Suchergebnisse

Correspondent banking services are essential to enabling companies and individuals to transact internationally and make cross-border payments. Recently there have been indications that certain large international banks have started terminating or severely limiting their correspondent banking relationships with smaller local and regional banks from jurisdictions around the world. To find out whether this is indeed happening, the World Bank, with support from the Financial Stability Board (FSB) and the Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (CPMI), surveyed banking authorities and banks worldwide to examine the extent of withdrawal from correspondent banking, its drivers, and its implications for financial exclusion/inclusion. In total, 110 banking authorities, 20 large banks, and 170 smaller local and regional banks participated in this exercise. This document includes finding of the survey, conclusions, and recommendations.

Peru's recent robust growth has raised its economic prospects and has been broadly shared. The next step in development - high-income status - is challenging for all middle income countries and requires sustained growth. Raising productivity growth is key to sustaining Peru's high growth rates of income per capita, including in the context of a less favorable external environment. This report looks at Peru's principal challenges and opportunities to maintain strong and inclusive growth through higher productivity. It will require a reduction of inefficiencies by reaping more benefits from international trade and an improved innovation framework. The report has five parts. Part one analyzes the sources of Peru's recent strong growth. Part two examines more closely the dynamics and challenges to Peruvian firms' productivity growth. Part three analyzes elements that will increase the efficiency of Peru's labor and capital resources - regulation, labor markets, and human capital. Part four is focused on further opportunities to reduce misallocation while at the same time speeding up within-firm productivity through expanding Peru's technological possibilities, particularly through innovation and the spillovers from international trade. Part five concludes.

The Country Opinion Survey in Myanmar assists the World Bank Group (WBG) in gaining a better understanding of how stakeholders in Myanmar perceive the WBG. It provides the WBG with systematic feedback from national and local governments, multilateral/bilateral agencies, media, academia, the private sector, and civil society in Myanmar on 1) their views regarding the general environment in Myanmar; 2) their overall attitudes toward the WBG in Myanmar; 3) overall impressions of the WBG's effectiveness and results, knowledge work and activities, and communication and information sharing in Myanmar; and 4) their perceptions of the WBG's future role in Myanmar.

During the past decade, the use of conditional cash transfer programs to increase investment in human capital has generated considerable excitement in both research and policy forums. This article surveys the existing literature, which suggests that most conditional cash transfer programs are used for essentially one of two purposes: restoring efficiency when externalities exist or improving equity by targeting resources to poor households. The programs often meet their stated objectives, but in some instances there is tension between the efficiency and equity objectives. The overall impact of a program depends on the gains and losses associated with each objective.

Plekhanov/Labriola As a bit of an experiment, coupling my interest in André Tosel and my work on translation, I have decided to try my hand at a few translations of the former when I get the time. These are totally unauthorized, and rough drafts posted for edification and entertainment purposes only. I started on this piece because it is short, and because it works on an area that I need to learn more about, the history of Marxist-Spinozism before Matheron or Althusser. However, the more I worked on this piece, the more I thought that this split between Plekhanov and Labriola, still exists, in the divide between neo-enlightenment Spinozists and what some might call post-modern, but I prefer to call Marxist Spinozists. The Marxist Uses of Spinoza: Lessons of Method The history of the role of Spinoza's thought in the formation and the development of the work of Marx remains to be written, as is that of the history of the diverse Marxist usage (from different Marxisms) of Spinozist philosophical elements. This double history would reveal the work of Marx, and its contradictions, as much it would open up the work of Spinoza himself. Marxisms have reflected their aporias and their hopes onto Spinoza without necessarily truly thinking them through. In other words this is a domain of misunderstandings and equivocations. In order to undertake this history it would be useful to draw some lessons from the encounter of Marx and Marxist thought with Spinoza. First remark. The encounters of Spinoza by Marxists are discontinuous and contradictory. This discontinuity is initially characterized by the lack of a definitive encounter between Marx himself and Spinoza. Marx is formed through the reading of Spinoza, of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, and the correspondence. Not to learn the lessons of materialism, but an ethico-political lesson. Spinoza is considered as philosopher of freedom and autonomy, modern incarnation of Prometheus and continuation of Epicurus, all at once. Marx, in is progression from Kantian-Fichtean idealism to the speculative communism of the 1844 Manuscripts, develops three theses which are the practical theses of philosophical materialism, without the epistemological and ontological theses of this materialist tradition.  Thesis One: Philosophy has a fundamental interest in the liberty of humanity, understood as autonomy and as the end of all heteronomies. Thesis Two: Philosophy is critical of all transcendental authorities of all principle of domination which justify and represent their domination through this principle.  Thesis Three: Philosophy is eminently a science, knowledge, but knowledge of life, of the simple life of spirit of bodies rendered by their power. All particular sciences and knowledge must be thought from the point of view of science of life and its forms, as forms of life.  When Marx elaborates the materialist conception of history he revolutionizes materialism but he does this without ever connecting it to the spinozist theory of nature, of the relations of extension and thought, of bodies and mind. He integrates and modifies the strong ontological and epistemological thesis of materialism, but these theses are taken more from Hobbes and other materialists of the eighteenth century than from Spinoza.
Let us state these theses which are capable of a Spinozist formulation, without however assuming such a formulation.  Thesis Four: Nature is the original reality and it is organized as matter at different objective levels. Thought cannot be separated from matter. Thesis Five: Nature in its diverse senses is intelligible. It emerges only from itself, excluding all creation. The human order is not a kingdom within a kingdom and susceptible of being understood.  Thesis Six: All knowledge presupposes the reality of its object outside of thought. The appropriation by the knowledge of its own object of knowledge presupposes the reference to a real object. It is necessary to pay attention to the debates in Marxism of the Second International in order to see how the question of "Spinoza precursor of Marxist materialism appears." Emerging in the years of the crisis of revisionism the debate engages above all the German and Russian theorists of social democracy: Bernstein, Kautsky, and Plekhanov. It is in part based on the Anti-Dühring of Friedrich Engels and puts into play the complex questions of the relationship between the materialist theory of history with the sciences of nature with the political problem of the alliance of the intellectual groups in the perspective of socialist transition. This debate between 1896-1900 is inscribed in a theoretical problematic, such of Marxist orthodoxy that will find a new actualization with the problems proper to Soviet philosophy between 1917 and 1931, when it is a matter of specifying what would be called "Marxism-Leninism." If the question of materialism assumes the continuity between the Spinoza of the Second International and that of the Third, nothing would be more erroneous than to let oneself be taken in by the apparent continuity of an imaginary history of philosophy. These occurrences are in effect specific, they constitute theoretical and political conjunctures which must be grasped in a way that takes into account the strategic dimensions of the class struggle whether or not it is led by Marxist parties, the problem of alliances, that of the intellectual division of labor. Marxist philosophy, as it is officially constituted, is part of the practice of parties, and the reference to Spinoza is overdetermined by the political and theoretical stakes that have to be elucidated in each specific situation. Here we touch on the second lesson of method: it is necessary to historically specify the conjunctures where Spinoza intervenes and where and how there is a specific usage of this prestigious and troubling reference. This method makes it possible to determine what falls under ideological legitimation, and what is inserted at the level of the practical politics of the party, of the state, of the level of specialized intellectuals. Spinoza does not only appear only in the emergence of Marxist orthodoxy. He intervenes, in a subterranean manner, in the elaboration of theorists where the considerable theoretical importance has never been associated with an actual political importance. This can be found in the crisis over revisionism in the last century, such that Antonio Labriola in his Essays on the Materialist Conception of History (1895-1898) attests to the presence of a different Spinoza than that of his contemporary Plekhanov and a fortiori than that which was celebrated in Soviet Philosophy in 1927 and 1932.
