The site of Liberchies Les Bons-Villers is located in Hainaut, Belgium, in a region now entirely devoted to agriculture. Located on the Roman road which continues to Cologne (Germnay) and the area of the Rhine basin, between Tongeren (Belgium) and Bavay (France), the site is known as a secondary agglomeration. We know the name – 'Geminiacum', and the status of the settlement – a vicus (however not the date of this), from both the Peutinger Tabula as well as the Antonine Itinerary. As a result of the ongoing excavations, since 1954, the general outline of the site is beginning to be known, at least in broad strokes. Although no trace of occupation prior to the Roman period has yet been found, the number of Celtic coins in gold, alloyed gold or gilded bronze, as well as billon from the Nervii, suggest that the site was used as a place of worship prior to Romanisation. Monetization began in earnest with the reign of Augustus for which we have nearly 500 coins, mainly bronze lato sensu. Quantities found for subsequent periods are smaller and it is only for the 2nd century of the Common Era (CE) that a similar level of monetisation was attained. An analysis of the wear of the coins allows for the supposition that they were used over long periods - far beyond the respective reigns of the respective issuers. A decline is seen for the last third of the 2nd century even if the vicus itself survived until the middle of the 3rd. The economic and political disturbances that shook Gaul in this period strongly marked the vicus, the abandonment of which dates to the creation of the 'Gallic Empire' or shortly afterwards. It is noteworthy that a burgus was constructed around 253/260 CE on the ruins of civilian dwellings; itself later abandoned around 285 CE. Principal occupation then moved to a place called Brunehaut (Brunehaut, Belgium), where a stone fortification, or castellum, was constructed. A first stage of this is seen with the presence of a small ditch preserved on the northern portion of the fortification. The main later occupation of the site, however, took place during the reign of Constantine the Great (307-336 CE). Thereafter, the military presence, if not entirely non-existent was at least greatly reduced. The end of the 4th century saw a resurgence of occupation which lasts until the early years of the 5th century; and is certainly related to troops of Germanic origin. Curiously, while the vicus itself shows no trace of habitation in the 4th century, a small fanum, or shrine, was constructed on the ruins of a former artisanal district. The remains of domestic fauna found therein suggest meals in honour of Mithra even though the construction itself does not have the architectural characteristics of a mithræum. Variances in the numismatic material found in both the fanum and the castellum show that the worshippers were not necessarily only of a military nature; the temple seems to have been frequented by soldiers but also by those in transit on the road from Bavay to Cologne. It was perhaps even used by civilians living in the surroundings of the castellum: craftsmen, merchants, farmers, wives and. concubines. Of these, however, no traces have yet been discovered. ; Le site de Liberchies Les Bons-Villers se trouve en moyenne Belgique, dans une région aujourd'hui entièrement consacrée à l'agriculture. Replacé sur le réseau routier d'époque romaine, on constate que le site est une agglomération secondaire située entre Bavay et Tongres, et au-delà, vers Cologne et la zone rhénane. L'établissement, dont nous connaissons le nom et le statut par la carte de Peutinger et l'Itinéraire d'Antonin s'appelle Geminiacum. Il s'agit d'un vicus (mais nous ignorons de quand date ce statut). Suite aux fouilles menées depuis 1954, le plan de l'agglomération commence à être connu, du moins dans les grandes lignes. Si aucune trace au sol d'occupation antérieure à la romanisation n'a été retrouvée, le nombre de monnaies celtiques en or, or allié ou bronze doré ainsi que les potins nerviens retrouvés permettent d'envisager une fréquentation cultuelle du site qui est antérieure. La monétisation débute avec le règne d'Auguste qui a laissé près de 500 monnaies, essentiellement du bronze lato sensu. Par la suite, les quantités retrouvées sont moindres et il faut attendre le 2ème siècle pour retrouver un niveau de monétisation semblable. L'analyse des états d'usure des monnaies permet d'envisager leur utilisation sur des périodes longues dépassant de loin les règnes des émetteurs. Un déclin se fait sentir déjà dans le dernier tiers du 2ème siècle même si le vicus survit jusqu'au milieu du 3ème. Mais les troubles économiques et politiques qui ont secoué la Gaule ont fortement marqué le vicus dont l'abandon peut être envisagé à l'avènement de l'Empire gaulois ou peu après. En effet, sur les ruines d'habitations civiles, un burgus est édifié vers 253/260 et abandonné probablement vers 285. On assiste alors à un déplacement de l'occupation vers le lieu-dit Brunehaut qui voit l'installation d'une fortification en pierre du type castellum. Un premier état peut être envisagé à cause de la présence d'un petit fossé préservé dans la partie nord de la fortification. Mais l'occupation principale se fera sous le règne de Constantin Ier. Par la suite, la présence militaire, si elle n'est pas nulle, est à tout le moins fortement réduite. La fin du 4ème siècle verra une résurgence de l'occupation jusque dans les premières années du 5ème. Cette dernière peut sans doute être mise en relation avec des troupes d'origine germanique. Curieusement, alors que le vicus n'a livré aucune trace d'habitation au 4ème siècle, un petit temple du type fanum est édifié sur les ruines d'un ancien quartier artisanal. Les éléments de faune domestique retrouvés suggèrent des repas en l'honneur de Mithra même si l'endroit n'a pas les caractéristiques architecturales d'un mithræum. Des différences dans les mobiliers numismatiques retrouvés dans le fanum et dans le castellum montrent que les fidèles ne sont pas nécessairement les militaires de la fortification. On peut alors supposer que le temple était fréquenté par les militaires mais aussi par des gens de passage sur la chaussée reliant Bavay à Cologne et par des civils vivant dans l'entourage du castellum : artisans, marchands, éleveurs, épouses et…concubines. Mais à ce jour, aucune trace n'en a été retrouvée ! ; Het voorwerp van deze dissertatie is de studie van meer dan 7000 Keltische en Romeinse munten die werden gevonden bij opgravingen of voetonderzoeken op een nederzetting langs de weg Bavay-Keulen. De auteur poogt een kwantitatieve en contextuele benadering en plaatst deze in het kader van de muntcirculatie van Noord-Gallië.
Background: Pollution - unwanted waste released to air, water, and land by human activity - is the largest environmental cause of disease in the world today. It is responsible for an estimated nine million premature deaths per year, enormous economic losses, erosion of human capital, and degradation of ecosystems. Ocean pollution is an important, but insufficiently recognized and inadequately controlled component of global pollution. It poses serious threats to human health and well-being. The nature and magnitude of these impacts are only beginning to be understood. Goals: (1) Broadly examine the known and potential impacts of ocean pollution on human health. (2) Inform policy makers, government leaders, international organizations, civil society, and the global public of these threats. (3) Propose priorities for interventions to control and prevent pollution of the seas and safeguard human health. Methods: Topic-focused reviews that examine the effects of ocean pollution on human health, identify gaps in knowledge, project future trends, and offer evidence-based guidance for effective intervention. Environmental Findings: Pollution of the oceans is widespread, worsening, and in most countries poorly controlled. It is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage. More than 80% arises from land-based sources. It reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, atmospheric deposition and direct discharges. It is often heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coasts of low- and middle-income countries. Plastic is a rapidly increasing and highly visible component of ocean pollution, and an estimated 10 million metric tons of plastic waste enter the seas each year. Mercury is the metal pollutant of greatest concern in the oceans; it is released from two main sources - coal combustion and small-scale gold mining. Global spread of industrialized agriculture with increasing use of chemical fertilizer leads to extension of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) to previously unaffected regions. Chemical pollutants are ubiquitous and contaminate seas and marine organisms from the high Arctic to the abyssal depths. Ecosystem Findings: Ocean pollution has multiple negative impacts on marine ecosystems, and these impacts are exacerbated by global climate change. Petroleum-based pollutants reduce photosynthesis in marine microorganisms that generate oxygen. Increasing absorption of carbon dioxide into the seas causes ocean acidification, which destroys coral reefs, impairs shellfish development, dissolves calcium-containing microorganisms at the base of the marine food web, and increases the toxicity of some pollutants. Plastic pollution threatens marine mammals, fish, and seabirds and accumulates in large mid-ocean gyres. It breaks down into microplastic and nanoplastic particles containing multiple manufactured chemicals that can enter the tissues of marine organisms, including species consumed by humans. Industrial releases, runoff, and sewage increase frequency and severity of HABs, bacterial pollution, and anti-microbial resistance. Pollution and sea surface warming are triggering poleward migration of dangerous pathogens such as the Vibrio species. Industrial discharges, pharmaceutical wastes, pesticides, and sewage contribute to global declines in fish stocks. Human Health Findings: Methylmercury and PCBs are the ocean pollutants whose human health effects are best understood. Exposures of infants in utero to these pollutants through maternal consumption of contaminated seafood can damage developing brains, reduce IQ and increase children's risks for autism, ADHD and learning disorders. Adult exposures to methylmercury increase risks for cardiovascular disease and dementia. Manufactured chemicals - phthalates, bisphenol A, flame retardants, and perfluorinated chemicals, many of them released into the seas from plastic waste - can disrupt endocrine signaling, reduce male fertility, damage the nervous system, and increase risk of cancer. HABs produce potent toxins that accumulate in fish and shellfish. When ingested, these toxins can cause severe neurological impairment and rapid death. HAB toxins can also become airborne and cause respiratory disease. Pathogenic marine bacteria cause gastrointestinal diseases and deep wound infections. With climate change and increasing pollution, risk is high that Vibrio infections, including cholera, will increase in frequency and extend to new areas. All of the health impacts of ocean pollution fall disproportionately on vulnerable populations in the Global South - environmental injustice on a planetary scale. Conclusions: Ocean pollution is a global problem. It arises from multiple sources and crosses national boundaries. It is the consequence of reckless, shortsighted, and unsustainable exploitation of the earth's resources. It endangers marine ecosystems. It impedes the production of atmospheric oxygen. Its threats to human health are great and growing, but still incompletely understood. Its economic costs are only beginning to be counted. Ocean pollution can be prevented. Like all forms of pollution, ocean pollution can be controlled by deploying data-driven strategies based on law, policy, technology, and enforcement that target priority pollution sources. Many countries have used these tools to control air and water pollution and are now applying them to ocean pollution. Successes achieved to date demonstrate that broader control is feasible. Heavily polluted harbors have been cleaned, estuaries rejuvenated, and coral reefs restored. Prevention of ocean pollution creates many benefits. It boosts economies, increases tourism, helps restore fisheries, and improves human health and well-being. It advances the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). These benefits will last for centuries. Recommendations: World leaders who recognize the gravity of ocean pollution, acknowledge its growing dangers, engage civil society and the global public, and take bold, evidence-based action to stop pollution at source will be critical to preventing ocean pollution and safeguarding human health. Prevention of pollution from land-based sources is key. Eliminating coal combustion and banning all uses of mercury will reduce mercury pollution. Bans on single-use plastic and better management of plastic waste reduce plastic pollution. Bans on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have reduced pollution by PCBs and DDT. Control of industrial discharges, treatment of sewage, and reduced applications of fertilizers have mitigated coastal pollution and are reducing frequency of HABs. National, regional and international marine pollution control programs that are adequately funded and backed by strong enforcement have been shown to be effective. Robust monitoring is essential to track progress. Further interventions that hold great promise include wide-scale transition to renewable fuels; transition to a circular economy that creates little waste and focuses on equity rather than on endless growth; embracing the principles of green chemistry; and building scientific capacity in all countries. Designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) will safeguard critical ecosystems, protect vulnerable fish stocks, and enhance human health and well-being. Creation of MPAs is an important manifestation of national and international commitment to protecting the health of the seas.
This book is derived from the abridged version of papers presented in 3rd Silkroad Congress / 14th ADAM International Social Sciences Conference organized jointly by Ankara Center for Thought and Research (ADAM), Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University (IZU), National University of Uzbekistan (NUUz) and Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TIKA). ; Turkey has increasingly paying much attention to its relationship with the all over the world, especially in Middle East, Africa and Asia. Turkey was the first country to recognize Uzbekistan's independence on 16 December 1991. Since that date, relations between Uzbekistan and Turkey have been developing dynamically in the commercial-economic and financial spheres. Many co-operation agreements have been signed between the two states. The positive aspect of Turkey's renewed interest to foster relations with all over the world recently is, partly demonstrated by the strong interest and action taken by the countries that wanted to improve relations Turkey as a strategic partner. There are not only commercial and economic relations between Uzbekistan and Turkey, but also cultural relations. In recent years, great importance has been attached to the development of tourism sector and bilateral cultural relations. Uzbekistan's historical tourism potential and rich cultural heritage attract the attention of Turkish citizens. For this reason, the development of cooperation in the tourism sector plays an important role in the approach of the peoples of the two countries. It is necessary to show all efforts to develop mutually beneficial relations in economic, cultural and humanitarian fields. For the bilateral relations to be developed more actively, both countries have the necessary resources and great potential. As known, the Turkish – Uzbek relations is very old and multi-dimensional which includes economic and trade, social and cultural, diplomatic, development and humanitarian etc. In this part, a brief review of the diplomatic and economic relations is given. This part is expected to give a highlight with respect to the historical and relations and, hence, would help the urgency to revive relations in the future and the importance of the conference towards that goal. The cultural and artistic relations between Turkey and Uzbekistan are very old. The common characteristics of the two countries are their history, culture and art that based on the same ancestry. Within the framework of the agreements between the two countries, not only commercial and economic relations but also cultural and artistic relations are developing are developing between Turkey and Uzbekistan. The purpose of this book and organized congress has an aim to contribute to the developing relations. --From editors ; OPPORTUNITIES OF IMPLEMENTING THE WORLD INNOVATION POLICY EXPERIENCE IN PROVIDING SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH IN UZBEKISTAN -- TURKEY AND TURKIC REPUBLICS: AN ANALYSIS FROM ECONOMIC GROWTH PERSPECTIVE -- THE MAIN FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION -- ÖZBEK ÖĞRENCILER ÖZELINDE TÜRKIYE'DEKI ULUSLARARASI ÖĞRENCILER YA DA ÇOK YÖNLÜ ELÇILER -- DEVELOPMENT EVENTFUL TOURISM ON THE SILK ROAD -- NORMATIVE-LEGAL BASES OF ECOLOGICAL-ECONOMIC INTEGRATION IN UZBEKISTAN -- SLAM BİLİM TARİHİ: EMPİRİK BİR ÇALIŞMA -- THE DYNAMIC DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN TURKEY AND UZBEKISTAN: COOPERATION BASED ON TRUST AND FRIENDSHIP -- INTELLECTUAL POTENTIAL OF CREATIVE SOCIETY -- DEVELOPING SOCIOECONOMICAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONS BETWEEN UZBEKISTAN AND TURKEY -- THE USING OF TURKEY'S SCHEMES PRIORITY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY OF UZBEKISTAN -- TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY IN THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN -- MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL UZBEKISTAN – TURKEY RELATIONSHIP AND COOPERATION IN THE SPHERE OF TOURISM -- ÜLKELER ARASI İŞBİRLİKLERİNİN GELİŞTİRİLMESİNDE İSLÂMÎ FINANSIN ÖNEMİ -- DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL TOURISM IN UZBEKISTAN -- INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMY IN UZBEKISTAN -- UZBEKISTAN: REFORMS IN EDUCATION AS A FACTOR OF MODERNIZATION OF THE COUNTRY -- ECONOMIC MODERNIZATION - THE WAY TO INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENT -- INVESTMENTS IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR AND WAYS OF IMPROVING THEIR EFFICIENCY -- FAMILY BUSINESS AND ITS DEVELOPMENT -- TURKISH EXPERIENCE IN INCREASING COMPETITIVENESS IN EXPORT AND THE EFFECTIVE WAYS OF USING THEM -- WAYS TO ENSURE INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENT IN UZBEKISTAN -- MODERN BANKING SYSTEM: A GUARANTEE OF DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRY'S EXPORT POTENTIAL -- FOOD SECURITY IN UZBEKISTAN -- THE USE OF MODERN METHODS TO INCREASE THE COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PLANT PROTECTION SYSTEM IN AGRICULTURE -- IMPROVING THE METHODOLOGY OF FINANCIAL RESULTS IN TOURISM COMPANIES -- TARGETED PROGRAMS OF BALANCED DEVELOPMENT OF TERRITORIES AS A FACTOR OF INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENT -- MODELS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT AND THE DECENTRALIZATION EXPERIENCE: AN INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH -- INCREASING COMPETITIVENESS BASED ON INNOVATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (IN CHINESE CASE) -- VALUE OF CREATIVE TOURISM IN DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIORITY DIRECTIONS OF THE TOURISTIC INDUSTRY IN UZBEKISTAN -- URBANIZATION AND ITS CURRENT STATE -- TECHNOLOGICAL MODERNIZATION AS A FACTOR OF DEVELOPMENT -- THE ECONOMY OF UZBEKISTAN -- LABOR THEORY OF ECONOMIC GROWTH IN MODERN ECONOMY -- INDICATORS OF POLITICAL SYSTEM STABILITY ASSESSMENT -- THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF HANDICRAFT ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN UZBEKISTAN -- GOVERNMENT CHARGES FOR PUBLIC DEBT MANAGEMENT -- INFRASTRUCTURE AS A DRIVER OF DEVELOPMENT -- INVESTMENT IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES -- THE ROLE AND VALUE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN DEVELOPMENT OF TOURIST INDUSTRY IN UZBEKISTAN -- PRIORITY DIRECTIONS OF SUPPORTING EMPLOYMENT POPULATION IN LABOR -- INCREASE OF COMPETITIVENESS AND EXPORT-ORIENTED REGION: EXPERIENCE OF TURKEY -- INCREASING COMPETITIVENESS OF COUNTRY BY SUPPORTING EFFECTIVE EMPLOYMENT -- SOME FEATURES OF THE FORMATION OF VALUE-ORIENTATED EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES -- THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHERS' TEACHER LEADERSHIP ROLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT LEVELS -- STUDYING THE EXPERIENCE OF IMPROVING THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF THE STATE BUDGET REVENUES OF TURKEY -- INNOVATIONS – AS AN IMPORTANT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT FACTOR -- PRINCIPLES OF THE TERRITORIAL STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT OF UZBEKISTAN -- CIVIL - LAW PROBLEMS OF PRELIMINARY CONTRACT ACCORDING TO THE LEGISLATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN -- INCREASING THE COUNTRY'S COMPETITIVENESS: CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS -- THE ROLE OF PUBLIC SECTOR IN INNOVATION DEVELOPMENT -- THE IMPORTANCE OF USING BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGIES IN DIGITAL ECONOMY -- THE ESSENCE OF INVESTMENT POTENTIAL AND INVESTMENT FIELDS REGULARITIES IN ECONOMY -- ON THE QUESTION OF THE REVIVAL OF THE GREAT SILK ROAD, AND THE TOPONYM "GREAT SILK ROAD" ON THE TERRITORY OF TASHKENT -- SOME COMMENTS ON THE "COTTON CASE" REPRESSION CONDUCTED IN UZBEKISTAN -- PROBLEMS OF STUDYING INTELLIGENCE IN THE WORLD PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE -- FROM THE HISTORY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CENTRAL ASIAN KHANATES AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS (XIX. CENTURY) -- COOPERATION AGREEMENT ON CULTURAL COOPERATION BETWEEN THE REPUBLIK OF UZBEKISTAN AND THE REPUBLIK OF TURKEY -- ORTA ASYA HANLIKLERI VE OSMANLI DEVLETI ARASINDEKI ILISKILERDE TICARET YOLLARININ ÖNEMİ -- OSMANLI'DA VAKIF KERVANSARAYLAR -- THE HISTORY OF THE ASIAN COUNTRIES IN THE TURKESTAN COLLECTION -- PAN-TURKIC IDEA OF JADID MOVEMENT AND ITS REFLECTION IN ARCHIVAL DOCUMENTS -- CLASSIFICATION OF WORLD MANUSCRIPTS SOURCE STUDY OF MAVARDI PRODUCT "AHKОM" GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THESIS -- S'HOQXON TO'RA JUNAYDULLO XO'JA O'G'LI IBRAT –FOUNDER OF PRINTING HOUSE OF NAMANGAN -- HOCA MUHAMMED PARSA'NIN "FESLÜ'L-HİTAB" ESERİNDE HANEFİLİK VE MATURİDİLİK -- THE LOGIC OF ABU NASR AL-FARABI IN THE REFLECTION OF THE HISTORY OF ISLAM -- MAHBÛBU'L KULÛB'UN HİTABET/RETORİK DEĞERİ ÜZERİNE -- RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AS A FACTOR IN SUSTAINABILITY OF SOCIETY -- MAVERAÜNNEHİR ÂLİMLERİNDEN EBU ZEYD ED-DEBÛSÎ VE İBNÜ'L-MÜNZİR EN-NİSABÛRÎ'NİN HİLAF İLMİNE KATKILARI -- GELENEKTEN GELECEĞE MÜSLÜMAN ZİHİN DÜNYASININ YENİDEN İNŞASI VE EĞİTİM -- UZBEKISTAN IS THE LAND OF INTER-RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE -- TÜRKIYE ÖZBEKISTAN ARASINDAKI SOSYO-KÜLTÜREL İLİŞKİLERİN GELİŞTİRİLMESİNDE SEMERKAND HAVZASININ ÖNEMİ -- THE ROLE OF HOLY BUKHARA ON THE GREAT SILK ROAD -- ÖZBEKİSTAN'IN DİNİ VE KÜLTÜREL HAYATINDA NAKŞBENDÎLİK VE HÜSEYNİYYE KOLU -- THE INTENTION – A CHOICE OR THE DOCTRINE OF ELECTION IN MAVARDI PRODUCT « ALAHKOM-AS-SULTONIYA VA-L-VALOYOT AD-DINIYA » ; 1
Este artículo tiene como objetivo presentar la arqueología virtual como una de las metodologías empleadas en los proyectos desarrollados en el marco de la línea de investigación "Arqueología de las órdenes militares" y que desde hace unos años se lleva a cabo desde la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha en colaboración con la Fundación Castillo de La Estrella. Su objetivo es el estudio de estas instituciones en el marco de la Edad Media y desde la perspectiva de la cultura material aunando el análisis del patrimonio arqueológico y de las fuentes documentales. En este sentido, la arqueología virtual, entendida como la "aplicación de la visualización asistida por ordenador a la gestión integral del patrimonio arqueológico" ha sido incorporada como una metodología más con el fin no sólo de servir como herramienta de difusión y comunicación, tanto para especialistas como para el público general; sino también como un medio a partir del cual orientar y complementar el proceso de investigación. Presentamos el proceso metodológico en la aplicación de la arqueología virtual a varios casos de estudio de elementos patrimoniales relacionados con las órdenes de Santiago, Calatrava y San Juan, como son el Castillo de la Estrella (Montiel, Ciudad Real), la fortaleza y el convento de Uclés (Uclés, Cuenca) y el hospital santiaguista de Alarcón (Alarcón, Cuenca), entre otros. Así mismo, plantearemos las dificultades y ventajas de la aplicación de la arqueología virtual, especialmente en el sentido de herramienta en el proceso de investigación para el desarrollo del debate; el planteamiento de preguntas y búsqueda de soluciones; la plasmación de hipótesis; y la orientación de proyectos futuros.Lo más destacado:Planteamiento de la arqueología virtual como metodología útil en la investigación interdisciplinar del patrimonio de las órdenes militares: pros y contras, problemas y soluciones.Proceso y resultado de la aplicación de la arqueología virtual en varios estudios vinculados a las órdenes militares: castillos, conventos, hospitales o explotaciones rurales.Desarrollo de la investigación a través del uso de la arqueología virtual: generando interrogantes y buscando respuestas. ; Extended Abstract:The objective of this paper is to show the virtual archaeology as one of the methodologies applicated in the research line "Archaeology of the military orders" developed for some years by the University of Castilla-La Mancha in collaboration with the Fundación Castillo de la Estrella.The military orders are very important institutions for the study of the Middle Ages in the Iberian Peninsula. Because of that, there is a rich literature which approaches many aspects of these institutions: their origins and evolution; organisation; economic dimension; social reality. In contrast, the studies which have focused on the heritage linked to these orders have not had the same degree of development. This lack has motivated the creation of this important research line, where several specialists from different disciplines such as history, archaeology, architecture or restoration try to focus on the research of the military orders heritage, mainly in the region of Castilla-La Mancha. Thus, our research line is based on an interdisciplinary methodology, combining traditional practice with new technologies, like the virtual archaeology, which is described as the "using computer-based visualisation for the comprehensive management of archaeological heritage" (Principios de Sevilla, 2012).Virtual archaeology as a research methodologyThere are several applications for the virtual archaeology, but we could summarize them in three: research, conservation and restoration, and communication. In this paper, we focused on the first of them. We have worked with virtual archaeology in several cases such as the Castle of La Estrella (Montiel, Ciudad Real), the fortress and priory of Uclés (Uclés, Cuenca) or the hospital of Santiago of Alarcón (Alarcón, Cuenca), and we can say that this methodology has contributed to progress in the knowledge of all the elements which have been recreated. In the creation process of a virtual model, it is necessary to collect all information and data as are possible of the element on which we work. In this process, a lot of questions about several aspects appears, and we must try to find responses. In this way, we discover things which probably never would have been approached without this process. Furthermore, the virtual archaeology is an excellent method to sketch and discuss different hypothesis. It is a visual language with whom the specialists could show their ideas as support of the traditional text formats or other graphics sources as photos or plans.WorkflowOur workflow is similar toot her projects of virtual archaeology. Before to start to work, is important to think about the objective of the model. For example, there are a lot of differences between a simple model to sketch the possible spatial disposition of a building in the research discussion, and a recreation to show to the public. Then, we can start to work in a process which can be summarized in these steps:Compilation of all the documents, information and data as are possible about the element to recreate.Discussion about several aspects of the model as the plan, materials, constructive technics, decoration, landscape, etc. Is interesting to use sketches or drawings before starting to work in the 3D model.Design of the 3D model starting with the general aspects as the spatial disposition of the different elements, its size or the main details, and after that, work with the specific elements, decorations or contextual items (in recreations).Texturize the different objects of the model. It is important to work with the correct materials. In this way, we try to use the real textures of the archaeological elements when we have them.Integrate the model in a correct context: topography, landscape, people and animals, furniture, etc. These aspects will be present with a different degree of detail depending on the objective of the virtual model.The last step is the creation of various sources as images, videos, interactive application, etcTo preserve the scientific transparency is important to show the degree of evidence of the different elements of the model. An option is to use a colour scale like the one which has been developed by Aparicio Figueiredo (2016) which reflects the origin of the data and the degree of historical and archaeological evidence that we have.It is important to point out that the discussion between the specialists must be present in all these steps.ConclusionsThe virtual archaeology is a growing methodology in the heritage management sphere. As a communication tool, it is an excellent language to show ideas to the general and the specialised public. But this has many possibilities in other fields such as conservation and restoration, and research. As with any other methodology, it is necessary to create scientific criteria and rules for it use, a process which has already started with the creation of the Seville Principles. Now, is the turn of the researches and heritage specialists to do a correct use of this tool and develop its multiple possibilities.
U radu se analizira antička keramika pronađena na lokalitetu dvor knezova Iločkih pri iskopavanjima 2001. godine. Utvrđeno je da se radi o rimskoj keramici koja se datira od druge polovine 1., pa sve do kraja 4. stoljeća. ; When the Romans conquered the area around Ilok in the first century AD, it became part of Lower Illyricum. After Trajan's division of Pannonia into Upper and Lower sections, Ilok, i.e. Cuccium, was part of Lower Pannonia until Diocletian's division. Diocletian divided Lower Pannonia into Pannonia Valeria and Pannonia Secunda. The center of Pannonia Secunda was Sirmium, and Cuccium belonged to this province. Cuccium was an important point in this part of the Limes, because it defended the Empire where the Danube was easy to cross. The site of the fortress itself has still not been discovered, but it is mentioned as Cucci, Catio, Cuccio, Cuccium, Cuccis castelum. On the other side of the Danube there were barbarian tribes: the Sarmatians and the Iazigians. The Romans adapted their military approach in order to be able to conquer them more easily, so they placed their cavalry and infantry along this part of the Limes. Thus in Cuccium the following units were stationed: "Cuneus equitarum promotorum" and "Equitas sagittarii" (ŠARANOVIĆ-SVETEK, 1966/67, 61-65; BATOROVIĆ, 1994, 11, 12; JANKULOV, 1952, 16; VULIĆ, 1939, 73). Traces of the rich history of Ilok were found in the broader territory of the town in the rescue excavations and construction works, and almost always a part of these finds related to Antiquity. Thus a number of pottery fragments, inscriptions, coins, reliefs, sarcophagi, etc. were found. The pottery that was analysed here is connected with the material found in the systematic archaeological excavations conducted by the Institute of Archaeology in 2001 in the castle of Ilok's princes. The excavated artefacts are highly fragmented and modest, which makes a thorough analysis impossible. The excavations were conducted in the courtyard of the castle, which was covered with earth that was brought subsequently from different sites, thus excluding the possibility of stratigraphy in the analysis of the goods. The finds of Roman pottery in the Roman Province of Pannonia are connected with the invasion of the Roman army and the Italics in this area. Trade and contacts with distant regions were made possible by roads and rivers. In the beginning, trade was related only to military camps and other military facilities, as well as the newly settled towns, and only after a while did it include the local population (LENGYEL, RADAN, 1980, 330-332). This might have happened under the rule of the Emperor Augustus during the transition from the Old to the New Age or after the Pannonian-Dalmatian rebellion in the first half of the first century. Such pottery has already been found at several sites in Pannonia (DAUTOVA-RUŠEVLJAN, 1986, 72), so that it is possible that it exists in the territory of Ilok. In the earliest stage, all goods needed by the soldiers and the civilians came to Pannonia from Aquileia or from other parts of northern Italy across Aquileia. There are not many finds from this earliest period, and some of the existing rare finds are fragments of pottery with thin walls, a jug with one handle and a pot in the La Tène tradition that might have served as an urn (Pl. 2, 8, 16, 17). In the second century products of western workshops are present in Pannonia as well, and they are predominant until the crisis in the mid-third century. The representatives of this period are examples of sigillatae from the Rheinzabern workshop (Pl. 1, 1-3), and as local production became increasingly intense, there are also local imitations of sigillatae (Pl. 1, 4, 5). Products from other neighbouring provinces were not imported in significant quantities. Most of the finds can be dated to the third and the fourth centuries. There are many fragments of glazed pottery in dark green and brown, jugs (Pl. 2, 9), bowls (Pl. 1, 6, 7), and a mortaria (Pl. 2, 12-15), which is frequent in this period in Pannonia, when glazed pottery was massively produced even in Pannonia itself; apart from that, there is also pots (Pl. 3, 24-31) and lids (Pl. 3, 18-23). After the death of Emperor Valentinian in 375 there was stagnation in development, reconstruction, trade and production. By the time of the invasions by barbarian tribes, i.e. the Goths and the Alans, the developed Roman civilization in this area in the first half of the fifth century went through changes in the composition of its population as well as in lifestyle. According to the treaty of 405, a part of Pannonia came under Alaric's rule, which brought Roman life in this part of Pannonia to an end (PINTEROVIĆ, 1970, 82). Without specific research it is not possible to determine when and where exactly the fortress was erected, how life surrounding it developed, and how it stopped functioning. From the time immediately after this there are only a few finds, the most significant being that of a pair of silver Ostrogoth fibulae from the fifth century. Pottery was found in this excavation, and it can be approximately dated from the middle of the first to the end of the fourth century. It should be noted that the earliest pottery is the smallest in number, and the pottery from the third and fourth centuries the largest. We encounter pottery of a different origin, from local workshops, as well as Roman pottery under the strong influence of local manufacturers, i.e. pottery in visible Celtic tradition, imitations of Roman pottery and imported Roman pottery produced in different workshops. Such material is present also in the remaining part of Lower Pannonia; therefore it was to be expected that it would be found in Ilok as well. The material is unfortunately rather modest and fragmented, so one cannot gain a clear picture of everyday life or of the entire extent of trade connections and the relationship between the citizens of Cuccium with the rest of the Roman Empire. It is clear that in the beginning there were connections with Italy, the influence of the La Tčne heritage is felt. Later they were connected with the Rhineland (the areas of Pannonia and Noricum were the main export destinations of the Rheinzabern workshop (VIKIĆ-BELANČIĆ, 1962/63, 95; FREMERSDORF, 1937, 167-172)) and products of local provincial workshops were used. In order to reach better and more complete conclusions, further research is necessary, because due to modest materials at present this is impossible, and the fragments can only build a framework which can help in further analysis. Cuccium was probably not as big and as developed as Cornacum or Cibalae, but owing to its position it was of extraordinary significance and it represents one of the vitally important points on the Danube limes. This is what necessitates additional research.
