentets syfte Denna vägledning innehåller information om användning av farliga kemikalier, bästa praxis inom kemikaliehantering och rekommendationer för att förbättra tillståndsprocessen inom STM-sektorn. Detta dokument sammanfattar resultaten från HAZBREF-projektet och baseras på fallstudier, intervjuer med myndigheter och expertbedömning. Syftet är att beskriva god praxis inom kemikaliehantering som ska användas av STM-verksamheter samt miljö- och kemikaliemyndigheter. Dessa inkluderar tekniska, organisatoriska och hanteringsaspekter och konkreta verktyg som stöder kemikaliehantering. Rapporten behandlar STM-sektorn som helhet i Europa, även om huvuddelen av resultaten härrör från verksamheter som har deltagit i fallstudierna och andra erfarenheter i Östersjöregionen. Dokumentet innehåller också allmänna beskrivningar av BAT-förslag relaterade till hantering av farliga kemikalier och ämnen. Dessa resultat i vägledningen kommer att ingå i den kommande revideringen av STM BREF. De kan vidare användas för HELCOMrekommendationer om hur man kan minska utsläppen av farliga ämnen i Östersjön Dessutom ger dokumentet en översikt över tillämpliga lagkrav, förfaranden och andra skyldigheter för verksamhetsutövare beträffande användning av kemikalier och utsläpp av farliga ämnen. Detta inkluderar vägledning för hur man kan identifiera och bedöma relevanta farliga ämnen som används och släpps ut från STM-anläggningarna. Huvudsakliga resultat och förslag Förbättring av kemikaliehanteringssystemet Ett kemikaliehanteringssystem ger ett systematiskt sätt att hantera kemikalier genom hela processen på anläggningen. De flesta av företagen har implementerat olika standarder som ISO 9000, ISO 14000, EMAS och integrerade EHS-program som också behandlar vissa aspekter av kemikaliehantering. Kvaliteten på kemikaliehanteringssystem i företagen varierar beroende på deras storlek, ägarförhållanden och medvetenhet. Integrering av god praxis för kemikaliehantering i redan implementerade ledningssystem stärker förmågan att minska miljörisker. HAZBREF-projektet rekommenderar upprättande och regelbunden användning av ett kemikaliehanteringssystem vid IED-verksamheter. Utveckling av en kemikalieinventering Att upprätta och underhålla en kemikalieinventering är en viktig förutsättning för en effektiv och ansvarsfull kemikaliehantering inom STM-sektorn. Alla kemikalier och råvaror som används i alla processer och aktiviteter på anläggningen bör, tillsammans med information om deras egenskaper, listas i en databas. En sådan databas är en viktig del av kemikaliehanteringen och möjliggör systematisk riskbedömning, hantering av kemikalieflöden och lagring. Informationen i kemikalielistan/databasen måste vara sökbar och bör uppdateras regelbundet. Merparten av den information som behövs finns i säkerhetsdatabladet (SDS). Om viss information saknas i säkerhetsdatabladet bör leverantören uppmanas att lämna denna. Bra rutiner för att hantera nya och uppdaterade säkerhetsdatablad är avgörande för att ha en uppdaterad och pålitlig kemikaliedatabas. Dessa rutiner bör omfatta hantering och uppdateringar på plats samt kommunikation med leverantörer om hur säkerhetsdatablad levereras. Välskötta kemikalielistor/databaser kan avsevärt förenkla ansökan om miljötillstånd för både verksamhetsutövare och tillståndsmyndigheter. Bättre användning av verktyg för kemikaliehantering och utbildning av personal Många referenser och verktyg finns tillgängliga för att stödja STM-företag och behöriga myndigheter i genomförandet av den goda kemikaliehanteringen som krävs i IED. HAZBREF rekommenderar verksamhetsutövare att använda lämpliga verktyg för riskbedömning och utvärdering av kemikaliehanteringens effektivitet. Användning och förbättring av riskbedömningsverktyg som utökade säkerhetsdatablad och analys av materialflöden bör främjas bland verksamhetsutövare i detta avseende. HAZBREF-projektet har utvecklat ett omfattande verktyg som hjälper verksamhetsutövarna att identifiera platsspecifika farliga ämnen som bör beaktas i strategiska och operativa beslut. Att öka medvetenheten och att utbilda personal i användningen av verktyg för kemikaliehantering och kemikaliehanteringssystem är avgörande för genomförandet av god kemikaliehanteringspraxis vid verksamheterna. Substitution En regelbunden kontroll som syftar till att identifiera potentiellt nya tillgängliga och säkrare alternativ till de farliga kemikalier som används är en viktig åtgärd för att minimera kemiska risker vid verksamheten. Ett framgångsrikt substitutionsarbete kan utföras i fyra steg: - Identifiering av farliga ämnen - Screening efter möjliga alternativ - Utvärdering och val av alternativ och Utveckling av nya alternativ. Substitution kan riktas mot alla farliga kemikalier som används på verksamheten där det behövs för att skydda miljön eller människors hälsa. Substitution som senare ångras (dvs. byta till att använda en ny kemikalie som är lika eller mer farlig än den substituerade kemikalien eller som resulterar i tvärmedieeffekter) måste undvikas. Bedömning och förbättring av säkerhetsdatablad Effektiv kemikaliehantering kräver hög kvalitet på säkerhetsdatablad (SDS). Säkerhetsdatabladet bör beskriva de kemiska egenskaperna tillräckligt och innehålla information om exponering (inklusive användning och utsläpp), ekotoxikologi och korrekt lagring och hantering. Ett SDS måste också innehålla information om huruvida den kemiska produkten innehåller SVHC-ämnen, prioriterade ämnen enligt vattendirektivet WFD och POPs-konventionen. Om en kemikalieleverantör inte tillhandahåller ett säkerhetsdatablad av tillräcklig kvalitet är det både verksamhetsutövaren och den behöriga myndighetens skyldighet att kräva informationen som saknas. Detta krävs redan enligt lag i vissa länder, t.ex. i Tyskland. Det är också viktigt att verksamhetsutövarna vet hur man tar fram och sammanfattar relevant information från säkerhetsdatabladet till sina tillståndsansökningar och verifierar kvaliteten på olika informationskällor. För att förbättra riskbedömning av enskilda kemikalier, som används i specifika processer, kan ett utökat säkerhetsdatablad inklusive exponeringsscenarier och förbättrade data om miljöeffekter underlätta. Detta skulle leda till effektivare övervakning och hjälp med att fokusera på ämnen som är farliga. För att få mer fullständiga kemikalieinventeringar kan förbättrade säkerhetsdatablad för råvaror med information om föroreningar eller tillsatser underlätta. Kontinuerlig förbättring av implementeringen av BAT Implementeringen av BAT måste kontinuerligt övervakas och förbättras vid verksamheten med beaktande av platsspecifika tekniska, ekonomiska och miljöaspekter. Resultaten från de polska HAZBREF-fallstudierna är att uppfyllandet av BAT-kraven kan vara utmanande om alla förbättringar behöver göras på kort tid. Till exempel anses slutna system vara nödvändiga ytterligare processintegrerade tekniker som det är viktigt att implementera steg för steg i verksamheten. Cirkulär ekonomi STM-sektorn är en betydande användare av icke förnybara resurser (metaller), och återvinning av återvunna metallinnehållande material såsom metallsubstrat eller elektrolyter tillbaka till processen är god praxis. Sådana återvinningsprocesser används ofta för basiska metaller, såsom zink, koppar och nickel, som används som värdefulla sekundära råvaror (SRM). Höga kostnader för återvinningsprocesser och hög energianvändning samt de många olika kemikalier och metaller som används i STM-processer hindrar ofta återvinning. I de fall återvinning inte är möjlig är förbehandling av förorenat avloppsvatten på plats och efterföljande behandling av genererat metallhaltigt slam praxis. Tillståndsprocessen Förutom bästa praxis inom kemikaliehantering utarbetades även rekommendationer för att förbättra tillståndsprocessen inom STM-sektorn. Man kan dra slutsatsen att den befintliga allmänna strukturen och innehållet i tillståndsansökningsförfarandena som sådana är tillräckliga för att hantera farliga ämnen och kemikalier. I praktiken kan tillståndsprocessen ändå förbättras med mer kommunikation mellan den sökande och tillståndsmyndigheten under ansökningsfasen. Mer samarbete mellan kemikalie-, miljö- och arbetsmiljömyndigheterna föreslås för att uppnå ett smidigt informationsflöde och minska dubbelarbete avseende krav enligt olika lagstiftning om kemikalier och farliga ämnen. I vissa länder, till exempel i Finland, måste praxis för tillsyn och övervakning i olika delar av landet harmoniseras så att alla verksamheter behandlas lika. Detta kräver mer och bättre kommunikation mellan miljö- och kemikaliemyndigheter i landet. Det förbättrade informationsutbytet och exempel på goda erfarenheter mellan medlemsstaterna skulle också på sikt bidra till mer harmoniserad och bättre praxis på europeisk nivå.
nvironmental risk posed by emissions of chemicals contained in products is an important issue that has been, so far, investigated to a relatively limited extent. In response, the research program ChEmiTecs was set up specifically to improve the understanding of mechanisms, magnitude of emissions on the national Swedish scale, as well as perception about, and management strategies of emissions of additives and other organic substances from articles to the environment. Additives are, as the name indicates, added to a material. This is done with a purpose to improve the properties of the product in its intended use. The societal benefit of, e.g., flame retardants is immense as they contribute to reduce the risk of fire. In order to maintain the purpose of the additive, it should stay in the product. The fact that additives are nevertheless released to some extent is therefore rather an unwanted consequence. In order to understand the mechanisms and magnitude of the emissions, different methods were combined: A product – material – substance inventory was developed of the flows and stocks of the relevant articles and their material constituents with their content of relevant substances, typically organic functional additives. The inventory was based on national trade statistics and well-informed estimates of life length, areas of the articles, and additive content as inventory elements. The research showed that it is possible to use national trade statistics as a starting point to estimate societal stocks of additives, and a total amount of 3×106 tonnes of organic chemical additives was estimated to be stored in plastic materials in articles within the Swedish technosphere. Product categories of particular interest are plastic products such as pipes and hoses, films and boards, and the plastic components of other products such as insulated wires and cables, furniture (sofas), and passenger cars including tires. Chemicals stored in large amounts are typically plasticizers (including the groups phthalates and adipates), organic pigments and flame retardants (for example brominated or phosphorous-based flame retardants). Computational models were applied for calculating product-group and nation-wide emissions based on the inventory. A simple model selected from literature was used to provide a rough estimate with the widest possible coverage for National scale emissions with manageable data need. An advanced computational model was also developed in the program. This model was calibrated by controlled emission chamber experiments for a small sample of test cases, and was then applied to a limited number of detailed product inventories. Results of these data-intensive calculations in the advanced model were also validated against measured concentrations in the environment. The results were then compared with results of the rough model, to get an idea of the accuracy of the national estimate. The ChEmiTecs assessments indicate national molecular emissions to air of plastics additives from the societal stock of material and products NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 8 during their service life to be in the order of 500 tonnes per year. As an approach to getting an idea of the severity of these emissions, a comparison was made with intentionally released biocides. As chemical substances may have very different properties in terms of potential harm to the environment, a direct comparison in terms of mass flow is not very meaningful. Instead, substance emissions were recalculated to ecotoxicity scores with a model developed in the life cycle assessment science domain. The scores obtained indicate lower overall ecotoxicity potential of emissions of additives on the national Swedish scale compared to biocides. The results need to be taken with great precaution as there were significant data gaps. Emissions from waste and waste management were also not included in this calculation. The mechanisms determining the emissions are complex. But at least the results from the research confirm some basic circumstances: - Products with a large surface area (e.g. upholstered furniture, pipes and hoses, polymer films, etc.) were identified to favour emissions. Given a certain combination of material and additive, the emissions will be roughly proportional to the area of the object. - Smaller molecules are more likely to be emitted than big ones. "Small" and "Big" may refer to the molecular weight, but also to the shape of the molecule, so that stretched out molecules with long branches are getting more entangled in the matrix material than compact molecules with short branches, and therefore tend to emit more slowly. - Higher temperature will typically result in higher emissions, which was exemplified with releases of Tri-phenyl-phosphate (TPP) from flat computer screens. - The specific affinity of the additive to the matrix material is important, but it is a complex issue, as it depends on properties for both the additive and the matrix. - An additive's tendency to transfer to the surrounding medium is typically expressed as a partitioning coefficient. For semi-volatile and low volatility chemicals, to which groups additives often belong, the release rate is more determined by the molecule's tendency to transfer from the surface to the surrounding medium than the migration rate within the matrix. To summarize, it appears evident that the combined properties of the material and the molecule as well as the surrounding conditions are crucial for the emissions. Emissions from articles cannot fully explain the environmental