Spinoza intervenes as a critic of the same orthodoxy which returns as elements of an older materialism in another theoretical configuration that has solicited different aspects of his philosophy: no longer the parallelism between extension and thought, not a determinist ontology but the mode considered to be at once conceptual and experimental, the same geometrico-genetic method, in that it now excludes the guarantees of teleological philosophies of history. A contradictory intervention which is not without analogies to another occurrence, the most recent, that of Spinoza in the work of Louis Althusser which can be considered as a systematic deconstruction of the Marxist orthodoxy of the Second and Third International. Between Labriola (1898) and Althusser (1965), if we except the Soviet Spinoza, there is little except Ernst Bloch's remarks that no one has yet taken into account for a history of materialism oriented in the direction of a utopian ontology. This appearance of a Spinoza critical of stated and intended Marxist orthodoxies gives a third lesson of method: the diverse contradictory Marxist uses of Spinoza are situated between two poles, the first is that of an orthodoxy elaborated by the intellectuals of the social democratic and communist parties at the end of an a party/state conception of a finalist world and at the other is from thinkers situated in a problematic relation to the party, who look in Spinoza for other ways to make sense of the world and other practices then the becoming state of the worker parties. This opposition can appear to be schematic. It can be developed into provisional and schematic path of investigation. Such an investigation takes one central question: What is it in the philosophy of Spinoza that authorizes these discontinuous usages, determined by their conjunctures, and perhaps violently opposed?  Confronting therefore these different usages of Spinoza that can be considered historically significant in the course of history, that is to say in terms of their specific conjunctures. This can be seen with the orthodox use of Spinoza by Plekhanov and the critical usage of Spinoza by Labriola at the heart of the second international. Plekhanov gave himself the task of elaborating the originality of Marx's philosophy and defending it in the face of revisionists who, with Bernstein, contest the self-sufficiency of Marx's philosophy, dividing into an evolutionary sociology and a Kantian inspired ethics. For Plekhanov there is very much a Marxist philosophy. It is inscribed in the materialist current which it revitalizes by giving it a historical dialectical dimension. Spinoza is the direct ancestor of Marx in that it is through the monism of the former that one can unify the science of nature and the science of history of the latter. Marx has revitalized substance as historical-social matter, metabolism of humanity with nature, and has inherited his realist theory of knowledge, thought is nothing other than a moment or function of matter. There is a Spinozism of Marx that is the realization of historical Spinozism as a the affirmation of the materialist conception of the world, one predicated on the knowability of matter in terms of its organization at diverse levels. Only this conception of the world can give the workers' movement its organization and which would permit it to avoid the disorganization that revisionism introduces, neo-Kantian idealism cannot organize the class struggle without harmful compromises.  Spinoza is one part of orthodox Marxism returned to during this period. This Spinoza can authorize the theses of Friedrich Engels, in some sense simplifying the complexity of the Anti-Dühring. Concerned to think together the development of the sciences of nature, the materialist conception of history, and developing a philosophy capable of correct reflection and the movement of the specialization of sciences and the political struggle of classes (alliance with the intellectual stratum), Engles had proposed the idea of a materialist dialectic that oscillates between an ontological conception and a methodological conception of this dialectic. These two conceptions are apparently unified in the idea of "the science of the general laws of motion, both of the external world and of human thought — two sets of laws which are identical in substance, but differ in their expression in so far as the human mind can apply them consciously, while in nature and human history (at least up to now), these laws assert themselves unconsciously, in the form of external necessity, in the midst of an endless series of seeming accidents." This parallelism between (laws of) movement of the external world and (the laws of) thought has a Spinozist connotation which reinforces the idea of liberty as the comprehension of necessary laws. However, it remains above all intended to make possible a representation of the dialectic under materialism, without examining its own difficulties. Plekhanov is not interested in these difficulties in elaborating a general materialist conception that Marx completes and fulfills through the mediation of Hegel. Antonio Labriola, who wrote "Origin and Nature of the Passions According to Spinoza's Ethics" at a young age (1866), refuses this ontologization or methodolization of the dialectic in order to develop the idea of a philosophy of praxis as a philosophy immanent to a new conception of history, reflecting the constitution of history as a complex unifying ground and surface. In this sense, the Plekhanov project, apparently Spinozist, of thinking the continuity of nature and society at the heart of a substantial and homogenous causality loses its sense. The process of social life must be desubstantialized at with it the philosophy that is presented as a hyperphilosophy or super science organized as "theosophic or metaphysic of the totality of the world, as if by an act of a transcendent knowledge we can arrive at a vision of substance and all of the phenomena and processes under it." Antonino Labriola as much as he refuses to make man an 'kingdom in a kingdom' refuses the naturalization of history and the transformation of Marxism into a naturalist ontology where social practice becomes a species of being in general. Labriola denounces a matter found on things as a form of metaphysical superstition. Spinoza is evoked as a hero in the struggle against the imagination and ignorance that resurfaces in Marxist orthodoxy under the form of universal materialism. It is necessary above all to think of the diverse levels of the "animation" of matter, and therefore the specificity of the "artificial terrain" which constitutes practice. What Spinoza knew how to do for the theory of passions must be done for praxis: each one, the relations of affects and and those that constitute praxis, are not ruled by a subject and for this reason must be studied through a genetic method. Labriola speaks of a genetic method that also defines the method of Marx in Capital. The genetic method takes its distance from the dialectic and its teleological philosophy of history and established guarantees.  