Driven by unrelenting technological and market forces, telecommunications is today one of the world's dynamic economic sector. Until not long ago a relatively obscure territory of interest mainly to engineers, telecommunications today seem to be everybody's proper playing field. Large and small businesses, user groups, investment banks, policy makers, development organizations, legislators, economists, political scientists, consumers, students and lawyers, among others, are now also actively and visibly involved in telecommunications. Traditionally, telecommunications was regarded as a relatively straightforward public utility. Economies of scale, political and military sensitivities, and large externalities made telecommunications a typical public service believed to be a natural monopoly. In this environment, telecommunications development focused mainly on extending standard service, building basic networks, and improving the performance of the operating entities. The main issues were technological, and management of telecommunications enterprises was largely oriented toward engineering.Research in the 1960s and 1970s documented the importance of telecommunications as infrastructure for economic and social development. It was shown that telecommunication services are used in connection with a wide range of economic production and distribution activities, delivery of social services and government administration.They also contribute to the quality of life and social, political and security objectives. Where available, telecommunications benefit a broad cross-section of the urban and rural population by income, education and occupation. These features result in high social and private returns from telecommunications investment, as well as in a considerable financial resource mobilization capacity.Information is regarded today as a fundamental factor of production, alongside capital and labor. The information economy accounted one-third to one half of gross domestic product (GDP) and of employment in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in the 1980s and is expected to reach 60 % for the European Union (EU) in the year 2000. Information also accounts for substantial proportion of GDP in the newly industrialized economies and the modern sectors of developing countries.This increasing information intensity of economic activity, coupled with the globalization of capital flows, trade, manufacturing and other activities, resulted in strong demand for better, more varied, and less costly communication and information services. Demand growth has been challenged with rapid changes in telecommunications technology fueled by advances in microelectronics, software and optics. These changes have greatly reduced the cost of information transmission and processing. It changed the cost structures of telecommunications and many other industries, made possible new ways of meeting a wider range of communication needs at lower cost, reduced user dependence on established operating entities and increasingly integrated information and telecommunications technologies and services. Obviously these interrelated market and technological processes show no signs of decreasing or abating.In this context, telecommunications is now widely considered a strategic investment to maintain and to develop competitive advantage at all levels including national, regional and firm. Telecommunications constitute the core of, and provide the infrastructure for the information economy as a whole. Telecommunications facilitates market entry, improve customer service, and reduce costs, and increase productivity. They are an integral part of financial services, commodities markets, media, transportation, and the travel industry, and provide vital links among manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers.Moreover, industrial and commercial competitive advantage is now not only influenced by availability of telecommunications facilities, but also by choice of network alternatives and control to reconfigure and manage networks in line with corporate objectives. Countries and firms that lack access to modern telecommunication and information systems cannot effectively participate in the global economy and politics. This applies to the least developed countries of Africa and Asia as much as to middle income countries, such as those in Latin America, East Asia, and Central and Eastern Europe that aspire to become industrial countries in the next decade. In that respect, this study is going to focus on the world's one of the most leading entity, European Union (EU)'s telecommunications status, Information Society and its vast project TEN (Trans European Networks) regarding its impacts on the interdependence between the European states in a broad sense, from politics, economics to social living.While doing it, after the introduction, the general developments of telecommunications in Europe will be mentioned by overlooking the regulatory progress in EU in part 2. With the beginning of part 3, the fundamental framework called Information Society (IS) is going to be explained by stressing on the aims and principles of this new era. However, beside its tremendous effects, living and working in IS brings up major questions. Basically, the two opposite ideas are in the minds of the people; on the one hand some says the new technologies and IS creates new fields of job and will bring profound dynamism to the every field of the life and on the other hand some says the new technologies and IS destroy more jobs than it creates, also it will create big gap between rich and poor regions, including people. However, the aim of this work is not to decide which is true or not, but to indicate two sides of the coin as clear as possible which will be done in part 4. In part 5, the way of Europe through IS will be stressed on the necessary suggestions of Commission. With the beginning of part 6 the very important IS project of EU, Trans European Networks (TENs) which is a very extended project, another words it is an advanced infrastructure which will pull Europe together to create a strong economy and better quality of life will be defined in part 6. Part 6 also highlights the main framework of TENs as "TENs for Telecommunications" and "TEN related IS Projects" of EU.After a general idea given by part 6 about TENs, part 7 will be dealt with "Community Support Program for Trans European Telecommunication Networks". The idea here is to comprehend the telecommunication related services and necessary applications in order to see their effect on IS through its expansion in Europe. Even though this work does not have a comparative character, lastly, in part 8 the situation of Turkey, regarding telecommunications and IS will be described. As it is mentioned the idea here is not to compare Turkey's situation with the EU countries', but it is important to give a general opinion where Turkey is. The new era is on its way. One way or another information and telecommunication is expanding into people's life if we like it or not. So that it is substantial to understand the situation of telecommunications and the Information Society in order to see our future more clearly. From now on the economical power is not sufficient if you do not have the power of information. The countries or in other words, societies which can combine economic and information power together with highly widespread telecommunication infrastructures, will be successful in the changing world. Here in this work the ultimate aim is not to discuss the technical or judicial side of telecommunications and information society, but to emphasize the importance of this new trend for countries' future.
AMÉRICA LATINA La tormenta tropical "Emily" se acerca a las costas de República Dominicana y Haití.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/08/03/tropical.storm.emily/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43972830/ns/weather/Guatemala condena a 6.060 años de prisión a cuatro ex militares por el asesinato de campesinos.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44005630/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/2011-08/03/content_13041314.htm http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-guatemala-dos-erres-20110804,0,5754540.story http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/08/02/guatemala.human.rights.trial/index.htmlVenezuela planea excarcelar a la mitad de los presos.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Venezuela/planea/excarcelar/mitad/presos/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_10/Tes Atentado en Venezuela contra un canal de televisión deja dos heridos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/atentado-a-canal-de-televisin-en-venezuela_10059944-4Chávez aparece sin cabello en la toma de posesión de sus nuevos ministros.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Chavez/aparece/cabello/toma/posesion/nuevos/ministros/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_13/Tes http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/chavez-battling-cancer-appears-with-shaved-head/?ref=world http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43983189/ns/world_news-venezuela/ Ecuador se debate entre la libertad de prensa y la vigilancia oficial.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/ecuador-libertad-de-prensa-y-rafael-correa_10072491-4La corrupción pone a Rousseff entre la espada y la pared.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/corrupcion/pone/Rousseff/espada/pared/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_15/TesMauricio Macri gana por amplia mayoría su segundo mandato en Buenos Aires.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Mauricio/Macri/gana/amplia/mayoria/segundo/mandato/Buenos/Aires/elpepuint/20110731elpepuint_7/TesSe elevan a 33 los fallecidos en Ecuador por alcohol adulterado.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/se-elevan-a-33-los-fallecidos-en-ecuador-por-alcohol-adulterado_10076884-4Asesinadas dos turistas francesas en la provincia argentina de Salta.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/dos-turistas-francesas-asesinadas-en-la-provincia-argentina-de-salta_10055864-4Cae en México el 'Diego', vinculado a unos 1.500 asesinatos.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/07/31/mexico.drug.arrest/index.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1393987-detienen-a-un-lider-del-cartel-de-juarez´http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43957458/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/world/americas/01mexico.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cae-en-mxico-alias-el-diego-vinculado-con-unos-1500-asesinatos_10063055-4Asumió Humala y estalló una polémica.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1393226-asumio-humala-y-estallo-una-polemica http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/suspenden-120-das-a-congresista-que-grit-contra-humala_10080127-4 Un avión se parte en dos al aterrizar en Guyana.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/avion/parte/aterrizar/Guyana/elpepiint/20110731elpepiint_9/Tes http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2011/08/03/guatemala-6-060-ans-de-prison-pour-les-auteurs-d-un-massacre-durant-la-guerre-civile_1555568_3222.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/accidente-de-avin-en-guyana_10053684-4Noriega será extraditado a Panamá.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/08/03/france.noriega.extradition/index.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/BF80C464-9DF6-4E65-8211-03DF1D26CA7B.htm?id={BF80C464-9DF6-4E65-8211-03DF1D26CA7B} http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/03/content_13037678.htm Evo Morales anuncia nueva ley para eliminar el latifundio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/evo-morales-anuncia-nueva-ley-para-eliminar-el-latifundio_10077725-4Accidente de avión militar en Brasil deja al menos cinco muertos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/accidente-de-avin-de-la-fuerza-area-de-brasil-deja-al-menos-cinco-muertos_10077207-4María Emma Mejía promueve la cohesión social de las regiones de Unasur.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/mara-emma-meja-promueve-la-cohesin-social-de-las-regiones-de-unasur_10051025-4Permiso de tránsito, una solución para la violencia contra migrantes en México.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2011/08/110802_mexico_migrantes_cidh_irm.shtmlRaúl Castro flexibilizará la política migratoria cubana.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394475-raul-castro-flexibilizara-la-politica-migratoria-cubanaRaúl Castro pidió al Partido Comunista debatir más.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394087-raul-castro-pidio-al-partido-comunista-debatir-masSegún estudio la pobreza crece rápidamente en México.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-poverty-20110730,0,6568710.storyPolicía venezolana captura a líder de revuelta carcelaria de El Rodeo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/polica-venezolana-captura-a-lder-de-revuelta-carcelaria_10076964-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁAcuerdo en Estados Unidos para evitar la quiebra.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2011/08/03/etats-unis-les-plus-pauvres-vont-faire-les-frais-de-la-crise-de-la-dette_1555892_3210.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Acuerdo/Estados/Unidos/evitar/quiebra/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_1/Tes http://www.portafolio.co/internacional/obama-anuncio-acuerdo-acabar-crisis-la-deuda http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/duelo/politico/EE/UU/continua/acuerdo/deuda/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_14/TesImpactante portada de "The New York Times" da la vuelta al mundo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/portada-de-the-new-york-times-sobre-somalia_10081866-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394398-impactante-portada-del-new-york-times-con-un-nino-somaliLas agencias calificadoras castigan a Washington.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394467-las-agencias-calificadoras-castigan-a-washingtonEl acuerdo no calma a Wall Street.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394466-el-acuerdo-no-calma-a-wall-streetGobierno estadounidense enfrenta a hackers.Para más información: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/02/content_13033305.htmLas dudas sobre la recuperación en Estados Unidos provocan un fuerte correctivo en los mercados.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/dudas/recuperacion/EE/UU/provocan/fuerte/correctivo/mercados/elpepueco/20110801elpepueco_1/TesCerrada la batalla por la deuda de Estados Unidos, parte la guerra por la Casa Blanca en 2012.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/03/internacional/_portada/noticias/6A0C2E79-9C32-4CF0-91C0-5C89A56B30ED.htm?id={6A0C2E79-9C32-4CF0-91C0-5C89A56B30ED}EUROPALa Unión Europea y el FMI analizan sobre el terreno los avances de Portugal para reducir el déficit.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/UE/FMI/analizan/terreno/avances/Portugal/reducir/deficit/elpepueco/20110801elpepueco_8/TesUnión Europea pide al Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU intervenir en Siria.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ataques-en-siria-dejan-decenas-de-muertos_10063924-4Los guardacostas italianos hallan 25 cadáveres en una embarcación libia que llevaba a otros 271 subsaharianos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/encuentran-25-inmigrantes-muertos-en-barco-que-lleg-a-italia_10064744-4 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/muerte/desembarca/Lampedusa/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_4/Tes http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/02/world/europe/02Italy.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110801_ultnot_italia_inmigrantes_lampedusa_en.shtmlOTAN pide más tropas en Kosovo por auge de tensión en la región.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43993640/ns/world_news-europe/ http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/otan-pide-tropas-suplementarias-en-kosovo-por-auge-de-tensin-en-la-regin_10074124-4Autor de masacre en Noruega llamó a la Policía desde la isla de Utoya.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/autor-de-masacre-en-noruega-llam-a-la-polica-desde-la-isla-de-utoya_10073104-4Turquía prepara el relevo generacional en su Ejército.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Turquia/prepara/relevo/generacional/Ejercito/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_8/Tes Zapatero anunció el adelanto de elecciones.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1393609-anuncio-zapatero-el-adelanto-de-elecciones http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2086586,00.html http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/08/03/espagne-zapatero-convoque-une-reunion-d-urgence_1555631_3214.htmlAdelanto de elecciones deja al PP con 7 puntos de ventaja en España.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/adelanto-de-elecciones-deja-al-pp-con-7-puntos-de-ventaja-en-espaa_10054805-4Duelo en Ucrania por víctimas de accidente en mina.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/31/ukraine.mine.explosion/index.html"The Economist" analiza el estado del euro.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2011/08/bond-spreads-euro-zoneGrupo de "indignados" toma el centro de Madrid.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394515-los-indignados-tomaron-otra-vez-madrid http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/783453.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110803_ultnot_espana_madrid_indignados_en.shtml"BBC" analiza: "España: se cierra una puerta a los rumanos, ¿se abre otra a la xenofobia?".Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2011/08/110726_rumanos_permiso_trabajo_espana_pea.shtmlChoques entre inmigrantes y policía en Italia.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110801_ultnot_italia_inmigrantes_protesta_cch.shtml http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43987812/ns/world_news-europe/Breivik compró en eBay parte del arsenal para los atentados.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Breivik/compro/eBay/parte/arsenal/atentados/elpepiint/20110801elpepiint_4/TesASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTENuevos brotes de violencia causan 15 muertos en la región autónoma de Xinjiang.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/02/world/asia/02china.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/08/03/xinjiang-les-accusations-du-gouvernement-chinois-sont-peu-credibles_1555627_3216.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Nuevos/brotes/violencia/causan/muertos/region/autonoma/Xinjiang/elpepiint/20110801elpepiint_9/TesEl régimen sirio arremete de nuevo contra la ciudad de Hama.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/02/world/middleeast/02syria.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ataque-en-hama-siria-deja-95-muertos_10058364-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-hama-20110804,0,7395291.story http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/regimen/sirio/arremete/nuevo/ciudad/Hama/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_3/Tes#despiece1Fuerte presión mundial sobre Siria tras la ofensiva.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/03/internacional/internacional/noticias/E8AA4722-09C7-4CE8-A3E0-5777A23770CD.htm?id={E8AA4722-09C7-4CE8-A3E0-5777A23770CD} http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394474-fuerte-presion-mundial-sobre-siria-tras-la-ofensiva http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-hama-20110801,0,1237125.storyTensión entre Japón y Corea del Sur.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/02/world/asia/02korea.html?ref=worldIraní Ameneh perdonó al hombre que la dejó ciega al arrojarle ácido.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/iran-ameneh-perdon-al-hombre-que-la-dej-ciega-al-arrojarle-cido_10063051-4El accidente de tren mina la confianza en los líderes chinos.