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The response of mineral-stabilized soil organic carbon (SOC) to environmental change is a source of uncertainty in the understanding of SOC cycling. Fluctuating wet-dry cycles and associated redox changes in otherwise well-drained soils may drive mineral dissolution, organic carbon (OC) mobilization, and subsequent OC mineralization. However, the extent to which rapid fluctuations between water-saturated and unsaturated conditions (i.e., flashy conditions) result in long-term changes in mineral composition and organo-mineral interactions is not well understood. In this study, the effect of variable saturation frequency on soil mineral composition, mineral-associated OC, and OC mineralizability was tested using selective dissolution, bulk spectroscopy, microscale imaging, and aerobic-anaerobic incubation experiments. Previous water table fluctuation measurements and diagnostic profile characteristics at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (NH) were used to identify soils with high, medium, and low saturation frequency regimes (defined by historical water table cycling frequency; i.e., water table presence and recession in the upper B horizon). We found the amount of OC released during extractions targeting non-crystalline minerals was of similar magnitude as extracted iron (Fe) in lower saturation frequency soils. However, the magnitude of extracted OC was 2.5 times greater than Fe but more similar to extractable aluminum (Al) in higher saturation frequency soils. Bulk soil Fe was spatially more strongly correlated to soil organic matter (SOM) in lower saturation frequency soils (Spearman Rank r(s) = 0.62, p < 0.005), whereas strong correlations between Al and SOM were observed in higher saturation frequency soils (r(s) = 0.88, p < 0.005) using nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) imaging. Characterization of bulk soil Fe with X-ray absorption spectroscopy showed 1.2-fold greater Fe(II) and 1-fold lower contribution of Fe-organic bonding in soils with high saturation frequency. Fe(III) interactions with carboxylic and aromatic C were identified with C-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy Fe(III) interference experiments. Additionally, carboxylic acid enrichment in high saturation frequency soils quantified by C K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy point towards the role of carboxylic functional groups in Al-organic in addition to Fe-organic interactions. In our incubation experiments, a doubling in short-term CO2 evolution (per unit total soil C) was detected for high relative to low saturation frequency soils. Further, an order of magnitude increase in CO2 evolution (per unit water-extractable OC) following anaerobic incubation was only detected in high saturation frequency soils. The observed shift towards Al-dominated SOC interactions and higher OC mineralizability highlights the need to describe C stabilization in soils with flashy wet-dry cycling separately from soils with low saturation frequency or persistent saturation. ; NSF IGERT in Cross-Scale Biogeochemistry and Climate at Cornell University (NSF)National Science Foundation (NSF) [1069193]; Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) from the Technical University of Munich (TUM); Andrew W. Mellon Foundation; Cornell College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Alumni Foundation, USA; National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation (NSF) [DMR-1332208]; Canada Foundation for InnovationCanada Foundation for InnovationCGIAR; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of CanadaNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)CGIAR; University of Saskatchewan; Government of Saskatchewan; Western Economic Diversification Canada; National Research Council Canada; Canadian Institutes of Health Research, CanadaCanadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) ; Funding for this study was provided by the NSF IGERT in Cross-Scale Biogeochemistry and Climate at Cornell University (NSF Award #1069193) and the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) from the Technical University of Munich (TUM) through the Hans-Fisher Senior Fellowship. Additional research funds were provided by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the Cornell College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Alumni Foundation, USA. Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest is operated and maintained by the US Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA, USA. This work uses research conducted at the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS) which is supported by the National Science Foundation under award DMR-1332208. Research was performed at the Canadian Light Source (CLS), which is supported by the Canada Foundation for Innovation, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the University of Saskatchewan, the Government of Saskatchewan, Western Economic Diversification Canada, the National Research Council Canada, and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada. The authors thank Dr. Rong Huang of CHESS, Dr. Tom Regier of CLS, Kelly Hanley and Akio Enders of Cornell University for technical assistance; Dr. Carmen Hoschen, Johann Lugmeier and Dr. Carsten Mueller of the Technical University of Munich for their support with the NanoSIMS measurements; Dr. Carmen Enid Martinez' research group for providing iron XAS standard materials; Dr. Linda Pardo, Stephanie Duston, Brittany LeBeau, and Johali Sotelo for soil sample collection and field characterization; and the referees for their invaluable insights. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

La tesi è un contributo al dibattito sulla crisi delle politiche dell'abitare e propone una riflessione sulla possibilità di ripensare tali politiche guardando alle pratiche di welfare dal basso. La situazione abitativa attuale risente delle dinamiche riguardanti la recessione economica e i cambiamenti sociali ed è caratterizzata da esigenze abitative più complesse e articolate rispetto al passato. Il bisogno di casa è oggi espresso da categorie differenziate di popolazione (famiglie monoreddito, famiglie monoparentali, anziani, studenti, giovani precari) e a questa domanda di casa differenziata le politiche abitative rispondono con un'offerta molto rigida. Mentre in passato la decifrabilità del problema abitativo ha guidato le politiche per la casa verso soluzioni di tipo tecnico-quantitativo, l'attuale emergenza abitativa non è più ascrivibile alla carenza di abitazioni e non riguarda più soltanto le grandi metropoli del nostro paese. In particolare la tesi tratta della questione della casa a Venezia, dove a fronte della costante diminuzione della popolazione residente è presente un nuovo bisogno abitativo che interessa soprattutto le fasce di popolazione con reddito medio e medio basso e le componenti più giovani della popolazione. Negli ultimi decenni, l'assenza di efficaci politiche pubbliche per la casa, il sottoutilizzo dello stock abitativo pubblico e la consistente erosione del patrimonio abitativo da parte del mercato turistico hanno contribuito all'insorgere di una risposta dal basso al problema della residenzialità nella città storica. La tesi è centrata sulle pratiche di autorecupero del patrimonio di edilizia residenziale pubblica in disuso adottate dagli attivisti dell'Asc (Assemblea sociale per la casa) come risposta all'emergenza abitativa nella città di Venezia. Attraverso l'osservazione di tali pratiche ci s'interroga su come le capacità organizzative e gestionali nate dal basso risolvano situazioni di degrado e di esclusione abitativa e siano in grado di riattivare risorse sociali nei quartieri pubblici. Se da una parte le pratiche di autorecupero portano alla luce i limiti dell'intervento pubblico e la complessità della questione abitativa, dall'altra indicano nuovi possibili terreni di azione per le politiche abitative. Alla ricostruzione del processo storico attraverso cui si genera l'emergenza abitativa contemporanea, è dedicata la prima parte della tesi, in cui si esaminano le politiche pubbliche in tema casa adottate in Italia dal dopoguerra fino agli anni novanta in relazione alle azioni dei movimenti per il diritto alla casa. Attraverso una lettura incrociata tra le politiche abitative pubbliche e la conflittualità espressa dai movimenti per il diritto alla casa, s'intende valutare il contributo che le azioni dei movimenti hanno avuto nella produzione di politiche per la casa. La seconda parte della tesi descrive la questione dell'emergenza abitativa nella città storica di Venezia. Si esaminano gli effetti prodotti dalle politiche abitative comunali nel corso del Novecento e le responsabilità dell'intervento pubblico nel produrre fenomeni di espulsione dalla città storica. In particolare si restituisce una lettura critica delle politiche abitative comunali degli anni novanta che sono al centro di una nuova governance che vede nella riqualificazione urbana la possibilità di adottare strategie per contrastare il disagio abitativo soprattutto dei ceti medi. Si esaminano la pressione dell'industria del turismo e la tendenza del mercato immobiliare veneziano, orientato soprattutto alla compravendita di abitazioni come investimento o come seconda casa, come fenomeni responsabili in parte della contrazione degli alloggi in locazione ai residenti. Si riportano, inoltre, i recenti dati demografici, che evidenziano la grave compromissione delle capacità rigenerative della città e i dati del patrimonio abitativo, che restituiscono la consistente presenza di situazioni di sottoutilizzo del patrimonio abitativo sia pubblico sia privato. Nella terza e ultima parte della tesi si affrontano il ruolo e le attività dell'Asc, il più attivo tra i movimenti nella città storica in tema di diritto alla casa, autorecupero e autogestione. La tesi restituisce i risultati prodotti dalle pratiche dell'Asc attraverso i racconti dei protagonisti, dai quali emerge non solo la capacità di trovare soluzioni creative e sostenibili per il recupero degli alloggi pubblici in disuso, ma anche la capacità di sviluppare forme di socialità e coesione quotidiana tra gli abitanti. La presenza di una rete di alleanza e solidarietà tra occupanti e residenti rivela il carattere politico di tali pratiche, che si configurano come innesco di forme di apprendimento e responsabilizzazione degli abitanti rispetto alla propria condizione e al proprio territorio. Si è analizzata la costruzione di quello che si può definire un "welfare parallelo": un modo per progettare e gestire risorse e servizi attraverso l'autorganizzazione. Se da una parte le pratiche di autorecupero evidenziano la debolezza delle politiche pubbliche per la casa, dall'altra rappresentano, invece, un'occasione per le istituzioni di imparare dal protagonismo sociale. Non solo perché consente all'urbanistica di produrre nuovi saperi, ma anche perché è solo attraverso un lavoro comune che è possibile immaginare e costruire una città più solidale e più equa.