For Labriola the turn to Spinoza is less about the strengthening of a materialist monism than it is about the possibility of reinterpreting Marx's Capital as a geometry of capitalist social being. The geometrical method is an instrument of internal purification destined to eliminate the finalism of productive causes and biological predetermination from Marxist orthodoxy. The philosophy of praxis manifests the basic critical and formal tendency of monism: everything is conceivable as a the causal genesis of a complex totality. The materialist dialectic is neither a universal method nor a logic of being, but constitutes the critical movement internal to knowledge which acts on the practice of philosophy and makes it a "conceptual form of explication" parallel to contemporary science. The reference to Spinoza intervenes in the critique of a Marxist orthodoxy which is supposed to include in a dogmatic manner Spinoza's own materialism. Marx and Spinoza are considered as two practitioners of philosophy who refuse the closure of knowledge in favor of the immanent self-reflection of knowledge. The lesson of Spinoza is not to find the unity of knowledge under a principle but to demystify the fetishes which substitute imaginary principles for the movement of practice.  One could develop a similar analysis of the confrontation of the Soviet Spinoza of the Third International to the Spinoza of Louis Althusser.  The Soviet Spinoza is an impoverished and petrified version of the Spinoza of Plekhanov. With respect to Althusser, Spinoza's critique is referenced constantly and augmented, infinitely better elaborated than in Labriola, since it acts this time not as a critique of metaphysical fetishism, even materialist, but of the metaphysics of the juridical subject characteristic of occidental rationalism.  The contributions of R. Zapata and J.-P. Cottent have clarified these points, but it seems opportune to underly the paradox of this history: it is possible to tie together the diverse uses of Spinoza, one against the other. If Spinoza is enrolled in the constitution of a "conception of the world" which intends to complete a current of philosophy and which cannot at any time criticize its presuppositions, it is also possible, as with Althusser, to think the structure of ideological interpellation that constitutes the ideological subject and invalidates philosophy considered as a theory of knowledge. If Spinoza makes possible a conception of the world in which the State Party is supposed to be the subject of history accomplishing its ultimate ends, it also makes it possible for Althusser to try to reconstruct Marxist theory on the ruins of the triple myth of origin, subject, and the end. The Labriolian critique of imaginatio and ignorantia is radically interiorized in the destruction of Marxisms of the Second and Third International. The recourse to structural causality supposed to have been developed in the theory of modes and substance serves as an incomplete program to develop the theoretical revolution of Marx.  However, it goes further still: there are two Spinoza's in Althusser himself. The Spinoza critical of any theory of knowledge ultimately occludes the Spinoza of structural causality: the denunciation of the triple myth of origin, subject, and end is lead to the liquidation of the rational modernism present in Marx. However the pars destruens always prevails over the pars construens. The idea of structural causality (such that of substance as the absent cause over the modes and affects) is accompanied with the affirmation of an unknown radicality of Marxist science, but the critique of the metaphysics of subjectivity in the teleology of Marxism that accompanies it announces the crises of Marxist liberation in the last interventions of Althusser. Everything comes to pass as if Althusser deconstructs a dogmatic Spinoza in the name of another Spinoza, more secret and more enigmatic. Spinoza is always divided from Spinozism which claims to define himOriginally published in Bloch, Olivier, Editor,  Spinoza au XXe siècle, Paris, PUF, 1993. 

RIASSUNTO La scelta di realizzare un Centro Benessere è stata presa per: - la necessità di focalizzare l'attenzione sull'individuo in quanto parte di una comunità, cercando di costruire un luogo che faccia emergere la primaria importanza del pensare a sé stessi, non come forma di egoismo o egocentrismo, ma come opportunità di conoscersi per poi imparare di nuovo a conoscere gli altri in un confronto sempre costruttivo. Ritengo sia importante abbattere quel muro che stiamo innalzando con mattoni fatti di tecnologia e schermi, reintegrando gli antichi insegnamenti, affrontati con la sociologia, riassunti nel significato di Agorà (dal greco antico ἀγορά = raccogliere, radunare). Nell'antica Grecia con questo termine si indicava la piazza principale della polis (città), creata con la consapevolezza dell'inestimabile valore che hanno gli spazi aperti e quelli comuni nell'aggregazione di individui di diversa età, ceto e pensiero. - la possibilità di costruire un edificio non per un'unica persona o per un nucleo familiare con abitudini simili, ma per cercare un "linguaggio comune" per poter soddisfare esigenze e personalità differenti. Il problema è quindi quello di trovare un modello unico di "abito-edificio" che possa calzare su misura al singolo e che, allo stesso tempo, possa valorizzarlo e distinguerlo dagli altri. Il sito oggetto di intervento si trova nella frazione di Laura, nel Comune di Crespina Lorenzana, in provincia di Pisa. È stato fatto un confronto con altri Centri limitrofi ed abbiamo selezionato questo capannone esistente poiché ospitava già una palestra e accoglieva il bacino di utenza sia del Comune di pertinenza sia dei Comuni limitrofi. L'analisi effettuata ha preso spunto dalla conoscenza, dal principio άρχή (arché), delle strutture per la cura, il trattamento e l'intrattenimento del corpo e della mente, sia per gli edifici esistenti nella storia che nelle altre culture, per poi approfondire quali siano le esigenze del territorio e, in modo specifico, della popolazione. Un altro approfondimento è stato fatto con la letteratura studiando professionisti come Le Corbusier con i suoi 5 punti assiomatici di una nuova architettura e le proporzioni con il Modulor e come Bruno Zevi con le sue 7 invarianti dell'architettura moderna. L'occasione di scrivere questa tesi si ha sia con la riprogettazione di un fabbricato già esistente che con la costruzione di una struttura ex novo su un lotto di terreno ancora libero. Il nuovo edificio nascerà infatti nel lotto in aderenza a quello in oggetto di modifiche. Con l'unione delle due strutture si è realizzato il Centro Benessere denominato "IO", idea nata dalle rispettive forme planimetriche. Il fabbricato esistente, un capannone industriale, ha infatti linee rettilinee ed il perimetro è stilizzabile in un rettangolo, la "I". La struttura nuova è stata