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/accidente/tren/mina/confianza/lideres/chinos/elpepiint/20110801elpepiint_10/Tes http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/technology/companies/roaming-fees-as-low-as-chinas-wont-be-matched-soon.html?ref=worldOla de violencia deja 35 muertos en Karachi, en el sur de Pakistán.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/08/02/pakistan.karachi.violence/index.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/ola-de-violencia-deja-35-muertos-en-karachi-en-el-sur-de-pakistn_10073624-4El SIDA se expande por Medio Oriente y el Norte de África.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43993976/ns/health-aids/Un sismo de 6,1 grados Richter sacude el centro de Japón sin daños.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/un-sismo-de-61-grados-richter-sacude-el-centro-de-japn-sin-daos_10065464-4Decenas de muertos por inundaciones en Corea del Norte.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110801_ultnot_corea_del_norte_inundaciones_ao.shtmlCorea del Sur ofrece ayuda humanitaria por inundaciones a su vecina del Norte.Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/03/content_13043759.htmMiles de 'indignados' en Israel buscan reivindicaciones económicas.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/miles-de-indignados-en-israel-buscan-reivindicaciones-econmicas_10063049-4Disputa entre China y Filipinas por recursos marítimos.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44007632/ns/world_news-christian_science_monitor/Torre en Jeddah será la más alta del mundo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/torre-en-jeddah-el-edificio-ms-alto-del-mundo_10080685-4En el mundo musulmán comienza el Ramadán.Para más información: http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/in-middle-east-a-restive-first-day-of-ramadan/?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/01/ramadan/index.htmlLa revolución egipcia seis meses después.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/la-revolucin-egipcia-seis-meses-despus_10080186-4ÁFRICAHambruna en el Cuerno de África se está extendiendo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/hambruna-en-el-cuerno-de-frica-se-est-extendiendo-dice-la-onu_10073085-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/08/03/un.somalia.famine/index.html http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/08/03/somalie-etat-de-famine-decrete-dans-trois-nouvelles-regions_1555903_3212.html http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2086611,00.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/783353.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/03/internacional/_portada/noticias/206523DF-C8D2-498B-89EC-01DDF858E0B7.htm?id={206523DF-C8D2-498B-89EC-01DDF858E0B7} http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-africa-famine-camp-20110803,0,4486407.story http://www.economist.com/node/21524864En camilla y dentro de una jaula, arrancó el juicio contra Mubarak.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1394577-arranco-el-juicio-contra-mubarak-que-se-presento-en-camilla http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2011/08/110803_juicio_mubararak_cr.shtml http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/03/egypt.mubarak.trial/index.html http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/08/03/les-fils-moubarak-autrefois-riches-et-puissants-aujourd-hui-parias_1555651_3212.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43998161/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/03/content_13043261.htm http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2086688,00.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-mubarak-trial-20110804,0,2267345.storyLa falta de medios de Kenia aloja a refugiados somalíes en un limbo temporal.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/falta/medios/Kenia/aloja/refugiados/somalies/limbo/temporal/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_9/Tes El Ejército desmantela la acampada de la plaza de Tahrir el primer día de Ramadán.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/02/world/middleeast/02egypt.html?ref=world http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Ejercito/desmantela/acampada/plaza/Tahrir/primer/dia/Ramadan/elpepuint/20110801elpepuint_11/Tes Continúa la guerra en Libia.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/world/africa/01libya.html?ref=world http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/26/reading-the-refuse-counting-col-qaddafis-heat-seeking-missiles-and-tracking-them-back-to-their-sources/?ref=worldUganda podría convertirse en el próximo país que afrontaría hambruna.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/uganda-podra-ser-el-prximo-pas-que-afrontara-hambruna_10079284-4Libios inician ayuno del mes sagrado de Ramadán en medio del conflicto.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/libios-inician-ayuno-del-mes-sagrado-de-ramadn-en-medio-del-conflicto_10064366-4Mueren cuatro cascos azules etíopes en Sudán.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110802_ultnot_sudan_onu_cascos_azules_mina_az.shtmlMás de 12 millones de personas necesitan alimento en el Cuerno de África.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110801_ultnot_cuerno_africa_hambruna_fp.shtmlRey marroquí propone nuevas elecciones parlamentarias.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/30/morocco.parliamentary.elections/index.htmlOTRAS NOTICIASLa ONU condena la violencia gubernamental en Siria.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2011/08/110803_ultnot_siria_onu_consejo_seguridad_condena_az.shtml http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44007439/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/ http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2011/08/03/le-texte-de-la-declaration-du-conseil-de-securite-sur-la-syrie_1555912_3218.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/03/syria.unrest/index.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/783445.html HSBC recortará más de 10.000 empleos por el estancamiento de sus resultados.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/HSBC/recortara/10000/empleos/estancamiento/resultados/elpepuint/20110731elpepuint_6/Tes http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/01/business/global/europes-biggest-bank-hsbc-to-announce-job-cuts.html?ref=world"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/18929578
L'hydatidose ou échinococcose cystique est une zoonose majeure et pourtant négligée. Elle est endémique dans plusieurs pays à travers le monde, dont particulièrement le pourtour méditerranéen. Au Maroc, malgré les efforts menés dans le cadre d'un programme national de lutte contre l'hydatidose (PNLH), initié depuis 2007, cette zoonose présente toujours une cause de morbidité importante. Face à cette situation, l'établissement d'une proposition efficace pour améliorer le PNLH est nécessaire. Notre étude part du principe que, pour améliorer le PNLH, il faut d'abord l'analyser et comprendre ses différents enjeux et facettes. Une approche multidisciplinaire a été suivie, basée sur l'estimation des pertes monétaires et non monétaires causées par cette zoonose, ainsi que des analyses participatives de ses parties prenantes, de sa mise en œuvre et des voies de son amélioration. Nous avons pu relever les multiples défis auxquels fait face le PNLH et avons étudié la possibilité d'instaurer une nouvelle stratégie de lutte, basée sur la vaccination des ovins et le traitement des chiens. Théoriquement apte à éliminer cette zoonose au bout de 15 ans, le succès de cette stratégie dépendra en effet de l'aptitude du programme national à la mener et de son acceptabilité auprès de la population directement concernée. Une évaluation précise de la charge de morbidité est essentielle pour la sensibilisation des décideurs, car elle permet de donner la priorité au financement des mesures de lutte en temps opportun. Dans ce but, une première étude a été menée pour estimer les pertes économiques causées par cette zoonose à l'échelle nationale et provinciale en combinant des méthodes financières et non financières. Au niveau de la santé humaine, les pertes d'années de vie corrigées de l'incapacité (DALY), les frais médicaux et les pertes de productivité ont été estimés. Chez l'animal, les pertes liées aux saisies d'organes au niveau des abattoirs et les pertes de production causées par une réduction du lait, de la fertilité, du poids de la carcasse et de la production de laine ont été estimées aussi. L'indicateur zDALY, modifiant l'indicateur DALY pour y intégrer les impacts de santé animale des maladies zoonotiques, a été calculé afin de joindre ces deux composantes. Des simulations de Monte-Carlo ont été utilisées pour calculer les valeurs numériques approchées. Les pertes totales oscillent entre 222 millions USD et 234 millions USD. Les DALYs ont été estimés au niveau national à 0,5 an pour 100 000 habitants et le zDALY à 55 ans pour 100 000 habitants. Selon ces évaluations, les pertes perçues ne représentent que la pointe de l'iceberg, la majeure partie des pertes étant causée par la perte de la productivité humaine chez les cas non diagnostiqués et les pertes de production animale. Cette étude a mis en lumière les pertes énormes causées par cette zoonose, sur tout le territoire marocain, indiquant la nécessité d'une amélioration des mesures de prévention et de contrôle. Les résultats de la première étude ont montré la persistance de l'hydatidose/échinococcose au Maroc et la non-atteinte des objectifs du PNHL. Ceci nous a poussé à poser la question des causes de cet échec. Pour répondre à cette question, une deuxième étude sur les enjeux et les obstacles qui ont entravé la réussite du PNHL a été menée. Une approche qualitative a été menée au niveau de cinq régions du Maroc : Rabat-Salé-Kénitra; Béni Mellal-Khénifra; Sous-Masaa; Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra et Guelmim-Oued Noun. Nous avons posé le choix pour cette étude d'ouvrir le cadre d'application au-delà de la seule hydatidose/échinococcose, nommément à la rage et à la tuberculose bovine, afin de mettre en évidence les défis communs que le contrôle de ces zoonoses présente. Des observations participantes et 81 entretiens individuels ont été réalisés avec les vétérinaires, les autorités locales et les abatteurs. Les enregistrements ont fait l'objet d'une transcription intégrale et les narratifs été analysés avec le logiciel R, en utilisant le package RQDA. L'étude a révélé un manque de rigueur professionnelle, un manque de cadre législatif, ainsi qu'un chevauchement de pouvoirs et d'intérêts entre les différentes structures, alors que la stratégie multisectorielle est essentielle dans la lutte contre les zoonoses. Cette analyse a amené à notre troisième étude, qui a analysé les parties prenantes du PNLH pour approfondir notre compréhension des relations de chaque acteur avec le programme. La troisième étude vise donc à analyser les acteurs du PNLH pour identifier des pistes de son amélioration et de proposer des voies plus adaptées. Des parties prenantes ont été identifiées, et au total, 163 entretiens semi-structurés ont été menés dans les mêmes régions que la deuxième étude, ainsi qu'un atelier interministériel à Rabat. Les catégories classiques d'analyse des parties prenantes, c'est-à-dire l'implication, l'intérêt, l'importance, l'influence, la priorité et le pouvoir, ont été semi-quantifiées. Un cadre analytique a été proposé combinant ces catégories pour évaluer les acteurs par trois attributs: l'appropriation des mesures, l'agence politique et l'agence sociotechnique. L'étude a mis en évidence une organisation déficiente de la diversité des acteurs impliqués, se traduisant dans une déficience dans les trois attributs mobilisés. Cette étude a proposé une approche analytique et informative, particulièrement utile pour une orientation de la lutte contre les zoonoses dans laquelle la coordination multisectorielle est capitale. Dans la recherche de nouvelles stratégies de lutte contre l'hydatidose/échinococcose, des essais de vaccination des ovins (le vaccin EG95) associés au traitement anthelminthique des chiens ont été menés dans le Moyen Atlas, la région du pays ayant la prévalence la plus élevée. Cette étude présente l'analyse de la faisabilité et de l'acceptabilité sociale de cette stratégie, dont le but est de tracer une approche pour l'élaboration d'un guide pour mener une telle intervention dans l'avenir. Onze groupes de discussion et seize entretiens individuels approfondis ont été menés avec les éleveurs, les femmes, les autorités locales, les médecins et vétérinaires privés, ainsi que les fonctionnaires des structures responsables de la mise en œuvre potentielle du PNLH en parallèle avec les essais du vaccin. Les enregistrements ont été transcrits et analysés avec le logiciel R, en utilisant le progiciel RQDA. Cette étude a mis en évidence différentes réserves émises par les acteurs sur la faisabilité de la stratégie. L'étude a permis de collecter les propositions des participants pour une meilleure mise en place de cette nouvelle stratégie. Ces réserves et propositions devront impérativement être prises en compte pour l'élaboration d'un plan renouvelé. En conclusion, l'étude a mis en évidence l'impact de l'hydatidose/échinococcose dans tout le territoire marocain, qui cause des pertes qui arrivent à 0.07% du PIB du Maroc. Ainsi, l'approche qualitative nous a permis d'abord de comprendre le fonctionnement du PNLH sur le terrain, et de proposer un schéma d'instauration d'une nouvelle stratégie de lutte, que théoriquement, pourra contrôler cette zoonose au bout de 15 ans. ; Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a major zoonosis, however, it is neglected. It is endemic in several countries around the world, particularly around the Mediterranean. In Morocco, despite the efforts carried out within the framework of a national hydatidosis control program (NHCP), initiated in 2007, this zoonosis still presents a major cause of morbidity. Faced with this situation, the establishment of an effective proposal to improve the NHCP is necessary. Our study is based on the principle that, in order to improve the NHCP, we must first analyze and understand its different issues and facets. A multidisciplinary approach was followed, based on the estimation of monetary and non-monetary losses caused by this zoonosis, as well as participatory analyzes of its stakeholders, its implementation and ways of improving it. We were able to raise the multiple challenges facing the NHCP and studied the possibility of establishing a new control strategy, based on the vaccination of sheep and the treatment of dogs. Theoretically capable of eliminating this zoonosis in 15 years, the success of this strategy will indeed depend on the ability of the national program to carry it out and on its acceptability among the population directly concerned. Accurate assessment of the burden disease is essential for sensitizing decision-makers, as it helps prioritize funding for timely control measures. In this objective, a first study was carried out to estimate the economic losses caused by this zoonosis at the national and provincial level by combining financial and non-financial methods. In terms of human health, loss of disability-adjusted life years (DALY), medical costs and productivity losses were estimated. For animals, organ seizure losses at slaughterhouses and production losses caused by reducing milk, fertility, carcass weight and wool production were also estimated. The zDALY indicator, modifying the DALY indicator to include the animal health impacts of zoonotic diseases, was calculated to combine these two components. Monte-Carlo simulations were used to calculate the approximate numerical values. Total losses range from USD 222 million to USD 234 million. DALYs were estimated nationally at 0.5 years per 100,000 person and zDALY at 55 years per 100,000 person. According to these assessments, perceived losses are only the tip of the iceberg, with most of the losses being caused by loss of human productivity in undiagnosed cases and losses in animal production. This study highlighted the enormous losses caused by this zoonosis, throughout Morocco, indicating the need for improved prevention and control measures. The results of the first study showed the persistence of CE in Morocco and the failure that meet NHCP objectives. This prompted us to ask the question of the causes of this failure. To answer this question, a second study on the issues and obstacles that hindered the success of the NHCP was conducted. A qualitative approach was carried out in five regions of Morocco: Rabat-Salé-Kénitra; Béni Mellal-Khénifra; Sous-Masaa; Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra and Guelmim-Oued Noun. We made the choice for this study to open the framework for application beyond hydatidosis alone, namely rabies and bovine tuberculosis, in order to highlight the common challenges that the control of these zoonoses presents. Participatory observations and 81 individual interviews were conducted with veterinarians, local authorities and slaughterers. The recordings were fully transcribed and the narratives analyzed with R software, using the RQDA package. The study revealed a lack of professional rigor, a lack of legislative framework, as well as an overlap of powers and interests between the different structures, while the multisectoral strategy is essential in the fight against zoonoses. This analysis led to our third study, which analyzed NHCP stakeholders to deepen our understanding of each stakeholder relationship with the program. The third study, therefore aims to analyze the actors of the NHCP in order to identify avenues for improvement and to propose more suitable ways. Stakeholders were identified, and a total of 163 semi-structured interviews were conducted in the same regions as the second study, as well as an inter-ministerial workshop in Rabat. The classic categories of stakeholder analysis, i.e. involvement, interest, importance, influence, priority and power, have been semi-quantified. An analytical framework was proposed combining these categories to evaluate the actors by three attributes: the appropriation of the measures, the political agency and the socio-technical agency. The study highlighted a deficient organization of the diversity of the actors involved, resulting in a deficiency in the three attributes mobilized. This study proposed an analytical and informative approach, particularly useful for an orientation of the fight against zoonoses in which multisectoral coordination is essential. In the search for new CE control strategies, sheep vaccination trials (EG95 vaccine) associated with anthelmintic treatment of dogs were carried out in the Middle Atlas, the region of the country with the highest prevalence. This study presents the analysis of the feasibility and social acceptability of this strategy, the aim of which is to outline an approach for the development of a guide for carrying out such an intervention in the future. Eleven focus groups and sixteen in-depth individual interviews were conducted with breeders, women, local authorities, private doctors and veterinarians, as well as officials from the structures responsible for the potential implementation of the NHCP in parallel with the trials of the vaccine. Recordings were transcribed and analyzed with R software, using RQDA software package. This study highlighted various reservations expressed by the players on the feasibility of the strategy. The study made it possible to collect participants' proposals for a better implementation of this new strategy. These reservations and proposals must imperatively be taken into account for the development of a renewed plan. In conclusion, the study highlighted the impact of CE throughout the Moroccan territory, which causes losses reaching 0.07% of Morocco's GDP. Thus, the qualitative approach allowed us first to understand the functioning of the NHCP in the field, and to propose a scheme for the establishment of a new control strategy, which theoretically, could control this zoonosis in 15 years.