Growing municipal borrowing is not surprising today because not only municipalities but also the state itself borrows actively. We live in a period when the funds of EU are actively being absorbed, and according to regulations, in order to use these funds, it is necessary, albeit a small part, to add own funds. The borrowing requirement which exists at all levels of government is aggregated, and borrowed funds represent the total public debt. When the need arises, municipalities, like the state, can borrow financial resources, but their borrowing is more regulated than the state. The research problem. The annual public resources generated by municipalities represent only a small fraction of public finance flows circulating in state jurisdiction. The financial situation of municipalities is complicated due to the fact that insufficient funds are allocated from the state budget to ensure the performance of state-delegated functions. This article looks at the answers to questions of what are the reasons for municipal borrowing and what are the opportunities of growing borrowing to continue borrowing? The object of the researchis municipal debt. The purpose of the researchis to analyze municipal debt and borrowing as a phenomenon and to reveal the borrowing situation of Lithuanian municipalities. The statistical data of theDepartment of Statisticsto the Government of the Republic ofLithuania, the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Lithuania and the Association of Lithuanian Municipalities were used for the analysis. For the analysis of the municipal debt situation the budget income and expenditures of all sixty municipalities and municipal net annual borrowing were analyzed. Research period is 2005–2014.This choice of the research period allows to partially eliminate the influence of economic cyclicality, because this period covered rapid economic growth after Lithuania's accession to the European Union, a period of economic recession since 2008, and the last economic recovery period. Based on the analysis, municipal borrowing in Lithuania and other countries is strictly regulated with established borrowing limits and borrowing objectives, usually borrowing is in the domestic banking market for a long or short period. The reasons for borrowing are varied, but usually they are aimed at attracting additional investment by contributing to the borrowed funds of the municipality.In most cases, municipalities pay off in the implementation of EU structural funds projects, to which they themselves have to contribute. In 2013–2014, the debt for these projects amounted to about 50% of all municipal debts. Due to EU projects, debt grows in all municipalities. Another reason for borrowing is related to the increasing trend of municipal functions in Lithuania, although self-generated municipal income is decreasing. All this also becomes the reason for borrowing. The total debt of all municipalities in Lithuania, per capita, is increasing every year. During the analyzed period, this debt increased by 4.68 times. However, the municipal debt of Lithuania compared with the debt of municipalities of other EU countries shows that this debt is not high and has a potential for future growth. However, since 2014, the debt of Lithuanian municipalities, albeit insignificant, has been decreasing. Very similar debt is also in Estonia, slightly more in Latvia. The most indebted are the municipalities of France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The growing responsibilities of municipalities in Lithuania reflect the development of active regions, which invest heavily in infrastructure, community projects and economics, and therefore EU funds provide funding to municipalities in implementing targeted projects. On the basis of rules in Lithuania, in order to receive EU funds, the municipality must itself contribute with its own funds to the ongoing project. In such cases, the state gives the municipalities the right to increase their obligations. During the analyzed period, in comparison with the Lithuanian metropolitan municipalities, Vilnius city, Klaipeda City, and Kaunas City municipalities borrowed the most. It is considered that the high level of indebtedness of major cities of Lithuania is determined by both the desire to create an attractive and balanced environment for a large flow of people and business entities to live and work as well as implementation of a large and strategic state infrastructure projects. Borrowing is an inevitable macroeconomic process that can spur economic growth. If borrowed funds are diverted to productive investments and the level of debt does not endanger economic stability, municipalities could increase their debts, of course guaranteeing the repayment of debt in a timely manner. The problem arises when borrowed funds are used only for consumption or short-term projects, thus these funds do not generate the necessary income in order to timely repay the debt, therefore the situation becomes difficult without the additional state financial support. This scientific article is funded by the Research Council of Lithuania according to the project "The evaluation of municipalities' fiscal competitiveness in the context of economic growth" (2015–2018), registration No. MIP-013/2015.

For a long time it was believed that monetary policy would be able to maintain price stability and foster economic growth during all phases of the business cycle. The era of the Great Moderation, often also called the Volcker-Greenspan period, beginning in the mid 1980s was characterized by a decline in volatility of output growth and inflation among the industrialized countries. The term itself is first used by Stock and Watson (2003). Economist have long studied what triggered the decline in volatility and pointed out several main factors. An important research strand points out structural changes in the economy, such as a decline of volatility in the goods producing sector through better inventory controls and developments in the financial sector and government spending (McConnell2000, Blanchard2001, Stock2003, Kim2004, Davis2008). While many believed that monetary policy was only 'lucky' in terms of their reaction towards inflation and exogenous shocks (Stock2003, Primiceri2005, Sims2006, Gambetti2008), others reveal a more complex picture of the story. Rule based monetary policy (Taylor1993) that incorporates inflation targeting (Svensson1999) has been identified as a major source of inflation stabilization by increasing transparency (Clarida2000, Davis2008, Benati2009, Coibion2011). Apart from that, the mechanics of monetary policy transmission have changed. Giannone et al. (2008) compare the pre-Great Moderation era with the Great Modertation and find that the economies reaction towards monetary shocks has decreased. This finding is supported by Boivin et al. (2011). Similar to this, Herrera and Pesavento (2009) show that monetary policy during the Volcker-Greenspan period was very effective in dampening the effects of exogenous oil price shocks on the economy, while this cannot be found for the period thereafter. Yet, the subprime crisis unexpectedly hit worldwide economies and ended the era of Great Moderation. Financial deregulation and innovation has given banks opportunities for excessive risk taking, weakened financial stability (Crotty2009, Calomiris2009) and led to the build-up of credit-driven asset price bubbles (SchularickTaylor2012). The Federal Reserve (FED), that was thought to be the omnipotent conductor of price stability and economic growth during the Great Moderation, failed at preventing a harsh crisis. Even more, it did intensify the bubble with low interest rates following the Dotcom crisis of the early 2000s and misjudged the impact of its interventions (Taylor2009, Obstfeld2009). New results give a more detailed explanation on the question of latitude for monetary policy raised by Bernanke and suggest the existence of non-linearities in the transmission of monetary policy. Weise (1999), Garcia and Schaller (2002), Lo and Piger (2005), Mishkin (2009), Neuenkirch (2013) and Jannsen et al. (2015) find that monetary policy is more potent during times of financial distress and recessions. Its effectiveness during 'normal times' is much weaker or even insignificant. This prompts the question if these non-linearities limit central banks ability to lean against bubbles and financial imbalances (White2009, Walsh2009, Boivin2010, Mishkin2011). ; Für lange Zeit glaubte man, dass Geldpolitik fähig wäre, Preisstabilität und wirtschaftliches Wachstums während allen Phasen des Wirtschaftskreislaufes zu gewähren. Die Ära der 'Great Moderation', oft auch Volcker-Greenspan Periode genannt, beginnend in der Mitte der 1980er Jahre, war durch verringerte Volatilität des Wirtschaftswachstums und der Inflation unter den Industrienationen. Der Ausdruck Terminus wurde allerdings das erste Mal von Stock und Watson (2003) verwendet. Ökonomen haben lange studiert, was diesen Rückgang der Volatilität erzeugt hat und mehrere Faktoren besonders hervorgehoben. Ein wichtiger Forschungsstrang erklärt, dass es strukturelle Veränderungen in der Wirtschaft gab, beispielsweise eine geringere Volatilität in den Güter produzierenden Sektoren durch bessere Kontrollen in der Inventarisierung, technische Entwicklungen im Finanzsektor sowie eine Stabilisierung der Staatsausgaben (McConnell2000, Blanchard2001, Stock2003, Kim2004, Davis2008). Während Viele der Überzeugung waren, dass die Geldpolitik lediglich Glück hatte, was Ihre Reaktionen gegenüber Inflation oder anderer exogener Schocks angeht (Stock2003, Primiceri2005, Sims2006, Gambetti2008), decken Andere auf, dass die Geschichte weitaus komplizierter ist. Regelbasierte Geldpolitik (Taylor1993), welche die 'inflation targeting' beinhaltet (Svenson1999) wird als eine der Hauptquellen bei der Stabilisierung der Inflation identifiziert (Clarida2000, Davis2008, Benati2009, Coibion2011). Abgesehen davon, haben sich die Mechanismen der geldpolitischen Transmission verändert. Giannone et al. (2008) vergleichen hierzu die Ära der 'Great Moderation' mit der vorherigen Periode und kommen zu dem Schluss, dass Reaktion der Wirtschaft auf geldpolitische Schocks abgenommen hat. Diese Erkenntnis wird unter anderem von Boivin et al. (2011) gestützt. Ähnlich dazu zeigen Herrera und Pesavento (2009), dass die Geldpolitik während der Volcker-Greenspan Periode sehr effektiv darin war, die wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen von exogenen Ölpreisschocks auszubügeln. Dieses Ergebnis kann für die darauf folgende Periode nicht reproduziert werden. Jedoch hat die Subprime Krise die Volkswirtschaften weltweit unerwartet stark getroffen und die Ära der 'Great Moderation' damit beendet. Innovationen im Finanzsektor und Deregulierung haben dazu geführt, dass Banken exzessiv Risiken aufnehmen konnten und die Finanzstabilität wurde dramatisch geschwächt (Crotty2009, Calomiris2009). Dies führte zum Aufbau von kreditfinanzierten Preisblasen (SchularickTaylor2012). Die Federal Reserve Bank, welche als allmächtiger Gewährleister von Preisstabilität und Wirtschaftswachstum während der 'Great Moderation' angesehen wurde, konnte eine harte Krise nicht verhindern. Noch mehr, Sie verstärkte die Preisblase durch niedrige Zinsen als Reaktion auf die Dotcom Blase Anfang der 2000er Jahre und hat die Auswirkungen seiner Interventionen falsch eingeschätzt (Taylor2009, Obstfeld2009). Neue Forschungsergebnisse ermöglichen eine detailliertere Erklärung zu der von Ben Bernanke gestellten Frage, welchen Handlungsspielraum die Geldpolitik überhaupt besitzt und deuten die Existenz von Nichtlinearitäten in der geldpolitischen Transmission an. Weise (1999), Garcia und Schaller (2002), Lo und Piger (2005), Mishkin (2009), Neuenkirch (2013) und Jannsen et al. (2015) finden heraus, dass Geldpolitik wirksamer während Zeiten finanzieller Anspannung bzw. Rezessionen ist. Die Effektivität während wirtschaftlich 'normalen' Zeiten hingegen ist weitaus geringer, teilweise sogar unsignifikant. Dies veranlasst die Frage, ob diese Nichtlinearitäten die Fähigkeit von Zentralbanken, sich gegen Preisblasen und finanzielle Ungleichgewichte zu lehnen, einschränkt (White2009, Walsh2009, Boivin2010, Mishkin2011) dienen kann, Perioden, in denen die wirtschaftliche Lage schwach ist, zu glätten, indem Sie die Nachfrage stimuliert.