invece plasmata da tutti i vincoli, dalle normative esistenti, anche e soprattutto in campo di risparmio energetico e di sicurezza , il risultato finale è stata una superficie esterna circolare ed una copertura a tronco di cono obliquo rovescio, la "O". Considerando cha la minima superficie disperdente, data dal rapporto S/V, è quella della sfera, si è deciso, per ovvie ragioni economiche e di fruizione degli spazi interni, di realizzare un volume cilindrico. La scelta di una copertura a compluvio è stata perfezionata utilizzando l'asse del tronco di cono obliquo, scelta presa sia per la raccolta delle acque sia per fornire una maggiore superficie con una inclinazione favorevole ai raggi del sole per l'istallazione di pannelli fotovoltaici. Tutto ciò è stato pensato per massimizzare la copertura da fonti rinnovabili di acqua ed energia. Con Questo progetto si è inoltre cercato di realizzare un Centro Benessere "a misura d'uomo". Per iniziare a dimensionare il nuovo costruito e capire i limiti di una ristrutturazione per l'edificio esistente sono state analizzate, in via preliminare, tutte le normative sia il Regolamento Urbanistico, il Piano Strutturale, le Norme Tecniche Attuative per l'U.T.O.E 9 di Pian di Laura, la Legge Regionale Toscana e la Normativa di Prevenzione Incendi. L'edificio da riqualificare appartiene alla tipologia edilizia del capannone industriale, così come le altre strutture nella stessa strada Via Karol Wojtyla. Questo perché tutta l'area è stata realizzata in forza di un Piano Insediativo Produttivo (PIP). Approfondendo l'inquadramento territoriale, con lo studio del PIP e delle leggi edilizie e urbanistiche, sono stati fissati i vincoli preesistenti entro cui lavorare. Per realizzare entrambi i poli ho studiato l'antica evoluzione dell'individuo, sia nel confronto con gli altri, per migliorare sé stessi attraverso lo sport, sia nella cura del proprio IO attraverso la cura benefica dell'acqua, cura nata con la costruzione delle prime terme. La struttura è stata così suddivisa in un Aria Secca, a cui viene dedicato l'edificato esistente caratterizzato da una planimetria rettangolare, attualmente è ad uso palestra (I) e in un'Aria Umida a cui viene destinato il nuovo fabbricato a pianta circolare (O). Una volta individuate le funzioni attraverso gli Ambiti Funzionali Omogenei (AFO) si sono stabiliti gli specifici Ambiti Spaziali Omogenei (ASO) da cui abbiamo delineato percorsi sostanzialmente unici o a senso alternato per garantire una più semplice igienizzazione degli spazi e per evitare assembramenti anche nel rispetto delle odierne restrizioni anti-Covid. Tenendo ben salde le Normative di Sicurezza Antincendio e quelle per la fruibilità per le persone diversamente abili si sono stabiliti percorsi orizzontali tali da garantire vie di esodo facilmente identificabili (frecce verdi su pavimento bianco e porte con vetrate di colore diverso per tutta l'altezza del fabbricato) e con larghezza tale da permettere sempre la rotazione della sedia a rotelle a 360° ed il passaggio di 2 persone. Considerando la possibilità del cambio d'uso, essendo una struttura pubblica, il dimensionamento delle vie di esodo è stato effettuato in funzione del massimo affollamento possibile relativamente all'edificio in oggetto. Per l'accesso alle persone diversamente abili al secondo piano esistente è stato introdotto un ascensore antincendio adatto ed usufruibile da tutti. Tra gli spogliatoi comprensivi di servizi non vi è nessuna differenza, sono infatti tutti attrezzati per i diversamente abili, inoltre nessuno scalino e nessuna rampa creano percorsi distinti. Per la realizzazione delle stanze si è scelto di unire diversi concetti insieme, così da sollecitare l'attenzione e la curiosità degli utenti ma soprattutto per farli sentire "a casa". I nuovi volumi sono una combinazione tra:  7 colori dell'arcobaleno e il nero per un totale di 8 cilindri, oltre al colore bianco che servirà per i percorsi.  Vere e proprie stanze che possiamo ritrovare usualmente nella nostra casa: Cucina, Pranzo, Salotto, Camera, Bagno, Soffitta, Cantina e Ripostiglio.  5 sensi del corpo umano - Olfatto, Gusto, Vista, Tatto e Udito - oltre all'idea di "Alto", di "Basso" e di "Centro". Ritenendo importante stimolare la curiosità degli Utenti e al contempo riprodurre quella sensazione che si ha la sera quando si rientra nella propria casa, si è deciso di unire queste 3 idee tra loro. ROSSO - OLFATTO - CUCINA, ARANCIONE - GUSTO - PRANZO, GIALLO - VISTA - SALOTTO, VERDE - TATTO - CAMERA, BLU - UDITO - BAGNO, INDACO - BASSO - CANTINA, VIOLA - ALTO - SOFFITTA, NERO - CENTRO - RIPOSTIGLIO, BIANCO - CORRIDOIO. L'involucro realizzato, sia per le pareti opache che nelle parti vetrate come nella nuova copertura è stato verificato in rispetto delle vigenti normative igro-termo energetiche. Sfruttando la costruzione decentrata del nuovo edificato è stato possibile realizzare piscine e spazi all'aperto per l'uso nelle giornate più calde. Si sono infine ipotizzate delle linee guida ed un linguaggio per determinare le "Invarianti dell'Architettura del Benessere". 1. Studio Preliminare - Territorio, Letteratura e Normativa 2. Energia - Forma Involucro 3. Ambiti Funzionali e Spaziali - Stanze 4. Percorsi Riconoscibili e Distanze Minime - Corridoi 5. Sicurezza Antincendio e Strutturale - Materiali 6. Fruibilità senza distinzioni - Struttura Nuova ad Unico Piano 7. Benessere della Struttura 8. Rapporto Interno ed Esterno – Luce ed Ombra Questo è stato almeno il mio ordine prioritario per progettare questo Centro Benessere. Se per una singola abitazione è necessario raccogliere i vincoli e le preferenze dei committenti che la andranno ad abitare allora l'obiettivo che questa Tesi ha cercato di centrare è stato quello di far sentire a casa propria ogni utente che fa ingresso nel Centro Benessere "IO". Almeno le Strutture Architettoniche dovrebbero farci sentire "Ugualmente Diversi" SUMMARY The choice to make a wellness center was carried out for: - The need to focus attention on the individual as part of a community, trying to build a place that brings out the primary importance of thinking of oneself, not as a form of selfishness or egocentrism, but as an opportunity to get to know each other Learn again to learn about others in an always construction comparison. I believe it is important to break down that wall that we are raising with bricks made of technology and screens, remembering the ancient teachings, addressed with sociology, summarized in the meaning of Agorà (from ancient Greek ἀγορά = collect, gather). In ancient Greece with this term the main square of the polis (city) was indicated, created with the awareness of the anestimable value that have open spaces and those common for the aggregation of individuals of different age, class and thought. - The possibility of building a building not for a single person or a family unit with similar habits, but to look for a "common language" in order to satisfy different needs and personalities. The problem is therefore to find