occurrence of the substances in a certain location or Nation, thus other sources such as direct industrial releases and/or atmospheric long-range transport may be equally or more important. However, in the indoor environment, consumer products including building materials are more or less the sole sources of many organic chemicals, and may thus have a significant contribution to overall human exposure. Chemicals of particular interest are plasticizers and flame retardants, e.g. phthalates and organophosphates. Common for NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 9 these substances are that many of the products they occur in are used in the indoor environment (plastic flooring, furniture). Accounting for article lifetime and typical release rates as calculated in ChEmiTecs and supported by other work in literature indicates very clearly that more than 90 % and in most cases more than 99 % of the added chemical additives remain in the products at the end-of-life, which means that the major share of the originally added substance of the substances will enter the waste and recycling streams. This is important to consider as they may be eliminated if the products are incinerated, or re-circulated into new materials and products if the material is recycled. According to the surveys conducted within the program with consumers and producers during the year 2012, emissions from articles are not generally perceived to be of major concern from a health or environmental perspective. Producers were of the opinion that they have the necessary tools to perform risk assessments, and they are reasonably content with the current legislation. Consumers were mostly concerned with potential risks for workers and to the local environment near production plants. Studies carried out within ChEmiTecs also showed that the Swedish environmental goals are in general terms not important drivers towards voluntary agreements to change chemical contents in consumer articles. Here, stricter requirements are therefore needed to promote change. The following recommendations were formulated on the basis of the outcome of the research: • The accessible information about content of additives and other chemicals in articles is quite limited. Supply chains consist of several steps, and companies selling articles on the market are often not aware of the additives content of their products. Article 33 in REACH is in theory a mechanism requiring such companies to know their articles' content. Ideally, this additive content information should be combined with the collection of statistical information on trade. A requirement from authorities and a registry of additive content in articles, analogous to the "Product registry" for chemicals and blends operated by the Chemicals Agency, could potentially be a suitable mechanism to push for such information. This is essentially a pre-requisite for reliable estimates of stocks of chemicals from products in the future. • Within its Environmental monitoring activities, Swedish EPA carries out regular screenings campaigns of chemicals in the environment. Screening activities of chemical content in products would be a good complement, which would contribute to knowledge on additives and other chemicals content in articles. Similarly, we emphasize the need for new requirements on emission testing of a wider range of chemicals. Providing sufficient data availability, the NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 10 ChEmiTecs emission model could be an important tool to assist in such assessments. • It should be evaluated whether product specific rules could be suitable as a complement to REACH for consumer articles where hazardous chemicals are present and the use is widespread, such as textiles and building products. • Producers should strive to minimize the content of chemicals with hazardous properties in general and in particular in products made of porous materials and/or of large surface areas aimed for use in the indoor environment. • Emissions from multilayer products and via migration and abrasion need to be further investigated. More recent research indicates that direct migration to dust can contribute significantly to the levels found in the indoor environment. • Since the major share of the chemical additives are estimated to remain in articles at the end of their life there is a need for alertness among waste managers and recycling industry to handle this. Information about the content of goods that reach the waste stream could contribute to this. ; n Varor (Organic Chemicals Emitted from Technosphere Articles - ChEmiTecs) var ett forskningsprogram som löpte under åren 2007-2013 och som finansierades av Naturvårdsverket. Målet med programmet var att öka förståelsen av mekanismer, omfattningen och konsekvenserna av utsläpp av organiska ämnen från varor. I samarbete med myndigheter, tillverkare och nedströmsanvändare identifierades tekniska och sociala aspekter som bidrar till problemet med utsläpp från varor, i syfte att skapa en gemensam förståelse för problemet och dess sammanhang. En urvalsstrategi togs fram i syfte att identifiera problematiska ämnen, varor och användningsmönster. Därefter kvantifierades utsläpp av ett litet urval av ämnen från varor och uppskattades med hjälp av modellbaserad extrapolering för ett stort antal andra ämnen. Betydelsen av dessa utsläpp bedömdes bland annat i förhållande till andra utsläppskällor. Forskningen visade att det är möjligt att använda den nationella handelsstatistiken som en utgångspunkt för att bedöma mängden av kemiska ämnen som är upplagrade i samhället, och totalt uppskattades den upplagrade mängden av organiska kemiska additiv i plastmaterial i varor i den svenska teknosfären till 3×106 ton. Produktkategorier av särskilt intresse är rör och slangar, plastprodukter såsom plastfilm och skivor, isolerade ledningar och kablar, möbler (soffor) samt personbilar inklusive däck. Kemikaliegrupper som är upplagrade i stora mängder är framför allt mjukgörare (inklusive grupper såsom ftalater och adipater), organiska pigment samt flamskyddsmedel (till exempel bromerade och fosforbaserade flamskyddsmedel). Emissioner av kemikalier från varor bedömdes genom att kombinera olika skattningsmetoder med beräkningsmetoder som kalibrerats med hjälp av kontrollerade experiment samt genom dubbelkontroll där spridningsmodeller anpassades med stöd i empiriska miljödata. De beräkningar som gjorts inom programmet tyder på att den enkla modell som tillämpades för att beräkna emissioner på nationell skala för ett brett antal produktgrupper överskattar utsläppen av plasttillsatser från produkter. Resultat från den mer avancerade beräkningsmodellen som utvecklades inom programmet tyder på att utsläppen från varor i medeltal motsvarar ca 0.2 promille av de additiver som finns upplagrat i varorna. För vissa produktgrupper kan dock utsläppen uppgå till några procent av den upplagrade mängden. Utifrån antagandet att 0.2 promille av de upplagrade kemikalierna emitteras från varor, uppskattades de årliga nationella utsläppen av plasttillsatser i den samlade materialstocken till i storleksordningen 500 ton. Uppskattningen 500 ton per år enligt ovan måste ses som en grov och relativt osäker skattning, eftersom mekanismerna för ämnens avgång från ett material är komplexa. Det är de kombinerade egenskaperna hos materialet, molekylen och omgivande miljön som är avgörande för utsläppen. Vissa samband kan lyftas fram: NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 12 - Produkter tillverkade med en stor ytarea (till exempel stoppade möbler, rör och slangar och bildäck) verkar ge upphov till höga utsläpp. - Små molekyler emitteras i större grad än stora molekyler. Här hänvisar små och stora molekyler både till molekylvikt men även till molekylstruktur, där avlånga förgrenade molekyler ofta hindras av materialet i matrisen och därmed tenderar att emitteras långsammare. - Temperatur är en viktig faktor som påverkar utsläppen. Högre temperatur kan leda till högre utsläpp, vilket inom programmet påvisats med försök på utsläpp av trifenylfosfat (TPP) från LCD-skärmar. - Additivets affinitet till materialmatrisen är en viktig men komplex faktor som påverkar utsläppen, då affiniteten påverkas av egenskaperna hos både additivet och materialet. - Additiver kategoriseras vanligen som semiflyktiga eller lågflyktiga ämnen. Avgången av dessa ämnen från ett matrismaterials yta verkar avgöras i många fall i högre utsträckning av ämnets benägenhet att gå över till omgivningsmiljön, t ex förångas från ytan, än av migrationshastigheten i matrismaterialet. Med produktens livslängd i beaktande uppskattades mer än 90 % och i de flesta fall mer än 99 % av de tillsatta kemiska additiven finnas kvar i produkterna i slutet av dess livslängd, vilket innebär att de flesta av additiven kommer in i avfalls- och återvinningsleden. Där kan de elimineras om produkterna förbränns, eller så kan additiven återcirkuleras in i nya material och produkter vid materialåtervinning. Forskningen inom programmet visar att utsläpp från produkter inte helt kan förklara förekomsten av ämnena i den yttre miljön. Således kan andra källor såsom industriella utsläpp och långväga transport via luft även vara viktiga. När det gäller inomhusmiljön är konsumentprodukter, inklusive byggmaterial mer eller mindre de enda källorna till förekomsten av många organiska ämnen (till exempel ftalater och organofosfater), vilket kan ha betydelse för människors exponering. Enligt de undersökningar som gjordes inom programmet under år 2012 med avseende på konsumenters och producenters inställning till emissioner från varor är slutsatsen att utsläpp från varor i allmänhet inte uppfattas som ett stort hälso- eller miljöproblem. Producenter var av den uppfattningen att de har de nödvändiga verktygen för att utföra riskbedömningar, och de är ganska nöjda med den nuvarande lagstiftningen, vilken också är den starkaste drivkraften i deras miljöarbete. Konsumenterna var av uppfattningen att riskerna är störst för arbetstagare och den lokala miljön i närheten av produktionsanläggningar. I allmänhet föredrar konsumenter märkning för att kommunicera produktinnehåll. I syfte att belysa problematiken vad gäller risker för miljön gjordes en jämförelse av möjlig giftpåverkan på vattenmiljö (potentiell ekotoxicitet) mellan plastadditiv och biocider med hjälp av en beräkningsmodell som traditionellt används inom livscykelanalysforskningen. Beräkningarna visar att den totala möjliga giftpåverkan av utsläppta NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 13 tillsatsämnen från plastprodukter i Sverige är lägre än den är från avsiktligt utsläppta biocider. Dock omfattar denna analys inte alla relevanta effektmått och det var heller inte möjligt att bedöma samtliga plastadditiv på grund av databrist. Utsläpp från avfallsledet finns heller inte med i denna beräkning. I allmänhet är kunskapsluckorna fortfarande stora när det gäller egenskaper och toxicitet av kemiska tillsatser i konsumentprodukter, vilket minskar möjligheten till en gedigen utvärdering och dimensionering av hälso- och miljöpåverkan av kemikalier i varor ur ett riskperspektiv. Studierna inom ChEmiTecs visade att de svenska miljömålen i sig inte utgör några viktiga drivkrafter för att träffa frivilliga överenskommelser med syfte att ändra kemikalieinnehåll i konsumentvaror. Studierna indikerade också att marknadstrycket för att få producenter att ändra innehåll är ganska svagt, även om arbete pågår inom vissa branscher. Drivkrafter i dessa fall är typiskt kommande lagstiftning eller förväntad kommande lagstiftning. Resultat framtagna inom ChEmiTecs-programmet visar även på ett behov av att stärka den produktspecifika lagstiftningen som ett komplement till REACH i syfte att minska riskerna med farliga ämnen för vissa produkter, exempelvis byggprodukter och textilier. Följande rekommendationer formulerades på grundval av resultatet av forskningen inom programmet: • Information om additivinnehåll i varor är fortsatt starkt begränsad. I många fall är nedströms varuproducenter också begränsat medvetna om förekomsten av additiver i materialen i sina produkter. Artikel 33 i REACH föreskriver att leverantörer ska kunna förmedla information om ämnen på kandidatlistan över föreskriven halt i sina produkter, vilket indirekt innebär ett krav på att veta det faktiska innehållet i varor. En mekanism för att åstadkomma bättre information om upplagring av additiver i varor i samhällets materialstock, och emissioner av dessa, vore att ha ett register över varors innehåll liknande Kemikalieinspektionens Produktregister för kemikalier och beredningar, kombinerat med dagens statistik över med Industrins varuproduktion och varuimport och –export. • Som komplement till dagens screeningprogram som mäter upp och övervakar halter av kemikalier i miljön, rekommenderar vi att det via lämpliga marknadskontrollmyndigheter och Naturvårdsverket satsat på ett "screeningprogram" för kemikalier i varor. En del av en sådan satsning kan också vara att implementera nya krav på utsläppstester, t ex med hjälp av emissionskammare, av ett bredare spektrum av ämnen. Sådana krav kan till exempel kopplas till ovan nämnda produktspecifika lagstiftning, för att driva utveckling mot lägre konsumentexponering från varor. • Lagstiftare bör utvärdera om produktspecifika regler skulle kunna vara ett lämpligt komplement till REACH för konsumentprodukter där farliga ämnen NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 14 förekommer och användningen är utbredd, såsom t ex textilier och byggprodukter • Producenter bör sträva mot att minimera innehållet av ämnen med farliga egenskaper i produkter tillverkade av porösa material eller som har stora ytor, i synnerhet i sådana produkter som är avsedda för användning inomhus. • Utsläppen från flerskiktsprodukter och via direkt migration till damm samt via slitage behöver utredas ytterligare. Aktuell forskning visar att direkt migration från produkter till damm kan ge ett betydande bidrag till kemikalienivåerna som påvisas i inomhusmiljön. • Eftersom huvuddelen av tillsatta kemiska additiv bedöms finnas kvar i produkterna i slutet av deras livslängd behöver det finnas beredskap i avfalls- och återvinningsleden att hantera detta. Information om varornas innehåll som även når avfallsledet skulle kunna bidra till denna hantering.
LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration, Fermi GBM, INTEGRAL, IceCube Collaboration, AstroSat Cadmium Zinc Telluride Imager Team, IPN Collaboration, The Insight-HXMT Collaboration, ANTARES Collaboration, The Swift Collaboration, AGILE Team, The 1M2H Team, The Dark Energy Camera GW-EM Collaboration and the DES Collaboration, The DLT40 Collaboration, GRAWITA: GRAvitational Wave Inaf TeAm, The Fermi Large Area Telescope Collaboration, ATCA: Australia Telescope Compact Array, ASKAP: Australian SKA Pathfinder, Las Cumbres Observatory Group, OzGrav, DWF (Deeper, Wider, Faster Program), AST3, and CAASTRO Collaborations, The VINROUGE Collaboration, MASTER Collaboration, J-GEM, GROWTH, JAGWAR, CaltechNRAO, TTU-NRAO, and NuSTAR Collaborations, Pan-STARRS, The MAXI Team, TZAC Consortium, KU Collaboration, Nordic Optical Telescope, ePESSTO, GROND, Texas Tech University, SALT Group, TOROS: Transient Robotic Observatory of the South Collaboration, The BOOTES Collaboration, MWA: Murchison Widefield Array, The CALET Collaboration, IKI-GW Follow-up Collaboration, H.E.S.S. Collaboration, LOFAR Collaboration, LWA: Long Wavelength Array, HAWC Collaboration, The Pierre Auger Collaboration, ALMA Collaboration, Euro VLBI Team, Pi of the Sky Collaboration, The Chandra Team at McGill University, DFN: Desert Fireball Network, ATLAS, High Time Resolution Universe Survey, RIMAS and RATIR, and SKA South Africa/MeerKAT ; On 2017 August 17 a binary neutron star coalescence candidate (later designated GW170817) with merger time 12:41:04 UTC was observed through gravitational waves by the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo detectors. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor independently detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) with a time delay of $\sim 1.7\,{\rm{s}}$ with respect to the merger time. From the gravitational-wave signal, the source was initially localized to a sky region of 31 deg2 at a luminosity distance of ${40}_{-8}^{+8}$ Mpc and with component masses consistent with neutron stars. The component masses were later measured to be in the range 0.86 to 2.26 $\,{M}_{\odot }$. An extensive observing campaign was launched across the electromagnetic spectrum leading to the discovery of a bright optical transient (SSS17a, now with the IAU identification of AT 2017gfo) in NGC 4993 (at $\sim 40\,{\rm{Mpc}}$) less than 11 hours after the merger by the One-Meter, Two Hemisphere (1M2H) team using the 1 m Swope Telescope. The optical transient was independently detected by multiple teams within an hour. Subsequent observations targeted the object and its environment. Early ultraviolet observations revealed a blue transient that faded within 48 hours. Optical and infrared observations showed a redward evolution over ~10 days. Following early non-detections, X-ray and radio emission were discovered at the transient's position $\sim 9$ and $\sim 16$ days, respectively, after the merger. Both the X-ray and radio emission likely arise from a physical process that is distinct from the one that generates the UV/optical/near-infrared emission. No ultra-high-energy gamma-rays and no neutrino candidates consistent with the source were found in follow-up searches. These observations support the hypothesis that GW170817 was produced by the merger of two neutron stars in NGC 4993 followed by a short gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) and a kilonova/macronova powered by the radioactive decay of r-process nuclei synthesized in the ejecta. ; Kavli Foundation ; Danmarks Grundforskningsfond ; Niels Bohr International Academy ; DARK Cosmology Centre ; National Science Foundation (NSF) AST-1518052 AST-141242 AST-1411763 AST-1714498 AST-1517649 PHY-1607291 AST-1412421 AST-1313484 ; Gordon AMP; Betty Moore Foundation ; Heising-Simons Foundation ; Alfred P. Sloan Foundation ; The David & Lucile Packard Foundation ; DNRF ; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT) ; Space Telescope Science Institute National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) HST-HF-51348.001 HST-HF-51373.001 ; National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) NAS5-26555 NNX15AE50G NNX16AC22G NAS5-00136 NNX08AR22G NNX12AR65G NNX14AM74G NNX12AR55G NNM13AA43C NNM11AA01A NNX15AE60G PF6-170148 PF7-180162 ; INAF ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Italian Space Agency (ASI) I/028/12/2 ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; French Atomic Energy Commission ; Commission Europeenne (FEDER), France ; Commission Europeenne, France ; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), France ; IdEx, France ; Sorbonne Paris Cite, France ANR-10-LABX-0023 ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02 ; Labex OCEVU, France ANR-11-LABX-0060 ; A*MIDEX, France ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02 ; Region Ile-de-France ; Region Alsace (CPER), France ; Region Provence-Alpes-Cite d'Azur, France ; Region Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) ; Netherlands Government ; Council of the President of the Russian Federation, Russia ; National Authority for Scientific Research (ANCS), Romania ; Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO): Plan Estatal de Investigacion (MINECO/FEDER), Spain FPA2015-65150-C3-1-P FPA2015-65150-C3-2-P FPA2015-65150-C3-3-P ; Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence and MultiDark Consolider (MINECO), Spain ; Prometeo program (Generalitat Valenciana), Spain ; Grisolia program (Generalitat Valenciana), Spain ; Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Professional Training, Morocco ; National Basic Research Program of China 2013CB834901 2013CB834900 2013CB834903 ; Chinese Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation AMP; Assessment Program CHINARE2016-02-03-05 ; Tsinghua University ; Nanjing University ; Beijing Normal University ; University of New South Wales ; Texas AM University ; Australian Antarctic Division ; National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) of Australia ; Chinese Academy of Sciences through Center for Astronomical Mega-Science ; National Astronomical Observatory of China (NAOC) ; Argentina-Comision Nacional de Energia Atomica ; ANPCyT ; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas (CONICET) ; Gobierno de la Provincia de Mendoza ; Municipalidad de Malargue ; NDM Holdings and Valle Las Lenas ; Australian Research Council ; National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) ; Ciencia Tecnologia e Inovacao (FINEP) ; Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) ; Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) 2010/07359-6 1999/05404-3 ; Ministerio da Ciencia, Tecnologia, Inovacoes e Comunicacoes (MCTIC) ; Czech Republic Government MSMT CR LG15014 LO1305 LM2015038 CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001402 ; France-Centre de Calcul IN2P3/CNRS ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; Region Ile-de-France ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; Departement Sciences de l'Univers (SDU-INSU/CNRS) ; French National Research Agency (ANR) LABEX ANR-10-LABX-63 ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02 ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; German Research Foundation (DFG) ; Finanzministerium Baden-Wurttemberg ; Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP) ; Helmholtz Association ; Ministerium fur Innovation, Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen ; Ministerium fur Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst des Landes Baden-Wurttemberg ; Italy-Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Istituto Nazionale Astrofisica (INAF) ; Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) ; CETEMPS Center of Excellence ; Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (Italy) ; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT) 167733 ; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico ; Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigacion e Innovacion Tecnologica (PAPIIT) ; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico ; Netherlands - Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) ; FOM (The Netherlands) ; Poland-National Centre for Research and Development ERA-NET-ASPERA/01/11 ERA-NET-ASPERA/02/11 ; National Science Centre 2013/08/M/ST9/00322 2013/08/M/ST9/00728 HARMONIA 5-2013/10/M/ST9/00062 UMO-2016/22/M/ST9/00198 ; Portugal-Portuguese national funds ; FEDER within Programa Operacional Factores de Competitividade through Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (COMPETE) ; Romania-Romanian Authority for Scientific Research ANCS ; CNDI-UEFISCDI 20/2012 194/2012 PN 16 42 01 02 ; Slovenia-Slovenian Research Agency ; Spain-Comunidad de Madrid ; European Union (EU) ; Spanish Government ; Xunta de Galicia ; European Union (EU) FP7-PEOPLE-2012-IEF-328826 ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) DE-AC02-07CH11359 DE-FR02-04ER41300 DE-FG02-99ER41107 DE-SC0011689 ; National Science Foundation (NSF) 0450696 ; Grainger Foundation ; Marie Curie-IRSES/EPLANET ; European Particle Physics Latin American Network ; European Union (EU) PIRSES-2009-GA-246806 ; European Union's Horizon research and innovation programme 646623 ; UNESCO ; Australian Research Council FT150100099 FL15010014 ; Australian Government Department of Industry, Innovation and Science ; Western Australian and Australian Governments ; Australian Government Department of Industry, Innovation and Science ; Australian Research Council CE170100013 ; Spanish Government AYA 2015-71718-R ; Junta de Andalucia TIC-2839 ; National Research Foundation NRF-2015R1A2A1A01006870 DGE-1144469 ; Korea Basic Science Research Program NRF2014R1A6A3A03057484 NRF-2015R1D1A4A01020961 ; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (Mexico) through Laboratorios Nacionales Program (Mexico) ; Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA-CSIC, Spain) ; Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU, South Korea) ; Australian Research Council CE110001020 ; Australian Research Council LE130100104 ; National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) ; Italian Space Agency (ASI) ; JAXA ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) JP 17H06362 JP26220708 JP17H02901 JP17H06363 JP15H00788 JP24103003 JP10147214 JP10147207 ; Chandra X-ray Observatory Center GO7-18033X ; National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) NAS8-03060 ; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada ; Fonds de recherche du Quebec-Nature et Technologies (FRQNT) ; UKSA ; Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR) ; Department of Space (DoS), Government of India ; European Union (EU) 653477 ; ESO 199.D-0143 099.D-0376 ; German Research Foundation (DFG) HA 1850/28-1 Kl 766/16-3 ; European Union (EU) 291222 615929 647208 725161 ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ST/P000312/1 ; ERF ST/M005348/1 ST/P000495/1 ; Marie Sklodowska-Curie 702538 ; Polish NCN OPUS 2015/17/B/ST9/03167 ; Knut & Alice Wallenberg Foundation ; California Institute of Technology ; Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT) CONICYT FONDECYT 3160504 ; National Science Foundation (NSF) AST-1311862 ; Quantum Universe I-Core program ; Kimmel award ; IRC GOIPG/2017/1525 ; Australian Research Council CE110001020 FT160100028 ; Millennium Science Initiative IC120009 ; NASA through Fermi-GBM ; Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) via Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) 50 QV 0301 ; Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) 50 OG 1101 ; Science Foundation Ireland 12/IP/1288 ; National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; French Atomic Energy Commission ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; Italian Space Agency (ASI) ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) ; High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) ; JAXA (Japan) ; Knut & Alice Wallenberg Foundation ; Swedish Research Council ; National Space Board (Sweden) ; Istituto Nazionale Astrofisica (INAF) ; Centre National D'etudes Spatiales ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) DE-AC02-76SF00515 ; Office of Naval Research N00014-07-C0147 ; National Science Foundation under University Radio Observatory AST-1139963 AST-1139974 ; ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory 099.D-0382 099.D-0622 099.D-0191 099.D-0116 ; REM telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory 35020 ; Department of University and Research (MIUR) ; Italian Space Agency (ASI) ; Russian Academy of Sciences ; Istituto Nazionale Astrofisica (INAF) ; BIC 114332KYSB20160007 ; Chinese Academy of Sciences KJZD-EW-M06 ; National Natural Science Foundation of China 11673062 ; Oversea Talent Program of Yunnan Province ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ; Slovenian Research Agency - Slovenia P1-0188 ; Sorbonne Paris Cite ANR-10-LABX-0023 ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02 ; GROWTH (Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients Happen) - National Science Foundation under PIRE 1545949 ; California Institute of Technology (USA) ; University of Maryland College Park (USA) ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science 15H05437 ; JST Consortia ; University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA) ; Texas Tech University (USA) ; San Diego State University (USA) ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; Los Alamos National Laboratory ; Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan) ; National Central University (Taiwan) ; Indian Institute of Astrophysics (India) ; Inter-University Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics (India) ; Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel) ; Oskar Klein Centre at Stockholm University (Sweden) ; Humboldt University (Germany) ; Liverpool John Moores University (UK) ; Planning and Budgeting Committee ; Israel Science Foundation ; Large Synoptic Survey Telescope Corporation ; National Science Foundation (NSF) 1455090 ; ERC grant TReX ; Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) ; NRL ; Oxford Centre for Astrophysical Surveys ; Hintze Family Charitable Foundation ; Swedish Research Council ; Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Israeli ministry of Science ; US-Israel Binational Science Foundation ; I-CORE of the Planning and Budgeting Committee ; Swedish Research Council 2016 03657 3 ; Swedish National Space Board Dnr. 107/16 ; Gravitational Radiation and Electromagnetic Astrophysical Transients (GREAT) - Swedish Research council (V.R.) Dnr. 2016-06012 ; Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India ; Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation ; National Science Foundation (NSF) ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory ; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT) 271051 232656 167281 260378 179588 239762 254964 271737 258865 243290 ; Red HAWC, Mexico ; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico RG100414 IN111315 IN111716-3 IA102715 109916 ; VIEP-BUAP ; University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation ; Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory ; Polish Science Centre DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945 ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; Max Planck Society ; Foundation CELLEX ; German Research Foundation (DFG) ; Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; Ministry of Research, France ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) ; Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ; IPNP of the Charles University ; Grant Agency of the Czech Republic ; Polish National Science Centre ; South African Department of Science and Technology ; National Research Foundation ; University of Namibia ; National Commission on Research, Science and Technology of Namibia (NCRST) ; Innsbruck University ; Austrian Science Fund (FWF) ; Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy ; University of Adelaide ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ; University of Amsterdam ; EGI Federation ; China National Space Administration (CNSA) ; Chinese Academy of Sciences XDB23040400 ; Ministry of Science and Technology, China 2016YFA0400800 ; National Science Foundation (NSF) ; Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin-Madison ; Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center ; Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources ; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada ; WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada ; Swedish Research Council ; Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Sweden ; Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), Sweden ; Knut & Alice Wallenberg Foundation ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) ; German Research Foundation (DFG) ; Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Germany ; Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association, Germany ; FWO ; Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS ; FWO Odysseus programme ; Flanders Institute ; Belgian Federal Science Policy Office ; Royal Society of New Zealand ; Marsden Fund (NZ) ; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) ; National Research Foundation of Korea ; Villum Fonden, Denmark ; Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark ; Russian Science Foundation (RSF) 15-1230015 14-22-00271 ; Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan 0075/GF4 ; RUSTAVELI FR/379/6-300/14 ; European Space Agency ; ESA Russia ; ESA USA ; French Atomic Energy Commission ; Centre National D'etudes Spatiales ; Helmholtz Association ; German Aerospace Centre (DLR) ; INTA ; OSTC ; Istituto Nazionale Astrofisica (INAF) Italian Space Agency (ASI) 2013-025-R.1 ; German INTEGRAL through DLR 50 OG 1101 ; Spanish MINECO/FEDER ESP2015-65712-C5-1-R ; Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) 16-29-13009-ofi-m ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) JP16H02183 JP15H02075 JP15H02069 JP26800103 JP25800103 ; Inter-University Cooperation Program of the MEXT ; NINS program ; Toyota Foundation D11-R-0830 ; Mitsubishi Foundation ; Yamada Science Foundation ; Inoue Foundation for Science ; National Research Foundation - South Africa ; NRF 2017R1A3A3001362 ; KASI 2017-1-830-03 ; Israel Science Foundation 541/17 ; Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) - India ; Department of Science & Technology (India) ; Science AMP; Engineering Research Board (SERB), India ; Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MHESR) ; Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigacion ; Vicepresidencia i Conselleria d'Innovacio Recerca i Turisme ; Conselleria d'Educacio i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears ; Conselleria d'Educacio Investigacio Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana ; National Science Centre of Poland ; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) ; Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) ; Russian Science Foundation (RSF) ; European Commission Joint Research Centre ; European Union (EU) ; Royal Society of London ; Scottish Funding Council ; Scottish Universities Physics Alliance ; Orszagos Tudomanyos Kutatasi Alapprogramok (OTKA) ; Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO) ; National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI) ; National Research Foundation of Korea ; Industry Canada and Province of Ontario through Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation ; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada ; Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR) ; Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications ; International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR) ; Hong Kong Research Grants Council ; National Natural Science Foundation of China ; Chinese Academy of Sciences ; Ministry of Science and Technology, China ; Leverhulme Trust ; Research Corporation for Science Advancement ; Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan ; RIKEN ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) JP 17H06362 ; EVN RP029 ; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme 653477 ; European Research Council (ERC) 647208 ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research through NWO VIDI 639.042.612-Nissanke ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) 62002444-Nissanke ; VISIR 60.A-9392 ; MOST104-2923-M-008-004-MY5 ; MOST106-2112-M-008-007