On 17 August 2017, the Advanced LIGO(1) and Virgo(2) detectors observed the gravitational-wave event GW170817-a strong signal from the merger of a binary neutron-star system(3). Less than two seconds after the merger, a gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) was detected within a region of the sky consistent with the LIGO-Virgo-derived location of the gravitational-wave source(4-6). This sky region was subsequently observed by optical astronomy facilities(7), resulting in the identification(8-13) of an optical transient signal within about ten arcseconds of the galaxy NGC 4993. This detection of GW170817 in both gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves represents the first 'multi-messenger' astronomical observation. Such observations enable GW170817 to be used as a 'standard siren'(14-18) (meaning that the absolute distance to the source can be determined directly from the gravitational-wave measurements) to measure the Hubble constant. This quantity represents the local expansion rate of the Universe, sets the overall scale of the Universe and is of fundamental importance to cosmology. Here we report a measurement of the Hubble constant that combines the distance to the source inferred purely from the gravitational-wave signal with the recession velocity inferred from measurements of the redshift using the electromagnetic data. In contrast to previous measurements, ours does not require the use of a cosmic 'distance ladder'(19): the gravitational-wave analysis can be used to estimate the luminosity distance out to cosmological scales directly, without the use of intermediate astronomical distance measurements. We determine the Hubble constant to be about 70 kilometres per second per megaparsec. This value is consistent with existing measurements(20,21), while being completely independent of them. Additional standard siren measurements from future gravitational-wave sources will enable the Hubble constant to be constrained to high precision. ; United States National Science Foundation (NSF) Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) of the United Kingdom Max-Planck-Society (MPS) State of Niedersachsen/Germany Australian Research Council Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research EGO consortium Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India Department of Science and Technology, India Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India Ministry of Human Resource Development, India Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigation Vicepresidencia i Conselleria d'Innovacio, Recerca i Turisme Conselleria d'Educacia i Universitet del Govern de les Illes Balears Conselleria d'Educacia, Investigacio, Culture i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana National Science Centre of Poland Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) Russian Foundation for Basic Research Russian Science Foundation European Commission European Regional Development Funds (ERDF) Royal Society Scottish Funding Council Scottish Universities Physics Alliance Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA) Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO) National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI) National Research Foundation of Korea, Industry Canada Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada Canadian Institute for Advanced Research Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR) Research Grants Council of Hong Kong National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) Leverhulme Trust Research Corporation Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan Kavli Foundation NSF STFC MPS INFN CNRS Danish National Research Foundation Niels Bohr International Academy DARK Cosmology Centre NSF AST-1518052 AST-1411763 AST-1714498 AST -1138766 AST-1536171 AST-1517649 AST-1313484 Gordon & Betty Moore Foundation Heising-Simons Foundation UCSC Giving Day grant Alfred P. Sloan Foundation David and Lucile Packard Foundation Niels Bohr Professorship from the DNRF UCMEXUS-CONACYT Doctoral Fellowship NASA through Hubble Fellowship - Space Telescope Science Institute HST-HF-51348.001 HST-HF-51373.001 NASA NAS5-26555 NNX15AE50G NNX16AC22G DOE (USA) NSF (USA) MEC/MICINN/MINECO (Spain) STFC (UK) HEFCE (UK) NCSA (UIUC) KICP (U. Chicago) CCAPP (Ohio State) MIFPA (Texas AM) CNPQ (Brazil) FAPERJ (Brazil) FINEP (Brazil) DFG (Germany) Argonne Lab UC Santa Cruz University of Cambridge Dark Energy Survey CIEMAT-Madrid University of Chicago University College London DES-Brazil Consortium University of Edinburgh ETH Zurich Fermilab University of Illinois ICE (IEEC-CSIC) IFAE Barcelona Lawrence Berkeley Lab LMU Munchen associated Excellence Cluster Universe University of Michigan NOAO University of Nottingham Ohio State University University of Pennsylvania University of Portsmouth SLAC National Lab Stanford University University of Sussex Texas AM University OzDES Membership Consortium MINECO AYA2015-71825 ESP2015-88861 FPA2015-68048 Centro de Excelencia SEV-2012-0234 SEV-2016-0597 MDM-2015-0509 ERC under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme ERC 240672 291329 306478 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO) CE110001020 US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics DE-AC02-07CH11359 NASA through the Einstein Fellowship Program PF6-170148 Israel Science Foundation 541/17