a unique model of "building-building" that can fit into size to the individual and that at the same time, can enhance it and distinguish it from the others. The site under intervention is located in the hamlet of Laura, in the municipality of Crespina Lorenzana, in the province of Pisa. A comparison has been made with other neighboring centers and this existing shed was selected as it already housed a gym and welcomed the catchment area both of the municipality of relevance and neighboring municipalities. The analysis carried out has taken inspiration from the knowledge, from the principle άρχή (arché), the structures for the care, treatment and entertainment of the body and mind, both for the buildings existing in history and in other cultures, and then deepen What are the needs of the territory and, specifically, of the population. Another in-depth study was made with literature studying professionals such as Corbusier with its 5 axiomatic points of a new architecture and proportions with the Modulor and as Bruno Zevi with its 7 invariants of modern architecture. Writing this thesis was the opportunity to be redeemed an existing building that the design of a construction of an ex-novo structure on a lot of land still free. The new building will be born in the lot in adherence to that in the object of changes. With the union of the two structures the wellness center called "IO" was created, an idea born from the respective planimetric forms. The existing building, an industrial warehouse, has in fact straight lines and the perimeter is stiluable in a rectangle, the "I". The new structure was instead shaped by all constraints, existing regulations, also and above all in the field of energy saving and security. The final result was a circular external surface and a trunk cover of oblique reverse cone, the "o". Considering the minimum dispersing area, given by the S / V report, it is that of the sphere, it was decided, for obvious economic reasons and of the use of the interior spaces, to carry out a cylindrical volume. The choice of a complyed cover was perfected using the axis of the oblique cone trunk, choice socket both for the collection of water and to provide a greater surface with a tilt in favor of the sun's rays for the installation of photovoltaic panels. All this was designed to maximize roof from renewable water and energy sources. With this project we also tried to create a wellness center "to a human scale". To start sizing the new built and understanding the limits of a restructuring for the existing building have been analyzed, all the regulations are the urban regulation, the Structural Plan, the technical implementing rules for Utoe 9 by Pian di Laura, the regional Tuscan law and fire prevention legislation. The building to be redeveloped belongs to the building type of the industrial warehouse, as well as the other structures on the same street Via Karol Wojtyla. This is because the whole area has been carried out under a production settlement (PIP). Deepening the territorial framework, with the study of PIP and building and urban laws, pre-existing constraints have been set within which to work. To achieve both poles, I studied the ancient evolution of the individual, both in confrontation with others, to improve themselves through sports, both in the care of his ego through the beneficial care of water, cured with the construction of the Prime Terme. The structure was thus divided into a dry air, to which the existing building is dedicated characterized by a rectangular plan, is currently for gym (I) and in a wet air to which the new circular plant is destined (O). Once the functions are identified through the homogeneous functional areas (AFO) the specific homogeneous spatial areas (ASO) has been established from which we have outlined substantially unique or alternate routes to ensure easier sanitation of spaces and to avoid assemblies even in compliance with the Today anti-covid restrictions. Keeping fire safety regulations firmly and those for usability for disabled persons have established horizontal paths such as to guarantee easily identifiable exodus routes (green arrows on white floor and doors with different stained glass windows throughout the height of Manufactured) and with width to always allow rotation of the 360 ° wheelchair and passage of 2 people. Considering the possibility of the change of use, being a public structure, the dimensioning of the exodus routes was carried out according to the maximum possible crowding relative to the building in question. For access to people with disabilities at the second existing floor a suitable fire lift was introduced and usable by all. There are no difference between the changing rooms, there are no difference, they are all equipped for the disabled people, moreover no step and no ramp create distinct paths. For the realization of the rooms it was chosen to combine different concepts together, so as to urge the attention of users but above all to make them feel "at home". The new volumes are a combination of: - 7 colors of the rainbow and black for a total of 8 cylinders, in addition to the white color that will serve for the paths. - Real rooms that can usually find in our house: kitchen, lunch, living room, bedroom, bathroom, attic, cellar and storage room. - 5 senses of the human body - smell, taste, sight, touch and hearing - in addition to the idea of "high", of "low" and "center". Retentioning important to stimulate users' curiosity and at the same time reproduce that feeling that you have in the evening when you return to your home, you decided to join these 3 ideas between them. Red - Smell - Kitchen, Orange - Taste - Lunch, Yellow - View - Living room, Green - Tacto - Room, Blue - Hearing - Bathroom, Indigo - Low - Cellar, Viola - High - Attic, Black - Center - Closet, White - Corridor. The casing made, both for the opaque walls and in the glazed parts as in the new coverage has been verified in compliance with the current Igro-thermo energy regulations. Taking advantage of the decentralized construction of the new built it was possible to make swimming pools and outdoor spaces for use on the hottest days. Finally, guidelines and language were hypothesized to determine the "invariants of wellness architecture". 1. Preliminary study - territory, literature and regulations 2. Energy - wrap shape 3. Functional and spatial areas - Rooms 4. Recognizable paths and minimum distances - corridors 5. Fire protection and structural safety - materials 6. Usability without distinctions - new structure with single floor 7. Wellness of the structure 8. Internal and external relationship - light and shadow This was at least my priority order to design this wellness center. If for a single house it is necessary to collect the constraints and preferences of the clients who will then live the goal that this thesis was to make each user feel at home that enters the wellness center "I". At least architectural structures should make us feel "Equally Different".