This report identifies and describes the most prominent exogenous factors affecting nature-based tourism (NBT). Megatrends and associated sub-trends were identified by means of a literature review and structured using the STEEP framework, including social, technological, economic, environmental and political drivers (Dwyer et al., 2009). Research papers published in English language journals were obtained by searching electronic databases of scientific and tourism journals (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Oria). A total of 151 research papers (including 109 peer reviewed journal articles) published between the years 1998-2017 were identified. The peer reviewed research papers were published in 55 different journals spanning a wide array of disciplines. Concluding remarks put the results in the context of Norwegian nature-based toursm. Social trends • Population growth. Will lead to an overall increase in participation in nature-based tourism. However, such unprecedented growths can also lead to an overuse of natural attractions negatively affecting natural resources. • Changes in household composition. Family households are getting smaller. Sole-parent and single-person households becoming more prevalent. More income and discretionary time to travel and participate in recreational activities. • Ageing population. Healthier, wealthier and more active older persons. Growingly interested in nature-based activities which accommodate their reduced physical abilities, i.e. less strenuous activities. • Health and well-being. More emphasis on mental health; de-stressing and self-medicating. People increasingly seek out nature-based activities as a form of natural therapy/treatment. • Urbanization. Urban congestion is threatening natural environments and leading to loss of landscape. People's need for green spaces is growing, thus, the demand for NBT is increasing as well. • Changing work patterns. A reduction in physically demanding employment and household work leads to increased demand for physical activity during leisure time. The growing middle class with more flexible working conditions and an increasing disposable time and income is allowing for more flexible travel plans and a desire to spend holidays in new and exotic natural destinations. • Gender. Modern societies are more feminized and women highly influence the choice of leisure activities. Women are prone to choosing NBT activities and products of high convenience, quality and beauty. While men value challenging NBT activities (e.g. hunting, fishing, adventure activities). • Increasing cultural diversity. Multicultural society is altering NBT visitor markets. Inflow of tourists with different cultural backgrounds, preferences and expectations, may lead to conflicts among them. New management interventions required in order to accommodate tourists' different needs and expectations, and prevent probable conflicts. • Values and lifestyles. Today's tourist is money rich/time poor, individualistic, seeking unique, personalized and authentic experiences. Tourists are increasingly interested in participating in NBT activities as it helps them understand themselves better, achieve a sense of transformation and identity. Moreover, there is an increasing environmental awareness among them. Technological trends • Transportation. New technology is reducing the cost and the increasing speed of travel. Increasing accessibility to various tourist destinations. Schemes to reduce carbon emissions are expected to negatively impact destinations far from markets. • High-tech equipment. Outdoor high-tech recreational equipment and clothing are providing recreationists with increased comfort, safety and access to nature destinations. Growth in participation in different types of NBT activities. • Information and communication technology (ICT). Advanced technology allows tourist destinations to add value for their visitors and minimize operating costs. Electronic word-of-mouth becomes an increasingly important factor for destination image and travel behavior. Social media allow for more transparency between customers and suppliers. More competition among tourist destinations and greater consumer power. Mobile technology and expanded mobile service covering remote areas will encourage tourists to visit and experience new, unknown nature areas. For NBT, Internet of Things is expected to help in managing visitors flow in outdoor areas, improve traffic management and enhance the monitoring of fragile ecosystems. Indoorization of outdoor activities and artificial recreations settings may signal a shift away from recreation in nature, but it is also argued that such services can stimulate participating in NBT. Economic Trends • Economic growth in developed economies. Economic growth, increasing income and disposable time in developed countries allow more people to spend more time and money on nature-based experiences. • Economic growth in emerging economies. Economic growth in emerging economies of the BRIC nations, especially China and India, will significantly contribute to the expansion of tourism. This is leading to an alteration in the cultural and ethnic mix of tourists arriving to the EU. These tourists bring different behaviour, expectations and demands, e.g. Chinese tourists are found to be more interested in passive enjoyment of natural scenery (i.e. sightseeing) rather than active involvement in NBT activities. • Sharing economy. Tourism services and businesses such as hotels, restaurants and tour operators are being challenged and gradually replaced by individuals who offer budget-friendly services such as accommodation, transportation, excursions and meals. • Fuel costs. Despite temporary reductions, oil prices are expected to increase again which will negatively impact travel propensity via increased cost for flight tickets and introduction of fuel charges. Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies are expected to restrict and hinder future travel. Environmental trends • Climate change. Have a direct impact on NBT. Winter tourism is negatively impacted in regions such as Northern Europe and North America as winter becomes warmer and wetter; lower-altitude ski resorts are expected to face economical problems due to decline in snow cover and decline in visitation levels. While, capacity pressures will be created in higher-altitude resorts. Dog sledding and snowmobiling are also expected to face negative effects due to reduced snow cover. Climate change is leading to receding glaciers, hence, diminishing not only their aesthetic value but also their economical value associated with NBT activities such as sightseeing, trekking and skiing. Climate change is also leading to coral bleaching, starfish outbreaks and environmental degradation which negatively impact dive and snorkel tourism. • Land use and landscape change. Urbanization, rural depopulation, exploitation of land for road construction and energy production have all led to different changes to landscapes and loss of their aesthetic values. Natural landscapes are a main driving force of NBT. Hence, all such changes were found to have a negative impact on NBT via for instance reducing the attractiveness of tourist landscapes and the quality of tourists' experiences. Conflicts between various stakeholders (e.g. tourism, forestry, energy production) is also documented in the literature. Protected areas are often significant attractions in the nature-based tourism system, and more recent environmental policies in Scandinavia have emphasized the need to integrate nature-based tourism with protection of nature so that the two can be of mutual benefit. Political trends • Political turbulence, war and terrorism. Political turbulence in regions such as the Middle East, Africa and parts of Asia are predicted to diminish tourism flows overall but is predicted to enhance the attractiveness of tourist destinations perceived as 'safe'. Tourist attractions that offer settings (e.g. outdoor recreation settings) where large numbers of visitors are gathered are more prone to terror attacks and may need more security measures to ensure safety. Loss of natural heritage due to war and civil unrest is documented in the literature; examples of damaged national parks and ruined NBT industries in countries with political turbulence and terror attacks are also documented. • Changes in border regulations. Changes in border regulations via the introduction and implementation of agreements such as the Schengen Agreement or China's Approved Destination Status 'ADS' have reduced border travel restrictions, creating huge tourism opportunities and traffic in several regions worldwide. China's ADS is expected to become the largest outbound market by 2020. • Health risks. The continuing rise in international travel is a driving force in global emergence and spread of infectious diseases (e.g. Zika or Ebola virus). Future spread of persistent life-threatening diseases may make international travel be perceived as a personal risk. Future travel may be strictly regulated to prevent the spread of any virulent diseases among tourist destinations. • Geopolitics. In today's globalised world, tourism is being used as an instrument to realize particular geopolitical goals. For example, sport events among Commonwealth member states as a unification tool. China's Approved Destination Status (ADS) as a projection of its soft power. Regional blocs such as North American and the European Union Free Trade Agreement also impact tourists' movement within these multilateral entities. The report is produced with funding from BIOTOUR – a four year research project with the objective to research and disseminate key conditions for future development of nature-based tourism in the Norwegian bio-economy that contribute to business innovation, community resilience and sustainable use of resources (www.nmbu.no/biotour). ; Denne rapporten identifiserer og beskriver de viktigste faktorene som påvirker det naturbaserte reiselivet. Megatrender og tilhørende sub-trender er blitt klarlagt gjennom en litteraturstudie og strukturert ved hjelp av et eget rammeverk, STEEP, som omfatter sosiale (Social), teknologiske (Technological), økonomiske (Economic), miljømessige (Environmental) og politiske (Political) drivkrefter (Dwyer et al., 2009). Litteraturgjennomgangen baserer seg på systematiske søk i elektroniske databaser for vitenskapelige, engelskspråklige journaler (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Oria). I alt 151 forskningsbidrag (hvorav 109 fagfellevurderte tidsskriftsartikler) publisert i årene 1998-2017 ble identifisert, og disse er blitt publisert i 55 ulike tidsskrifter innenfor et bredt spekter av fagdisipliner. I konklusjonsdelen av rapporten er hovedresultatene satt inn i en norsk naturbasert reiselivskontekst. Sosiale trender • Befolkningsvekst. Vil føre til en generell økning i deltakelsen i naturbasert reiseliv. Men en slik akselererende vekst kan også føre til stort forbruk av naturattraksjoner, som igjen kan påvirke naturressursgrunnlaget på en negativ måte. • Endringer i husholdningenes sammensetning. Familiehusholdningene blir mindre. Hushold bestående av én forelder eller aleneboende blir mer vanlig. Høyere inntekter og mer fleksibel tidsbruk øker mulighetene for å reise og delta i rekreasjonsaktiviteter. • Aldrende befolkning. Bedre helse og høyere velstand blant aktive eldre personer. Økende interesse for naturbaserte aktiviteter som er tilpasset reduserte fysiske forutsetninger, dvs. mindre krevende aktiviteter. • Helse og velvære. Mer vekt på mental helse; avstressing og selvmedisinering. Folk velger naturbaserte aktiviteter som en form for naturlig terapi/ behandling. • Urbanisering. Urban vekst truer naturmiljøer og fører til tap av naturlandskap. Folks behov for tilgang til grønne områder øker, og dermed vokser også etterspørselen etter naturbasert reiseliv. • Endrede arbeidsmønstre. Reduksjon i fysisk jobbkrav og mindre anstrengende husarbeid fører til økt etterspørsel etter fysisk aktivitet i fritiden. Den voksende middelklassen med mindre rigide arbeidsbetingelser og mer disponibel tid og inntekt åpner for mer fleksibel reising og et ønske om å tilbringe ferien på nye destinasjoner med eksotisk natur. • Kjønn. Moderne samfunn er mer feminiserte, og kvinner påvirker i stor grad valg av fritidsaktiviteter. Kvinner er tilbøyelige til å velge naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter preget av bekvemmelighet, kvalitet og skjønnhet, mens menn i større grad søker utfordrende aktiviteter som jakt, fiske og det som representerer spenning i naturomgivelser. • Økende kulturelt mangfold. Det multikulturelle samfunnet endrer markedene i det naturbaserte reiselivet. Tilstrømmingen av turister med ulik kulturell bakgrunn, preferanser og forventninger kan føre til konflikter mellom de ulike segmentene. Nye grep fra naturforvaltningen er påkrevd for å ivareta turistenes ulike behov og forventninger, og forhindre konflikter. • Verdier og livsstiler. Dagens turist er rik på penger men fattig på tid, individualistisk, og søker unike, persontilpassede og autentiske opplevelser. Turister er i økende grad interessert i å delta i naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter; det hjelper dem til å forstå seg selv bedre, bidrar til en følelse av personlig forandring og uttrykker en form identitet. Videre er det en økende miljøbevissthet. Teknologiske trender • Transport. Ny teknologi reduserer reisekostnadene og øker reisehastighetene. Tilgjengeligheten til ulike turistdestinasjoner øker. Planer for å redusere karbonutslipp forventes å påvirke destinasjoner som ligger langt fra markedene, på en negativ måte. • High-tech-utstyr. High-tech utstyr og avanserte klær gir friluftslivsutøvere mer komfort, høyere sikkerhet og lettere tilgang til naturområder. Bidrar til vekst i ulike former for naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter. • Informasjons- og kommunikasjonsteknologi (IKT). Avansert teknologi gir turistdestinasjoner merverdi for besøkende og reduserer driftskostnader. Turistomtale i elektroniske medier blir stadig viktigere for reismålenes image og turisters reiseatferd. Sosiale media gjør tilbyder-kundeforholdet mer transparent. Mer konkurranse mellom destinasjoner og større forbrukermakt. Mobilteknologi og flere mobile tjenester som dekker avsidesliggende områder, vil oppfordre turister til å besøke og oppleve nye, ukjente naturområder. For naturbasert reiseliv forventes utstrakt bruk av internett (Internet of Things) å kunne være til hjelp i forvaltingen av turiststrømmer i naturområder, forbedre trafikkstyringen allment og raffinere overvåkningen av sårbare økosystemer. Mer tilrettelegging for aktiviteter innendørs (indoorization) og kunstig oppbygde arenaer kan signalisere et skifte bort fra rekreasjonsaktiviteter i naturomgivelser, men det er også argumentert for at slike nye tilbud kan stimulere deltakelse i naturbasert reiseliv. Økonomiske trender • Økonomisk vekst i utviklede økonomier. Økonomisk vekst, økende inntekter og mer disponibel tid i utviklede land gjør det mulig for flere å bruke mer tid på naturbaserte opplevelser. • Økonomisk vekst i utviklingsøkonomier. Økonomisk vekst i BRIC-landenes utviklingsøkonomier, spesielt i Kina og India, vil i betydelig grad bidra til ekspansjon i reisevirksomheten. Dette fører til endinger i den kulturelle og etniske sammensetningen av turister som ankommer EU. Disse gjestene har annerledes turistatferd, forventninger og krav; kinesiske turister utviser større interesse for passiv nytelse av natur og landskap (sightseeing) framfor å engasjere seg i aktive naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter. • Delingsøkonomi. Kommersielle foretak som hoteller, restauranter og turoperatører utfordres og blir gradvis erstattet av individer som tilbyr budsjettvennlige tjenester som overnatting, transport, utflukter og måltider. • Drivstoffkostnader. Til tross for tidvise reduksjoner forventes oljeprisen å stige, noe om vil påvirke folks tilbøyelighet til å reise på en negativ måte på grunn av økte priser på flybilletter og introduksjon av ekstra drivstoffavgifter. Strategier for å hindre utslipp av drivhusgasser forventes å begrense/ hindre fremtidig reisevirksomhet. Miljøtrender • Klimaendringer. Har direkte påvirkning på naturbasert reiseliv. Vinterturismen vil bli negativt påvirket i regioner som Nord-Europa og Nord-Amerika ettersom vintrene blir varmere og våtere; lavtliggende skidestinasjoner forventes å få økonomiske problemer som følge av redusert snødekke og mindre besøk. Det vil bli press på kapasiteten i mer snøsikre, høytliggende områder. Hundekjøring og snøskuterkjøring forventes å bli negativt påvirket på grunn av mindre snø. Klimaendringer fører til at isbreene trekker seg tilbake, noe som fører til at ikke bare deres estetiske verdi, men også økonomiske verdi knyttet til naturbaserte aktiviteter som sightseeing, brevandringer og skiturer, reduseres. Klimaendringene fører også til bleking av koraller og miljømessig degradering av marine områder som påvirker dykke- og snorklingsaktiviteter. • Arealbruk og landskapsendringer. Faktorer som urbanisering, befolkningsnedgang i distriktene, eksploatering av arealer til veibygging og energiproduksjon har alle ført til ulike typer av endringer av landskaper og tap av deres estetiske verdier. Intakte naturlandskaper er en sentral forutsetning for naturbasert reiseliv. Derfor har de nevnte faktorene negative konsekvenser for naturbasert reiseliv ettersom attraktiviteten i turistlandskapene og kvaliteten på turistopplevelsene reduseres. Konfliktene mellom ulike interessenter (turisme, skogbruk, energiproduksjon) er også dokumentert i litteraturen. Verneområder er ofte viktige attraksjoner i det naturbaserte turismesystemet, og nyere miljøpolitikk i Skandinavia understreker behovet for å integrere det naturbaserte reiselivet med områdevern til gjensidig nytte for begge parter. Politiske trender • Politisk turbulens. Krig og terrorisme. Politisk turbulens i regioner som Midtøsten, Afrika og deler av Asia forventes å redusere turiststrømmene i alminnelighet, men vil kunne øke attraktiviteten til destinasjonsområder som anses som trygge. Turistattraksjoner som tiltrekker seg store ansamlinger av besøkende (f.eks. kjente naturattraksjoner), er mer utsatt for terroranslag og vil ha behov for sikkerhetstiltak. Tap av naturarv på grunn av krig og uro er påpekt i litteraturen, og eksempler på ødelagte nasjonalparker og ruinerte naturbaserte reiselivsnæringer i land med politisk turbulens og terror er også dokumentert. • Endringer i grensekontroller. Endringer i grensekontroller gjennom introduseringen og implementeringen av avtaler som Schengen-samarbeidet eller Kinas utreisebestemmelser (Approved Destination Status, 'ADS') har redusert grenserestriksjoner og utløst enorme reisemuligheter i flere regioner rundt om i verden. Kinas ADS er forventet å bli verdens største utreisemarked i 2020. • Helserisiko. Den vedvarende økningen i internasjonal reisevirksomhet er en drivkraft i oppblomstringen og spredningen av infeksjonssykdommer (Zika eller Ebola-virus). Fremtidig spredning av vedvarende livstruende sykdommer kan bidra til at internasjonal reisevirksomhet oppfattes som en personlig risiko. Reiseaktiviteten kan tenkes å bli strengt regulert for å unngå spredning av virussykdommer i turistområdene. • Geopolitikk. I dagens globaliserte verden er turismen et redskap for å nå visse geopolitiske mål. For eksempel er felles sportsbegivenheter i Samveldenasjonene et instrument for å ivareta samholdet blant disse nasjonene. Kinas ADS er et politisk verktøy. Regionale blokker som den nordamerikanske og europeiske frihandelsavtalen påvirker også turistbevegelsene. Rapporten er finansiert av BIOTOUR – et fireårig forskningsprosjekt der formålet er å identifisere nøkkelbetingelser for videreutvikling av naturbasert reiseliv i norsk bioøkonomi som sikrer næringsutvikling, robuste lokalsamfunn og bærekraftig ressursbruk (www.nmbu.no/biotour).
