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Анализируются взгляды выдающегося русского ученого-гуманитария Н.И. Кареева (1850-1931), в своем творчестве предвосхитившего пути развития мировой исторической и политической мысли ХХ и XXI вв., на политическую власть и еѐ организацию в древних обществах. Показаны эвристические возможности применявшихся Н.И. Кареевым структурно-функционального, сравнительноисторического и типологического методов к исследованию монархий древнего Востока (Египта, Ассирии, Персии и др.), эллинистического и римского миров, позволивших историку вскрыть своеобразие форм древневосточной государственности, предложить свой взгляд на сущность монархии Александра Македонского, проследить воздействие «эллино-ориентального» элемента на создание универсальной римской монархии, на генезис императорской власти. ; This article analyzes the views of N.I. Kareev (1850-1931), a prominent Russian scientist and humanist, regarding political power and its organization in ancient societies. In his work, N.I. Kareev anticipated the development of world history and political thought of the 20th and 21st centuries. We show the heuristic potential of structuralfunctional, comparative-historical and typological methods applied by N.I. Kareyev to the study of the monarchies of the ancient Orient (Egypt, Assyria, Persia, etc.) and of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds. Using these methods, the historian has revealed the originality of the forms of statehood in the ancient Orient, offered his views on the nature of Alexander the Great's monarchy, traced the impact of the «Hellenic-Oriental» element on the creation of the universal Roman monarchy and on the genesis of the imperial power.

Recent science and technology studies have analyse questions of expert and non-expert participating in science technology policy from an empirically grounded perspective, the issue offers a double contribution. It present a summary of the state of the act and an outline of the historical emergence of the participatory question, it distinguish four periods since the late nineteenth century each with a spec.ific relationship between expert and non-expert knowledge ranging from hybrid to politicized to an autonomous to a participatory relationship. In the early beginning of humankind, diseases were viewed with mysteries and were common occurrences that claimed many lives. Medical technology evolved slowly in response to high mortality rates associated with diseases example (malaria, yellow fever etc.) Advance medical technology has become the antidote for illnesses and diseases that formerly resulted in the destruction of entire societies. Advance medical technology now makes doctors and technologist to use mechanical techniques to diagnose patients. Medical technology slowly changed from the use of subjective evidence provided by patients to objective evidence obtained by mechanical and chemical technological devices. Patient's population now became concentrated in urban centres and large numbers of patient create economic incentives for doctors. This modern equipment saves time, energy and resources compared to the antediluvian approach. Therefore, multifarious diagnosis can be conducted with high degree of accuracy within a short period of time. DOI:10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n12p23

Present-day society asks more from agriculture than just the production of food. Agriculture is now required to be concerned with the quality of food, ecosystem services, inclusion of marginalized populations, revitalization of rural territories, energy production, etc. This opening up of the future of agriculture encourages rural actors to experiment with new farming systems, using imagination, creativity and determination to replace dominant models. At the same time, low-cost mass-production systems continue on their way, with promises of a future based on green technologies. In this discussion it is important to consider what kind of sustainable development societies really want. Which innovations will help in achieving these developments? What role can research and public policies play in supporting the emergence of these innovations? This book takes the debate beyond the purely technical options and considers social and institutional innovations as well. It demonstrates that innovation is the result of a confrontation between visions of actors who often have divergent interests. There is no single path towards sustainable development and we must find ways to encourage the emergence and co-existence of different types of agriculture and food systems. The success of transitions will not only depend on our capacity to rethink existing models, but especially on our willingness to embark on a creative learning process from which we will inevitably emerge transformed.

Abstract Today, in a modern and civilized society we have an opportunity to live and work with technical and technological innovations, information and digital development that enable us to stand before very broad horizons of education in relation to the challenges of modern times. Accounting in itself, accounting information and accounting software are opening up and allowing you to have methods of operation which are of global character, and that represents a major step forward in the advancement, development and unification of the same. New age requires new ways not only in the work but also in our thinking. Accountants more than 20 years ago did not face these needs and problems that arise daily in business trade associations, companies etc. Accounting information that was available before this period, today is insufficient in any respect when deciding and creating business policy, investing or borrowing funds and other needs. With new developments, with the entry into the 21st century democratic societies opened up even more and market economy was confirmed in modern business, whereas accounting professional organizations did not remain indifferent in all this. They created a way that would enable to meet these new challenges. They created laws, directives, international accounting standards, international financial standards which enabled fast and efficient way of working for accountants worldwide. Keywords: accounting and information system, digital development, managers, professional accountants, new age, accounting software.