The thesis is focused on solving an important theoretical and applied problem of substantiating theoretical and methodological grounds for the international economic policy through identifying the patterns and novel forms of protectionism, and substantiating the integral scientific concept of neo-protectionism. The objective of the thesis is to develop theoretical and methodological grounds of protectionism, and to create, on this basis, an integral scientific concept of neo-protectionism in the international economic policy in the context of liberalizing global economic relations, to formulate an integrative conceptual approach to the application of neoprotectionism in the economic development policy of Ukraine.The interdisciplinary multi-criteria approach to defining protectionism from the perspective of ideology, idea, policy and practice is proposed, which allowed for investigating the transformation of its manifestation forms in the process of evolutionary development of the international economic relations. The international economic policy was studied as an unbroken continuum of the economic and political practice of the states by methodological tools of the international political economy. It is found that from the international political economy perspective a choice between protectionism and free trade as the principles for implementation of the economic policy of the state is conditional on the pattern of global economic processes with their immanent contradictions, the specifics of regionalization and integration processes, and the global economy tendencies. The choice between the government's commitment to the policy of minimizing costs and maximizing benefits, and the character of its participation in the international economic cooperation is determined by the pattern of international trade and international movement of production factors, on the one hand, and determine it, on the other hand. It is demonstrated that the choice of protectionist policy, as follows from the international political economy discourse, is conditional on: operation of public and non-public economic entities; effects from the implementation of national economic policies; the coordinating equilibrium between national, regional, interstate and global level of decision making; the existing mechanisms for global control of international economic interests.Interpretation of the international economic policy by the methodological tools of the international political economy allowed to identify the endogenous character of the external economic policy (recognizing thereby the protectionism as a policy that can be potentially demanded by the public (represented by voters), business people (represented by lobbying groups), government (which implements economic interests of the nation), and to reveal the variety of entities involved in the international economic relations, which have exogenous impact on the policy implemented by national governments (by signing trade agreements), limiting thereby the conditions for the protectionist policy implementation.Theoretical modeling of protectionist intentions in the international economic cooperation on the basis of the interdisciplinary economic-political approach laid grounds for rethinking the conclusions made by the classical and neo-classical theories of trade and the theory of correlation of production factors about the unconditional impact of the free trade principle on the population's welfare as a derivative from the function of consumption. The analysis of two groups of protectionism theories – the ones based on studies of the structure of protectionism within the countries, and the ones investigating the level of protectionism between countries in time – demonstrated that the voters' welfare or the so called "win of the majority" are the determinants of protectionist initiatives. The factors underlying the voters' demand for protectionism are highlighted: welfare measured by economic as well as social and ecological effects; social solidarity; social protection; commitment to social values; commitment to national identity; adherence to ideological principles of the policy of economic nationalism; mitigation of effects from the information asymmetry of rational voters. The pressure by lobbying groups on the choice of the principle underlying government's implementation of the external trade policy is explained by: phase of business cycle; hysteresis effects in the economy; the level of competitiveness in export-oriented sectors; the extent of import dependence in the economy; distributive and allocation effects of the economic activities.The author's concept of neo-protectionism in the international economic policy is substantiated, which is defined as a complex hierarchical set of principles, rules and instruments of protective, stimulating, discriminative and restrictive nature, implemented at mega-, meta-, macro- and mesolevel of the international economic policy. A multilevel typology of neo-protectionism is proposed, based on specific features: the level of international economic policy, generating entities, manifestation environment, instruments for the international economic policy with indirect impact. It was used to identify its essential characteristics in all the forms of manifestation of the international economic relations; to define the functions of neo-protectionism by its type (ideological, institutional, integrative, conjuncture-formative, factor-based, infrastructural, monetary, currency-based, financial, debt-based, fiscal) and sub-types (ecological, migrational, sectoral, based on primary commodities, resource-based, energy-based, technological, innovative, informational, digital, investment-based). This allowed to identify the purpose for applications of neo-protectionism at mega-, meta-, macro- and mesolevel of the international economic policy, and to visualize the degree of its functional and structural complexity and dimensionality as a phenomenon and a process, which realization varies depending on the entities applying it, the objects for which it is applying, its coverage and objectives.A theoretical and methodological approach for macro- and meta-level assessment of the international economic policy based on neo-protectionist instruments is developed. Its application enabled for outlining and describing the policy of economic nationalism (which motivation basis is formed by domination, expansion, domestic extended reproduction by creating new comparative advantages), and the policy of economic patriotism (which motivation basis is formed by rehabilitation of economic growth, curbing of the expansionary potentials of partner countries, creating new comparative advantages and achieving sustainable development), with distinguishing its sub-types: supranational, local, liberal, and conservative. The distinctive features of neo-mercantilist policy are defined, and the ways of its implementation are revealed. It is shown that the neo-mercantilist policy generates anti-competitive market distortions affecting not only foreign producers, but domestic ones as well, considering the scales of the latter involvement in global value added chains, and causes market imbalances resulting from the unfair competition. Theoretical and methodological grounds for studies of the international economic policy are improved, which is based on the principles of stability, hierarchy, adaptability, complementarity, subsidiarity, and balance, by including legitimation as a novel principle of the international economic policy implementation, which involves a combination of regulatory, de-regulatory and re-regulatory mechanisms of impact on the international economic relations, and results in the implementation of the institutional norms and rules that directly or indirectly ignore/deny/distort the agreements that exist at international/regional level, lead to anti-competitive market distortions, trade and investment imbalances, and open up opportunities for gaining new comparative advantages. Self-legitimation is defined as an attributive characteristic of the entities involved in the international economic policy at mega-, meta- and macrolevel, which enables for implementation of the neoprotectionist policy.The thesis substantiates multiple combinations in implementation of neoprotectionism through multidirectional manifestations of deregulation-regulation, integration-disintegration, coordination-de-coordination, expansion-fragmentation, balancing-unbalancing, stimulation-restriction, protection-discrimination, and the reasonability of neo-protectionist measures in the economic development policy of Ukraine.The structural components of the global