Atualmente, o desafio que a educação nos lança reveste-se de um cariz tão alargado quanto a própria definição do termo. Pensá-la para melhor poder intervir nas múltiplas tarefas que esta nos atribui, enquanto professores, representa um esforço de atualização e adaptação constante com o intuito de encontrar ferramentas de prevenção, deteção e resolução das mais variadas questões com ela relacionadas. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho toma por base uma realidade educacional – a do ensino artístico, na vertente do ensino vocacional da música – que, sendo ainda um pouco desconhecida por parte da população em geral e em certa medida até pelas próprias entidades que a gerem, funciona como um reservatório de experiências de ensino e de aprendizagem transversais a toda uma gama de relações interpessoais que são dignas de ser analisadas à luz de um quadro científico rigoroso. A premência da investigação reside na tomada de consciência enquanto docente do Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu "Dr. Azeredo Perdigão", relativamente ao facto de, nos últimos anos, este setor de ensino ter sofrido alterações várias sob a alçada de um projeto global de massificação do ensino da música, desenhado pelo governo que liderou Portugal até ao ano de 2011. Sendo parte integrante desta extensa engrenagem, vejo-me aliciado a analisar a realidade específica da minha escola, bem como o quadro sócio-organizativo desta, a partir de uma teorização em torno de temáticas lançadas pelos investigadores da área específica das Ciências da Educação. Assim, o que se realça, numa primeira fase, é a necessidade de analisar a própria tipologia de escola, nomeadamente o tipo de conceção que lhe assiste e em que medida esse suporte científico pode ou não trazer melhorias em todos os processos adjacentes à realidade da escola. Considerando-a uma construção sociocomunitária, a escola é um espaço onde se movem diferentes atores, cada um deles com papéis diferenciados e comportamentos expectáveis. Procurando afastar a ideia da escola enquanto locus de reprodução das desigualdades sociais, argumento este praticamente unânime ao nível da opinião pública, este trabalho presta ênfase à urgência de articular aquilo que é um saber sólido assente em rigorosas bases científicas, dentro de um contexto escolar relacional favorável, às valências de toda uma comunidade que a suporta e constrói no dia a dia. Ou seja, coloca-se a tónica na premência de colocar a escola ao serviço das comunidades locais, numa lógica de complementaridade. Igualmente no caso do Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu, este caminho é a forma mais passível de se atenuar uma certa tendência para a elitização do ensino vocacional da música e de se atingir a real e efetiva participação do Conservatório na construção de uma identidade própria, paralela ao estímulo que tal significará no plano do reforço da identidade local. Naturalmente, esta via não pode surgir sem que outro dos pilares teóricos aqui dissecado tenha uma maior efetividade. Tal é a autonomia das escolas, um item que demora ainda a sair de um quadro puramente legal para um plano de ação concreta. Uma escola que não pode planear a sua própria ação, o que pode passar por ações várias como a própria contratação de profissionais do corpo docente, é uma escola enfraquecida sob o ponto de vista da sua eficácia. No que toca ao Conservatório, este aspecto é particularmente visível, ainda que no pólo oposto, uma vez que a relativa autonomia que possui tem-lhe permitido, desde a sua fundação em 1985, uma aproximação sólida e gradual à comunidade em que se insere, transferindo a sua própria cultura de escola para um plano extra-escolar. Tal como os alunos são avaliados, também a escola que os forma o deve ser. Porém, essa avaliação deve ter o intuito de detetar os problemas e apontar soluções, o que se afasta da vulgar ideia subjacente à avaliação de desempenho. Só assim se poderá saber se estamos ou não na presença de uma escola que é eficaz, à imagem daquilo que o movimento das escolas eficazes propõe. A dimensão das escolas, agora organizadas em mega-agrupamentos, tem cada vez mais um impacto negativo tanto no campo do trabalho dos professores como no dos alunos. É por isso de notar, com satisfação, que o Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu soube conseguir crescer, sobretudo a partir do ano letivo 2007/08 (ano da entrada em vigor do novo regime articulado de frequência) com passos relativamente seguros, o que demonstra que a sua autonomia e o tipo de cultura de escola que incorpora (à imagem de uma escola de pequena dimensão) vêm ao encontro das necessidades da sua própria atualização. Embora seja hoje um pouco diferente do que era até 2007, o Conservatório mantém um corpo docente e discente que tenta a todo o custo instituir toda uma cultura adjacente a um projeto comum de luta pelo ensino da música. A unidade da escola advém de um núcleo alargado de colaboradores que agem em prol da escola, porque a sentem como sua. E, poder-se-á dizer, esse sentimento de pertença é atualmente aquilo de que mais carece a esmagadora das escolas, sejam estas do ensino regular ou vocacional. Nesta escola, o professor ainda consegue ter espaço para sonhar e viver apaixonadamente a sua profissão numa perspetiva de aprendizagem e partilha, entre colegas e alunos, constante. O presente trabalho propõe algumas formas de ação que se situam quase num plano de prevenção e correção de pequenos problemas que se prendem com a relativa debilidade da estrutura administrativa, salvaguardando no entanto a mais valia funcional do Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu. ; Actuellement, le défi de l'éducation est de lancements de nature plus large que la définition même du terme. Jugeant préférable d'être en mesure d'intervenir dans les multiples tâches que nous assigne, en tant qu'enseignants, est un effort de mise à jour et d'adaptation afin de trouver des outils pour la prévention, détection et résolution de plusieurs questions liées à elle. En ce sens, le présent travail est basé sur une réalité de l'éducation – l' éducation artistique, dans la composante de l'enseignement vocationnelle de la musique – qui, cependant encore peu connu par la population générale et dans une certaine mesure par les entités mêmes qui la gèrent, agit comme un réservoir d'expériences d'enseignement et d' apprentissage dans toute la gamme des relations interpersonnelles qui méritent d'être analysés à la lumière d'un cadre scientifique rigoureux. L'urgence de la recherche réside dans une prise de conscience, de ma part et en tant que professeur du Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu "Dr. Azeredo Perdigão", pour ce qui concerne le fait que, durant les dernières années, le secteur de l'éducation a subi plusieurs changements sous l'égide d'un projet global pour l'éducation de masse de la musique, conçu par le gouvernement qui a dirigé le pays jusqu'à 2011. Faisant partie de ce vaste engrenage, je suis porté à analyser la réalité spécifique de mon école ainsi que son cadre socio-organisationnelle, à partir d'une théorisation des questions lancées par les chercheurs dans le domaine des sciences de l'éducation. Par conséquent, ce qui est destiné à mettre en évidence, d'abord, est la nécessité d'analyser la typologie même de l'école, en particulier son type de conception et dans quelle mesure ce soutien scientifique peut ou non apporter une amélioration dans tous les processus adjacent à la réalité de l'école. Considérant l'école une construction sociocommunautaire, on la classifie comme un lieu où ils se déplacent divers acteurs, chacun avec différents rôles et comportements attendus. En regardant au loin l'idée de l'école comme un lieu de reproduction des inégalités sociales, ce qui est un argument commun, ce travail met l'accent sur l'urgence d'articuler ce qui est un bon savoir fondée sur une base scientifique rigoureuse, à un cadre de valences de toute une communauté qui soutient et renforce l'école de jour en jour. Autrement dit, il y a un accent mis sur l'urgence de mettre l'école au service des communautés locales, dans une logique de complémentarité. Dans le cas du Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu, ce chemin est aussi le plus susceptible d'atténuer une certaine tendance à l'élitisme de l'enseignement vocationnelle de la musique et de parvenir à une participation réelle et effective du Conservatório à la construction de son propre identité, parallèlement à la relance que cela signifie en termes de renforcement de l'identité locale. Naturellement, cet itinéraire ne peut survenir sans l'efficacité d'un autre des piliers théoriques ici disséqué. Telle est l'autonomie des écoles, un élément qui prend encore du temps a sortir d'un cadre purement juridique en vue d'un plan d'action concret. Une école qui ne peut pas planifier sa propre action, ce qui peut passer par différentes actions telles que l'embauche de ses professionnels, est une école affaiblie du point de vue de son efficacité. En ce qui concerne le Conservatório, cet aspect est particulièrement visible, mais à l'opposé, puisque l'autonomie relative qui lui a permis d'avoir, depuis sa fondation en 1985, une approche solide et progressive à la communauté dans laquelle il opère, faisant le transfert de sa propre culture scolaire pour un plan extra scolaire. Tels que les étudiants sont évalués, également l'école le doit être. Cependant, cette évaluation doit détecter les problèmes et trouver des solutions, ce qui s'éloigne de l'idée commune derrière l'évaluation des performances. C'est alors seulement que nous pouvons savoir si on est en face d'une école qui est efficace ou non, à l'image de ce que le mouvement des écoles efficaces propose. La taille des écoles, désormais organisé en méga-groupes, a un impact de plus en plus négatif à la fois sur le champ de travail des enseignants que des élèves. On constate donc avec satisfaction que le Conservatório de Música de Viseu a pu se développer, en particulier depuis l'année scolaire 2007/08 (année d'entrée en vigueur du nouveau régime de fréquence articulé) selon des étapes solides, ce qui démontre que son autonomie et le type de culture scolaire qui incorpore (à l'image d'une petite école) viennent pour répondre aux besoins de leur mise à jour. Bien qu'il soit un peu différent aujourd'hui de ce qu'il était encore en 2007, le Conservatório a un corps de professeurs et d'étudiants qui essaie à tout prix de perpétrer toute une culture adjacente à un projet commun de lutte pour l'éducation musicale. L'unité de l'école vient d'un noyau de collaborateurs qui agissent au nom de l'école, parce qu'ils la voient comme la sienne. On peut dire que le sentiment d'appartenance est ce qui manque à la plupart les écoles, soient-elles issue de l'enseignement régulier ou vocationnelle. Dans cette école, l'enseignant peut encore rêver et vivre passionnément son métier selon une perspective d'apprentissage et de partage constants, entre collègues et étudiants. Cet article propose quelques formes d'action qui se trouvent plutôt sur un plan de prévention et correction de problèmes mineurs qui ont trait à la relative faiblesse de la structure administrative, en préservant toutefois la fonction de gain du Conservatório. ; Currently, the challenge launched by education is as wide as the very definition of the term. Thinking it best to be able to intervene in the multiple tasks that education assigns us, as teachers, represents an effort to update and constantly adapt in order to find tools for prevention, detection and resolution of various issues related to it. In this sense, the present work is based on the reality of a less known education - the art education, specifically the musical vocational education - which is still somewhat unknown by the general population and to some extent even by the very entities that administrate it. This particular reality acts as a reservoir of experiences of teaching and learning across the whole range of interpersonal relationships and consequently deserves to be analyzed in the light of a rigorous scientific framework. The urgency of this research lies in the awareness, while teaching at the Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu " Dr. Azeredo Perdigão", regarding the fact that, in recent years, the education sector has undergone several changes under the umbrella of a global project for mass education of music, designed by the government that led Portugal till 2011. Being part of this extensive gear, I am induced to analyze the specific reality of my school, as well as its social and organizational features, theorizing from issues launched by researchers in the field of educational sciences. Initially, the enhance is put in the need to analyze the very type of school, particularly the kind of design that is being considered and to what extent this scientific support may or may not lead to improvements in all processes adjacent to the reality of school. Considering it as a socio-communitarian construction, school is a place where different actors, each one with different roles and behaviors expected, move. Looking away from the idea of school as a locus of reproduction of social inequalities, this argument virtually unanimous in terms of public opinion, this work lends emphasis to the urgency of articulating what is a sound knowledge based on rigorous scientific basis, within a favorable relational school context, to the valences of an entire community that supports and builds it day by day. That is, there is the stress on the urgency of putting the school at the service of local communities, in complementarity logic. Also in the case of the Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu, this path is the most likely to mitigate a certain tendency toward elitism of the vocational education of music and to achieve real and effective participation of the Conservatório in building is own identity, parallel to the stimulus that this will mean in terms of strengthening the local identity. Naturally, this route cannot arise without a greater effectiveness of another theorical pillar discussed here. Such is the autonomy of schools, an item that is taking time to move away from purely legal framework to a concrete action plan. A school that cannot plan is own action, which can go through various actions such as hiring its own professionals, is a weakened school from the point of view of effectiveness. Regarding the Conservatório, this is particularly visible, albeit at the opposite pole, since the relative autonomy it possesses has allowed it to have, since its foundation in 1985, a solid and gradual approach to the community in which it operates, transferring is own school culture to the whole social plan about. As students are assessed, also the school that educates them should be. However, this assessment should be taken in order to detect problems and identify solutions, which departs from the common idea behind the performance evaluation. Only then we can know whether or not we are in the presence of a school that is effective, in the light of what the effective schools movement proposes. The size of the schools, now organized into mega-clusters, has an increasingly negative impact both on the field of the teachers' and the students' work. It is therefore noted with satisfaction that the Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu has been able to grow, especially since the school year 2007/08 (when the new frequency articulated regime entered into force) with relatively safe steps, which demonstrates that its autonomy and the type of school culture it incorporates (as in the image of a small school) come to meet the needs of its own update. Although it is a little different today than it was until 2007, the Conservatório has a faculty and student body who tries at all costs to establish a culture adjacent to a joint project of fighting for music education. The unit of the school comes from a core range of collaborators who act on behalf of the school, because they feel it like theirs. And it may be said that this sense of belonging is what currently lacks the more in the majority of the schools, whether from regular or vocational type. In this school, the teacher still has room to dream and live passionately his profession in a perspective of constant learning and sharing, among colleagues and students. This paper proposes some forms of action that lie almost in a plane prevention and correction of minor problems due to the relative weakness of the administrative structure, preserving however the gain function of the Conservatório Regional de Música de Viseu.