As famine looms in northern Gaza, the United Nations agency for Palestinian refugees is hurtling toward collapse."What I can say today is that we can run our operation until the end of May, whereas a month ago I had just the visibility for the next week or two weeks," Philippe Lazzarini, head of the U.N. Palestinian refugees agency (UNRWA), told reporters in Geneva last week, just days after Israel denied him entry into Gaza. "But that shows also how bad the financial situation of the organization is."The money crunch stems in part from a fateful U.S. decision. When Israel accused a dozen of UNRWA's 13,000 Gaza-based employees of facilitating the Oct. 7 attacks, American officials immediately paused funding for the organization pending an investigation. Many other top donors followed suit, leaving UNRWA scrambling to stay afloat.It's since become clear that Israel's accusations relied on less-than-definitive evidence. This revelation led most funders to turn the spigot back on. But the U.S., with its unusually deep pockets, is now banned from changing course. Less than two weeks ago, Congress passed a law blocking all funding for UNRWA until March 2025. The timing of this decision is nothing short of disastrous, according to Christopher Gunness, a former spokesperson for UNRWA. "Mass starvation has already set in, but without UNRWA it's impossible to even slow that down," Gunness said.Despite Israel's claims to the contrary, there is no way to replace UNRWA's role in Gaza, especially amid the largest Palestinian humanitarian crisis since Israel's war of independence, according to experts on humanitarian aid and UNRWA's history. Analysts also fear that potential interruptions in the agency's operations across the Middle East — including in war-torn Syria and crisis-riven Lebanon — could further undermine regional stability.A State Department spokesperson told RS that getting aid to Palestinians in Gaza is a "team effort." "[W]hile we will continue to provide funding to organizations like the World Food Programme [WFP], we will be looking to other donors to continue to provide critical funding to UNRWA as long as our funding remains paused," the spokesperson said in a statement.But groups like WFP simply don't have the capacity to fill the gap made by defunding UNRWA, according to a humanitarian working to get aid into Gaza who requested anonymity to prevent Israeli retribution."The work they do on a day-to-day basis, no one else does it, and you couldn't stand up an organization to do it," the humanitarian worker told RS. "There's literally no other place for [Gazans] to go."A love-hate relationshipDecades removed from its founding, it can be easy to forget where UNRWA came from. In a practical sense, it sprung from the need to get aid to 700,000 Palestinian refugees when it became clear that Israel would not let them return home after the 1948 war. But ideologically, UNRWA's story begins in the Tennessee Valley. In the 1930s, Congress launched a New Deal project known as the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The TVA was a development initiative; it enlisted some of those hardest hit by the Great Depression and put them to work building dams, boosting crop yields, and bringing electricity to rural communities. It was, by most accounts, a rousing success. After the humanitarian disaster of the 1948 war, President Harry Truman hoped TVA chief Gordon Clapp could bring that success to the Middle East. With the support of the fledgling U.N., which had yet to establish an agency for refugees, Clapp visited the region in 1949 and became convinced that the Jordan Valley and other fertile areas in the Levant were ripe for TVA-style development. The U.N. General Assembly agreed, and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency was born. It didn't take long for "works" to disappear from the mission. Development projects sputtered, missing deadlines due to infighting among host countries and the refugees' general unwillingness to be relocated once more. "Most refugees refused to work," said Jalal al-Husseini, an expert on UNRWA's history and an associate researcher at the Insitut français du Proche Orient (Ifpo). "They wanted to go back home." Donor states also realized that large-scale public works are a good bit more expensive than more mundane relief projects. UNRWA's other activities — from schools to healthcare facilities and aid distribution — were far more successful. The organization provided much-needed help to the governments of Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon, each of which had little capacity to manage the refugee influx on their own. Besides a brief period in the early 1950s, Israel had little to do with UNRWA until 1967, when its forces routed Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in the provocatively named Six Day War. The conquest created a problem: As an occupying power, Israel was suddenly in charge of the welfare of millions of Palestinians. Tel Aviv quickly struck a deal with UNRWA to keep its operations going in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Since the vast majority of UNRWA's local staff is Palestinian, the agency was "never really seen by Israel as a neutral and independent and impartial U.N. organization," according to Lex Takkenberg, a 30-year veteran of UNRWA who left the agency in 2019. "It started off with an explicit request by Israel for UNRWA to continue operating," Takkenberg said. "Since that time, there has sort of been a hatred-love relationship." Israel-Palestine watchers will recognize the pattern. Since the 1960s, Israel has periodically bemoaned the contents of UNRWA textbooks or accused staff of ties to Palestinian political groups (or terrorist organizations, in Tel Aviv's telling), drawing scrutiny from Western donors. UNRWA responds by excising objectionable content from courses and firing employees with apparent conflicts of interest. Over the years, these back-and-forths forced the agency to develop a comprehensive "neutrality framework" to keep politics out of its work. "Almost without exception, Israel never provided evidence" that employees had ties to groups like Hamas, Takkenberg recalled. But UNRWA would still usually fire them to protect the organization as a whole. "Then the Israelis would be back to business as usual," he said. "It never reached the point that [Israel] asked UNRWA to stop operations." In substance, the Oct. 7 allegations were the latest entry in this story. Israeli officials made bold allegations that UNRWA employees facilitated the attacks but have yet to provide evidence, even to U.N. investigators. But the reaction from donors was different. While the International Court of Justice has twice demanded a surge of aid into Gaza to avert disaster, most Western countries suspended support for the strip's leading relief group. Many have restarted their funding, but the U.S., United Kingdom, and Australia are still holding out. "Prohibiting the Biden administration from contributing to UNRWA creates a large gap in the Agency's annual operating budget," said William Deere, the head of UNRWA's Washington office. The shortfall "will make it harder for UNRWA to assist starving Gazans and potentially further weaken regional stability," Deere argued.UNRWA in crisisUNRWA is, of course, no stranger to crises. When Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, Israel imposed a blanket curfew on the West Bank and Gaza, leaving many Palestinians with limited access to food. Quick mobilization from UNRWA prevented a bad situation from getting worse, according to Takkenberg."I organized massive food distributions during short periods that Israel lifted the curfew so that people could collect food from distribution points," he remembered.In the tumultuous period since, UNRWA has managed to stay afloat and provide aid across the Levant despite wars and a blockade in Gaza; a brutal conflict in Syria; and a protracted economic crisis in Lebanon.When President Donald Trump cut off funding in 2018, it came as a shock. "We found out that the Americans were not going to be giving us their money when the check did not arrive in the post," Gunness, the former spokesperson, recalled. This diplomatic equivalent of an Irish goodbye lit a fire under UNRWA staff, who put fundraising efforts into overdrive and filled the gap with pledges from wealthy Gulf countries. Even Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu reportedly backed the effort to avert "disaster" in Gaza.But all of these crises pale in comparison to the trial that the organization faces today. Gulf donors have so far failed to fill the gap left by the U.S. decision to cut off funding. At least 154 UNRWA employees have been killed since Oct. 7, and many of its facilities have been destroyed in the bombing. These direct attacks have been paired with an unprecedented Israeli PR effort to discredit the organization, all with the substantive backing of a Democratic U.S. president.Fringe Israeli activists have long argued that UNRWA is illegitimate in some fundamental sense, perpetuating a fanciful dream that Palestinians will eventually return home. Its existence, they argue, encourages false hope and prevents an end to the conflict. As Israel's political scene has lurched to the right, this view has become more popular. Now, multiple members of Netanyahu's cabinet are publicly opposed to UNRWA's very existence.Israel is now actively working to undermine UNRWA. In January, Finance Minister Bezalel Smotrich blocked a large shipment of U.S. aid in order to stop it from reaching UNRWA. The U.N. claims that Israeli officials are holding up visas for aid workers affiliated with the agency."UNRWA are part of the problem, and we will now stop working with them," an Israeli spokesperson said last week. "We are actively phasing out the use of UNRWA because they perpetuate the conflict rather than try and alleviate the conflict."Israeli opposition can only do so much to block the agency's work in the short term, according to Takkenberg, who noted that other groups are likely importing humanitarian aid in their own name and simply handing it off to UNRWA upon arrival. But that workaround has its limits as Israel allows only a trickle of aid to enter Gaza each day. There are currently as many as 30,000 trucks sitting in Egypt waiting to cross the border, according to a Jordanian official who spoke with NPR. "There are trucks that have been at the border for three months," the humanitarian worker told RS. "There's all sorts of crazy restrictions that make no sense, even from a security standpoint," they said, adding that they've had medical equipment and food confiscated during inspections.This has left UNRWA, and Gaza as a whole, on the verge of collapse. Israel and its Western backers will likely regret their role in bringing the crisis to this point, argued Gunness. "Any donor governments, especially those who are friends of Israel, who think that it's somehow in Israel's security interests to have millions of angry, hungry, radicalized, mourning, grief-stricken people living in appalling refugee camps and other circumstances on the doorstep of Israel, I wonder what planet they are living in," he said.
In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough. Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Senior Arts/Humanities category. ; In the Margins of Literary and Architectural Discourse: A Comparison of Arabic Commentary in Cervantes's Don Quixote and Moorish Architectural Inscription Pablo Picasso: Don Quixote, August 10, 1955. Internet: Public Domain Alexandra Parent SP 415: Seminar on Don Quixote Professor Stallings-Ward 28 February 2020 1 Introduction The history of the Iberian Peninsula is a rich one, filled with influences from the entire European and Asian continents over time. When we think about Spain, there is one defining factor that distinguishes her from the rest of Europe: the presence of racial, ethnic and religious influence from Africa, and, resulting therefrom, a unique moment in world history: the confluence of three major world religions in one geographical place. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam once flourished side by side in mutual tolerance and economic interdependence in the Andalusian region of southern Spain, known as 'Al-Andalus,' in the High Middle Ages. Tolerance of others who are different, as Maria Rosa Menocal points out, is the underpinning of this unique historical coincidence and the essential component for the development of science, philosophy, medicine, urbanization, and hence trade and commercial prosperity.1 The Jews and Christians of Muslim Andalusia flourished economically and culturally under the Umayyad, whose dynasty (661-750) was transplanted from Damascus to Cordoba by Abd al-Rahman (756- 1031) after a civil war between two rival Caliphates. These three religions borrowed language and architecture from one another leaving traces of their coexistence, not surprisingly, within the architecture and literature of Spain. In the present essay, I will examine the traces of coexistence between the Muslim and Christian world in architecture and literature, using the examples of the mezquita, or 'mosque', and the most important novel of Spain, Don Quixote of la Mancha (1605;1615) by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. This study incorporates an interdisciplinary approach that utilizes historical, literary, and architectural methods to explain the dual function of the margin— its architectural function in the Mosque and its narrative function as used in specific chapters from Cervantes's 1 Menocal, The Ornament of the World. 2 novel. Furthermore, I will show how the architectural margin of the wall of the mosque was familiar to Cervantes's readers who lived in Spain and this familiarity allows Cervantes to exploit the metaphorical meaning of the literary margin as architectural margin. A metaphor establishes an equivalency between a pair of images; the best-known example of which belongs to Ezra Pound, the founding leader of Imagism (1912-1923). This is a school of poetry that endorsed clarity of expression and simplicity through the use of precise visual imagery. The best- known metaphor is Pound's own, in which faces are compared with petals in the poem, "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough.2 Through his architectural and literary metaphor, Cervantes covertly expresses his personal beliefs about multiculturalism that could not be directly expressed for fear of censorship by the Inquisition. My essay is divided in three sections. In the first section, I will present a historical overview of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula. In the second section, I present a survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia based on the results of a photographic study of architecture I did while visiting Spain during study abroad. I survey the presence of Muslim architecture found throughout Andalusia, placing particular emphasis on the function of the margin in the design of the walls of the mosque reserved for the calligraphy that features citations of scripture from the Holy Koran. The margin, although small in size compared to the rest of the entire structure of the mosque, is as I will show, actually the most important part of the mosque. In the third section of my essay, I analyze the literary margin treated in the episode of the lost manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote. I will look at 2 Judith Stallings-Ward, Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020, 175. 3 the coexistence of the Christian and Arab writers in Cervantes's Don Quixote. The collaboration between Cervantes and Cide Hamete Benengeli allows Cervantes to establish a metaphor between the architectural margin of the mosque and the literary margin of the manuscript as the place for covertly expressing his esteem for multiculturalism and his condemnation of the expulsion of the Moors by national decree; a ploy he uses to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The play with spatial perspective (margin vs center) and the severance of the manuscript (with the lost section recovered in the market of Toledo) establishes the architectural and narrative metaphor that recalls the physical and cultural coexistence between Muslims and Christians valued by Cervantes. In addition, I examine how Cervantes extends this metaphor to also evoke the rupture of that coexistence through expulsion of the Moors, which Cervantes believed broke the backbone of the country. Part I: Historical Overview of Muslim Presence in the Iberian Peninsula The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula began with one young man named Abd Al- Rahman, the son of the Arab family ruling Damascus in the east—the Umayyads. However, during a civil war, his family was massacred, and his escape left him the sole survivor. He fled through North Africa into Cordoba where he began to establish himself as the Caliph, or ruler.3 After the Visigoth monarchy fell, Muslim control dominated the Iberian Peninsula. From 711 through 1492, Islamic society had a long and profound presence on shaping Spanish culture until the Christian kings unified the country. By 716, almost all of Iberia, with the exception of the far northwest and mountainous regions, was under Muslim control and the province was name 'Al- Andalus'. By naming the country in this manner, it directly opposes the 'Hispania' title that the 3 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. 4 Romans gave the peninsula, foreshadowing the enmity between the religions of Islam and Christianity.4 Abd Al-Rahman sought to recreate his cultural roots here in Iberia. The peninsula was dominated by the Umayyad dynasty, who had no affiliation to the eastern Muslim dynasties at the time, and were met with little to no resistance from the small groups of Christians still living in the peninsula. As demonstrated in Figure 1, the conquering forces came through Northern Africa and thus were also comprised of Berber forces from that region. By 741, there were approximately 12,000 Berber forces, 18,000 Arabs, and 7,000 Syrians entering through the Southern tip of the peninsula. This totaled anywhere from 4,000,000 to 8,000,000 living in the Iberian Peninsula at the time.5 6 Islam and Christianity under Islamic Rule By the mid eighth century, the population of Iberia had grown exponentially and became more diverse both racially and religiously. Although Muslim forces had conquered what remained of the Visigoth territories and established themselves as the dominant, ruling power, a 4 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 91. 5 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 6 Alchetron.com. "Umayyad Conquest of Hispania - Alchetron, the Free Social Encyclopedia," August 18, 2017. https://alchetron.com/Umayyad-conquest-of-Hispania. Figure 1: Depiction of the route of Abd-Al Rahman and the subsequent conquests of the Muslim Empire. From Internet: public domain.6 5 majority of the population living in Iberia was still Christian. This undoubtedly posed issues for the Moorish rulers who practiced Islam. As a result, conversion became a necessity for Christians. It is important to distinguish between the upper and lower class when discussing the notion of conversion. Many Visigoth royalty, nobles, and influential families saw it in their best interest to convert and to do what they could to join the new rulers in an effort to pursue political advantages.7 Yet, the majority of Iberia was home to lower class Hispano-Roman Christians who converted out of survival. Despite this, many of the people in this situation retained their Christian faith while adopting Muslim customs like learning Arabic so as to appease the rulers. The name given to these people are mozárabes, or 'Mozarabs', meaning 'Muslim-like'.8 A Christian writer noted the following about Christians living under Islamic rule in 854: Our Christian young men, with their elegant airs and fluent speech, are showy in their dress and carriage, and are famed for the learning of the gentiles; intoxicated with Arab eloquence they greedily handle, eagerly devour, and zealously discuss the books of the Chaldeans (i.e. Muhammadans), and make them known by praising them with every flourish of rhetoric, knowing nothing of the beauty of the Church's literature, and looking down with contempt on the streams of the Church that flow forth from Paradise ; alas ! The Christians are so ignorant of their own law, the Latins pay so little attention to their own language, that in the whole Christian flock there is hardly one man in a thousand who can write a letter to inquire after a friend's health intelligibly, while you may find a countless rabble of kinds of them who can learnedly roll out the grandiloquent periods of the Chaldean tongue. They can even make poems, every line ending with the same letter, which displays high flights of beauty and more skill in handling metre than the gentiles themselves possess.9 It is evident from this passage that the Christians admired the Arabs for the type of civilization they created. The Mozarabs recognized that the Arabs had something to offer them in terms of literature, character, and even language. This demonstrates that on some level, there was an 7 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain. 8 Phillips and Phillips. 9 Alvar, Indiculus luminosus; quoted from Arnold, The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith, 137-138. 6 acceptance of Muslim culture and practices which set the foundation for the incorporation of Islamic architectural styles and writing styles to be continued after the Christians' reconquering of Iberia. Christian Kingdoms and "La Reconquista" When the Muslim forces conquered Iberia, they were not able to infiltrate the regions in the north. These regions were not seen as an apparent threat because they were isolated, poor, and not heavily populated, so the Moors did not make a vigilant effort to convert or control these Christians.10 However, the Christian states organized themselves into kingdoms and solidified their control in northern Spain by the mid-twelfth century before moving into Southern Spain during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The progression of the Christian kingdoms' conquests can be seen in Figure 2. 11 At the height of the reconquest, there were seven individual Christian kingdoms within the peninsula: Asturias, Galicia, Aragon, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Valencia. Each of these kingdoms had their own struggles trying to gain territory, power, and recognition. The Kingdom 10 Phillips and Phillips, A Concise History of Spain, 55. 