Abstract Today, in a modern and civilized society we have an opportunity to live and work with technical and technological innovations, information and digital development that enable us to stand before very broad horizons of education in relation to the challenges of modern times. Accounting in itself, accounting information and accounting software are opening up and allowing you to have methods of operation which are of global character, and that represents a major step forward in the advancement, development and unification of the same. New age requires new ways not only in the work but also in our thinking. Accountants more than 20 years ago did not face these needs and problems that arise daily in business trade associations, companies etc. Accounting information that was available before this period, today is insufficient in any respect when deciding and creating business policy, investing or borrowing funds and other needs. With new developments, with the entry into the 21st century democratic societies opened up even more and market economy was confirmed in modern business, whereas accounting professional organizations did not remain indifferent in all this. They created a way that would enable to meet these new challenges. They created laws, directives, international accounting standards, international financial standards which enabled fast and efficient way of working for accountants worldwide. Keywords: accounting and information system, digital development, managers, professional accountants, new age, accounting software.

This article provides an overview of the historical occurrences of terracing, manuring and other features of intensive agriculture in West Africa and Sudan. The aim is to shed more general light on the political, economic and social contexts of precolonial intensive farming in sub-Saharan Africa. The article uses the vantage point of recent debates on driving forces behind terracing and irrigation in East Africa. It argues that despite being regularly cited as fact in the literature on terraced agriculture on West Africa, no clear historical evidence is available to show that slave raiding was indeed the determining factor behind the first settlement of these hills and the terracing. The farming systems of the late precolonial period must definitely be seen as an outcome of the political economy of the slave trade period. But the idea that the intensification is the outcome of the retreat of decentralised societies into hills and mountains is challenged by the fact that intensification also occurred on the plains and in areas dominated by stratified social organisation and predatory states. It seems as if the labour mobilisation required for intensive agriculture was achieved at both ends of this social continuum. Conflicts and defensive strategies, as well as cooperation in the forms of intermarriage, trade, etc, formed part of a long-term process of different groups relating to one another, intensifying their agriculture and developing a geographical division of labour.

Given the falling returns in share markets and the comparative safety of savings accounts protected by the deposit insurance provided by the Australian Government, there was a significant surge in deposits made in savings ac counts. According to an article published in The Australian , Australian households deposited an estimated $38 billion into savings accounts over a period of six months ending on the 31 st of March, 2009. Among the various deposit-taking institutions, Westpac received the largest part of this growth. (Jimenez, 2009). Interestingly, there have been no major changes in the interest rates offered on savings accounts by the major banks recently. If the savings account market is examined , the first thing that one notices is the large number of options available to a prospective customer. There are more than fifty savings accounts on offer by various banks, building societies and credit unions. These include regular savings accounts, high interest savings accounts with more stringent conditions on deposits, withdrawals and usage and exclusively online savings accounts. Any given savings account product can have different combinations of attributes apart from the interest rate offered such as the minimum balance requirements, the minimum lock-in period, etc. For an average consumer who wants to open a savings account, there is a plethora of choices available. This paper considers how a typical consumer might make a choice among so many options and whether this choice is "right".

The current dispersion of stratification research into several seemingly unrelated topics such as social mobility and various kinds of inequality (racial, ethnic, gender, income, etc.) is unfortunate and unnecessary. It is unfortunate because a good theory can improve understanding of each of these and goes on to open new avenues for the development of theory itself. It is unnecessary because a general theory of stratification in fact exists, though this is not immediately obvious because its expressions have evolved with the passage of time, and because its basic unity is obscured by terminological differences among its contributors. The theory's original form was written in 1377 by Ibn Khaldun as the basis of his theory of human organization (sociology), and was buttressed by his profound knowledge of pre-14 th Century societies. His form of it is a conceptually simple framework consisting of a two-class hierarchy of absolute power, together with an analysis of the rise, dissolution, and replacement of power holding groups. Beginning around a century ago this framework was augmented and elaborated both in terms of a more refined set of dimensions of types of power and of modern statistical concepts by which to describe the structural variations of power in societal stratification systems in any society. The paper reviews the evolution of the theory and brings it up to date. Measurement methods as well the theory's implications are discussed.