'It is a lesson which all history teaches wise men, to put trust in ideas, and not in circumstances'.Ralph Waldo Emerson'It is precisely in times of national emergencies that civil liberties must be defended and protected most forcefully. If not, then governments will be given incentives to constantly create crises, or perceptions of crises, and declaring "official states of emergency" in order to grab more and more power and money and destroy more and more liberty and prosperity'.United States Supreme Court (Ex Parte Milligan. 1866)IntroductionSince the September 11 attacks, the notion of state of exception has been used in order to coin the legal and political repercussions of the 'War on Terror'. These, by being labeled within the state of emergency's legal -or extralegal- framework, have been able to be constitutionally justified and, also, ethically criticized. Proponents of draconian measures consider that, in certain circumstances, necessity dictates policies aimed at protecting the State from terrorist attacks. They deem terrorism an imminent and serious threat capable of destroying the institutions that give political cohesion to society. Denying, suspending and limiting certain individual rights amount to a lesser evil; compared to the, apparently, almost certain greater evil that terrorists embody. On the other hand, advocates of the inviolability of the rule of law believe that under any situation a democratic government should allow urgency and peril prevail over the constitutionally recognized political and human rights. For them, counterterrorism should not rely on extralegal actions 'legitimized' by the state of exception. The State already has the legal and adequate tools, provided by the police and criminal justice, to persecute terrorists. Democracies that recur to lesser evil arguments to fight terrorism always end up committing more damage that the one they were trying to prevent.This essay will analyze the state of exception by studying the legal and the political-social natures of it. Various arguments, in favor and against the exception, will be showcased by continuously referring to the War on Terror and its effects on the legal system and democracy. Lastly, a conclusion will address the importance of this debate in current politics and society. The State of ExceptionThe state of exception or emergency can be studied under two different kinds of views: the legal and the political-social ones. The former defines the state of emergency, within the various constitutional frameworks of current modern democracies, as a temporary measure that limits or suspends certain individual freedoms within the territory of the State . It is prompted by a critical and imminent, domestic or foreign, threat to the State's existence. Under this scenario, necessity overcomes the 'normal' rule of law. Consequentially, individual freedoms are limited while police, security and military agencies' powers are enhanced. The debate regarding the state of exception's legal aspect circles around the constitutionality of its enactment, the variety of faculties attributed to the State's security forces and, more importantly, the personal rights suspension's lawfulness. Politically and socially, the state of emergency is conceived either as the pivotal attribute that defines the sovereign body as such; or, either as the transitional step required for -'legitimately'- transforming a democracy into a dictatorship. The former perception links the state of exception with the concept of sovereigntyunderstood as the State's existence as an organized polity . The latter one considers any type of restriction to individual freedoms as a permanent damage to the fabrics of democracy . The Legal Nature of the State of Exception The legal, and political, origin of the state of emergency is to be found in ancient Roman law. According to the lex de dictatore creando, whenever the Roman Republic was in grave danger, the Senate designated an extraordinary magistrate that was invested with absolute and total authority over the Republic . Subsequently, a provisional dictatorship was instituted that lasted for six months or until the threat passed. The republican and the dictatorship authorities, to the Romans, were complementary; quite the opposite of how democracies and authoritarian regimes are understood today. However, Roman dictators quickly learned how to indefinitely prolong their authority by perpetuating foreign wars through the creation of an Empire.The institution of the Roman provisional dictatorship is the historical legal inception of the various types of state of emergency that are currently present within modern constitutions. Broadly speaking, in every constitution the state of exception is declared by the head of the executive power whenever the normal functions of the State's institutions are no longer guaranteed because of foreign attack or domestic unrest. Fundamental liberties and rights -such as habeas corpus, freedom of movement and public gathering among others- are suspended or severely restricted. In most cases, the executive is entitled to order the arrest of individuals and to set military commissions for their trials. The security forces' faculties are enhanced and the military is allowed to take on police activities. Depending on the country, the state of emergency could be declared to last for days, months or years and it can even be extended indefinitely number of times . The debate concerning the state of exception's legal aspect comprises three main issues: its constitutionality; the amount of power given to the security forces; and, the limits set on fundamental freedoms, individual rights and constitutional guarantees. The state of emergency's constitutional validity considers under which cases it can be declared. As stated before, it is necessity that calls for the establishment of exception. It is necessary to give to the executive branch of government extraordinary powers and authority in order to prevent the State's breakdown from an imminent and grave danger. This peril can be prompted by a domestic or foreign threat. The latter are not sufficiently, and narrowly, defined by modern constitutions. Normally, they invoke a military invasion by a foreign country or an internal insurrection; but both of them are broad cases and can be loosely interpreted. Taking the U.S. Constitution, for example, the state of emergency is only referred to in Article I, Section 9 where it states: 'The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.'Therefore, only in the cases of rebellion –domestic threat- and invasion –foreign threat- the state of exception can be enacted. Regrettably, the Constitution does not define what constitutes a rebellion or an invasion. The task was left for legal experts and the Judiciary to tackle; but, it has not been easy or even coherent.The Supreme Court had the opportunity to take on the constitutionality of the state of emergency after President Lincoln had declared it in 1861 . In Ex Parte Milligan, it was decided that the suspension of the habeas corpus and the setting of military tribunals for citizens was unconstitutional because, even if a rebellion was in course, civilian courts were still operating. Additionally, the Supreme Court went even further by declaring that the theory of necessity, which justifies the state of exception, was false. It was argued that under the rule of law, guaranteed by the Constitution, the powers needed to protect the State's institutions are already set in place. Lastly, the Justices regarded the state of exception as a dangerous instrument that could only lead to despotism . Nevertheless, the Court did not pronounce itself about the issue of defining what constitutes a rebellion or invasion. Interestingly, even if it was deemed –correctly- that necessity never justifies the suspension of the rule of law, by not defining what constitutes an emergency, the Court considered the issue a political, and not a legal, matter . Rebellion and invasion remain broad, undefined, cases open to interpretation and to malleability by politics. In subsequent cases, the Supreme Court refrained itself from approaching the issue .The question of the security forces' enhanced powers, during the state of emergency, is a thornier one when compared to the former. Moreover, it is also deeply intertwined with the problem regarding limitations to fundamental liberties. During the state of exception the police and other security agencies are given extraordinary faculties aimed at facilitating the expedient resolution of the crisis. Therefore, they are allowed to search within premises without warrants, to arrest suspects without a court order, to hold individuals for a long period of time with no access to a lawyer or judge, to carry out aggressive interrogations, to set up wiretapping and close surveillance with no Judiciary control. Furthermore, it could also be the case that intelligence agencies and the military would be empowered to perform police and judicial activities. Since the declaration of the state of emergency by President George W. Bush, following 9/11, numerous enhanced and new attributes have been granted to the United States' security forces and agencies. Their faculties were augmented by several executive decrees and the three Patriot Acts. These pieces of legislation were said to be justified by the imminent and severe danger that terrorism embodied. But, are these prerogatives really needed to prevent future terrorist attacks? This is, of course, an endless debate; and one that again points out to the relationship between law and politics. As implied by the Supreme Court in Ex Parte Milligan, terrorists can be persecuted without declaring the state of emergency, by applying 'plain' criminal law and by letting the F.B.I -not the military- take the lead. To sum up, the 'normal' rule of law is perfectly suited for the task. However, depending on how terrorism is considered, as a war act or as a criminal one, is still a political issue.Just like in both the question of the constitutionality of the state of exception and the empowerment of security agencies, the concern regarding the suspension or restriction of fundamental liberties is one that is ascribed within the lesser evil debate. Legally, the selection between continuing the 'normal' rule of law or enacting the state of exception weights the possible damage that not acting would cause against the harm that limiting individual freedoms would produce . It is here where the legal concept of necessity comes into play. It is necessary to inflict or withstand a lesser evil in order to prevent a greater evil. This is the pragmatic view of constitutional freedoms: the risk of harming individual freedoms is a lesser one when compared to the possibility of not having any State that protects those liberties . The moral point of view argues that, by restricting constitutional freedoms, the State is causing an irreversible damage that may, quite possibly, be greater than the one that necessity is trying to avoid . When a state of exception is enacted the fundamental liberties that are suspended are, normally, the right to habeas corpus; freedom of movement; the right to public and private gathering; and the right to due process among others. The United States Government, during both the Bush and the Obama Administrations, restricted and suspended several individual freedoms and constitutionally guaranteed rights in order to effectively and speedily fight terrorism and avert further attacks. The rights to habeas corpus, to due process, to unnecessary cruel punishment and to trial by jury have been gravely and irreversibly hampered by the legalization of indefinite detention, targeted killing, aggressive interrogation and military tribunals respectively. In nearly all these cases, there is no chance of contradictory or revisionary procedures that would allow the dismissal of their establishment by proving their unfairness or unconstitutionality . The issue, maybe, is that they are not only unfair, but that they are unnecessary and cause permanent damage. Targeted killing and aggressive interrogation, which would be better labeled as targeted assassination and torture, are completely detrimental to the rule of law and set up dangerous precedents for the future. Since both measures have to be sanctioned, in each case, by the President and there is no possibility of revision, it could be argued that the executive is taking on the exclusive attributes of the other two branches of government. The check and balances system, designed to avoid despotic power, is totally disregarded in these cases . Here, the effects of necessity are clearly the greater evil.Depending on the country, the state of emergency or exception is labeled as martial law or state of siege (état de siège or estado de sitio). Both, however, share the same objectives and are justified by necessity. See Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 25-28. Schmitt, Carl; Political Theology. Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty; Chicago University Press; Chicago; 2005; pp. 5-6. See, Arendt, Hannah; 'Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship'; in Responsibility and Judgment; Kohn, Jerome (Ed.); Schocken Books; New York; 2003.Lintott, Andrew; The Constitution of the Roman Republic; Oxford University Press; Oxford; 1999; pp. 110.For example, in France l' état de siège can only last for 12 days, although the President is allowed to extend it for more time with the Parliament's confirmation. In the United States, the National Emergency Acts can only last for no more than two years, but the President is entitled to extend it for one more years indefinitely number of times by only notifying Congress of his decision. For the French case see Article 16 of the Constitution, available at http://www.vie-publique.fr/decouverte-institutions/institutions/approfondissements/pouvoirs-exceptionnels-du-president.html ; for the American case see the U.S. Code, Title 50, Chapter 34, available at http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode50/usc_sup_01_50_10_34.html .See the United States Constitution, available at http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=138See Neely, Mark; The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties; Oxford University Press; New York; 1991; pp. 179-184. See Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 (1866); available at http://supreme.justia.com/us/71/2/case.htmlSee, Roche, John; Executive Power and Domestic Emergency: The Quest for Prerogative'; Western Political Quarterly; Vol. 5; N. 4; December 1952. See Ex Parte Quirin , 317 U.S. 1 (1942), which declared constitutional the military trials of German saboteurs during the Second World War in U.S. soil, available at http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=317&invol=1 ; Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944), which determined constitutional the Japanese Americans internment camps, available athttp://supreme.justia.com/us/323/214/case.html ; and, Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723 (2008), where it was decided that all Guantanamo detainees had the right of habeas corpus, available at http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/06-1195.pdf The national emergency was declared through Proclamation 7463 available athttp://ra.defense.gov/documents/mobil/pdf/proclamation.pdfSee Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 40-44.See, Posner, Richard; Law, Pragmatism and Democracy; Harvard University Press; Cambridge; 2003. It is also interesting to consider here Margaret Somers' Arendtian view of political rights versus human rights because the former are recognized and protected by the State. See Somers, Margaret; Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights; Cambridge University Press; Cambridge; 2008.See Dworkin, Ronald; Freedom's Law: The Moral Reading of the Constitution; Harvard University Press; Cambridge; 1996.Only regarding the cases of the restriction of habeas corpus and the setting up of military tribunals has the Supreme Court been able to declare their unconstitutionality and illegality. See Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) and Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006); both available athttp://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=03-6696&friend andhttp://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/05pdf/05-184.pdf respectively.For a better and more detailed analysis of the legality or illegality of targeted killings and torture see Banks, William; 'Targeted Killing and Assassination: the U.S. Legal Framework'; University of Richmond Law Review; Vol. 37; N. 667; 2002-2003; Dershowitz, Alan; 'When All Else Fails, Why not Torture?'; American Legion Magazine; July 2002; Blum, Gabriella, and Heymann, Philip; 'Law and Policy of Targeted Killing'; The Harvard National Security Journal; Vol. 2, Issue 2; 2010; and Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006). *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.