العديد من الاصلاحات وعمليات اعادة الهيكلة التي شملت القطاع العام في مختلف أنحاء العالم قدمت على أساس ما يطلق عليه اسم " الادارة العمومية الجديدة "، والتي أطلق العديد من علماء ومنظري التسيير وإدارة الاعمال عليه وصف " الثورة الادارية " والتي تقوم على أساس ما سمي بمرحلة " ما بعد البيروقراطية "، كما أن العديد من علماء التسيير أكدوا على أن الاصلاحات المعاصرة المتعلقة بالقطاع العام تعتبر نموذج متغير بالامتياز لأنه يرتبط بمتغيرات كبيرة تتميز بالتعقد وعدم الثبات وفقا للمحاور الاساسية التي ترتبط بها الادارة العمومية الجديدة والمتمثلة في الحرية الادارية والمنافسة السوقية و تقديم الخدمات على أساس مهني وعملي وكذا قيمة النقود وتقييم النتائج على أساس الأداء والتوجه نحو الزبون والعمل وفق ثقافة السوق، كما أنه لابد من الاشارة أن فوائد الادارة العمومية الجديدة وأسسها لا تقتصر فقط على القطاع العام والإدارة العمومية بل تتعداها الى القطاع الخاص والذي ثبت فعلا استفادته من مبادئ الادارة العمومية الجديدة في العديد من الدول في مختلف أنحاء العالم. ان الادارة العمومية كانت دائما محل مراجعة مستمرة، فقد قامت الحكومات حول العالم بالتزام بإصلاحات على نطاق واسع ودائم للإدارات العمومية والتي اغلبها جاءت خارج دائرة الركود الاقتصادي خصوصا في الدول النامية وشملت على عدت جوانب أهمها ما هو سياسي خصوصا ما تعلق بإرادة السلطة السياسية العليا المتمثلة في الرغبة الواضحة والإرادة الحقيقية في القيام بالإصلاحات وكذا الجانب الاجتماعي مع غرس ثقافة ايجابية في المجتمع والتشجيع على العمل الجماعي وتشجيع الجماعات المحلية على المساهمة في الاصلاحات. ارتبطت الادارة العمومية الجديدة مع العديد من النظريات المتمثلة بالأساس في خيارات المجتمع، نظرية تكاليف التبادل، ونظرية الوكالة وكذا حوكمة المؤسسات والتي كلها تسعى الى تعزيز الشفافية والمصداقية في التسيير وحفظ مصالح جميع الأطراف المرتبطة بالعمل المؤسساتي وتعزيز ثقافة المساءلة والمحاسبة المنطقية وهذا ما تعمل الادارة العمومية الجديدة من أجل تحقيقه بغية خدمة القطاع العام وتحسين الخدمات العمومية المقدمة. وفي الجزائر توجد العديد من المشاكل التي تنخر عظم الاقتصاد الوطني الهش أصلا والمتمثلة في المشاكل التي تعاني منها المؤسسات العمومية من البيروقراطية والفساد على الوجه الخاص والتي من شأنها أنها عطلت التنمية لسنوات وعقود عديدة وخصوصا ظهور تداعياتها بشكل كبير مع انهيار أسعار البترول في الفترة الأخيرة هذا الأخير الذي يعتبر المورد الأساسي للخزينة العمومية، كل هذا جعل من الضروري أن يتم العمل على القيام بإصلاحات جذرية وحقيقية وجادة فيما يخص بإصلاح الادارة العمومية وذلك وفقا لتجارب الدول الرائدة خصوصا المتقدمة منها والمتمثلة بالأساس في تطبيق مبادئ الادارة العمومية الجديدة وإعادة الهيكلة وتطبيق مبادئ الحوكمة وتحسين الخدمة العمومية. ; Major tenets of this recent market-led restructuring of the public sector are presented as the so-called New Public Management (NPM (, which has been touted by some authors as administration revolution or post-bureaucratic paradigm, In line with the common tendency in social sciences to reify ideas not really profound into something as significant as a revolution or paradigm, many management experts portrayed the contemporary public sector reforms as a paradigm shift, According to its proponents, the newly emerging paradigm of NPM is characterized by managerial freedom, market-driven competition, businesslike service delivery, value-for money, result-based performance, client-orientation, and a pro-market culture, For other scholars, however, there is no paradigmatic consensus on NPM: it at best represents a loose collection of ideas derived from the private sector, used by different countries, and propagated by international organizations and advanced market economies. In addition the techno-managerial interpretations of NPM by its proponents do not adequately explain its historical causes, ideological underpinnings, socioeconomic consequences and politico-administrative limitations. Public administration has always been under constant review. Such reviews were mostly parochial, incremental, initiated or driven by low-key staff and often ended as fads. From the end of the 1970s to the 1990s, however, governments around the world were engaged in widespread and sustained reforms of their public administration. These reforms were born out of economic recession, but also had political and social drivers. They were initiated by the political apex and fuelled by New Right ideology. Collectively, these reforms came to be termed New Public Management (NPM). NPM is characterized by marketisation, privatization, managerialism, governance, performance measurement and accountability. This employment of corporate attitudes in public administration is grounded on certain theories, mainly public choice, transaction cost analysis and principal–agent theory. In case of Algeria There are many problems like Bureaucracy and corruption and Nepotism in very big levels and especially in the public sector so it had to make to Shed light about the ability to Applied the principles of the new public management and the governance to try to Limit the Constraints who Stand up in the face of the Algerian public institutions in the way of Submitting a public services with good quality and to help the national economy by the base of Effectiveness and efficiency.

Цель: Цель данной статьи анализ корейской экономической стратегии в экономической истории Южной Кореи: как стратегия менялась в зависимости от изменений во внутренней и международной экономической среде, от предпосылок, поставленных целей, их результативности и значимости всех предпринятых мер. Данное исследование наглядно покажет ориентиры на будущее экономическое развитие и станет толчком к признанию факта успешного развития корейской экономики. Методология проведения работы: Методической основой данной статьи являются экономико-статистические методы анализа корейской экономики, графические методы, отображающие экономические показатели. Результаты работы: Экономическая история Южной Кореи за последнее столетия показывает, каковы же положительные и отрицательные факторы в развитии из экономически слаборазвитой в развивающуюся страну. История оккупации Кореи Японией, продолжавшаяся с 1910 по 1945 гг., показала, что для страны, утратившей свой национальный суверенитет, экспроприированная государственная экономика после восстановления независимости не имеет никакой силы и что экономика не может развиваться в условиях хаоса в политической, экономической и социальной сферах. Даже после установления военной диктатуры, можно заметить, что несмотря на ограничения прав граждан, экономика страны все еще может развиваться, если этого хочет народ. В дополнение к разработке внутриполитической системы нестабильные факторы в процессе продвижения социальных реформ и поспешно принятой политики «открытых дверей» для повышения международного статуса, являются неразумными политическими, экономическими и социальными изменениями. В свою очередь, отсутствие возможности контроля обмена валюты в азиатских странах, которое является политикой экономического развития, показало, что существует риск национального банкротства. Более того, принятие политики чрезмерного снижения процентных ставок (для того, чтобы оживить рецессию) даже в странах с развитой экономикой может принести вред и перейти в экономический кризис. Выводы: Экономическая история Республики Корея, претерпевшая за последнее столетие ряд изменений, стала образцом для прогрессивного экономического развития экономически слаборазвитых стран. История экономического развития южнокорейской экономики предполагает наличие как положительных, так и отрицательных факторов. Среди позитивных факторов экономического развития Республики Корея можно указать: планирование экономического развития, потенциал развития технологий, возможность управление валютой, контроль экономического кризиса, заключение соглашений о свободной торговле. Что касается негативных факторов, можно назвать: утрату национального суверенитета; беспорядок в политической, экономической и социальной сферах. ; Purpose: the aim of the article is to analyze the Korean economic strategy from the beginning of its development until modern stage. Examination of how this strategy has changed depending on changes within domestic and international economic environment, assumptions, set goals, their effectiveness and significance of all the taken measures. It will demonstrate waypoints for the future economic development and will become a trigger towards recognition of the successful development of the Korean economy by other countries. Methods: the methodological bases of this article are the economic and statistical methods of analysis of the Korean economys, graphical methods displaying economic indicators. Results: economic history of South Korea over the past century shows the positive and negative factors of the development from an economically weak country into a developing country. The history of the Japanese occupation of Korea, lasting from 1910 to 1945, showed that for a country which has lost its national sovereignty, expropriated the state's economy has no effect after the restoration of independence, and that the economy cannot develop in conditions of chaos within the political, economic and social spheres. Even after the establishment of a military dictatorship, it is possible to note that despite limitations of citizens' rights, the economy can still grow if the people want it. In addition to the development of internal political system, unstable factors in the process of promotion of social reforms and hastily adopted policy of "open doors" in order to enhance the international status are unreasonable political, economic and social changes. In turn, the inability to control currency exchange in Asian countries, which is a policy of economic development, has shown the existence of a risk of national bankruptcy. Moreover, the adoption of policies of excessive decrease of interest rates in order to revive the recession may be counterproductive in countries with a developed economies and lead to an economic crisis. Conclusions and Relevance: for the last century, the changes that happened in the economic history of the Republic of Korea made it the model case of progressive economic development of developing countries. The history of Korea's economic development suggests presence of both positive and negative factors. Within the positive factors of the economic development of the Republic of Korea it is possible to note: planning of economic development, a potential for development of technology, ability to control currency, financial crisis management and free trade agreements. Negative factors for economic development were the loss of national sovereignty, disturbances in political, economic and social fields. In addition, people's desire to develop the national economy shows that the economic development could be accomplished successfully.