International audience ; This talk examines some issues about plurilingualism, concerning people as well as societies, and foreign language policy at schools. This paradigm does not exist yet in the Englishspeaking world, but is relevant for the European area. We will try to introduce and discuss some of the often-contradictory debates centered in the domain of foreign language research. Most of the research topics concern collaborative and comparative research. Therefore, it seems to be necessary to use complementary approaches, borrowed to several different sciences and domains of research, as psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic, etc. to get a transversal overview of this emerging paradigm. This leads to "converging" and "diverging" points of view about foreign language researches. Moreover, the research topics become nowadays a priority to produce new-foreign language policy relevant knowledge. Research is of fundamental importance for the development of policies, strategies and practices in the field of plurilingualism. ; La prise en compte des environnements socio-culturels, du développement psycholinguistique et des représentations des apprenants dans le cadre institutionnel de l'enseignement / apprentissage des langues ainsi que de la variété des formes et usages des langues / cultures présentes dans ces mêmes environnements a conduit la recherche en didactique à user d'un prisme transversal, appuyé sur diverses sciences contributives, pour interroger la notion même de didactique des langues. À cela, se sont ajoutés un certain nombre de questionnements liés aux recherches sur les apprentissages favorables à une image concertée et intégratrice de la didactique des langues.

International audience ; This talk examines some issues about plurilingualism, concerning people as well as societies, and foreign language policy at schools. This paradigm does not exist yet in the Englishspeaking world, but is relevant for the European area. We will try to introduce and discuss some of the often-contradictory debates centered in the domain of foreign language research. Most of the research topics concern collaborative and comparative research. Therefore, it seems to be necessary to use complementary approaches, borrowed to several different sciences and domains of research, as psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic, etc. to get a transversal overview of this emerging paradigm. This leads to "converging" and "diverging" points of view about foreign language researches. Moreover, the research topics become nowadays a priority to produce new-foreign language policy relevant knowledge. Research is of fundamental importance for the development of policies, strategies and practices in the field of plurilingualism. ; La prise en compte des environnements socio-culturels, du développement psycholinguistique et des représentations des apprenants dans le cadre institutionnel de l'enseignement / apprentissage des langues ainsi que de la variété des formes et usages des langues / cultures présentes dans ces mêmes environnements a conduit la recherche en didactique à user d'un prisme transversal, appuyé sur diverses sciences contributives, pour interroger la notion même de didactique des langues. À cela, se sont ajoutés un certain nombre de questionnements liés aux recherches sur les apprentissages favorables à une image concertée et intégratrice de la didactique des langues.

Karen Hoffmann & Éric Navet
The cost of risk : native populations and the "brave new world"
In their mythologies, traditional populations refer to an initial state of Creation – to which we gain access through dreams and visions, where "order, harmony and beauty" reign (tradition of the Ojibwe Indians) and a "land without evil"
(Tupi-Guarani tradition) which is also necessarily a land without conflict. Yet these traditions also relate the difficulty, and even impossibility, of getting to such a state outside the imagination and a hypothetical belief in a better world. The created world can only be a world full of risk, and yet it is also a world of sensations, emotions and desire, making it a living world. In this world, human beings are weak and dependent and cannot limit risks. For humans, these risks involve alienating themselves, either individually or collectively, from other non-human beings (animals, plants etc.) and other human beings (break in the social link, loss of sociable or sharing values), but also losing their reference marks – which leads to madness and death – in a world where they must laboriously fi nd their place. The risk factor is multiplied when the balanced, conciliatory societies of these traditional populations are confronted with civilisations that are grounded on a break from all natures and a utopian duty for human beings to dominate the rest of Creation.