11 "Reconquista+General.Jpg (1600×914)." Accessed February 19, 2020. http://4.bp.blogspot.com/- ofiGywz891k/TzynBPnsc7I/AAAAAAAAAok/ECNzH3rSp3E/s1600/Reconquista+General.jpg. Figure 2: Timeline of the Christian King's Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Internet: public domain.11 7 of Navarre was largely under the control of the French to the north and did not have much to do with the conquering of other Spanish Christian kingdoms, let alone taking a stance on combating the Arab south. However, not only were the Christian kings working to overthrow the Islamic caliphate and reconquer Iberia from the Muslims, they were all vying for control amongst themselves. In the tenth century, Alfonso III expanded into the regions of Galicia and Leon slowly gaining more territory and strengthening his Christian kingdom to combat the Moors. The kingdoms of Castile and Leon unified in 1085 and then under the kingship of Alfonso VI, they conquered Toledo.12 Toledo is situated where the Moorish Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Leon border each other, so the conquering of Toledo was a push in the right direction for the Christian kings' ultimate goal of expelling the Moors from Spain. In the northeast, Alfonso I of Aragon began consolidating his power and conquered Zaragoza by 1134, and joined with Barcelona in 1137 to form the Kingdom of Aragon. By this point, the Muslim empire was facing many issues in trying to run their territories and were slowly losing their sphere of power in the south. King Fernando III of Castile was able to penetrate Al-Andalus and conquer the Andalusian cities of Cordoba and Seville in the mid-thirteenth century. So, when the two kingdoms of Aragon and Castile prevailed over their Christian counterparts, they were left with only the Emirate of Granada as their last steppingstone to banish Muslim rule from the peninsula. King Fernando II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile married in 1469 and this consolidated the royal authority of Spain.13 In January of 1492, the city of Granada fell to the Spanish forces and this ended the 780 years of Muslim control in the Iberian Peninsula. This was the final act of La Reconquista and the beginning of the age of Los Reyes Católicos or 'The Catholic Kings.' King Ferdinand and Queen 12 Phillips and Phillips, 306. 13 Phillips and Phillips, 116. 8 Isabela ruled into the first few years of the sixteenth century, which is marked as the beginning of the Spanish Inquisition—a judicial institution that was used to combat heresy in Spain. Islam and Christianity under Christian Rule Islam first began to submit to Christian rule during the period when the Christian kingdoms were all building up their states and conquering each other in the eleventh century. When Toledo was captured in 1085, allowing the Muslims to stay was crucial to the economic stability and the intellectual advancement of Christian society.14 With the expulsion of the Moors came the expulsion of their religion and began the institution of Christianity, more specifically Catholicism. The immediate issue that the church saw after the reconquest of Spanish cities was the need to introduce their ecclesiastical structure, so they began to assign bishops to these major cities in addition to creating two new ecclesiastical provinces.15 This rapid organization and dispersion of the Catholic religion in previously Islamic territories was not good news for those Muslims still living in Spain after the reconquest. The Christians could not simply expel the Muslims because in some places they made up the majority of the population and were an integral part of the economy for the country.16 Muslims who continued to live under Christian ruler adopted the name mudéjares or 'mudejars' in English. This name is derived from the Arabic word mudajan meaning 'permitted to remain' with a colloquial implication of 'tamed or domesticated.'17 Ironically, the same way the minorities were treated under Islamic rule, to include Christians, was now how the Muslims were treated under Christian rule. The Mudejars would practice their religion, law, and customs in addition to being permitted to continue their 14 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 150. 15 O'Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain, 488. 16 Watt, A History of Islamic Spain, 151. 17 Watt, 151. 9 craft so long as they paid a tax. It was not uncommon for these minority groups to distinguish themselves by dressing differently and even inhabiting different quarters of town. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a period known as the Mudejar age, it is evident that there is a culture common to both Christians and Muslims, and that coexistence, to the point of assimilation, was possible. However, it is important to note that the Christians, being the dominant power, were selective in what they chose to assimilate. The most evident piece demonstrating assimilation is the artistic productions, both architecturally and literarily. It was obvious that incorporating the Muslims into society was necessary and beneficial, but towards the end of the fifteenth century, economic disparages were becoming obvious and the Mudejars were the wealthier of the two groups. This jealousy and animosity led to a growing prejudice of Mudejars and once Ferdinand and Isabella unified the peninsula, they turned this prejudice into policy. The previous flirtation of religious tolerance was coming to an end, but due to the policy written for the surrender of Granada, many people of Islamic faith were briefly safe in 1492, so these religiously intolerant policies attacked other groups, namely the Jewish factions of the country. This period of brutal intolerance is known as the Inquisition, and it drastically influenced Spanish society for the years to follow, to include Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote of La Mancha. Part II: Survey of Muslim Architecture in Andalusia Moorish architecture is something that when one sees it, they know it. It is a mixture of oriental and occidental to create a recognizable and unique form of architecture. There are certain staple architectural features that help make this style so well-known and are also the features that other cultures adopt simply because of their beauty. Some of these features include 10 stone parapets with Islamic crenellations, horseshoe windows and doors, towers sometimes evoking a minaret, domes, arches, slender pillars, and many of these features were typically constructed with alternating colors of yellow and red brick and stone.18 The following figures demonstrate these architectural features. 18 Kalmar, "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture," 73. Figure 4 (above): The series of arches and horshoe shaped doors. Taken by Alexandra Parent in the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 5 (below): The classic Islamic crennelations and attention to detail that characterizes all of Islamic architecture. This is also exemplatory of the domes that were utilized in Moorish architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. January 31, 2018. Figure 3: The slender pillars and open courtyards. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 6: The Torre del Oro or Tower of Gold located in Seville, Spain. Exemplifies the use of towers and minarets in Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent in Seville, Spain. April 12, 2018. 11 19 These features are apparent throughout all the everyday buildings within the cities of Al- Andalus, but they also came together to make great, exceptional buildings. One in particular is the Great Mosque in Cordoba. This was built when the religion of Islam was only a century old, so it is renowned as one of the first mosques ever built. This mosque is truly grandeur in architectural style in addition to sheer size. In Islamic faith, it is forbidden to depict Allah, or any religious figure, so the traditional methods of using a painting to inspire religious awe was not possible, thus allowing for architecture to take its place. As seen in Figure 7, the rows of archways are seemingly never ending and absolutely uniform. 20 The architectural margin of the mosque (Fig 8 and Fig 10.D), which Cervantes metaphorizes with the annotation of Dulcinea written on the margin in Don Quixote, refers to the most important part of the mosque: the inscriptions. In the Islamic religion, as aforementioned, worshipping any idols or to depict Allah, Muhammad, or any other important religious figures 20 "The Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba (Spain)." Accessed February 19, 2020. https://www.turismodecordoba.org/the-mosque-cathedral-of-cordoba-spain. Figure 7: The Great Mosque located in Cordoba, Spain. Known for the uniformity and neverending archways and pillars. From Internet: public domain.20 12 through paintings are prohibited. So, the role of the inscriptions becomes the most important and revered part of the mosque much like the depiction of Jesus on the cross is worshipped by Christians. This is because the inscriptions are the holy words of the Koran. The phrase most 21commonly inscribed in these architectural margins are 'only Allah is victorious.' The metaphor Cervantes makes between the architectural and literary margin is developed to a second degree with the handwriting in the margin of the manuscript being Arabic calligraphy. This can be compared to the inscriptions in the architectural margin of the mosques, which are also written in Arabic calligraphy. This type of writing is very distinct from Western modes of writing because the purpose of Arabic calligraphy is "no como un medio utilitario de 21 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 10: Architecture of the Mosque21 (from left to right and top to bottom): A) ataurique B) interlacing decoration C) calligraphy in the margin of the wall with scripture "Only Allah is Victorious". Also shown in Fig 11. D) horseshoe arc E) muqarnas F) half horseshoe arcs G) arc with muqarnas H) column with crowned capital Figure 8 (above): The horsehoe shaped windows and use of alternating colors and very detailed crennelations. The Arabic calligraphy can be seen above the windows. Taken by Alexandra Parent at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. February 23, 2018. Figure 9 (above): Fig 8 on a closer scale to better see the calligraphy 13 comunicación entre los hombres sino como un medio sagrado de comunicación entre Dios y los hombres," meaning, it is not like a utilitarian means of communication between humans, but rather a sacred means of communication between God and men.22 This type of calligraphy that Arabs place in the margins of their mosques obviously have religious value and is called caligrafía cúfica or 'Kufic calligraphy' as is shown in Figure 11. 23 The text written in Arabic calligraphy in the margin of the wall of the mosque is epigrafía. It is present in all mosques and throughout the royal palace known as La Alhambra in Granada. As Fernando Aznar explains, "El texto tiene gran importancia en la decoración. Frases que ensalzan a Alá, o que hace referencia a las bellezas del lugar donde se encuentra, ditando a veces a los constructores de cada zona, se reparten por todos los muros de la residencia real."24This quote says that text has great importance in the decoration of the buildings, and that the phrases that praise Allah, or that refers to the beauties of the place where Allah is located, are all throughout the royal palace. It amplifies the important role that language has in religious symbols. 22 "La Caligrafía Árabe." 23 "Arabic Inscription." Alamy. Accessed February 24, 2020. https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-arabic-inscription- carved-in-a-palace-wall-of-the-alhambra-in-granada-17181753.html. 24 Fernando Aznar, La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos, 12. Figure 11: An example of Kufic calligraphy. The style of the Arabic writing in this image is classically used in Islamic mosques to state the word of Allah from the Holy Koran. This is the architectural margin. From Internet: public domain.23 14 Moorish Architectural Influence Under Christian Rule As the Christians slowly began organizing themselves into kingdoms and conquering Moorish cities in Al-Andalus, two incredibly different cultures met each other. As previously stated, an assimilation of sorts was taking place by the Christians who were adopting Islamic practices and other elements of their culture. Architecture was one of these elements that Christian rulers not only preserved, but in some cases built from bottom up utilizing these inherently Moorish styles. Using the example of the Mosque of Cordoba, it is important to note that in the middle of this Islamic prayer hall, there is something unknown to Islam; a Catholic Cathedral (Fig. 12, 13, and 14). This addition was made in the sixteenth century after the Moors were abolished from Iberia. The rulers who erected this cathedral demolished the central columns in order to make room for the Christian edifices, however, Charles V recognized the gravity of this action and how it drastically changed the ambiance and historical significance of this architectural feat. This cultural vandalism by the Christians is symbolic of the enforcement and imposition of their religion onto a different group of people. This theme is also apparent in the literary works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to include Don Quixote of La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes. Figure 12: Located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Christian, gothic architecture meeting with Islamic architectural styles. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 15 An example of Mudejar work is the Cathedral of Seville, built after the demolition of a mosque, in order to increase the power of the Christian rulers. The architectural style of the building is very European and gothic with high vaulted ceilings and stained glass.25 As a statement piece for Christianity in former Islamic Spain, it is not expected for one to find traces of Moorish architectural influence, but there is. The Cathedral was built by Christian architects, so there was no lack of qualified Christian craftsmen, however there are qualities inherently Moorish that make its way into this grand architectural achievement. As depicted in Figure 15, the high altar in the Cathedral is adorned in so much detail that it mimics the Moorish tendency to not leave any blank space. The incessant ornamental decoration style that was a part of Islamic Spain bled into and permeated traditional Christian and European styles of architecture making its way into the very soul of Christian craftsmanship. Although the Christian Spanish rulers 25 BBC Worldwide Learning, The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711-1492. Figure 13 (right): Christian altar located in the middle of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 14 (left): Example of Christianity inserting itself into Muslim architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 16 erected this cathedral as a statement to assert their religious dominance, the Moorish aesthetic had already made its way into the minds of the architects of that era. In addition to this, the minaret attached to the Cathedral of Seville, La Giralda (Figure 16), is evidence of this as well. The construction of this minaret concluded in 1568 and is the twin tower to the city of Marrakech. Having begun construction in 1184, La Giralda is host to the visible mixing of Moorish and Christian culture. Through the stonework, inscriptions, and different styles used, La Giralda is evidence of this assimilation of cultural and architectural practices. 26 Perhaps the most notable architectural feat in regard to Moorish influence on Christianity is seen in the Real Alcázar, or Royal Alcazar. At first glance, it is a very distinct Moorish-looking building in terms of architecture; it contains the classic Moorish archways, courtyards, crenellations and pillars (Fig 17 and 18), so it would be reasonable to conclude that it was 26 "Cathedral of Seville. Aerial View." Accessed February 24, 2020. https://seebybike.com/blog/must-see-cathedral-and- alcazar-of-seville/cathedral-of-seville-aerial-view/. Figure 15 (right): The altar located inside the Cathedral of Seville. Known for it's incredulous detail and extravagant style that is suspected to be a result of lingering Moorish influences. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 16 (left): An aerial view of the Cathedral of Seville. It includes many influences of Morrish architecture to include the large tower known as La Giralda, the minarets all over the building, and the many domes that make up the cathedral. From Internet: public domain.26 17 constructed under Islamic rule. However, Christian king Peter of Castile, also known as Peter the Cruel, commissioned the Alcazar as his royal palace in the fourteenth century. He made the Alcazar identical to the architectural stylings of the Spanish Middle Ages. So, the question arises as to why a Christian ruler would deliberately choose Islamic decoration? The answer is that it comes down to power. By appropriating the Islamic art and traditional expressions, the Christian ruler projects a sort of authority over the minority subjects.27 The Moorish expressions of wealth and power are understood differently than traditional Europeans, so by creating something that the Muslim population would recognize as powerful, Peter the Cruel wielded a sort of power over the Mudejars. 27 Fernández, "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Figure 17 (left): The courtyard of the Royal Alcazar. Despite being built by a Christian king, it has many, if not completely full of, influences from Islamic architecture. Note, the pillars, the archways, the courtyard, the crennelations. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. Figure 18 (right): The Royal Alcazar in Seville, Spain. This wall has both Christian and Islamic influences. Note the differences between the lower floor and the second floor of the archways. The bottom is much more functional and plainer, like traditional Christian architecture whereas the top portions are much more detailed and colorful such as depicted by Islamic architecture. Taken by Alexandra Parent. January 31, 2018. 18 Part III: The Literary Margin Treated in the Episode of the Lost Manuscript in Volume I: Chapters Eight and Nine of Cervantes's Don Quixote When reading Don Quixote, the reader is frequently taken off the main narrative path involving the adventures of the main characters, the knight and his squire Sancho Panza, and led down secondary narratives involving encounters with characters who interrupt the main narration with tales of their own stories of love, captivity, and triumph. The complexity of the narrative shows the novel to be an amalgam of many different short novels, much like the way of the river Amazon, which is fed by many smaller rivers, at the heart of which is Cervantes's parody of books of chivalry. Nevertheless, the one unchanging constant is the way the novel opens a window onto the life and times of the man who wrote it. Cervantes's novel reflects his lived experience rooted in multicultural society whose heterogeneity was the source of Spain's economic and agricultural well-being. Cervantes saw the well-being of his country destroyed by the Hapsburg dynasty's religious intolerance and persecution of minorities who did not convert from their Jewish or Muslim faith. Cervantes himself was of Jewish ancestry. His father was a surgeon, a vocation known to be practiced by Jews. Cryptic references to his Jewish ancestry appear in the portada, or cover page of this novel. For example, the phrase from the book of Job—after darkness light is hoped for—and references to their inability to worship on the Sabbath appear in the first chapter of the novel; a day when the Jewish population must be in duelos and quebrantos, or 'pain and suffering'. While a student, Cervantes was arrested and ordered to have his right hand cut off for allegedly shooting a man who had insulted his sisters. Cervantes escaped punishment by fleeing to Italy from where he joined the Holy League (an alliance among the Vatican, France, and Spain) in the Battle of Lepanto, a major battle against the Turks in the waters of the 19 Mediterranean, during which Cervantes lost the use of his left hand. After his distinguished military service in this major victory against the Turks, Cervantes was taken captive and held prisoner for five years in Algeria. His profound understanding of the Islamic world of the Maghreb, as the northern region of Africa is known, is reflected throughout Don Quixote. Upon return to Spain, he obtained work as a tax collector tasked with gathering funds throughout Andalusia for the construction of the Spanish Armada. His detailed knowledge of the geography and customs of Southern Spain is reflected throughout the novel as well. Cervantes's experiences from his military expedition against the Turks, his years in captivity in northern Africa, his travels through Andalusia, and his Jewish ancestry can be added as another factor that forged the broad multicultural perspectivism formed in his novel. As a student, Cervantes was taught by Lope de Hoyos, a known follower of the Dutch humanist philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam. Erasmus criticized the empty ritual of the Catholic Church as well as its intolerance for Christians, especially followers of Martin Luther, who sought an unmediated religious relationship with God; one that did not require mediation by a Catholic priest. The teachings of Erasmus, an intellect who denounced the hypocrisy of the Catholic Church and its persecution of minorities and different versions of Christianity, are embraced by Cervantes and find expression in a covert manner in Don Quixote (II: 22-23).28 The episode of the lost manuscript (Volume I:8-9) reflects the perspective of multiculturalism and diversity Cervantes gained from the life experiences outlined above. Chapter eight is first and foremost about Don Quixotes's iconic battle with the windmills, the most well-known episode of the novel. Don Quixote's illusion leads him to believe that the windmills were originally giants that have been transformed into windmills by his enemy, the 28 Judith Stallings-Ward, "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." 20 wizard Freston, to cheat Don Quixote from a victory in battle against them. The deception of the knight conveys Cervantes's use of humorous parody to denounce the books of chivalry whose fantasy version of reality has brainwashed Don Quixote. A subsequent adventure in this chapter reveals Don Quixote has another lapse of reason. He believes that a Basque woman travelling to Seville, preceded by two Benedictine friars who are not in her party, and surrounded by her own men on horseback, is a princess being kidnapped. Upon observing once again his master's mind in the grip of delusion, Don Quixote's squire Sancho Panza replies, "This will be worse than the windmills."29 This foreshadows the battle that Don Quixote will ultimately have with the Basque. At the end of Chapter eight, we are left with both men having their swords unsheathed and raised at each other, but then the narration of the story abruptly stops. The narrator, a literary form of Cervantes inserted into the story by the real historical Cervantes, begins to speak directly to the reader as if in an informal conversation with them to convey that the end of the scene and the rest of the history are missing.30 This narrative style continues into Part II, chapter nine when the narrator begins a search for the missing manuscript. In this chapter we are brought to Toledo and the narrator brings the reader through the Alcaná market. The narrator Cervantes tells the story of his journey to find the manuscript in the market and how he comes across a young boy trying to sell him some notebooks, old torn papers, and other small commodities. Cervantes is inclined to pick up a certain book that the boy has and realizes the script on the front is in Arabic. Since he could not read Arabic, he finds a Morisco aljamiado, so called for their ability to speak both Arabic and Spanish, who can help translate the manuscript. It was not difficult to find this person and soon Cervantes flipped to the middle of the book and asked the Morisco to translate. Cervantes points out the availability of translators of 29 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 62. 30 Cervantes, 65. 