De manera general, s'entén que l'europeïtzació és un procés d'adaptació gradual de les polítiques, les institucions o els actors polítics nacionals als reglaments o les normatives de la Unió Europea (UE), freqüentment vinculat a processos de democratització. No obstant això, existeixen aplicacions potencials d'aquest concepte a situacions de crisi en què els agents nacionals tenen poc marge de maniobra. En aquestes ocasions, l'adaptació progressiva pot donar lloc a pressions per a l'aplicació de reglaments i normatives de la UE, i això pot tenir efectes pertorbadors en els sistemes polítics nacionals. Amb aquest article pretenem fer llum en aquests processos a Espanya durant els anys de la gran recessió i avaluar-ne l'impacte en el sistema de partits espanyol. L'objectiu principal d'aquest estudi és, per tant, identificar les etapes fonamentals dels processos d'europeïtzació de la política espanyola durant els anys 2010-2012. En una segona part, s'analitza l'articulació de la resposta a aquests processos per part dels moviments de protesta i, especialment, del partit polític Podem en la seva fase inicial. S'ha emprat el model d'estudi de casos per aprofundir en el context de la política espanyola en temps de crisi. S'han recopilat i analitzat documents oficials d'institucions nacionals de la UE així com diversos discursos de l'esmentat partit polític. Els resultats de l'estudi suggereixen connexions entre els processos d'europeïtzació i els canvis en la competència partidista nacional a Espanya. A més, identifiquen l'europeïtzació a Espanya com a un procés pertorbador que afavoreix l'aparició de discursos antisistema. ; It is a widely held view that Europeanization is a gradual process of adaptation of domestic policies, institutions or political actors to European Union (EU) regulation or norms, frequently linked to democratization processes. There are, however, potential applications of the concept of Europeanization to situations of crisis when domestic agents have little room for manoeuvre; on these occasions, gradual adaptation may turn into pressures to implement EU norms or regulations and this may have disruptive effects on domestic political systems. This paper aims at illuminating these processes in Spain during the years of the Great Recession and evaluating their putative impact on the Spanish party system. The primary concern of this study is, therefore, to identify crucial steps in the processes of Europeanization of Spanish politics during the years 2010-2012; in a second step it analyses the articulation of a response to these processes by protest movements, and especially by the political party Podemos in its initial phase. A case-study approach is used to gain deeper insight into the context of Spanish politics in times of crisis. Official documents of domestic or EU institutions and various speeches of the political party Podemos are collected and examined. The results of this study suggest connections between Europeanization processes and changes in domestic party competition in Spain; additionally, it identifies Europeanization in Spain as a disruptive process favouring the emergence of anti-establishment discourses. ; Se entiende generalmente que la europeización es un proceso gradual de adaptación de las políticas; instituciones o actores políticos nacionales a los reglamentos o normativas de la Unión Europea (UE), frecuentemente vinculado a procesos de democratización. No obstante, existen aplicaciones potenciales del concepto de europeización a situaciones de crisis en las que los agentes nacionales tienen poco margen de maniobra. En estas ocasiones, la adaptación gradual puede dejar paso a presiones para la aplicación de reglamentos y normativas de la UE y esto puede tener efectos perturbadores en los sistemas políticos nacionales. Con este artículo pretendemos arrojar luz sobre estos procesos en España durante los años de la Gran Recesión y evaluar el supuesto impacto en el sistema de partidos español. El principal objetivo de este estudio es, por tanto, identificar las etapas fundamentales de los procesos de europeización de la política española durante los años 2010-2012. En una segunda parte, se analiza la articulación de la respuesta a estos procesos por parte de los movimientos de protesta y, especialmente, del partido político Podemos en su fase inicial. Se ha empleado el modelo de estudio de casos para profundizar en el contexto de la política española en tiempos de crisis. Se han recopilado y analizado documentos oficiales de instituciones nacionales y de la UE, así como diversos discursos del partido político Podemos. Los resultados del estudio sugieren conexiones entre los procesos de europeización y los cambios en la competencia partidista nacional en España. Además, identifica la europeización en España como un proceso perturbador que favorece la aparición de discursos anti-establishment.

Growing inequality and stagnating wages at the bottom of the earning distribution are the most striking social phenomena of the last 30 years. Moreover, the 2009 Great Recession surged unemployment and created unprecedented tension between rich and poor in most developed countries. These circumstances renewed the interest of politicians, policy makers, and economists toward public policies aimed at alleviating inequality. In this thesis, I empirically assess the effectiveness of two prominent public policies in helping the poor: the minimum wage and unemployment insurance.Minimum wage is the most radical policy tool for elevating the wages of the bottom economic bracket. However, despite several decades of microeconometric evidence for increases, the minimum wage remains a highly controversial policy. The first two chapters of this dissertation are devoted to assessing the economic effects of an unusually large and persistent increase in the minimum wage instituted in Hungary in 2001. The minimum wage to the median wage increased from the current U.S. level (35%) to the level of 55%, which is equivalent with an (~60%) increase in the minimum wage in real terms.In the first chapter, my co-author Péter Harasztosi and I study the employment effects of this unique minimum wage reform. We propose a new approach to estimating the employment effects of a minimum wage increase that exploits information on the distribution of wages before and after the policy change. We infer the number of jobs destroyed by comparing the number of pre-reform jobs below the new minimum wage to the excess number of jobs paying at (and above) the new minimum wage. The evolution of the earning distribution in Hungary shows that this ratio is close to one, suggesting that most firms responded to the reform by raising wages instead of destroying jobs. We confirm this conclusion using comparisons across subgroups of workers with larger and smaller fractions of worker affected by the minimum wage change. Our group-level estimates, again, imply that the higher minimum wage had, at most, a small negative effect on employment, and with the standard errors we can rule out larger than -0.3 employment elasticities with respect to wages.In the second chapter, my co-author Péter Harasztosi and I study the economic incidence of the minimum wage polices. If minimum wage increase has a small negative effect on employment and a large effect on wages, the total remunerations allocated to low-wage workers must increase. Using a large panel of firms and the Hungarian minimum wage increase, we show that this is indeed the case: firms highly exposed to the minimum wage experienced a large increase in their total labor cost. However, this raises a question: who pays for this cost increase? We show that firms' profits are not affected in response to the minimum wage, suggesting that firm-owners do not bear the incidence of the minimum wage increase. Instead, we document that total revenue of low-paying employers increased considerably, indicating that firms passed the effect of the minimum wage to consumers. Consistent with that explanation, we show that firms facing more elastic output demand, and so less ability to pass-through the effect of the minimum wage, experienced larger employment losses and lower increase in their total labor cost.In the third chapter, Stefanno DellaVigna, Balázs Reizer, Johannes Schmieder and I scrutinize the job search behavior of the unemployed. We propose a model of job search with reference-dependent preferences, where the reference point is given by recent income. Newly unemployed individuals are faced with a loss because their recent past income is higher than the unemployment benefit they receive, and so they search hard. However, over time they get used to lower income, and thus search less. They search harder, again, in anticipation of a benefit cut, only to ultimately get used to the change. The model fits the typical shape of the exit from unemployment, including the spike at the UI exhaustion point. The model also makes unique predictions for the response of benefit changes. Second, we provide evidence using a reform in the unemployment system in Hungary. Most unemployment insurance programs have constant replacement rate for a fixed period, typically followed by lower benefits under unemployment assistance. In November 2005, Hungary switched from this standard single-step UI system to a two-step system, with unchanged overall generosity. We show that the system generated increased hazard rates in anticipation of, and especially following, benefit cuts in ways the standard model has a hard time fitting, even when allowing for unobserved heterogeneity. We structurally estimate the model and estimate a weight on gain-loss utility comparable to the weight of the standard utility term, and a speed of adjustment of the reference point of eight months. The results suggest that a revenue-neutral shift to multiple-step UI systems can speed exit from unemployment.

Argentina and Australia currently engage in a modest level of trade, mostly in goods and generally focused on primary and agricultural products. These products are derived from the nature of the two countries, both having relatively similar physical conditions. However, with finite resources constantly decreasing, it becomes necessary for a country to find alternative means of maintaining its international trade. One of the best ways a country can do this is to expand into the exportation of different services. Trade in services has a great potential which is only partially realised at any one time. The area grows as human innovation grows, with new services being marketed and traded constantly. The rise of technology has allowed not only for more technology based services (including from the research and development stage through to the sale and use of an item), but also for the faster and easier delivery of many existing services. The internet has virtually eliminated the cost of time taken to provide some services from a different continent, and new technology is improving transportation services all the time. This means that even where a service cannot be delivered electronically, the time and cost of travel is greatly reduced. Another benefit of services is that there are often multiple services involved in one transaction involving a singly physical item. Therefore the benefit derived from a single transaction is greater than where the interest is only in the transferred item. After emerging from a severe recession, Argentina is now ideally placed to become an exporter of services. Providing services is often a skill-intensive or, at the least, labour intensive exercise which means that the relatively low cost of labour in Argentina is a comparative advantage for the country. The established network of universities also plays a part, establishing the skills necessary for the provision of services (while providing the service of education in itself). However, one can immediately think of obstacles to trade between Australia and Argentina which would discourage any further contemplation of the endeavour. Perhaps it is too hard, given the language barrier which underlies other obstacles, including strict Australian restrictions on the ways in which a service can be provided and a general lack of awareness of the export market. The distance and the cultural differences between Australia and Argentina are other factors which may discourage Australians from importing from Argentina. This may be particularly so in the context of the recent global importing from Argentina. This may be particularly so in the context of the recent global financial crisis, the effects of which are still being felt. Despite a global atmosphere which encourages protectionism and a retraction of global trade, it is important to continue to find new trade partners and new exports of trades in order to offset the effects of the crisis. Trade in services is a great way of continuing global trade, because the main effects of the crisis will be felt on the most goods-related services and less in the service sectors less dependent on goods. Of course, in addition to the question of what to export, there remains the question of who to export to, and why Australia would be a good trade partner. Having suffered less than other countries during the financial crisis, Australia is now in a strong position to continue trade (having lost less potential than other countries). Despite perceptions to the contrary, Australia and Argentina are very similar countries and an increase in awareness of those similarities (not only physical, but cultural and economic similarities as well) could only aid in increasing the business relationships formed between the two populations. Types of services where the distance between the countries doesn't matter, or services where a foundation is laid for the future take advantage of the nature of services and also improve long-term prospects between the two countries. This report investigates which services would be best imported from Argentina into Australia by examining recent import and export trends of the relevant countries, as well as the obstacles which exist and various ways of minimising those obstacles. According to analysis of export and import trends of Argentina and Australia as well as consideration of what services best found better general trade relations in the future, it is recommended that Argentina increase trade in services in the areas of 'business, professional and technical services', 'education services' and ' tourism related services', with the last two of these being capable of combination through exchange or gap year specific services promotion. This report also outlines a number of ways the Embassy of Argentina in Australia can further Argentine business interests in Australia, particularly in minimizing the effect of government regulation and the costs of language between the two countries.