Marx has a threefold objective in "On the Jewish Question": to respond to Bruno Bauer's views on the same issue; to give us his own standing on the matter of the political emancipation of Jewish populations in Germany and the rest of Europe, while at the same time defining what political emancipation means for each citizen, no matter the religion, in a modern State; and lastly, to show us how political emancipation is not enough and how actual freedom (political plus social) is accessible to all once a new, final and imperative kind of emancipation is obtained: human emancipation. This paper will be divided into two parts: the first one will try to briefly review and explain Marx's text. Particular attention will be given to the differentiation between political and human emancipation and its implications. In this section, Marx's views on Judaism will be clarified by analyzing them on their proper socio-historical context. In the second one, an interesting and, hopefully, appropriate exercise will be put into consideration: taking into account Marx's concerns regarding the possibility of inclusion of a religious minority into the public spheres of a secular State, the Jewish question of 19th century's Europe will be altered into the Muslim question of 21st century's Europe. According to Yoav Peled the main difference between how Bauer and Marx confront the issue of Jewish emancipation is that the former one considers the problem as a theological one, while the latter does it as a sociological one (1). Bauer affirms that not only the Jews are longing for political emancipation, meaning being recognized by the State as equal citizens; but also the rest of the Gentile population is awaiting such recognition. The State cannot emancipate Jews if it still has not emancipated the rest. The Jewry cannot obtain full citizenship if there are no citizens. In order to attain political emancipation the State has to become a secular one, not to recognize any religion as its official one and to extend freedom of religion to all of its citizens. Religious freedom would require religion's removal from the public sphere and its "ostracism" into a private creed. This privatization of religion would eventually abolish it. Nevertheless, Bauer does not consider the Jews capable of becoming free because he does not consider Judaism able to become a private creed. Bauer characterizes Judaism as a religion of law not as, like Christianity, areligion of faith. Being a religion based on actions and not on beliefs would completely be opposed to freedom of religion, to its own removal from the public sphere. Judaism could not become free because there is a chance that its laws would contradict the laws of the State. Marx, instead, affirms that Jews (and Christians), in order to be really emancipated do not have to abandon Judaism in a theological way, but have to do it in a sociological manner. Political emancipation as stated by Bauer is not the final possible form of emancipation, but it is the last possible form of emancipation within the framework of the prevailing social order. For example, according to Marx the citizens of the United States of America, which at the time was the best case of a modern secular State, still practiced, and needed to practice, their religious beliefs as private creeds. Then, Bauer was wrong; religion survived the test and did not disappear after political emancipation. As reported by Marx this happened because when religion is expulsed from the sphere of public law to that of private law, religion becomes the spirit of civil society and the essence of differentiation which leads to, and presupposes, inequality. Political emancipation divides the human being into two antagonistic spheres: the individual, who is egoistic by nature and based in inequality and corresponds to civil society; and the citizen, who is based in common solidarity and equality and complements with the State. This separation can only be overcome by human emancipation. Human emancipation is the final and real kind of reachable and desired emancipation by all human beings. Human emancipation would erase all deficiencies that are found in civil society: private property, insecurity and religion. Human emancipation would, then, end social inequality. Only then, humans would achieve real and total freedom. Only when the individual and the citizen would synthesize their antagonisms in the species-being would humanity be free from all its social and political constraints and a truly democratic State would appear. (2)Marx's views on Judaism have been defined as anti-Semitic by several critics; but it is not the case (3). First of all, Marx was a strong advocate for political emancipation to the Jewish communities in Europe, especially in Germany, and he believed, in opposition to Bauer, that the Jewry was fully capable of becoming citizens in a secular State by privatizing their creed. Although, it has to be said that Marx, like Bauer, considered Judaism to be a religion based on laws; he did not directly consider the case if Judaism could withstand the transformation to a private form. Orthodox Jews, for example, would not become suitable for citizenship in the modern secular State. Because Marx could not resolve this argument in a direct form he chose to solve it by taking Judaism in its socio-historical context instead than in a purely theological way. To Marx Jews have embodied the mercantile spirit in a natural economy dominated Europe (4). Jews did not choose to be merchants or entrepreneurs: feudal society limited them to those kinds of activities. They could not legally own land or be members of any corporate guild. Jews could only deal with money or goods exchange(5). Then, Jews could only be considered as bourgeois, as capitalists, as financiers. Even if, like Marx says, the Jewish mercantile particularity had already generalized through the Christian world and there was no economic basis for distinguishing between Jews and Gentiles, which allowed the Jews to practically self-emancipate by the "Judaization" of society; the general public was still perceiving Judaism as a synonymous of "merchants"(6). It is rather interesting to note that in 1850 half of all entrepreneurs in Berlin were Jews and that in 1861 58% of the Prussian Jewry was engaged in commerce and credit, while only 2% of Christians was similarly employed (7). When Marx calls for the abolition of Judaism, he is calling for the abolition of the economic activity that was a reflection of the Jews social-historical role in society; he is calling for the end of the mercantile/capitalist elements that produce social inequality. The abolition of Judaism means the abolition of all religions through the correction of the secular defect of civil society(8). Finally, Marx's views on the political emancipation of a religious minority and of social emancipation as the only way to end all inequalities and distinctions could be helpful in order to understand the current Muslim Question that is concerning much of Europe. The Muslim question is significantly different from 19th century's Jewish question. Jews were asking for the State's recognition of the same basic constitutional rights that Christians already, or were about to, benefited from. Additionally, liberal-secularists, like Bauer, were concerned about Judaism's capability to remove their religious practices from the public sphere and privatize them. According to them, it was essential for the survival of the modern secular State that its citizens should exclude their religious distinctiveness from all of their public interactions with the State or with other fellow citizens. Today, Muslims in Europe enjoy all of the individual and social rights that are recognized in each of the European Constitutions; meaning political emancipation is not an issue. It is Islam's interactions with the secular, and almost irreligious, European public spheres that has become on of the most fervent debates in the last few years. Such debate extremely overcomes the purpose of this article, but a few points should be taken into account regarding the Muslim question and the relevance of Marx's work on the matter. Marx, just like with the political emancipation of the Jews, would not have been able to directly confront the possibility of a real privatization of Islamic beliefs, because he would have faced the same issue that arose in the Jewish question: Islam, like Judaism, is a religious of laws. As it has been said, a religion of laws will almost certainly contradict the laws of a secular State and would not be able to refrain from interrelate with the public sphere. For example, teachers wearing a Muslim veil or turban in public schools; Muslim women wearing burqas in public facilities; the introduction of Sharia law in order to legalize social relationships within Muslim communities and in their relations with non-Muslim communities; etc., are challenges to the secular State. Several European countries are juggling between the right of freedom of religion and absolute secularism(9): France chooses to ban burqas in public spaces; the Netherlands to expel teachers from public schools that insisted in wearing veils or turbans in class; Italy to reform family law in order to stop "honor killings" among Muslim families; etc. But like with Judaism, Marx would overcome Islam's inability to privatize its creed by arguing that such incapability is a symptom of the antagonism between civil society (the individual egoistic man) and the State (the solidary citizen) and that will never be surpassed until human emancipation is obtained. Interestingly enough, while during the 19th century Jews were an equivalent to bourgeois and entrepreneurs, Muslims of the 21st century, on the other hand, are identified with other kinds of socio-economic characterization. Muslims are identified either as proletarians or as lumpenproletarians. Remarkably, the occupational standing of 84% of Muslims living in Germany is either blue or white collar; compared to just 40% of non-Muslims Germans (10); 20% of young non-Muslim French are unemployed compared to 50% of young French Muslims(11); 9% of non-Muslim Dutch are unemployed, while 30% of Dutch Muslims are jobless(12); 10% of non-Muslim Belgians live below the poverty line, while 60% of Muslim Belgians are poor(13); 15% of non-Muslim British households are in poverty, but that percentage ascends to 55% when Muslim British households are considered(14). In Europe 80% of Muslim men are employed in low-skill/low-wage jobs and in routine manual and service occupations, only 45% of non-Muslim men are employed in the same kind of jobs(15). Finally, when the Human Development Index is taken into account and it is divided among the Muslim and non-Muslim population in the European countries it is evidenced that the standard of living of Muslim communities is significantly lower than that of the rest (16). This brief and expedited socio-economic context of Muslims in Europe would be employed by Marx in order to circumvent Islam's inability to privatize its creed: Muslims, although they live in modern secular States and enjoy political emancipation, persist in carrying on with their religious practices in public spaces, and sometimes in opposition to public laws, because they are suffering social inequality; they are suffering from not attaining human emancipation. Of course, all human beings lack of human emancipation, not only Muslims in Europe, but it is Muslims' special socio-economic situation in Europe that creates a secular deficiency from political emancipation and prevents their religion's transformation into a private creed. Jews did not have political emancipation and were, in their majority, entrepreneurs, which gave them a better socio-economic standing and allowed them to privatize their religion once political emancipation was conquered. Most of European Muslims, in contrast, are proletarians and, in worst cases, lumpenproletarians (17)and even if they enjoy political emancipation they find themselves in a position characterized by an extreme social inequality, that does not allow many of them to privatize their creed (18). Only through human emancipation and social equality they would be able to negate their religious differentiation; because in a true democratic State, a communist State according to Marx, communism itself would act as a religious belief and manner of living. That is, perhaps, how Marx intended to accomplish the abolition of all religions: by the emergence of a new politically and socially equal "religion for all human beings", that of communism.(1) Peled Yoad; "From Theology to Sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the Question of Jewish Emancipation";History of Political Thought; Vol. XIII, No. 3, Autumn, 1992. (2) Marx borrows the concept of species-being from Feuerbach. It seems to be implied in the text, although it is more possible to be influenced by later Marx's texts, that revolution is the mean to obtain human emancipation; the mean that those who suffer from social inequality will use in order to end that suffering. Once human emancipation is reached then the democratic/communist State is at hand. Again, this is not actually said in On the Jewish Question. (3) See Flannery Edward, Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2005, pp.154-157; and Lewis Bernard, Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1999, pp. 112.(4) Peled Yoad; "From Theology to Sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the Question of Jewish Emancipation"; History of Political Thought; Vol. XIII, No. 3, Autumn, 1992, pp. 475. (5) It was this image of the "financial Jew", embodied in the Rothschild dynasty, which begot the western anti-Semitic wave of the 19th and 20th century. See Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism, Benediction Books, New York, 2009; Ferguson Niall, The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World, Penguin, New York, 2009; Ferguson Niall, The House of Rothschild, Penguin, New York, 2000; Landes David,Dynasties: Fortunes and Misfortunes of the World's Great Family Businesses, Penguin, New York, 2007.(6) Actually, the word "Judentum" came to be a synonymous with commerce.(7) Sorkin David, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780-1840, Wayne State University Press, New York, 1999, pp. 108-9.(8) Peled Yoad; "From Theology to Sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the Question of Jewish Emancipation"; History of Political Thought; Vol. XIII, No. 3, Autumn, 1992, pp. 481.(9) For more about the interaction of Muslim minorities and political liberalism in a Rawlsian version see Benhenda, Mostapha, "For Muslim Minorities, it is Possible to Endorse Political Liberalism, but this is not Enough", Journal Of Islamic Law and Culture, Vol. 11, No. 2, May 2009, pp. 71-87. The article concludes that almost all Muslim minorities could and will endorse political liberalism, but many will not be able to do it because of a religious normative prohibition to reform their doctrine.(10) "Muslim Life in Germany", Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, German Government, http://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Migration/Publikationen/Forschung/Forschungsberichte/fb6-muslimisches-leben,templateId=raw,property=publicationFile.pdf/fb6-muslimisches-leben.pdf(11) "Muslims in Europe", Open Society Institute; http://www.soros.org/initiatives/home/articles_publications/publications/muslims-europe-20091215/a-muslims-europe-20100302.pdf(12) Ibid.(13) Ibid.(14) Ibid.(15) Ibid.(16) For example, the HDI of Spain, Italy, Great Britain, France, Germany and Sweden are: 0,955; 0,951; 0,947; 0,961; 0.947 and 0,963 respectively; while the HDI of their respective Muslim communities are: 0,841; 0, 848; 0, 830; 0, 850; 0, 860; 0,912. Available at the European Social Survey http://ess.nsd.uib.no/ (17) Loïc Wacquant would call them "urban outcasts" or marginal. See Wacquant Loïc, Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality, Polity, Cambridge, 2007; Wacquant Loïc, Prisons of Poverty, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2009; Wacquant Loïc, Los Condenados de la ciudad. Gueto, peripherias, Estado, Siglo XII Editores, Buenos Aires, 2007.(18) Certainly they are more religious than Christian and Jewish Europeans because they are perceived as a marginalized minority and in fierce competition with non-Muslim proletarians. It is civil society that enforces religious differentiation on them.*Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.