21 all classic languages in the market, thus underscoring the advantage of multicultural spaces such as the markets of Spain. As the translator--the Morisco aljamiado--began to read the page, he laughed at something written in the margin: it stated, "'This Dulcinea of Toboso, referred to so often in this history, they say had the best hand for salting pork of any woman in La Mancha.'"31 The narrator immediately knew that this was the missing manuscript he was looking for, so he had the Morisco read even more. It is then that the reader learns the novel was originally written in Arabic by the Arab historian Cide Hamete Benengeli. Narrator Cervantes commissions the Morisco to translate the entire novel, paying him in "two arrobas of raisins, and two fanegas of wheat," so that the story of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza can be continued.32 This process of translation of the original manuscript from Arabic to Spanish is now the source of the narrator Cervantes's history of Don Quixote, and it is a collaboration between the literary Christian "Cervantes" and the original Arabic author Cide Hamete Benengeli, delivered through the translator. The reader is now being told the story through someone else's eyes and mind. The novel descends into a rabbit hole of authorship in which, ironically, the new lens is a Morisco translator. This metaphor demonstrates that true Spanish history is written as a compilation between Christianity and Islam, not one or the other, thus demonstrating historical Cervantes's disdain and disapproval of the expulsion of the Moors. Rather, Cervantes displays the importance and necessity of diversity and multiculturalism. The true author, historical Cervantes, also establishes a metaphor between the literary margin, in which the literary Cervantes discovered the novel was indeed Don Quixote, and the architectural margins of the mosque. Cervantes does this in a very clever and implicit manner, 31 Cervantes, 67. 32 Cervantes, 68. 22 otherwise he would be severely censored. Through this implied metaphor of architectural and literary margins, Cervantes is able to write a novel that has commentary to covertly express his condemnation of the Moors and announce his glorification of multiculturalism. The focus of attention placed on the margin of the manuscript wherein Arabic commentary is written calls to mind the architectural margin of the mezquita, or 'mosque', in which the Arabic calligraphy is written. The comparison between the textual margin of Cervantes's manuscript and architectural margin of the walls of the mosque would be easy for the readers of Cervantes's day to recognize given the prevalence of Muslim architecture throughout Spain, as my survey in the first part of this essay shows. Furthermore, the handwriting in Arabic by the Arab historian easily calls to mind the calligraphy used for citations from the Koran. The Arabic commentary—associated with the authoritative word of the Koran placed in the margin of the walls of the mosque—second guesses the religious purity of Dulcinea, the object of courtly worship by the Christian knight. When the translator points out the Arab historian's commentary in the margin of the manuscript, that 'the Lady Dulcinea has the best hand at salting pork,' he taints her purity by placing her in contact with a food source that is considered polluted for Muslims. The comment casts Dulcinea in tainted light. The Arab historian's questioning of religious purity occurs in tandem with the questioning of the authority or authorship of the history of Don Quixote. The literary Cervantes is a Christian writer, but he is not the true author of the original manuscript; the Arab historian Cide Hamete claims true authorship; and Dulcinea is not the pillar of religious purity she is perceived to be. The play with the double meaning of the margin (textual vs architectural) occurs with the play of spatial perspective between margin vs center. The reader sees through Cervantes's use of the metaphor as a multicultural perspective that questions the absolute status of Christian 23 authority and Christian purity. The play with meaning and perspective in Cervantes's treatment of the margin in chapters eight and nine may be taken to one final and third level of development. The margin, shown to be central in connection with the ruptured or severed manuscript, is a covert expression for Cervantes's esteem for the contributions to Spanish society by the Muslim population of his country and his condemnation for their expulsion by governmental degree from Spain. In the eyes of Cervantes, this broke of the backbone of Spain's culture and economy since the Arab population made up an incredibly large portion of the Iberian Peninsula. Cervantes accomplishes this by, not only changing chapters, but beginning a whole new section of the novel. Part I concludes with chapter eight and the pending battle between Don Quixote and the Basque, then Part II begins with the narrator Cervantes informing the reader of his journey to find the rest of the novel. Being wary of the censorship that plagued others during the Inquisition, Cervantes chose this metaphorical approach to convey his true sentiments about the situation of Spain at this moment in history. This rupture in Don Quixote's history is reflective of the moment in Spain's history where law has been decreed to banish something so inherent to the nation itself: the Moorish people. By placing these episodes side by side, Cervantes invites the reader to compare the delusion of the Hapsburg imperial vision and its expulsion of the Moors with the episode of the windmills. The blindness of Spain's government seems even more laughable than Don Quixote's own misguided attack on the windmills. Cervantes's play with the margin allows him to express his views on multiculturalism in an indirect manner that allowed him to escape censorship by the Inquisition. The Inquisition was not savvy enough to realize that this profound division between Part I and II is symbolic of the division of tolerant Spain into an intolerant Spain. After Cervantes 24 died, the Inquisition did censor and expurgate a passage that was considered too directly stated. In chapter thirteen, Don Quixote is once again declaring his servitude and attesting to the beauty of his beloved Dulcinea of Toboso. In his description to Vivaldo, he uses a Petrarchan metaphor, a very classical and renaissance style of poetry, to describe Dulcinea. Don Quixote states (Volume I:13): "Her tresses are gold, her forehead Elysian fields, her eyebrows the arches of heaven, her eyes suns, her cheeks roses, her lips coral, her teeth pearls, her necklace alabaster, her bosom marble, her hands ivory, her skin white as snow, and the parts that modesty hides from human eyes are such, or so I believed and understand, that the most discerning consideration can only praise them but not compare them."33 While eloquently put, Cervantes is nonetheless making references to the private areas of Dulcinea's body and thus was censored by the Catholic Church in 1624 after his death; they dared not censor him before since his novel made him so beloved by the people. Cervantes was too clever to have to follow the rules. His questioning of authority was apparent from the very opening words of the novel when he writes, "[s]omewhere in La Mancha, in a place whose name I do not care to remember…"34 Cervantes conveys how exact places and names are all arbitrary and are not relevant to the novel. This echoes Cervantes own questioning of authority and Spain's religious Inquisition going on that persecuted the Moors and other minorities alike. 33 Cervantes, Don Quixote, 91. 34 Cervantes, 19. 25 Conclusion The religious tolerance and interdependence between minorities of Al-Andalus, which are reflected through the architecture of Andalusia and also underscored in Cervantes's Don Quixote through the metaphorical treatment of the literary margin in the episode of the lost manuscript, seems evermore elusive today. In light of the divisiveness and racism rampant in our society that mars efforts toward multiculturalism and diversity, such as those undertaken at universities like Norwich, tolerance seems like the impossible dream that is the object of the quest of the chivalrous knight Don Quixote. 26 Bibliography Arnold, Thomas Walker. The Preaching of Islam; A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. New York: C. Scribner's sons, 1913. http://archive.org/details/preachingofisla00arno. Aznar, Fernando. La Alhambra y el Generalife de Granada. Monumentos Declared of World Interest by Unescco. Mariarsa:1985. BBC Worldwide Learning. The Moorish South: Art in Muslim and Christian Spain from 711- 1492. Documentary Film. The Art of Spain: From the Moors to Modernism, 2009. https://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=39408. Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. Translated by Edith Grossman. 5 edition. New York: Harper Collins, 2003. Fernández, Luis. La Historia de España en 100 preguntas. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Nowtilus, 2019. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/reader.action?docID=5703133&ppg=1. Fernández, María Luisa. "Second Flowering: Art of the Mudejars." Saudi Aramco World, The Legacy of Al-Andalus, 44, no. 1 (February 1993): 36–41. Harsolia, Khadija Mohiuddin. "Captivity, Confinement and Resistance in Mudejar and Morisco Literature." University of California, Riverside, 2016. WorldCat.org. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1849025713?accountid=14521. Kalmar, Ivan Davidson. "Moorish Style: Orientalism, the Jews, and Synagogue Architecture." Jewish Social Studies 7, no. 3 (2001): 68–100. "La Caligrafía Árabe." Accessed February 21, 2020. http://www.arabespanol.org/cultura/caligrafia.htm. Maíz Chacón, Jorge. Breve historia de los reinos ibéricos. 1a. edición. Quintaesencia ; 6. Barcelona: Ariel, 2013. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy1313/2013369841- b.html. Menocal, Maria Rosa. The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Reprint edition. Boston: Back Bay Books, 2003. O'Callaghan, Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain. 1st ed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1975. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/norwich/detail.action?docID=3138541. 27 Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge Concise Histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://library.norwich.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true &db=e000xna&AN=490553&scope=site. Raquejo, Tonia. "The 'Arab Cathedrals': Moorish Architecture as Seen by British Travellers." The Burlington Magazine 128, no. 1001 (1986): 555–63. Sheren, Ila Nicole. "Transcultured Architecture: Mudéjar's Epic Journey Reinterpreted." Contemporaneity: Historical Presence in Visual Culture 1 (June 1, 2011): 137–51. https://doi.org/10.5195/contemp.2011.5. Stallings-Ward, Judith. "Tiny (Erasmian) Dagger or Large Poniard? Metonymy vs. Metaphor in the Cave of Montesinos Episode in Don Quixote." Comparative Literature Studies. 43.4 (2006) special issue: Don Quixote and 400 Years of World Literature. 441-65. Stallings-Ward, Judith. Gerardo Diego´s Creation Myth of Music: Fábula de Equis y Zeda. London: Routledge, 2020. Urquízar-Herrera, Antonio. Admiration and Awe: Morisco Buildings and Identity Negotiations in Early Modern Spanish Historiography. 1 online resource (289 pages) vols. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2017. http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4850548. Watt, W. Montgomery. A History of Islamic Spain. Islamic Surveys; 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1977.
On Tuesday night, speaking to an audience of Army cadets at West Point Academy in a much anticipated response to his general's request for additional troops, President Obama announced a new strategy for the war in Afghanistan. It was a somber speech, delivered with his usual trademark of logic, rhetorical skill and assertiveness, but also with a certain emotion. At crucial moments in it, Obama looked straight into the camera, making direct eye-contact with the individual spectator, summoning his support in an effort he seems to be taking up somewhat reluctantly. He outlined a new strategy for the eight-year old war that will include immediate deployment of 30,000 new US troops to protect civilians, clear and defeat the insurgents and train Afghan forces in order to be able to begin the draw down in eighteen months. This new surge will be supplemented by additional NATO troops and Afghan national forces to meet the original 40,000 troops demanded by General McCrystal. After three months of deliberation, the President has decided to heed the advice of his generals and his Defense Secretary, and proceed with a military escalation of the conflict. In so doing, he rejected the logic of Vice President Biden who rhetorically asked earlier this year why the US spent 30 times as much in Afghanistan as it did in Pakistan, when it was well-known that Al Qaeda or what is left of it, is in the tribal regions of Pakistan. Lately he had argued against more troops (because the central government was an unreliable, weak and corrupt partner) and in favor of shifting the mission to killing or capturing main insurgency leaders, establishing more ties with local tribal leaders and giving more support to Pakistan. On Wednesday morning, however, Biden appeared in the morning news shows to defend the President's decision unequivocally.The next morning, in hearings before the Senate's Armed Forces Committee, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton fleshed out the main objectives of the surge more fully: training Afghan forces, eliminating safe havens, stabilizing a region fundamental to American national security. She also emphasized the importance of the parallel "civilian surge" which the President had also mentioned in passing and whose job will be to develop the agricultural base away from opium and to further strengthen institutions at every level of Afghan society, so as "not to leave chaos behind" when troops are drawn down and responsibility is transferred to the Afghan government. Finally, she stressed the need to develop long-term relations with both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Indeed, Obama's three-pronged strategy includes not only military and civilian components for counter insurgence and institution-building, but also a strategic partnership with Pakistan, whose government can help contain the Taliban, destroy Al Qaeda and prevent it from gaining access to nuclear material. Unfortunately, during his speech the President did not spend much time explaining the importance of that relationship. Another important omission was the inclusion of other regional actors in the process of conflict resolution. But the truth is Obama was performing an extremely difficult balancing act, trying to simultaneously gain the support of disparate groups at home and abroad for a last-ditch effort to win an eight year old war in a context of war fatigue, massive debt and a weak economy. That also explains why in his speech he denied any intentions of nation-building (public opinion in the US is strongly against it mainly because of the cost and the long-term commitment it implies) and instead focused on transferring responsibility to the Afghans themselves for their own defense.In articulating both an escalation and an exit strategy at the same time, the President opened himself to criticism from both the Right and the Left. While the Right was very supportive of the surge itself, it was quite critical of his timeline for withdrawal, which they say, will only embolden insurgents to wait the troops out. The Left of his party, led by Moveon.org, responded negatively to the increase of troops, which they regard as "deepening (US) involvement in a quagmire." Meanwhile, and in spite of much commentary to the contrary, the White House insists that the President made this decision because he feels it is the right one, and that electoral considerations played no role in the process (although the withdrawal in the summer of 2011 conveniently coincides with the beginning of his presidential campaign for re-election!) Instead, pundits favorable to the President were quick to point out that a time frame was absolutely needed to provide a sense of urgency to the Afghan government itself so that it will clean up its act and take advantage of this "new window of opportunity" as Secretary Clinton put it. However, it is obvious to the same pundits that the pace and time of withdrawal will most likely be dictated by the conditions on the ground in the summer of 2011 and not by the pre-established timetable. Whether it is for political or strategic reasons, the fact is, the President has made speed, (that is, a quick deployment of new forces followed by quick withdrawal), the central tenet of his new strategy, and while providing for a civilian surge, he has underplayed the nation-building aspects of the mission for the obvious reason: that they undermine the credibility of a speedy exit strategy.Whether or not this strategy works, his decision on Afghanistan has gained Obama some time free from the crushing criticism of the opposition whom he has silenced for the moment; he has pleased Independents (66% of whom trusted the generals over Obama in planning the war strategy; 48% were in favor of more troops, as opposed to only 30% of Democrats); and he can now turn to the two other major challenges facing his administration: public discontent with the economic situation and the battle for health care reform. The latter won a major victory two weeks ago when the Senate voted to bring the bill to the floor for discussion. Still, between the Thanksgiving break last week and the end- of -the -year holidays it is very unlikely this discussion will bear fruit within this calendar year, as was the President's goal. And the more the bill gets delayed the more the public option gets diluted to the point that it will all but disappear from a final version. Since April the President's plan has lost Independent support steadily (only 25% of Independents opposed it in April, now 50% are against it, while among Democrats it has wide support, with only 22% opposing the public option).On the economic front, five times more Independents than Democrats hold Obama responsible for what has gone wrong. They blame him for salvaging the banks but not their jobs. In light of this, Obama has summoned a job creation "summit" to be held later this week in the White House. While most see it as a public relations tactic, with unemployment having surpassed 10%the public is demanding action, and job recovery is key to getting the Independent vote back. With his approval rate hovering at 50%, the President is in dire need of striking some points and delivering some victories before the end of the year. Amid a rising wave of populism that is both anti-Wall Street and anti-government, he needs to show that he can make government work. After a seamless campaign and after months of relying on his own personal charisma and his gifted oratory to coax and persuade the public, the magic seems to be wearing off: he now needs to find other ways to reach the voters. Of course, performance will be the safest one: Independent voters want competence and results: they want him to show them that he can govern. This has proven elusive for many reasons beyond his control, but lately some mistakes were made that could have been prevented. This is a young White House and in spite of their mastery of the new technologies to connect with young voters and their ability to establish their own narrative about the President, in the last few weeks Obama and his close advisers seem to have lost some of their attention to details insofar as his public image is concerned, for example the importance of certain visual and other non-verbal signals. The trip to Asia provides myriad examples of this: the "unforced error" of bowing too deep to the Emperor of Japan, which was ridiculed by the media on all sides of the political spectrum; his tense press conference in China during which both he and Hu Jintao stiffly read prepared statements, after which neither took questions; the town-hall style meeting with students in Shanghai, in which he said "the Internet should be free and all should have access to it" but which was only shown by local TV and in a very slow live feed on the internet, and later all references to it were deleted from all websites. Even a picture of Obama alone by the Great Wall of China was interpreted as a bad visual that suggested isolation, and while this may be an over-interpretation, there is a reason why commentators made that association. Obama is having a very hard time keeping his coalition of independents, moderates and liberals together. The unraveling of his coalition is constraining every policy choice he makes, as he has to measure at every step not only the costs of each decision but also the opposition he is likely to face from within his own party. He thus feels limited in his choices and picks a middle of the road solution that does not fully satisfy his purposes and makes him a target from the two extremes of the political spectrum. In many cases, as in the Afghan war,there are no good choices but this is hard to confess to a public to whom he promised change and that is expecting him to deliver.With his new Afghan decision President Obama may have swayed many hawkish independents to his side but the question is for how long. Soon Obama may find that while nation-building abroad may be difficult, nation-building at home is a task he cannot postpone any longer. Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
This paper proposes a new measure of growth in shared prosperity, based on shifts in population shares of different income groups over time. This measure complements the definition of shared prosperity recently proposed by the World Bank in which income growth of the bottom 40 percent is examined. The new measure's strengths arise from its close ties to countries' national poverty lines and poverty measures, its focus on inclusion of the vulnerable population, and its identification of a population segment that is neither poor nor at significant risk of falling into poverty. The paper also offers a typology of scenarios for tracking shared prosperity under this measure. It provides illustrative examples using survey data from India, the United States, and Vietnam for the mid-to-late 2000s. Estimation results comparing the two approaches with measuring the evolution of shared prosperity are qualitatively consistent, and suggest that during this period, Vietnam enjoyed the greatest expansion in shared prosperity, followed by India and then the United States.
"Visualisierungen von Kult" behandelt die Strategien visueller Darstellung von Kult sowie Konkretisierungen seiner Visualisierung aus historisch-kulturwissenschaftlicher Perspektive. Kult ist weit gefasst und beschreibt Formen der kollektiven Verehrung und Auratisierung, in religiösen, quasi-religiösen oder trivial-profanen Zusammenhängen. Es werden Praktiken und Erfahrung von Kult und ihre Manifestationen in fünf Themenkomplexen untersucht: (1) Objekte: Inszenierungen von Kult, (2) Subjekte: Erfahrungen von Kult, (3) Personenkult, (4) Kulträume sowie (5) Manifestationen von Kultpraxis. ; "Visualizations of cult" deals with the strategies of visual representations of cult as well as with concretisations of its visualization, in the perspective of historical and cultural studies. Cult is understood in a broad sense, describing modes of collective veneration and auratization, in religious, quasi-religious or trivial-profane connections. Cult practice and experience and their manifestations are treated under five aspects: (1) objects: staging of cult, (2) subjects: experiences of cult, (3) cult of persons, (4) spaces of cult, (5) manifestations of cult practice.
