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The concept of peace is a source of much debate in the history of international law, and scholars have discussed it from different perspectives. State's consent formed the basis for the legal order prior to the Second World War. However, after the Second World War, peace requirements altered the order by imposing certain obligations upon States. These obligations are essential for universal peace, regardless of states' consent. Among these requirements, the salient sample is the prohibition of waging war, which was criminalized for the first time by the Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals. As part of the process of pursuing lasting peace the adoption of the Charter of the United Nations is a hallmark. The Charter outlined a new vision of peace, coupled with retaining the classic definition of peace as the absence of war. There are two characteristics of the Charter's peace; it is manifested in a particular form with a definite connotation. In terms of the form, certain articles of the Charter suggest that the form is the relationship between the members of the United Nations and that the connotation is the implementation of human rights. Charter law pledges States, individually and collectively, to observe human rights both at the domestic and international levels, and this understanding of peace has affected the structure of international law.

Today, competitive advantage and success are achieved by strategic management of intellectual capital rather than allocation of physical and financial resources. Although intellectual capital is not a tangible and objective factor, it is often measured in order to compare the market value and development of firms and improve their performance. This paper examines the relationship between intellectual capital and firm performance in Iran using the Pulic's model. In this model, value added intellectual coefficient is used to evaluate firms' intellectual capital. Also, the relationship between intellectual capital and firms' market value is examined. In addition to intellectual capital, the relationship between the components of intellectual capital—that is, human and structural capital—and performance is also investigated. The empirical data is collected from 100 firms listed on Tehran Stock Exchange (TSE) during the period 2000–2006. The results support the hypothesis that human and intellectual capital are positively related to performance (Tobin's Q), and intellectual capital can be taken into consideration for improving the performance of Iranian firms. Also, value added intellectual coefficient proves to be an effective tool that can be used by current decision‐makers in Iran's capital market. The findings and discussions provided in this paper can be of interest to managers and capital market stakeholders. We emphasize that intellectual capital is the main source of value creation in the modern economy. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

AbstractA significant positive relationship is found in Iran between private ownership and earnings, as private ownership increases the transparency of financial information.

PurposeThis study aims to link environmental disclosure quality (EDQ) to firm performance and examine the moderating role of board independence in this relationship.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on agency theory and stakeholder theory, the authors developed and tested hypotheses using original survey data from 720 firm-year observations collected from 120 Iranian companies over six years between 2011 and 2016. In this paper, they conducted static and dynamic panel data analysis.FindingsAfter correcting for endogeneity bias, the results showed that there is a significant positive relationship between EDQ and firm performance. The results also showed that board independence significantly reinforces the positive effect of EDQ on performance, and firms with more independent board members are involved environmental disclosure for improved performance. This is consistent with agency theory, which posits that a more independent board of directors can better monitor the CEO and reduce incentives for pursuing personal interests, which in turn improves performance. The results are robust after performing sensitivity tests.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper takes the perspective of corporate governance to empirically examine the effect of EDQ on firm performance. This study makes a contribution to the literature by showing that board independence moderates the effects of EDQ on firm performance.Practical implicationsThe evidence supports the emphasis that recent policy statements have put on increasing the number of independent directors on corporate boards. This study offers insights to policymakers interested in enhancing the monitoring role of corporate boards.Originality/valueThe study adds value to the understanding of the effect of the EDQ on performance and how board independence influences this relationship, particularly in an emerging economy like Iran.