Introduction:The field of "Media Economics" investigates and explains how the economic, financial and regulatory forces influence the operations of media markets and their effects on the society. The media economics field also involves inquiry that focuses on how economic factors produce the kinds of media systems found in societies, determine the ways in which media operate, affect the choices of content and reveal their implication on culture, politics and society.The nature of media economics environment in Egypt and the Middle East at large is rapidly changing. In the past two decades, we witness the emergence of commercialized media networks for the first time in most Arab countries. The existence of the Arab Satellite, the Nile Satellite allowed for media convergence and expansion in specialized, private and directed channels. These channels currently practice a lot of pressures over the politics of countries, and shapes public opinion on political and cultural issues.In Egypt, the media environment have witnessed the development of independent press, television channels and networks, radio stations, in addition to the continuation of state-owned media in general. Although the content nature of most media systems is entertainment and general at large, yet, it tries hard to get involved in politics through current affairs programs that discuss and analyze political and social issues in the country and the world at large. Examples of such programs are: Al Asheraa Masaa, Ninty minutes and Al Beit Beitak.Economic forces affect all media but the means and significance of the forces differ due to the extent that market control, bureaucratic control, and other types of control influence choices, so this research concentrates on Egyptian private satellite channels. Importance of the Research:The explanation of media economics phenomena add understanding to why and how the media environment in which we exist is produced and how it affects a variety of social, political and cultural concerns. The development of technology and the changes they have brought to media markets – specifically the broadcasting industry-- have spurred research and interest in media economics. It is a field of inquiry that has much understanding to offer to contemporary debates about media and whose influence is growing stronger with every passing year. Research hypotheses:1. The more private satellite channels increase in number, the less advertising revenues they get as more space is distributed over the same advertising pie .2. Despite the existence of innovative sources of income through new media and interactive media, it constitutes a minor source of revenue compared toadvertising.3. The supporting industries that aid in raising the revenues of satellite channels are well established in Egypt.4. The current environment of selling advertising space on satellite channels contributes to sustainability of channels in the future. The study sample:The sample consisted of selected owners and managers of private satellite channels airing through the Nile Satellite, with concentration on channels that are owned by Egyptians and run from Cairo. It also included managers and executives working in supporting industries of media as research agencies that measure viewership as well as media buying agencies that buy advertising time for advertisers.Methods of data collectionThe study uses case study as a method. It utilizes in-depth interviews with the selected sample of media owners, media buying agencies and research agencies as well as secondary data collected.Findings:Advertising plays a great role in achieving sustainability for private television channels, as it guarantees income that would cover the high cost of airing and producing programs for the channel. Modern technology presented innovative techniques of achieving income for channels, but yet, it still represent a small portion of income for satellite channels.The environment of private satellite channels in Egypt is flourishing due to the existence of basic supportive services as research that measures viewership rates and media buying agencies that is specialized in media marketing. Finally, there are several variables that interfere in predicting the future of private satellite channels in Egypt: the economic recession, the practices of media buying agencies, the current system of media marketing, the global system of alliances and conglomerates.Recommendations: - There should be some sort of cooperation between the different private satellite channels in the area of detecting viewership research results. - Discounts on advertising prices should be arranged between the different satellite channels, so they can all agree on a specific level of discounts and reduce the manipulation of media buying agencies with advertisers when distributing their spots across the different channels.- The chains of media buying agencies should be eliminated. Each channel must have it's own staff of media selling and dealing directly with advertisers who seek spots of specific programs.- Satellite channels must search for new and innovative techniques to generate income through production of programs that are new and different.

Статья посвящена анализу тенденций развития российской экономики в условиях экономических санкций. Исследуя темпы экономического развития Российской Федерации в I полугодии 2014 г., планируется определить перспективы развития экономики РФ в условиях введения секторальных санкций со стороны стран Европейского союза и США. Методической основой данной статьи явились правовой, сравнительный и экономико-статистический методы анализа. Сделан вывод, что санкции, введенные в отношении России, равно как и ответные меры, несут в себе угрозу экономическому росту, который в 2014 г. может оказаться отрицательным. Промышленное производство остается одним из наиболее стабильных сегментов экономики. Несмотря на влияние негативных факторов политического характера, динамика промышленного производства продемонстрировала умеренный рост по отношению к аналогичному периоду 2013 г. Инвестиционная активность начала замедляться. Основными препятствиями для наращивания капитальных вложений остаются неуверенность компаний в улучшении спроса в среднесрочной перспективе, снижение базы для инвестиций на фоне сокращения прибыльности и отсутствия роста производительности труда. Немалую роль здесь играет также и ослабление российской валюты, которое делает инвестпрограммы с учетом стоимости импортного оборудования дороже в рублевом эквиваленте и от этого менее выгодными. С учетом введенных санкций российские компании сокращают потребление импортных товаров инвестиционной группы, что должно через чистый экспорт частично компенсировать для экономики этот негативный фактор. Ситуация на денежном рынке выглядит стабильной во многом из-за существенной зависимости банков от предложения денег со стороны Центрального банка Российской Федерации. Тем не менее повышение базовой процентной ставки делает более дорогими даже наиболее «короткие» деньги. С учетом новых шагов Банка России по либерализации валютной политики потенциал для дальнейшего повышения базовой процентной ставки выглядит высоким. С учетом неизбежного скачка цен на продовольственные товары, а также нестабильной ситуации на мировых рынках и рубль, и инфляция смогут вынудить регулятора пойти на ужесточение процентной политики в 2014 г. Таким образом, экономика России под влиянием введенных экономических санкций со стороны стран Евросоюза и США имеет шансы перейти из стадии стагнации в фазу технической рецессии. Для преодоления этих последствий России необходимо следовать новой модели экономического развития, которая должна обеспечить соблюдение требований, предъявляемых к экономике обществом и государством. Практическая значимость исследования заключается в разработке мер по выходу экономики России из кризиса, возникшего под действием введенных санкций. ; The article analyzes the trends in the Russian economy development under economic sanctions. Exploring the rate of economic growth of the Russian Federation in the first half of 2014, the authors plan to determine the economic development prospects of the Russian Federation in the conditions of introduction of sectoral sanctions by the European Union and the United States. The legal, comparative and economic and statistical analysis methods constitute the methodological basis of this article. The authors came to a conclusion that the sanctions imposed on Russia, as well as the retaliation, are carrying threats to the economic growth that is expected to be negative in 2014. The industrial production remains one of the most stable sectors of the economy. Despite the negative impact of political factors, the industrial production dynamics showed a moderate growth in comparison to the same period in 2013. The investment activity started to slow down. The main hindrances to capital investment are the insecurity of the companies in demand for the mid-term perspective, the reduction of investment base within the background of profitability decline and the lack of productivity growth. The weakening of the Russian currency also plays a significant role that makes the investment programs, taking into account the cost of imported equipment, more expensive in ruble equivalent, and due to this fact, they become less profitable. In view of the sanctions, the Russian companies are reducing imported goods consumption of the investment group, which should partially compensate this negative factor for the economy by means of net exports. The situation in the money market appears to be stable largely because of the substantial dependence of banks on the money supply by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. Nevertheless, the increase of the base interest rate makes it more expensive, even the most short-term money. With the new measures of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation on the liberalization of foreign exchange policy, the potential for further increase in the base interest rate looks rather high. Given the inevitable jump in food prices, as well as the unstable situation on global markets and the ruble and inflation will force the regulator to tighten interest rate policy in 2014. Thus, the Russian economy under the influence of economic sanctions imposed by the EU and U.S. has a chance to move from stagnating to the phase of a technical recession. To overcome these consequences, Russia should pursue a new model of economic development, which should ensure the observing of the requirements to the economy, society and the State. The practical significance of the research is to develop measures for the Russian economy to emerge from the crisis created by the sanctions imposed.