economy as an environment for neoprotectionist manifestations are revealed: production and investment activities, research and development, international monetary relations. The functions of neoprotectionism within the international economic system are revealed: allocative (sectoral neo-protectionism; infrastructural neo-protectionism; factor-based neoprotectionism; integrative neo-protectionism; financial neo-protectionism; investment-based neo-protectionism); distributive (institutional neo-protectionism; fiscal neoprotectionism; financial neo-protectionism; investment-based neo-protectionism); stabilizing (monetary neo-protectionism; currency-based neo-protectionism; debtbased neo-protectionism; financial neo-protectionism; investment-based neoprotectionism). The instruments for the international economic policy with indirect impact, enabling for the implementation of neo-protectionism, are outlined as follows: fiscal, monetary and currency policies.Modeling of clustering processes in the Ukrainian economy by use of Boston matrix and Leontiev model enabled to identify four productive clusters: innovation (manufacturing of computers, electronic and optical devices; telecommunications; computer software design, consulting and information services; professional, R&D activities; information and telecommunications; printing and publishing activities; production of movies and video-films); auxiliary (supply of electricity, gas, steam and conditioned air; wholesale and retail trade; repair of automobiles and motorcycles; hotels and restaurants; financial and insurance activities); traditional (agriculture, forestry and fishing; mining and quarrying; manufacturing industries; construction; transport; storage; postal and courier services; production chemical substances and chemical products; car making and mechanical engineering; light industry), and to define the industries driving the economic growth, generating net income and having direct impact on the rates of GDP growth.A methodological approach to the assessment of the effectiveness of tax preferences and other preferences provided for residents of industrial parks is proposed, which, contrary to the existing approaches, uses applied models of the overall equilibrium for identifying the industries that have to be priority recipients of government assistance through the network of industrial parks, in the context of the intensified and leading development of the country by key macroeconomic indicators, and for quantitative optimization of the preferences considering the stable revenues of the public budget, which enabled to substantiate the nomenclature of efficient stimuli for residents of industrial parks, to achieve the objectives: to make the national industry move up in the value added chains and create a closed-loop innovation cycle in Ukraine.The system of tax and other preferences for residents of industrial parks, intended to recover and further the innovation-driven development of the production and export capacities of the Ukrainian economy, is assessed, which enabled to adapt international experiences of using the mechanism of free economic zones to the domestic practice, to create a favorable investment environment for high tech productions in the national economy for the period required by them to form competitive advantages. ; У дисертації розроблено цілісну наукову концепцію неопротекціонізму у міжнародній економічній політиці в умовах лібералізації світогосподарських зв'язків і на цій основі сформульовано інтегративний концептуальний підхід застосування неопротекціонізму в політиці економічного розвитку України.В роботі запропоновано міждисциплінарний багатокатегоріальний підхід до визначення протекціонізму з позицій ідеології, ідеї, політики і практики, що дозволило дослідити трансформацію форм його прояву в процесі еволюційного розвитку міжнародних економічних відносин. Міжнародна економічна політика досліджувалась в нерозривній єдності економічної й політичної практики держав методологічним інструментарієм міжнародної політичної економії. Встановлено, що з позиції міжнародної політичної економії, на вибір між протекціонізмом чи вільною торгівлею як принципами реалізації економічної політики держави впливають стан світогосподарських процесів з іманентними їм суперечностями, особливості протікання процесів регіоналізації та інтеграції і тенденції розвитку світової економіки. Вибір між сповідуванням державою політики мінімізації втрат чи максимізації вигод, а також характер її участі в міжнародному економічному співробітництві, з одного боку, детермінується станом міжнародної торгівлі і міжнародного переміщення факторів виробництва, а, з іншого боку, визначає його. Виявлено, що на вибір протекціоністської політики, згідно теоретичного дискурсу міжнародної політичної економії, впливають: діяльність державних і недержавних суб'єктів господарювання; ефекти від реалізації національних економічних політик; стан координаційної рівноваги між національним, регіональним, міждержавним і глобальним рівнями прийняття рішень; формування механізмів глобального управління міжнародними економічними процесами.Інтерпретація міжнародної економічної політики методологічним інструментарієм міжнародної політичної економії дозволила виявити ендогенний характер зовнішньоекономічної політики (тим самим визнаючи протекціонізм як політику, на яку потенційно може формувати запит суспільство (в особі виборців), підприємці (в особі лобістських груп), уряд (що реалізує економічні інтереси держави)) й водночас ідентифікувати різноманіття суб'єктів міжнародних економічних відносин, що чинять екзогенний вплив на реалізацію політики національних держав (шляхом підписання торговельних угод), тим самим обмежуючи умови для реалізації протекціоністської політики.Теоретичне моделювання протекціоністських інтенцій в міжнародному економічному співробітництві на основі міждисциплінарного економікополітичного підходу дало підстави до переосмислення висновків класичної, неокласичної теорій торгівлі і теорії співвідношення факторів виробництва про беззастережний вплив принципу вільної торгівлі на «добробут» населення як похідну від функції споживання. Аналіз двох груп теорій протекціонізму – як тих, що базуються на дослідженні структури протекціонізму в межах країн, так і тих, що досліджують рівень протекціонізму між країнами в часі – дозволив встановити, що добробут виборців або т.зв. виграш більшості лежить в основі ініціювання вжиття протекціоністських заходів. Встановлено, що з боку населення затребуваність на протекціонізм може бути продиктована запитом на: добробут, що вимірюється, окрім економічних, ще й соціальними і екологічними ефектами; соціальну солідарність; соціальне забезпечення; відстоювання соціальних цінностей; відстоювання національної ідентичності; сповідування ідеологічних принципів політики економічного націоналізму; нівелювання ефектів інформаційної асиметрії раціональних виборців. З боку лобістських груп тиск на вибір принципу реалізації зовнішньоторговельної політики урядом пояснюється: стадією бізнес-циклу; ефектами гістерезису в економіці; рівнем конкурентоспроможності експортоорієнтованих секторів; ступенем імпортозалежності економіки; дистрибутивними й алокаційними ефектами економічної діяльності.В дисертації обґрунтовано авторську концепцію неопротекціонізму в міжнародній економічній політиці, під яким розуміється складноієрархічна сукупність принципів, правил та інструментів захисного, стимулюючого, дискримінаційного та рестрикційного характеру, що реалізується на мега-, мета-, макро- і мезорівнях міжнародної економічної політики. В дослідженні запропоновано багаторівневу типологізацію неопротекціонізму за конкретними ознаками, до яких віднесено: рівень міжнародної економічної політики, суб'єкти генерування, середовище прояву, інструменти міжнародної економічної політики непрямого впливу, що дало змогу виявити його сутнісні характеристики у всіх формах прояву міжнародних економічних відносин; встановити функції, що виконує неопротекціонізм залежно від його типів (ідеологічний, інституційний, інтеграційний, кон'юнктуро-формуючий/ галузевий, факторний, інфраструктурний, монетарний, валютний, фінансовий, борговий, фіскальний) та підтипів (екологічний, міграційний, сировинний, ресурсний, енергетичний, технологічний, інноваційний, інформаційний, цифровий, інвестиційний). Це дозволило ідентифікувати мету застосування неопротекціонізму на мега-, мета-, макро- і мезорівні міжнародної економічної політики, та візуалізувати ступінь його функціонально-структурної складності та розмірності як явища та процесу, реалізація якого видозмінюється залежно від суб'єктів, які його застосовують, об'єктів, на які розповсюджується його дія, простору застосування, цілей здійснення.