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AbstractIn this paper we test the efficiency of family resource allocation in three-generation households. Understanding how the so-called "squeezed middle" generation allocates resources towards the children and grandparents in the household will be increasingly important as populations age, and more elderly people become dependent upon their relations for financial support. Despite a large literature on household resource allocation in two-generation households (parents and children), to the best of our knowledge ours is the first study that includes the third generation. We present a theoretical model and conduct a discrete choice experiment in the context of reductions in the lifetime risk of developing coronary artery disease to verify the efficient resource allocation hypothesis. The data is obtained from a large sample of the Polish population. The sample consists of the middle generation members of three-generation households and hence WTP represents household value from the perspective of the "squeezed middle" parent. The results imply that household resource allocation is efficient. This has implications for understanding the likely response to government financial support aimed at supporting elderly people and their families.

AbstractObjectiveThis study investigates preferences for family resource allocation on health in three‐generation families and examines whether reciprocity attitudes influence preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for reducing lifetime health risk.BackgroundEmpirical results of nonmarket valuation studies suggest that adults value improving their children's health more than their own. Such results are often explained by parental altruism, but self‐interest may also be involved.MethodA choice experiment valuation survey elicited respondents' preferences for lifetime risk reduction in coronary artery disease (CAD) and a psychometric scale assessed their reciprocal attitudes. Respondents were middle‐generation members of three‐generation households. To conduct the analysis a hybrid mixed logit model was used that enabled including psychological factors into a utility function derived from respondents' survey choices.ResultsReciprocal attitudes had distinct effects on the middle‐generation preferences for reducing family members' risk of CAD. The latent attitudes concerning reciprocity significantly affected the WTP for the health risk reduction for all family members. The impact of reciprocity on the valuation of CAD risk reduction for the respondent and the elderly parent was similar, but for the child, it was significantly higher.ConclusionsParents' higher WTP for improving children's health, at least partially, reflects strategic decisions related to reciprocal beliefs. Reciprocity also affects the evaluation of health benefits for elderly parents and middle‐aged respondents themselves.ImplicationsThese findings may have implications regarding the degree to which the so‐called "sandwich generation" can substitute for the government in the area of health and social care for the elderly.

Using data from censuses and a microcensus between 1980 and 2016, this study examines the trends in three‐generational living arrangements, along with the factors that determine the prevalence and characteristics of the phenomenon in Hungary. Apart from the period between 1990 and 2001, the proportion of three‐generation households declined in all periods among households with children. In the decade after 1990, the rate increased due to the post‐transition economic recession and the severe housing shortage. The factors predicting a higher risk of three‐generation households were fairly consistent across the period considered, and the direction of the effect remained stable. However, some of those factors became more relevant over time (e.g., the education level of parents and single parenthood) and some became less relevant (e.g., rural residence). Meanwhile, three‐generation living is increasingly linked to social disadvantage, which is also the leading cause of poverty. This living arrangement is strongly associated with a stage in life where young people start to have children. Using data from the Hungarian Generations and Gender Survey, we determine that three‐generation living affects a significant proportion of families with children at a particular, relatively brief stage in their lives.

PurposeThis article aims to explore how Japanese women with younger children changed their commitment to the labour market between 2000 and 2019 by comparing mothers in three-generation and nuclear family households.Design/methodology/approachJapan currently has the highest ageing rate in the world at nearly 30%. Since the 1990s, employment flexibilization and women's labour market participation have proceeded in parallel, and the conservative family values of the patriarchy and gender division of labour that have provided intergenerational aid for care within households have been shrinking, by conducting a descriptive analysis of the Labour Force Survey (LFS).FindingsThis study identified that a conspicuous increase in part-time employment among mothers in both household types and a decrease by half in the working mother's population in three-generation households. These results suggest that the function of inter-generational assistance by multi-generation cohabitation, which was once thought to be effective in helping working mothers with younger children, is declining.Originality/valueA study examining the transformation of mothers' employment behaviour differences between three-generation households and nuclear family households is rare. This paper makes a new contribution to the research regarding the grandparents' caregiving, household types and mothers' employment.

1. Evolution of Skipped Generation Households -- 2. Theoretical Orientations on Skipped Generation Households -- 3. Contexts and Methodology -- 4. Formation and Dynamics of Skipped Generation Households -- 5. Skipped Generation Households and Support Networks -- 6. Expectations and Realities of Living in Skipped Generation Households -- 7. Health Issues in Skipped Generation Households -- 8. Patterns of Abuse in Skipped Generation Households -- 9. Education in Skipped Generation Households -- 10. Sexual and Reproductive Health Behaviour in Skipped Generation Households -- 11. Challenges and Opportunities of Skipped Generation Households.

Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- PREFACE -- CHARTS -- TABLES -- INTRODUCTION -- I. FAMILY DEVELOPMENT AND CONSUMERSHIP! ISSUES OF THEORY AND RESEARCH DESIGN -- II. THE FAMILIES STUDIED! THREE GENERATIONS OF THE SAME FAMILY LINES -- III. INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG THE GENERATIONS -- PART ONE-PLANNING CAREERS: AN OVERVIEW OF THE TIMING OF ACTIONS -- IV. CHANGES IN FAMILY COMPOSITION AND OCCUPATIONAL CAREER PATTERNS -- V. PLANNING RESIDENTIAL LOCATION AND HOME IMPROVEMENTS -- VI. FINANCIAL PLANNING -- VII. ACQUISITION OF THE F AM IL Y 'S DURABLE GOODS INVENTORY -- VIII. THE INTERCONTINGENCY OF PLANNING CAREERS -- PART TWO-EXPLANATIONS OF FAMILY CONSUMERSHIP PLANNING AND ACTION -- IX. CORRELATES OF FAM ILY CONSUMERSHIP -- X. THE PAYOFF OF CONSUMERSHIP I SATISFACTION WITH THE OUTCOME OF DECISIONS MADE -- XI. A COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTIC PATTERNS OF CONSUMERSHIP AND THEIR CORRELATES -- XII. LINKAGE OF PLANNING CAREER ACHIEVEMENTS, AND CONSUMERSHIPS -- PART THREE-IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS -- XIII. IMPLICATIONS FOR A THEORY OF F AM IL Y DEVELOPMENT AND FAMILY CONSUMERSHIP -- APPENDIX A: SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY -- APPENDIX B: SAMPLES OF DATA COLLECTION -- Index

We point out a somewhat mysterious appearance of $SU_c(3)$ representations, which exhibit the behaviour of three full generations of standard model particles. These representations are found in the Clifford algebra $\mathbb{C}l(6)$, arising from the complex octonions. In this paper, we explain how this 64-complex-dimensional space comes about. With the algebra in place, we then identify generators of $SU(3)$ within it. These $SU(3)$ generators then act to partition the remaining part of the 64-dimensional Clifford algebra into six triplets, six singlets, and their antiparticles. That is, the algebra mirrors the chromodynamic structure of exactly three generations of the standard model's fermions. Passing from particle to antiparticle, or vice versa, requires nothing more than effecting the complex conjugate, $*$: $i \mapsto -i$. The entire result is achieved using only the eight-dimensional complex octonions as a single ingredient. ; The author is indebted to S. Farnsworth, G. Fiore, L. Smolin, and C. Tamarit for their feedback on this work. This research was supported by the Templeton Foundation, and – 8 – JHEP10(2014)046 also in part by Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. Research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through Industry Canada and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research and Innovation. ; This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/JHEP10(2014)046