European cultural dimensions. This implies: developing a Europe of knowledge, strengthening of stable, peaceful and democratic societies; enhancing mobility in employment and study; implementing the Bologna Magna Charta Universitatum 1988. In short the Declaration focuses on the promotion of co-operation and international competitiveness of European higher education. There are expectations of national reforms: the changes in two-tier degree structures, shorter first degrees, bridges between university and non-university sectors and external evaluation. At the institutional level, the reforms should also be considered to shape the curriculum development and evaluations (mare professionally relevant, more international and mare multidisciplinary). The article focuses on the universities role to facilitate study and labour mobility. Identifying labour needs calls for a constant update of the curriculum. The question is whether universities should move to professional training instead of providing an academic education. The article is dealing with the difficulties of the implementation of Bologna Declaration: a tension between academic education and professional training, between equality and opportunity, between internationalization and globalisation and etc. Mass higher education and life-long learning cannot be uniform across individuals, communities and countries. Reality is different in many universities, but the changes are needed in many universities too. ; Straipsnyje pateikiami pagrindiniai Bolonijos deklaracijos teiginiai apie ypatingą universitetų vaidmenį plėtojant Europos kultūrą ir kuriant Europos aukštojo mokslo erdvę. Aptariami numatomi sprendimai nacionaliniu ir instituciniu lygiu bei sunkumai realizuoti Deklaraciją.

The evolution of port societies and the "demaritimisation" of port-towns in North-Western Continental Europe.
The notion of "maritimisation" is not recent. It covers all forms of penetration and of modelling of a society or of a group through the influence of the sea, the ships and the port activities : social or economic organization, ways of thinking, behaviour, the vision of the external world etc. Now since the middle of the 19 th century, the evolution of transocean traffic has modified the maritime aspects of port-towns. It was first the patrician phase dominated by the upper middle classes owning ships and trading with far away countries, with the repercussions which followed on the labour force in the docks and on board the ships, and consequently on the urban population. Then this structure was disrupted with the progressive loss of management power among these seaport upper middle classes and that happened with some difference depending on the French or Hanseatic ports. The rise of new forms of authority, the recent callapse in the numbers of dock workers and sailors, the strong penetration of continental influences into the management of maritime trade have led to the weakening of the former decision power of the old sea cities on their ports and provoked the "demaritimisation" of these port-towns ; the repercussions on transocean exchanges should now be assessed.

The aim of the paper is to develop at least a part of a voice which is still difficult to understand in the Czech language environment, the voice of the others, (ex-rivals), the 'expelled', and to anchor it in the work and politics of remembering, registering and writing history of one specific author (we are talking about the continuity of perspective: about fidelity to images, local mythology, its logic). For thirty years, Alfred Klaar (born as Karpeles in 1848 in Prague) co-established Prague discourse in German language from various positions (as a journalist, theatre critic, representative of various societies, ceremony speaker, associate professor of the local German polytechnic etc.). When he moved to Berlin in July 1899, he was almost fifty-one years old. He left his home (both in the narrow sense of the word, as well as the wider sense of 'Austrian home', so important to him), but he always kept the world he had lived in for so long in his mind and preserved many links with it in spite of the geographical distance. He also returned to his homeland on various occasions (funerals and other ceremonies, lectures) and he also remained talked about primarily among the Prague German circles; as a piece of memorabilia he was dusted and remembered in stories, and at the same time rightfully seen and honoured as a foreign envoy and speaker of compatriot cultural and political interests.

The aim of the paper is to develop at least a part of a voice which is still difficult to understand in the Czech language environment, the voice of the others, (ex-rivals), the 'expelled', and to anchor it in the work and politics of remembering, registering and writing history of one specific author (we are talking about the continuity of perspective: about fidelity to images, local mythology, its logic). For thirty years, Alfred Klaar (born as Karpeles in 1848 in Prague) co-established Prague discourse in German language from various positions (as a journalist, theatre critic, representative of various societies, ceremony speaker, associate professor of the local German polytechnic etc.). When he moved to Berlin in July 1899, he was almost fifty-one years old. He left his home (both in the narrow sense of the word, as well as the wider sense of 'Austrian home', so important to him), but he always kept the world he had lived in for so long in his mind and preserved many links with it in spite of the geographical distance. He also returned to his homeland on various occasions (funerals and other ceremonies, lectures) and he also remained talked about primarily among the Prague German circles; as a piece of memorabilia he was dusted and remembered in stories, and at the same time rightfully seen and honoured as a foreign envoy and speaker of compatriot cultural and political interests. ; 39 ; 59