Transnational migration fields emerged in social research as a result of a tentative criticism of methodological nationalism with its focus on the national space as a homogeneous container of all the forms of social life. The new approach of methodological transnationalism is targeted to locate some sociocultural phenomena and processes in the framework of interactions among several societies. Cross-border practices, links and identities in this new approach put in relation not only nation-states but non-state actors that are structured at group, community and regional level. The three chapters of the working paper address the emerging social transnationalism (Mau, 2012) of Romanians by focusing on transnational fields, perceptions of the first trips abroad and the habitus of emigrants in relation with return intentions. Temporary or indefinite time emigration of Romanians abroad for work started, mainly, during the economic recession that hit Romania in 1997-1999. In spite of its young age, it largely contributed to the structuring of a social transnationalism by fields, actors and layers. EUCROSS and non-EUCROSS data at individual or aggregated level, of quantitative and qualitative nature are put to work for capturing the complexity of the Romanian transnationalism in the making.

The key idea of the first chapter is that regions at different levels, at origin and at destination, function as relevant frames in structuring migration fields. Transnational fields are not only dense interactions between pairs of societies having Romania as origin, but a configuration of interactions among clusters of sending microregions in Romania and receiving macroregions, formed by clusters of receiving countries. Changing the unit of analysis from national societies to regions at different levels allows for a dynamic picture of multisited and multilevel regionalism in understanding transnational migration. Survey and census data are aggregated to reach this picture. The multiregional model of transnationalism is developed by four axes or layers on migration streams, cross-border networks, transnational habitus and migration experiences at individual and family levels. This comprehensive, multilayer approach requires the use of multiple data sets (the EUCROSS survey on Romanian natives, the Romanian census data from 2011 and the Romanian subsample from the Eurobarometer 73.3 on New Europeans) that are able to capture the complexity of the model.

The chapter "First trip abroad: expectations, experiences and stories of transnational Romanians" analyses transnational Romanians' stories about their first trip abroad using the EUMEAN dataset. The concept of physical mobility is seen as a broader framework for understanding transnational and cosmopolitan behaviours as well as international migration. In order to distinguish between different types of travelling for the first trip abroad, the chapter is constructed keeping in mind the structural changes and constraints regarding physical mobility for Romanian citizens. During the transition from a communist country to a EU member state, Romanian citizens' stories about travelling abroad for the first time fundamentally changed. Labour migrants, asylum seekers, business travellers, students or tourists left the country with different expectations and faced different problems at destination. Their attitudes toward origin and destination framed their images about the first trip abroad. Using a qualitative approach and samples of Romanians who live in Denmark, Germany, Italy, Romania, Spain and the United Kingdom, the analysis emphasizes certain differences between different types of travelling for the first time abroad and reconstructs how Romanians started their transnational careers.

Romanian migration has a temporary and circulatory character: on the one hand, people are moving back and forth to and from a destination and, on the other hand, there are migrants who either resettle in Romania, come back in the home country and then emigrate to a different destination than the initial one or move to a new destination after spending time abroad without returning to Romania. The third chapter is concerned with the factors that shape these distinct possible strategies and types of mobility, with a special interest towards intentions and plans for return. In doing so, we look at the bonds Romanian migrants maintain with their home country and explore the different typologies and categories of migrants as moulded by their experiences, opinions and attitudes towards the country of origin. The main questions of interest concern how the experience of migration shapes the attitude towards the home country and the intention to return, how did the crisis influence such aspects (if it did) and what the main factors that appear as significant to one category of migrants or another from this point of view are. For this purpose, we use fifty one of the sixty one in-depth interviews realized with Romanians as part of the EUCROSS project in Denmark, UK, Spain, Italy and Germany (EUMEAN dataset).

Die deutsche Wirtschaft ist im Jahr 2012 nur schwach gewachsen. Das Bruttoinlandsprodukt (BIP) stieg im Jahresdurchschnitt um 0,7 %, im Jahresverlauf sogar nur 0,4 %. Die Aussichten für den Prognosezeitraum sind verhalten optimistisch. Die Weltkonjunktur wird sich vorerst nur allmählich aufhellen und im nächsten Jahr spürbar an Dynamik gewinnen. Die deutschen Exporte werden von dieser Entwicklung profitieren. In Folge der sich abzeichnenden konjunkturellen Stabilisierung des Euroraums und der damit einhergehenden nachlassenden Verunsicherung wird sich auch der Attentismus bei der Investitionstätigkeit abschwächen. Außerdem dürfte der private Verbrauch in beiden Jahren die Konjunktur maßgeblich stützen. Die Institute rechnen mit einer Zunahme des BIP im Jahresdurchschnitt 2013 von 0,9 %, im Verlauf sogar um 1,9 %. Im Jahr 2014 dürfte das Wachstum 1,5 % betragen. Die Arbeitslosenquote bleibt in beiden Jahren nahezu unverändert (2013: 6,8 %; 2014: 6,7 %). Die Verbraucherpreise werden im Jahr 2014 um 1,4 % steigen, nach 1,6 % in diesem Jahr.Simulationen der mittelfristigen Entwicklung in Deutschland zeigen, dass sich die deutsche Wirtschaft weiterhin im Sog der europäischen Krise befindet. Dafür sind hauptsächlich zwei Faktoren bestimmend: Die deutschen Exporte in den Euroraum werden durch die synchrone Sparpolitik drastisch gedämpft. Außerdem wird die Fiskalpolitik auch in Deutschland restriktiv sein und Einkommen und Binnennachfrage dämpfen. Die durchschnittliche Wachstumsrate des BIP bis 2017 wird auf 1,3 % p.a. geschätzt. Szenarien einer expansiven Wirtschaftspolitik zeigen, dass mit einem Investitionsprogram die gesamtwirtschaftliche Entwicklung des Euroraums und der einzelnen Mitgliedsländer wesentlich günstiger verläuft als im Basisszenario. Der wirtschaftliche Schrumpfungsprozess in den Krisenländern und die gegenwärtige Stagnation in den übrigen Mitgliedsstaaten der Währungsunion müssen gestoppt und durch ein Wirtschaftswachstum ersetzt werden, das stark genug ist, die Kapazitätsauslastung zu erhöhen und die Arbeitslosigkeit zu senken. Der notwendige Entschuldungsprozess muss vorangetrieben und die Staatsfinanzen auf einen nachhaltigen Pfad gebracht werden. Gleichzeitig müssen die Leistungsbilanzungleichgewichte weiter abgebaut und der Finanzsektor stabilisiert werden. Die aktuelle wirtschaftspolitische Strategie, bestehend aus fiskalischer Austerität und einer gestörten Geldpolitik infolge von Länderrisiken, wird kaum in der Lage sein, nachhaltige Fortschritte in diesen vier Bereichen zu gewährleisten.Unerlässlich für die Krisenbewältigung ist es, die Geldpolitik in den Krisenländern wieder wirksam werden zu lassen in dem das Vertrauen in die Staatsanleihen der Krisenländer wiederhergestellt wird. Zudem ist eine fiskalpolitische Umkehr erforderlich. Die Politik der Konsolidierung muss so gestaltet werden, dass sie die gesamtwirtschaftliche Aktivität nicht beeinträchtigt. Das Makrokonsortium schlägt eine europäische Investitionsoffensive vor. Den Krisenländern sollte eine externe Finanzierung im Wert von 1 % des gegenwärtigen BIP über eine Periode von fünf Jahren verbindlich zugesagt werden. Damit sollen öffentliche Investitionen finanziert und/oder die private Investitionstätigkeit finanziell unterstützt werden. Mitgliedsstaaten mit Leistungsbilanzüberschüssen, und insbesondere Deutschland, sollten expansive fiskalpolitische Maßnahmen in Höhe von mindestens 1 % des BIP implementieren, um eine Rolle als Konjunkturlokomotive zu übernehmen. ; The German economy achieved only a weak growth performance in 2012. GDP grew by 0.7 % on annual averages and by just 0.4 % over the course of the year. The prospects during the forecast period are mildly optimistic. The global economy will initially pick up only slowly, but the growth dynamic is expected to be stronger next year, boosting German exports. In the wake of the apparent stabilisation of the Euro area, uncertainty will gradually dissipate and investors will increasingly drop their wait-and-see attitude. Private consumption will, moreover, bolster growth in both the current and the coming year. The Institutes forecast GDP growth of 0.9 % on annual averages this year, a figure which understates the underlying dynamic: comparing the fourth quarter of 2013 with that of 2012 growth will reach a very much more substantial 1.9 %. In 2014 GDP growth is expected to be 1.5 %. The unemployment rate will remain more or less unchanged over the two years, at 5.1 % and 5.0 % on ILO definitions and 6.8 and 6.7 % respectively on German national definitions. Medium-term simulations indicate that the German economy is likely to remain constrained by the impact of the euro area crisis for an extended period. There are two main causal channels: German exports to the euro area will continue to be squeezed severely by the austerity policies being pursued across Europe, and even in Germany fiscal policy is expected to be contractionary, dampening the growth of incomes and domestic demand. Growth is expected to average 1.3 % in the years to 2017. Alternative scenarios show that by means of expansionary policies, including a European investment programme, far more favourable results could be obtained in the euro area as a whole and its member states individually than in the baseline scenario.The recession in the crisis-hit countries and the current stagnation in the remaining EMU member states must be overcome and give way to economic growth strong enough to increase capacity utilization and reduce unemployment. The necessary process of deleveraging must continue and public finances be put on a sustainable footing. At the same time, current account imbalances must be reduced and the financial sector stabilised. The current economic policy strategy, consisting first and foremost of fiscal austerity and a monetary policy rendered ineffective by country-specific risks, will almost certainly be unable to generate sustained improvements in these four key areas.A necessary condition for exiting from the crisis is to make monetary policy effective once more by re-establishing confidence in the government bonds of the crisis countries. This must be accompanied by a turnaround in fiscal policy. Fiscal consolidation must occur in such a way that it does not impinge negatively on aggregate demand. The Macro group proposes a European investment offensive. The crisis countries should receive external financing equal to 1 % of current GDP for a period of five years. This should be used to finance public investment and/or support for private investment. Member States with current account surpluses, especially Germany, should implement expansionary fiscal policy measures representing at least 1 % of GDP, such that they play the role of locomotive for the European business cycle. .