From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. ; Winner of the 2022 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category, honorable mention. ; Tribulation, Triumph, and Tragedy: Norwich University's Iranian Program (1976-1979) Joseph C. Chatterton History 249- Historical Methods Dr. Bennett 3, December 2021 Word Count: 3159 1 January 29, 2002, just five months after the most devastating terrorist attacks in American history, in his first State of the Union since the beginning of War on Terror President George W. Bush branded Iran as a member of the so-called Axis of Evil along with the likes of North Korea and Saddam Hussian's Iraq. In one line in particular, President Bush decried the Islamic Republic and made it clear that in his role as Commander and Chief, he regarded Iran as one of America's greatest geopolitical foes stating, "Iran aggressively pursues these weapons and exports terror, while an unelected few repress the Iranian people's hope for freedom."1 President Bush's remarks are unsurprising. After all, as recently as May of 2018, prominent Iranian politicians congregated in the hallowed halls of their Parliament to burn American flags and chant "Death to America."2 From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. In the fifty years since the birth of Iran's Islamic Republic, scholars, historians, and government officials have devoted the vast majority of their analysis on the dramatic collapse of the Shah's regime, the ensuing hostage crisis, and the profound implications it had on American foreign policy. While the significance of this is undeniable, far less research has been done into 1 George W Bush, "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. 2 "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625. 2 academic links which bound the two nations, and the effects that the regime's collapse had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Norwich's Iranian program was not the first of its kind, however it was the most successful. Similar programs were attempted at other military academies such as at The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) and the Citadel. However, both of these programs were plagued by difficulties. In 1976 Lieutenant Colonel Paul LaFond, the Deputy Commandant of Norwich's Corps of Cadets, visited VMI to observe VMI's Iranian program so that Norwich might draw lessons for the establishment of its own program. Following the trip Colonel LaFond compiled a detailed report. In the report, it becomes quickly evident that the VMI program consistently struggled to successfully integrate the Iranian students. Major flash point included the serving of Pork products during chow time and their "more relaxed idea of the honor code,"3 LaFond ends this memorandum with a section dedicated "Staff, Faculty and Cadre reaction to the Iranian Program." In this section it becomes evident that many prominent leaders of VMI had less than positive things to say about the program. One Cadet advisor remarked, "The Iranians have put a great strain on our system. The school has been weakened." he continued on dramatically stating, "If we had large numbers for very long it could destroy our system."4 Probably the gravest signal that VMI's Iran program was less than successful are the somber closing remarks of the schools highest ranking officials, the Commandant of Cadets: " You will have a severe problem. Are you ready to cope and is it worth it? There will be many problems with your own cadets."5 The first half of this quote is simple enough to analyze. Of course, there will be many general challenges with introducing a large contingent of foreign midshipmen into a military environment such as 3 Paul LaFond. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 4 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 5 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 3 VMI, yet it is the second part of this quote that really requires some unpacking. What exactly was the Commandant's intent when he stated, "There will be many problems with your own cadets."6 As mentioned previously VMI's Iranian program was notorious for its struggles to integrate the Iranian Midshipmen into their Corps of Cadets, one aspect of this often overlooked is the initial hostility between American Cadets and the Iranian Midshipmen. Earlier in the memorandum VMI's Commandant is quoted to have stated in subsection 5, Discipline and Control, "At first, the 'Old Cadets' harassed the Iranians, and were hard on them. A period of turbulence resulted," he goes on to articulate his point stating that he "cautions, to watch our martinets that they don't cause trouble and states that this type of cadet is particularly frustrated when working with Iranians."7 Although the wording in certain sections of this memorandum can be somewhat confusing for a twenty-first century perspective to comprehend, the general theme is clear, VMI's Iranian program was plagued with trials and tribulations, many of which remained unresolved at the time of its publication. In spite of this evident adversity, Norwich remained resolved to push forward and succeed where VMI failed. With this in mind one must question why Senior Military Colleges such as Norwich placed such an emphasis on creating relations with Iran? For thousands of years Iran has been a strategic regional power. Throughout antiquity the Persian Empire was one of the world's premier powers, and this prominence continued into the Middle Ages. In the 7th century CE, the nation played a vital role in helping to facilitate the spread of Islam from the Arabian peninsula to Central Asia.8 As time progressed the nation's strategic value only grew. During the age of European Imperialism, Iran held a vital role as a 6 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 7 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 8 Kathryn Babayan, "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 4 buffer between the British lion and the Russian bear.9 By 1879, Iran was a colony within the British Empire in all but name. The Iranian government was forced to grant monopolies on everything from "the construction of railways, canals and irrigation system,"10 to control of the nation's banking system.11 Yet the nation's greatest strategic value laid below its surface. In 1908, as oil was beginning to gradually replace coal as the key to industrialization, foreign interest in the country skyrocketed with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company discovery of black gold beneath the waters of the Persian Gulf.12 Iran entered the Cold War in a very interesting position. Many of its institutions, and much wealth continued to be controlled by foreigners in London and by this point Washington. Understandably this angered many Iranians and many turned to socialist politicians like Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nassar, and in Iran's case Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the general election of 1951 Mosaddegh campaigned on the simple message that Iran must free itself from the British imperial yoke. He would win the Prime Ministership in a landslide, and upon assuming the highest office in the nation he set out to make good on his campaign promise. Symbolically on May Day in 1951, Mosaddegh announced the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. In October of that year he doubled down, expelling all British subjects from the nation. Yet the Western powers did not take kindly to being forcefully evicted from Iran, especially taking into consideration the ongoing Cold War, the nation's strategic geography, and its valuable resources. Thus, the British Intelligence service (MI6) in conjunction with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), began planning for regime change. In August of 1953 Operation Ajax (alternatively known as Operation Boot) successfully ousted the democratically 9 Chris Paine and Erica Schoenberger, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. 10 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 11 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 12 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 5 elected Mosaddegh, and bestowed the on nation's monarch or Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi near absolute power.13 The Shah's Iran played a vital role in the United States' middle eastern policy. As described in his journal article, American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era, Dr. Mathew K. Shannon "The Shah's Iran provided to successive American administrations, with a toe hold in the Persian Gulf region … a bulwark against Soviet expansion… and guaranteed the westward flow of Iranian oil."14 With this in context it is understandable that the United States wished to do everything within its power to strengthen its strategic relationship with Iran. While on one hand this means providing Iran with military funds and equipment, it also means flexing the United States' soft power. The Oxford dictionary defines "soft power" as, "a way of dealing with other countries that involves using economic and cultural influence to persuade them to do things, rather than military power."15 In the 1970s the United States had many of the top universities in the world, as well as one of the most robust and modern educational systems. Thus, it seems only logical that the US utilizes its education system, as a bastion of strength. Dr. Joseph Nye, a well-established political scientist and the former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs is quoted for stating, "The ideas and values that America exports in the minds of more than half a million foreign students who study every year in American universities and return to their home countries, tend to reach elites in power."16 Throughout the Cold War the United States would 13 Moyara de Moraes Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. 14 Matthew K. Shannon, "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. 15 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. 16 Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. 6 faithfully follow Dr. Nye's advice to further develop its relationship with the Shah's Iran. The previously mentioned Dr. Mathew Shannon notes the rapid and substantial growth of Iranian students in the United States stating, "The population grew from a mere five hundred in 1950, to upwards of fifty thousand in the late 1970, making them the largest national group of students in the United States."17 The significance of this cannot be understated. Upon graduating from American Universities these students returned to their homeland and played an active role in building the new modern Iran. It was on their shoulders that the "bulwark against Soviet expansion rested." It was the alumni of American universities that ran Iran's state oil company and made the plans for modernizing Iranian industry and infrastructure. These alumni would hold high positions in the nation's civil service, would serve as elected members of Iran's Majlis (Parliament), and crucial to Norwich as officers in the Iranian Military. While Iran benefited from this influx of a highly educated, professional class, the United States was able to stock the Iranian government with those sympathetic to the West. Norwich University first began accepting Iranian Midshipmen in the fall of 1976. President Loring Hart and his administration put a great deal of emphasis on naturalizing the Iranian Midshipmen to the University from the onset. Captain M. Ali Foroughizadeh an Iranian Imperial Navy officer stationed in Arlington, Virginia, would serve as the main point of contact between the University and the Iranian government, for much of the program's existence. The correspondences between Captain Foroughizadeh and President Hart provide unique insight into its early development. The process of integrating Iranian students into the Corps of Cadets and the greater University community did not begin in August with the traditional start of the school year, but rather in June of 1976. As detailed by William F. Beatty, the Executive Assistant to the 17 Shannon, American-Iranian Alliances, 662. 7 President, "Currently fifty-two Iranian midshipmen are undergoing an intensive English, Mathematics and Physical education study program at Norwich in preparation for their enrollment next September as members of the class of 1980."18 Clearly even from the onset of its program Norwich was taking the proactive? steps to fully integrate the Midshipmen firmly into the Corps. Although at times it can become easy to forget, at the end of day Norwich is not merely a remote outpost of the US military but is a university with a long and storied tradition of academic excellence. As such, the importance of academic integration for the Universities Iran students cannot be understated. One of the key takeaways from VMI's tumultuous Iranian program was that failure to integrate the Iranian students in the classroom could have disastrous consequences. Thus, Norwich's faculty and administration made every effort to thoroughly integrate the Iranian students academically into the University. Associate professor Dr. Hollis D. McBride of the Engineering Department described the climate in the classroom stating "Conflicts between Irani and Americans in class have been few." Dr. Hollis does briefly pause his praise to note that the Iranian students seemed more inclined to help each other than their fellow American students, and does advise that having fewer Iranians per class would "reduce their dependence on each other."19 Yet in spite of these challenges Dr. McBride makes it abundantly clear he believes that the presence of the Iranian midshipmen had a profound and positive impact on the education of all students of all nationalities. McBride's praise for the program goes as far as to state, "Never have I seen a class of students work as hard as both Irani and Americans." He goes on to state "I am convinced that the example of the Irani working 18 William F Beatty, Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 19 Hollis D McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 8 overcomes the more usual image of upperclassmen playing to encourage this premier academic effort I have witnessed in my ten years at Norwich."20 Great strides were also taken to properly integrate the Iranian midshipmen socially into the Norwich community. In one of his first memorandums regarding the arrival of Midshipmen, he encourages members of the staff to "host one or two Iranian students for an evening meal to socialize."21 The University also made a significant effort to integrate Iranian and American students within the barracks. The previously mentioned engineering professor, Dr. McBride makes a strong case for integration stating, "An American roommate is a plus, but even more important is an American roommate of the same major."22 The logic behind this is self-evident. Forcing American and Iranian students to live together in close quarters means they are far more likely to develop close cross-cultural bonds, which in turn are "beneficial to both the American and the Iranian."23 Having an American roommate also forced the Iranian Midshipmen to use English on a daily basis and forces them to not to rely solely on their fellow Iranians. Sports and extracurricular activities also played a role in assimilating the midshipmen into the campus community. Many of the Iranian midshipmen played soccer both competitively and recreationally for the school. President Hart remarks upon the Midshipmen in a memorandum he sent to Iranian Admiral Farzaneh regarding the filming of a promotional video stating, "we might arrange a game for the Iranian Cadets on the soccer team." 24 While it is easy to overlook such trivial events as American and Iranian athletes competing together, surely the connections and 20 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 21 Loring E Hart , Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 22 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 23 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 24 Hart, Loring E, Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 9 comradery built on the playing field can overcome linguistic and cultural differences and help the Iranian students merge into the student body. Despite these successes, a shadow lurked over the entirety of the program. One with a limited knowledge of world history, might wonder why the program was so short lived if it was clearly so successful The simple answer: revolution. Despite the guise of modernization beneath Iran's surface, discontent was brewing against the Shah and his authoritarian regime. Chief among the dissenters' grievances were not only the brutal human rights violations committed by the secret police (SAVAK), but the perception of American imperialism, and backlash for the increasingly secular nature of Iranian society. By 1978, demonstrations against the Imperial government occurred across all the nation's major cities with riots targeting symbols of the West such as banks, cinemas, and restaurants.25 The nation's Shiite clergy also played a major role in the overthrow of the Imperial regime. With his health failing and the regime crumbling, the Shah and his family were forced to flee in exile in Egypt. Simultaneously the Ayatollah Khomeini, a leader of the Shiite clergy, and an outspoken critic of the government returned from exile just in time for revolutionary forces to capture Tehran.26 Meanwhile back in Northfield, President Hart's administration was doing everything within its power to look after the best interests of the Iranian Midshipmen. Initially it appeared that the situation was under control. As late as November 9th, 1979, the Institute of International Education wrote "Foreign students who are in this country to pursue an and who are lawfully engaged in that pursuit, properly enjoy the protection of the laws which allow them to enter the 25 Said Amir Arjomand, "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. 26 Said Amir, Arjomand,"The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." 10 country and permit them to remain."27 Five days later University Vice President James Galloway echoed similar sentiments, writing that the state department had advised him that "State and Defense were discussing Iranian students, but were oriented towards those Iranians holding student visas, not members of an organized program. Current guidance was the status quo, and to maintain a low profile."28 Unfortunately this good news would be short lived. November 4, 1979 saw the storming of the American embassy in Tehran and the capture of 52 American hostages, President Carter issued an executive order calling for all the review of all educational visas for Iranian students in the United States.29 The optimism that the program could survive evaporated Almost overnight. Less than a month later Vice President James Galloway was forced to send out a new memo with a far different tone. While the November addition spoke of maintaining the status quo, the updated version stated, "On the basis of official order from the Iranian government or the U.S government, the Norwich Naval Contingent is directed to terminate their school and depart or prepare to depart."30 Throughout the winter of 1980 the campus held its breath bracing for the inevitable. On April 7, this finally occurred when "The State Department severed diplomatic relations with Iran and ordered the deportation of "employees" and "officials of Iran by Friday April 11 at midnight."31 The next day on April 8, a glimmer of false hope set in, with 27 Hughes Jenkins, "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 28 James V Galloway, Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 29 Will Tiague, Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. 30 Harry A Buckley, Contingency Plan for the Iranian Crisis, 4 December 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 31 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 11 the general feeling being that "the Iranian Cadets would be classified as students rather than as officials or employees, and would therefore be permitted to finish the semester."32 However, the next day such hopes would be shattered when the State department reversed its decision and labeled the Midshipmen as Officials of Iran. Two days later on April 10, President Hart briefed the Corps on the unfolding situation. In a testament to the successes of the program when Iranian Midshipmen " c/CPT Kazem Yahyapour bid farewell to the American students on behalf of the Iranians students, he received a standing ovation from the Corps. Faculty, and staff."33 On April 12, 1980 the Iranian program would officially die with the departure of 80 Iranian students and officials. The last communication upon touchdown in Tehran was simple and sober, "We received and are warm and ok."34 The Iranian program was over. Since that infamous date in 1980 the relation between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran have only grown worse. Today it would be unimaginable for Midshipmen from Iran to study at an American military college such as Norwich University. Yet only fifty years ago between 1976 and 1979 over 80 Iranian students were fully integrated, academically, socially, and militarily into the Norwich community. Although the program ended in tragedy, in a world where military cooperation continues to grow increasingly important, the story of success remains relevant and worth remembering. 32 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 33Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 34 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 12 Bibliography Primary Sources Beatty, William F. Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Galloway, James V. Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. LaFond, Paul. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Marsilius, Philip R, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. McBride, Hollis D. Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Jenkins, Hughes. "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Secondary Sources Arjomand, Said Amir. "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. This article provided valuable information about the events of Iran's Islamic Revolution. It discusses the initial protests and the peoples major grievances against the secret police, the west, and the increasing secular nature of society. Babayan, Kathryn. "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 13 This article provides information on the history of Islam in Iran. Initially it was used to help inllistrate how historically Iran has been very stratiegic, but it also serves to introduce Islam, which would prove to be a very important factor in the 1979 Revolution. Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. This article helps to illustrate the significance of soft power, particularly the use of student exchange programs to project American power across the globe. Clearly this is very relevant to Norwich's Iranian exchange program, and helps to explain its significance and one of its purposes. Bush, George W. "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625 Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. Shannon, Matthew K. "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. Provides valuable background information into the nature of the Iranian state, and the Iranian education system during the Shah's reign. Key to Norwich, this article mentions exchange programs particularly those with the United States. Moyara de Moraes, Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. Discussed the Anglo-American coup which overthrew Iran's democratically elected government, and handed the Shah absolute power. Played a vital role in creating the Iranian government which Norwich cooperated with, it is also key to understand the underlying factors behind the 1979 Revolution. Paine, Chris, and Erica Schoenberger. "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. Helps to establish the early history of Iran, and its history of Anglo-American domination. 14 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Provides a definition for soft power, to help illustrate its significance to the United States particularly in a strategic ally such as the Shah's Iran. Tiague, Will. Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. Provides context for the Iranian hostage crisis, President Carter's reaction, and the effects that it had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Yarbrough, Tinsley E. Federal Alienage Doctrine and the Iranian Student Litigation. Human Rights Quarterly 4, no. 2 (1982): 243–60. Discusses the legal issues facing Iranian students facing deportation in the United States following the Islamic Revolution.