Het onderzoek naar de oudste runeninscripties van het Europese continent, Engeland en Denemarken voerde onderzoekster van Liverpool aan de Ierse Zee naar Constanza aan de Zwarte Zee; van Zürich naar Bergen; van Parijs naar Stockholm. In dit enorme gebied kende men reeds bij het begin van de vroege middeleeuwen het runenschrift (rond 500 AD). Ergens in dit gebied moet een kern gelegen hebben, waar het begon - vermoedelijk in de eerste eeuw AD. Het localiseren van dat oorsprongsgebied begon me in de loop van het onderzoek te intrigeren. Het doel was in eerste instantie het inventariseren, het beschrijven en analyseren van runenteksten uit de oudste periode: 150-700 AD. Als onderzoekscorpus waren de runentradities rondom de Noordzee en van het continent uitgekozen. Het uitgangspunt was nadrukkelijk niet Scandinavië, zoals bij runenstudies meestal het geval. Ik meende, dat een verandering van perspectief nieuw licht op oude runologische vraagstukken zou kunnen werpen - en daardoor wellicht bijdragen tot oplossingen. Bovendien wilde ik me niet op één land of traditie vastleggen, maar door middel van het vergelijken van diverse runentradities proberen meer inzicht te krijgen in doel en wezen van het runenschrift. Waarom ontwikkelde men dit schrift, met welk doel werd het gebruikt, en door wie? Om dit soort vragen te beantwoorden, was het nodig om inzicht te verkrijgen in de cultuur-historische context van de inscriptiedragers. Archeologie en historie bleken onmisbare informatiebronnen; ook de (plaats)naamkunde leverde belangrijke gegevens ten aanzien van het relatief enorme aantal namen in de runencorpora. Runologie heeft in principe twee poten: paleografie en historische taalkunde. Eerst inspecteert men persoonlijk de objecten en hun inscripties en vervolgens ontcijfert men de runen. Daarna verkrijgt men één of meer lezingen, weergegeven als transliteraties, die dan taalkundig worden geanalyseerd. Deze teksten kunnen niet zonder hun archeologische en historische contexten begrepen worden, vandaar de titel 'Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150-700; Texts and Contexts. Het boek bestaat uit twee delen; eerst een viertal hoofdstukken met algemene en specifieke vraagstukken; het tweede deel is de Catalogus van alle onderzochte runenobjecten. Het eerste hoofdstuk betreft een algemene inleiding, het tweede hoofdstuk behandelt de cultuurhistorische achtergronden. Hier was het doel recente inzichten uit archeologie en runologie te combineren. Deze combinatie resulteerde o.a. in een zoektocht naar de oorsprong van het runenschrift. In hoofdstuk drie wordt een nieuwe theorie over deze oorsprong gepresenteerd met een voorstel over de ontwikkeling van de runen uit een archaïsch Italisch alfabet. Hoofdstuk vier bestaat uit een algemene samenvatting en conclusies. Aan diverse aspecten van individuele runen en inscripties is aandacht besteed, maar ook en vooral is gezocht naar overeenkomsten van en verschillen in teksten en inscripties. Zo valt bijvoorbeeld inzicht te verkrijgen in de verbreiding van het runenschrift, en, daaruit voortvloeiend, in de contacten tussen verschillende Germaanse volkeren. Tevens is gekeken naar de plaats en betekenis van het runenschrift in de Germaanse samenleving. De catalogus behandelt vijf corpora: (1) de vroege Deense en Zuidoost- Europese inscripties, (2) de Bracteaten, (3) de Continentale inscripties, (4) de vroege Engelse en (5) de Nederlandse inscripties. In zogenaamde "checklists" wordt informatie geleverd over de objecten, de vinden bewaarplaats, de datering, de runenvormen, de leesrichting, de taal, de lezing en transliteratie, de interpretatie(s), etc. Er zijn ruim 200 inscripties behandeld. De corpora zijn verdeeld in leesbare en (gedeeltelijk) interpreteerbare inscripties en onleesbare, c.q. oninterpreteerbare. Dan is er nog de categorie pseudo-runen of geen runen, en zijn er de onvermijdelijke falsificaties. Van de 170 leesbare en interpreteerbare zijn er 50 waarvoor een nieuwe interpretatie en/of lezing wordt voorgesteld. In het eerste deel van het boek wordt vrij uitgebreid aandacht besteed aan de vroege runentijd: de Romeinse keizertijd, de Volksverhuizingstijd en de Merovingische tijd, met nadruk op gegevens uit de archeologie. Vervolgens wordt ingegaan op de vraag waar en waarom het runenschrift ontstaan zou kunnen zijn. Deze vraag kwam niet voort uit een primaire behoefte om het oorsprongsgebied te zoeken, maar werd ingegeven doordat het opviel dat er zoveel West-Germaanse namen in het oudste materiaal voorkomen. Dat wil zeggen, de uitgangen van de namen waren moeilijk vanuit het Noord-Germaans te verklaren, maar eenvoudig indien men aannam, dat ze West-Germaans waren. Al in eerder onderzoek was de gedachte opgekomen, om het ontstaan van het runenalfabet in de buurt van een andere schriftcultuur te zoeken, langs de limes, bijvoorbeeld. Bovendien bleken de ingeritste persoonsnamen opvallend vaak afgeleid van namen van stammen die op het continent woonden. Vooral de namen van twee wapensmeden uit het noorden wijzen op afkomst uit het Rijnland: wagnijo en niþijo, afgeleid van de Vangiones en de Nidenses. Een derde naam, harja, wijst op verwantschap met de Harii, een sub-stam van de Lugii, wonend in Noord-Polen. Afleidingen van Harja komen in het latere Scandinavië niet voor, maar worden wel veel aangetroffen in het West-Germaans, vooral in het Neder-Rijngebied. Toen ik deze gegevens vergeleek met archeologische bevindingen omtrent de herkomst van de inschriftdragers, bleek dit in het geval van de kam met het inschrift harja te kloppen. De kam was gevonden in het Vimose moeras op het eiland Funen. Dit depot (ca. 160 AD) bleek afkomstig uit de regio zuidelijk van de Oostzee. De runenobjecten uit het Thorsberg moeras (Schleswig-Holstein) bleken afkomstig uit West-Germaans gebied. Met betrekking tot de objecten uit het Illerup moeras in Jutland was de weg iets ingewikkelder: de wapens uit dit depot (ca. 200 AD) kwamen uit het noorden, maar de namen wezen op zuidelijke, West-Germaans-sprekende streken. Toen duidelijk was geworden dat er wapenhandel tussen de Rijnstreek en het noorden is geweest, kon ik een link leggen. Het Illerup-onderzoek van de Deense archeoloog Ilkjær (1990, 1991, 1993, 1996a&b) was van zeer grote waarde voor mijn eigen onderzoek. De naam harja en zijn afkomst kon nog eens bevestigd worden door een tweede inscriptie, uit Zweden, op een steen (Skåäng): harijaz leugaz, wijzend op zowel de Harii als de Lugii. Zoals gezegd, viel op dat veel namen een West-Germaanse vorm hadden, alhoewel de objecten waarop de namen voorkwamen, waren gevonden in Deense moerassen en graven. Tot ongeveer 500 AD bestond de gewoonte om krijgsbuit te offeren in een moeras. Deze buit was afkomstig van de verliezers, die uit een andere streek kwamen. Archeologen konden in een aantal gevallen vaststellen waar de opeenvolgende depots (een depot is een geheel van tegelijkertijd geofferde voorwerpen) vandaan kwamen. De objecten met runen in rijke Deense vrouwengraven, zoals die van Himlingøje, waren inheems, maar droegen ook vaak West-Germaanse namen. Zo wees veel op een West-Germaans gebied als leverancier van personen die runen schreven. Dan ligt het voor de hand te kijken welk gebied het meest in aanmerking kon komen. Dat bleek naar mijn mening het gebied van de Ubiërs te zijn, in het Rijnland. In dit grensgebied tussen het Romeinse rijk en het vrije Germania leefden Romeinen en Germanen over het algemeen in goede verstandhouding. Hier kon zich een cultureel amalgaam ontwikkelen, gunstig voor de adaptatie van een schrift. De Romeinse invloed blijkt niet alleen uit de gelijkenis van het runenalfabet met Noord-Italische alfabetten, maar ook uit de toepassing van het schrift: de runeninscripties geven vooral namen van eigenaars en makers. Een archaïsch Italisch alfabet zou als voorbeeld kunnen hebben gediend voor het runenalfabet. Derks (1996) heeft in zijn proefschrift aangetoond, dat de matronencultuur van het Rijnland en die van Noord-Italië grote overeenkomsten kenden. Personen afkomstig uit Noord-Italië integreerden in het (schriftloze) Rijnland en introduceerden daar schrift, i.c. votiefinscripties op de matronenbeelden. Het is niet uitgesloten dat deze veteranen uit het Romeinse leger, afkomstig uit Piemonte en de Po-streek, een Noord-Italisch alfabet kenden en dat meebrachten naar hun nieuwe woongebied. In Noord-Italië zijn diverse varianten van het oude Etruskische alfabet overgeleverd. In de eerste eeuw AD zullen deze archaïsche alfabetten in Italië zijn verdrongen door het officiële Romeinse alfabet. Maar misschien mag men aannemen dat het runenalfabet in de eerste eeuw AD is ontwikkeld, en dat een archaïsch Noord-Italisch alfabet tot in de eerste eeuw heeft kunnen voortbestaan in bepaalde uithoeken van het Romeinse Rijk. Inderdaad zijn de officiële Romeinse teksten in het Latijns alfabet, maar maakt dit de mogelijkheid ondenkbaar dat (een) bepaalde bevolkingsgroep(en) nog een tijdlang een ouderwets schrift gebruikte? Hoe dan ook, de runen zelf dragen het kenmerk van een archaïsch alfabet; hun voorbeeld moet daarom ook een archaïsch alfabet zijn geweest. Andere verbreiders van Romeinse cultuur waren de Germaanse soldaten, die jarenlang in Romeinse dienst hadden doorgebracht, en als geletterden en Romeinse burgers terugkeerden naar hun Germaanse vaderland. Wat betreft de vermelding van de conclusies van het onderzoek is gekozen voor de volgende opzet. Aan het eind van hoofdstuk III staan de conclusies over de oorsprong van het runenschrift. In hoofdstuk IV, Summary and Some More Conclusions, is een algemeen en uitvoerig overzicht van de resultaten van het onderzoek in zijn geheel opgenomen. In het tweede deel, de Catalogus, wordt ieder afzonderlijk corpus voorafgegaan door een korte inleiding en afgesloten met een korte samenvatting en conclusies. Wat betreft de inhoud van de inscripties, is een classificatie gemaakt naar de volgende categorieën: 1. één of meer persoonsnamen; 2. zinnen (met werkwoordsvorm); 3. opdrachten (giften); 4. naam van het object, of het materiaal; 5. makers en schrijvers formulae; 6. ek (ik) plus naam, of adjectief, etc.; 7. 'magische' woorden etc.; 8. fuþark inscripties. In de Concordance vindt men alfabetisch de getranslitereerde runenvocabulaire, gevolgd door de naam van het object, meestal tevens de vindplaats. In de Index of Inscriptions staat de naam c.q. vindplaats voorop, gevolgd door de getranslitereerde tekst van de hele inscriptie en daarachter de pagina waarop object en runen worden beschreven. In het algemeen kan worden gezegd dat inscripties vooral worden aangetroffen in een context die wijst op een gebruik van het runenschrift in de hogere echelons van de samenleving. Wat betreft de oudste inscripties, die vooral in Denemarken gevonden zijn, is de context die van hoge militairen en rijke vrouwen. In vrijwel alle gevallen wordt de exclusiviteit benadrukt door de aanwezigheid van prestigieuze Romeinse voorwerpen. Dit beeld blijft zo gedurende enkele eeuwen, tot in de Volksverhuizingstijd. Nog korte tijd daarna blijven met runen beschreven objecten, zoals wapens en juwelen, voornamelijk beperkt tot de elite, maar verdwijnt de Romeinse connotatie. Vooral de Merovingische rijengrafvelden in Zuid-Duitsland leverden relatief veel runenobjecten op uit vrijwel uitsluitend rijke graven. In Friesland en Engeland is de context wat schraler: de objecten zijn niet altijd van kostbaar materiaal en de eigenaars van runenobjecten lijken van eenvoudiger komaf. De context: graven (in Engeland) of losse vondsten uit terpen (Friesland en Groningen) wijst lang niet altijd op luxueuze omstandigheden. De runentradities van Scandinavië, Duitsland, Nederland en Engeland kenden alle een eigen ontwikkeling, die voortbouwde op een initieel langdurig consistent blijvend systeem, waardoor men wel eens het bestaan van een runen-koine heeft verondersteld. Dergelijke specifieke overeenkomsten in de runentradities wijzen op contacten tussen een kleine groep. Deze groep zal gelieerd zijn geweest aan de politieke top, degenen die de verschillende stammen tot staten opbouwden, hetgeen al begon in de tijd van het Romeinse Rijk. Runen konden zich, wellicht mede daardoor, ook nog handhaven na de Volksverhuizingstijd. Gezien het soort objecten, hebben de inscripties (ook) een functie gehad in de bevestiging van bepaalde relaties binnen een kleine, geprivilegieerde groep, behorend tot de maatschappelijke top. Gedurende de Volksverhuizingstijd (vierde - zesde eeuw) werd het runenschrift verspreid over een groot deel van West- en Midden-Europa. De aard van de teksten blijft dezelfde. De runen zelf worden in meer of mindere mate aangepast aan de tongval in de verschillende gebieden. Pas na ongeveer de zesde eeuw vinden we inscripties met geheel andere soort teksten, lang, informatief, soms poëtisch van aard. Deze ommekeer maakt tevens duidelijk dat inmiddels het lezen en schrijven van runen bij meerdere lagen van de bevolking bekend is geworden. De teksten worden dan ook meer gebruiksteksten, voor diverse doeleinden. De toepassing blijft onveranderd epigrafisch, behalve bij de Angelsaksen, die runen, naast het Latijnse schrift, in hun manuscripten opnemen. Handelscontacten tussen Engeland, Friesland en Jutland blijken uit de runenmunten, zoals de sceattas. In Zuid-Oost Europa blijken de weinige runenobjecten aan de (Oost-)Goten te kunnen worden toegewezen. De weinige vondsten in Hongarije en Zwitserland wijzen vermoedelijk niet op inheemse runentradities. De enkele runenvondsten uit België en Frankrijk kunnen daarentegen getuigen van mogelijke runenkennis bij de Franken. Het is opvallend dat, gezien hun datering, de eerste Zuid-Duitse runenobjecten samenvallen met het begin van de Merovingische suprematie (ca. 500 AD). De overheid van Engeland en Friesland was sterk Merovingisch beïnvloed, hetgeen bijvoorbeeld blijkt uit de numismatiek. En dan zijn er twee historische 6eeeuwse Merovingers, die getuigen van hun runenkennis: Venantius Fortunatus en koning Chilperic. Het recent gevonden zwaardschedebeslag met runen in de Betuwe heeft een Frankische connotatie. Toekomstig runologisch onderzoek zou zich dan ook moeten richten op de mogelijkheid van een Frankische runentraditie, en de teloorgang daarvan. Al met al kan men concluderen, dat de diverse runentradities uit de periode 150-700 AD niet wijzen op een schrift dat vooral communicatief van aard was. Eerder lijken de oudste inscripties te duiden op een gebruik dat beperkt werd tot een ornamentele toevoeging. De teksten bestaan over het algemeen uit korte mededelingen: makers- en schrijversformules, opdrachten, namen van object en materiaal, onbekende woorden waarvan men aaneemt dat ze een magische of religieuze betekenis hadden. Men signeerde, men benoemde, men hield iets belangrijks vast met letters, met woorden, met taal. Voor zover we de teksten kunnen beoordelen, zijn ze sterk formulatief en vertonen grote overeenkomsten over een groot gebied. De orthografie is zeer nauwkeurig; men hechtte er kennelijk grote waarde aan de klanken van de taal goed te onderscheiden en weer te geven. Juist deze zorgvuldige behandeling en het formulatieve karakter wijzen op vakmanschap. Het lijkt voor de hand te liggen om de runenschrijvers onder bepaalde handwerkslieden te zoeken, zoals wapensmeden en juweliers. De artistieke inspiratie en de hoogstaande techniek zullen, net als de runen zelf, zijn voortgekomen uit de belangrijkste cultuur van het Europa uit het begin van de jaartelling: de Romeinse. Het meest intrigerend en verbazingwekkend is, dat de Germanen zowel de kunst als het schrift naar hun eigen hand hebben gezet. De runentradities gaan uiteindelijk steeds sterker van elkaar verschillen. In het Fries215 Groninger terpengebied wordt de crossroads positie van het gebied in de runen weerspiegeld: diverse invloeden uit Engeland en Denemarken zijn in de Friese inscripties te traceren. Een algemener gebruik van runen blijkt ook uit een grotere diversiteit van materiaal en soort objecten, maar ook omdat er steeds meer echte zinnen voorkomen, terwijl bijvoorbeeld in het Continentale Corpus vaak volstaan werd met een paar namen en hooguit wat toevoegingen. Runenvariaties zoals verdubbelingen, gespiegelde runen, ornamentele runen etc. lijken thuis te horen in de Noordzee-traditie, te weten de Deense, Nederlandse en Engelse corpora. Een aparte groep vormen de gouden runen-bracteaten (uit omtrent 575-625), die voor dit onderzoek geselecteerd zijn op leesbaarheid. Alhoewel enige voorzichtigheid betracht moet worden met bracteaten-runen, die notoir zijn wegens hun afwijkende vormen, zijn de bracteaten als groep onmisbaar vanwege het relatief grote aantal: er zijn bijna evenveel bracteaten met runen bekend als andere objecten met runen uit de eerste vier of vijf eeuwen. Bovendien zijn de bracteaten belangrijk voor het bestuderen van de sociale rol van het runenschrift. Bracteaten zijn amuletten, geïnspireerd op Romeinse keizermedaillons en dus interessant vanwege de bestudering van de Romeins-Germaanse betrekkingen. Bracteaten dienden waarschijnlijk ook als insignia, die bij initiatieriten van jonge krijgers hoorden. Uit de iconografie blijkt een bepaalde leiderscultus, maar er kunnen ook mythologische aspecten in gezien worden. De bracteaten hadden een ideologische, dan wel religieuze waarde. Bij het onderzoeken van mogelijk magische, of symbolische connotaties van objecten met runen, spelen de bracteaten een grote rol. Runen en prestigegoederen zijn onlosmakelijk verbonden in de Germaanse samenleving van de Romeinse tijd en de vroege middeleeuwen. Dit alles hangt samen met een maatschappelijke structuur, die bekend is als het gift-and-exchange systeem, waar een leider en zijn comitatus aan elkaar verbonden zijn door een subtiel systeem van geven en nemen. Kostbare objecten benadrukten de band tussen heer en volgeling; een object met runen verhoogde niet alleen de waarde van het object, maar vooral de intrinsieke waarde van de relatie tussen gever en ontvanger. Een waarschuwing is op zijn plaats. We hebben te maken met runenobjecten, die puur toevallig bekend zijn geraakt. Deze objecten worden gevonden bij archeologische opgravingen, die ook een mate van toevalligheid kennen. Voorts zijn er nogal wat 'losse vondsten', al of niet met een context. Het is daarom heel wel mogelijk dat het materiaal dat we hebben, een scheef beeld geeft van het destijdse runengebruik. Alle conclusies kunnen dus alleen onder voorbehoud zijn. Het opstellen van runenchronologieën is dan ook van beperkte waarde. Het dateren aan de hand van bepaalde runenvormen is vrijwel onmogelijk. Iedere nieuwe vondst kan de hele perceptie veranderen. Toch is het van groot belang om de runenobjecten en hun context te blijven bestuderen. Niet alleen vanwege de grote cultuur-historische waarde, maar ook omdat het onze oudste taalmonumenten zijn. Dit onderzoek heeft op basis van de taalkunde in combinatie met archeologie kunnen wijzen op de sterke West-Germaanse inslag van de oudste runenobjecten. Tot nu toe werd altijd aangenomen dat Scandinavië de bakermat van de runencultuur was. Ik hoop dat beeld iets te hebben bijgesteld. Het inzien van de mogelijke West-Germaanse oorsprong van het runenschrift heeft consequenties voor de interpretaties en wellicht ook voor de datering van sommige runenteksten.