The German economy achieved only a weak growth performance in 2012. GDP grew by 0.7 % on annual averages and by just 0.4 % over the course of the year. The prospects during the forecast period are mildly optimistic. The global economy will initially pick up only slowly, but the growth dynamic is expected to be stronger next year, boosting German exports. In the wake of the apparent stabilisation of the Euro area, uncertainty will gradually dissipate and investors will increasingly drop their wait-and-see attitude. Private consumption will, moreover, bolster growth in both the current and the coming year. The Institutes forecast GDP growth of 0.9 % on annual averages this year, a figure which understates the underlying dynamic: comparing the fourth quarter of 2013 with that of 2012 growth will reach a very much more substantial 1.9 %. In 2014 GDP growth is expected to be 1.5 %. The unemployment rate will remain more or less unchanged over the two years, at 5.1 % and 5.0 % on ILO definitions and 6.8 and 6.7 % respectively on German national definitions. Medium-term simulations indicate that the German economy is likely to remain constrained by the impact of the euro area crisis for an extended period. There are two main causal channels: German exports to the euro area will continue to be squeezed severely by the austerity policies being pursued across Europe, and even in Germany fiscal policy is expected to be contractionary, dampening the growth of incomes and domestic demand. Growth is expected to average 1.3 % in the years to 2017. Alternative scenarios show that by means of expansionary policies, including a European investment programme, far more favourable results could be obtained in the euro area as a whole and its member states individually than in the baseline scenario.The recession in the crisis-hit countries and the current stagnation in the remaining EMU member states must be overcome and give way to economic growth strong enough to increase capacity utilization and reduce unemployment. The necessary process of deleveraging must continue and public finances be put on a sustainable footing. At the same time, current account imbalances must be reduced and the financial sector stabilised. The current economic policy strategy, consisting first and foremost of fiscal austerity and a monetary policy rendered ineffective by country-specific risks, will almost certainly be unable to generate sustained improvements in these four key areas.A necessary condition for exiting from the crisis is to make monetary policy effective once more by re-establishing confidence in the government bonds of the crisis countries. This must be accompanied by a turnaround in fiscal policy. Fiscal consolidation must occur in such a way that it does not impinge negatively on aggregate demand. The Macro group proposes a European investment offensive. The crisis countries should receive external financing equal to 1 % of current GDP for a period of five years. This should be used to finance public investment and/or support for private investment. Member States with current account surpluses, especially Germany, should implement expansionary fiscal policy measures representing at least 1 % of GDP, such that they play the role of locomotive for the European business cycle. . ; Die deutsche Wirtschaft ist im Jahr 2012 nur schwach gewachsen. Das Bruttoinlandsprodukt (BIP) stieg im Jahresdurchschnitt um 0,7 %, im Jahresverlauf sogar nur 0,4 %. Die Aussichten für den Prognosezeitraum sind verhalten optimistisch. Die Weltkonjunktur wird sich vorerst nur allmählich aufhellen und im nächsten Jahr spürbar an Dynamik gewinnen. Die deutschen Exporte werden von dieser Entwicklung profitieren. In Folge der sich abzeichnenden konjunkturellen Stabilisierung des Euroraums und der damit einhergehenden nachlassenden Verunsicherung wird sich auch der Attentismus bei der Investitionstätigkeit abschwächen. Außerdem dürfte der private Verbrauch in beiden Jahren die Konjunktur maßgeblich stützen. Die Institute rechnen mit einer Zunahme des BIP im Jahresdurchschnitt 2013 von 0,9 %, im Verlauf sogar um 1,9 %. Im Jahr 2014 dürfte das Wachstum 1,5 % betragen. Die Arbeitslosenquote bleibt in beiden Jahren nahezu unverändert (2013: 6,8 %; 2014: 6,7 %). Die Verbraucherpreise werden im Jahr 2014 um 1,4 % steigen, nach 1,6 % in diesem Jahr.Simulationen der mittelfristigen Entwicklung in Deutschland zeigen, dass sich die deutsche Wirtschaft weiterhin im Sog der europäischen Krise befindet. Dafür sind hauptsächlich zwei Faktoren bestimmend: Die deutschen Exporte in den Euroraum werden durch die synchrone Sparpolitik drastisch gedämpft. Außerdem wird die Fiskalpolitik auch in Deutschland restriktiv sein und Einkommen und Binnennachfrage dämpfen. Die durchschnittliche Wachstumsrate des BIP bis 2017 wird auf 1,3 % p.a. geschätzt. Szenarien einer expansiven Wirtschaftspolitik zeigen, dass mit einem Investitionsprogram die gesamtwirtschaftliche Entwicklung des Euroraums und der einzelnen Mitgliedsländer wesentlich günstiger verläuft als im Basisszenario. Der wirtschaftliche Schrumpfungsprozess in den Krisenländern und die gegenwärtige Stagnation in den übrigen Mitgliedsstaaten der Währungsunion müssen gestoppt und durch ein Wirtschaftswachstum ersetzt werden, das stark genug ist, die Kapazitätsauslastung zu erhöhen und die Arbeitslosigkeit zu senken. Der notwendige Entschuldungsprozess muss vorangetrieben und die Staatsfinanzen auf einen nachhaltigen Pfad gebracht werden. Gleichzeitig müssen die Leistungsbilanzungleichgewichte weiter abgebaut und der Finanzsektor stabilisiert werden. Die aktuelle wirtschaftspolitische Strategie, bestehend aus fiskalischer Austerität und einer gestörten Geldpolitik infolge von Länderrisiken, wird kaum in der Lage sein, nachhaltige Fortschritte in diesen vier Bereichen zu gewährleisten.Unerlässlich für die Krisenbewältigung ist es, die Geldpolitik in den Krisenländern wieder wirksam werden zu lassen in dem das Vertrauen in die Staatsanleihen der Krisenländer wiederhergestellt wird. Zudem ist eine fiskalpolitische Umkehr erforderlich. Die Politik der Konsolidierung muss so gestaltet werden, dass sie die gesamtwirtschaftliche Aktivität nicht beeinträchtigt. Das Makrokonsortium schlägt eine europäische Investitionsoffensive vor. Den Krisenländern sollte eine externe Finanzierung im Wert von 1 % des gegenwärtigen BIP über eine Periode von fünf Jahren verbindlich zugesagt werden. Damit sollen öffentliche Investitionen finanziert und/oder die private Investitionstätigkeit finanziell unterstützt werden. Mitgliedsstaaten mit Leistungsbilanzüberschüssen, und insbesondere Deutschland, sollten expansive fiskalpolitische Maßnahmen in Höhe von mindestens 1 % des BIP implementieren, um eine Rolle als Konjunkturlokomotive zu übernehmen.