В роботі розроблено науково-методичний підхід оцінювання міжнародної економічної політики на макро- і мета- рівнях, зумовленої використанням інструментарію неопротекціонізму, застосування якого дозволило виокремити і охарактеризувати політику економічного націоналізму (мотиваційною основою якого виступають домінування, експансія, забезпечення національного розширеного відтворення шляхом створення нових порівняльних переваг) і політику економічного патріотизму (мотиваційною основою якого виступають відновлення економічного зростання, стримування експансійного потенціалу країн-партнерів, створення нових порівняльних переваг й досягнення сталого розвитку) з виокремленням таких його підтипів, як наднаціональний, локальний, ліберальний, консервативний. Визначено характерні риси політики неомеркантилізму і встановлено способи, в які вона може реалізовуватись. Встановлено, що політика неомеркантилізму продукує антиконкурентні ринкові викривлення, які зачіпають не лише іноземних виробників, але й національних, беручи до уваги ступінь залучення останніх до глобальних ланцюгів створення доданої вартості, і призводить до ринкових дисбалансів внаслідок несправедливої конкуренції.Удосконалено теоретико-методологічні засади дослідження міжнародної економічної політики, що визначається принципами стійкості, ієрархічності, адаптивності, комплементарності, субсидіарності та збалансованості, шляхом включення легітимації як новітнього принципу здійснення міжнародної економічної політики, що передбачає комбінування регуляторних, дерегуляторних та ререгуляторних механізмів впливу на міжнародні економічні відносини, результується в імплементації таких інституційних норм і правил, які прямо чи опосередковано нехтують/спростовують/викривлюють домовленості, що існують на міжнародному/регіональному рівні, призводять до антиконкурентних ринкових деформацій, торговельних й інвестиційних дисбалансів та уможливлюють отримання нових порівняльних переваг. Самолегітимація визначена як атрибутивна характеристика суб'єктів міжнародної економічної політики на мега-, мета- і макрорівнях, що уможливлює реалізацію політики неопротекціонізму.В дисертаційному дослідженні обґрунтовано множинні комбінації реалізації неопротекціонізму через різноспрямовані прояви дерегуляціїрегуляції, інтеграції-дезінтеграції, координації-декоординації, розширенняфрагментації, врівноваження-розбалансування, стимулювання-обмеження, захисту-дискримінації та доцільність застосування неопротекціонізму в політиці економічного розвитку України.Встановлено, що структурними елементами світового господарства як середовища прояву неопротекціонізму виступають: виробничо-інвестиційна сфера діяльності, науково-технічна сфера, сфера міжнародної торгівлі, міжнародні валютно-фінансові та кредитні відносини. Виявлено, що неопротекціонізм в межах міжнародної економічної системи виконує наступні функції: регуляторну (ідеологіний неопротекціонізм; інтеграційний неопротекціонізм; факторний неопротекціонізм; монетарний неопротекціонізм; валютний неопротекціонізм; борговий неопротекціонізм; фінансовий неопротекціонізм; інвестиційний неопротекціонізм); алокаційну (кон'юнктурноформуючий/галузевий неопротекціонізм; інфраструктурний неопротекціонізм; факторний неопротекціонізм; інтеграційний неопротекціонізм; фінансовий неопротекціонізм; інвестиційний неопротекціонізм); дистрибутивну (інституційний неопротекціонізм; фіскальний неопротекціонізм; фінансовий неопротекціонізм; інвестиційний неопротекціонізм); стабілізаційну (монетарний неопротекціонізм; валютний неопротекціонізм; борговий неопротекціонізм; фінансовий неопротекціонізм; інвестиційний неопротекціонізм).Моделювання процесів кластерізації української економіки із використанням бостонської матриці та моделі Леонтьєва дозволило виділити чотири продуктивні кластери: інноваційний (виробництво комп'ютерів, електронної та оптичної продукції; телекомунікації (електрозв'язок); комп'ютерне програмування, консультування та надання інформаційних послуг; професійна, наукова та технічна діяльність; інформація та телекомунікації; видавнича діяльність; виробництво кіно- та відеофільмів; допоміжний (постачання електроенергії, газу, пари та кондиційованого повітря; оптова та роздрібна торгівля; ремонт автотранспортних засобів і мотоциклів; тимчасове розміщування й організація харчування; фінансова та страхова діяльність), традиційний (сільське, лісове та рибне господарство; добувна промисловість і розроблення кар'єрів; переробна промисловість; будівництво; транспорт, складське господарство, поштова та кур'єрська діяльність; виробництво хімічних речовин і хімічної продукції), стратегічний (транспорт, складське господарство, поштова та кур'єрська діяльність; виробництво хімічних речовин і хімічної продукції; автомобіле- та машинобудування; легка промисловість) та визначити галузі-драйвери економічного зростання, в яких можливе отримання високого чистого валового доходу та які безпосередньо впливають на темпи зростання ВВП.Запропоновано методологічний підхід до оцінювання ефективності надання податкових пільг й інших преференцій резидентам індустріальних парків, який, на відміну від існуючих підходів, передбачає використання прикладних моделей загальної рівноваги для ідентифікації пріоритетних галузей-реципієнтів державної допомоги через мережу індустріальних парків у контексті активізації випереджаючого розвитку країни за ключовими макроекономічними показниками, а також визначення оптимального обсягу відповідних преференцій з міркувань сталих надходжень державного бюджету, що дозволило обґрунтувати перелік перспективних стимулів резидентам індустріальних парків для досягнення цілей висхідного руху вітчизняної промисловості ланцюгами доданої вартості й створення замкнутого циклу інновацій в Україні.В роботі проведено оцінку використання системи податкових й інших преференцій для резидентів індустріальних парків з метою відновлення та забезпечення подальшого інноваційного розвитку виробничо-експортного потенціалу України, що дало змогу адаптувати міжнародний досвід використання механізму вільних економічних зон до вітчизняної практики задля створення сприятливого інвестиційного середовища для нових високотехнологічних виробництв у національній економіці на період формування ними конкурентних переваг.

Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia (World Health Organization-WHO) di dalam laporannya di tahun 2014 mencatat bahwa di tahun 2012 penyakit kanker telah menjadi penyebab kematian dari 8.2 juta orang. Angka ini kemungkinan jauh lebih rendah dari kenyataannya, mengingat pelayanan medis belum menjangkau sebagian besar penduduk dunia. Berjuta-juta kasus kemungkinan juga tidak terdata keberadaannya. WHO juga merekam adanya 14 juta penderita kanker di tahun yang sama. Jumlah ini diprediksi akan meningkat 70 persen dalam kurun waktu dua puluh tahun ke depan. Organisasi ini tidak bisa menggambarkan bagaimana berbahayanya penyakit ini. Kanker adalah salah satu penyakit yang kompleks yang diinisiasi oleh terjadinya kontak antara tubuh manusia dengan beragam wujud karsinogen (racun), yang mungkin saja terjadi secara alamiah, melalui makanan, atau karena kebiasaan yang menjadi pilihan seseorang secara pribadi, seperti misalnya merokok. Menurut WHO, kontak manusia dengan karsinogen bisa terjadi secara langsung maupun tidak langsung, dalam wujud interaksi fisik (sinar ultraviolet), kimia (zat kimia dalam asap rokok), dan biologis (virus). Walau kita tidak bisa menunjukan penyebab tunggal terjadinya kanker, kontak seseorang dengan bahan atau zat beracun berkaitan erat dengan kualitas lingkungan dimana yang bersangkutan tinggal. Ini menyiratkan bahwa lingkungan harus direncanakan serta dibangun berdasarkan strategi yang berorientasikan pada ide ''anti-kanker.' Sikap ini wajib diambil sebagai bagian penting dari keseluruhan perubahan yang seyogyanya dilaksanakan terhadap lingkungan binaan. Kebijakan dan parktek yang bernafaskan konsepsi ini harus dilaksanakan secara simultan dalam setiap kesempatan dan pada setiap elemen kota. Komponen spasial yang paling penting diperhatikan pada konteks ini termasuk lingkungan perumahan; ruang-ruang kecil dimana kita memarkir kendaraan; taman-taman kota dimana kita memanfaatkan waktu bersama keluarga di akhir pekan; jalan yang kita lewati dalam keseharian; infrastruktur sosial dimana kita berada untuk berbagai kepentingan; ruang publik dimana penduduk kota berinteraksi sebagai sebuah kesatuan komunitas.Bebargai bahaya akan muncul ketika pemanfaatan lingkungan binaan (baik yg ditata maupun tidak), bersama dengan pola tingkah laku warga masyarakat perkotaan, telah memaksa kita menghirup udara yang terpolusi; meminum air yang terkontaminasi; menderita karena taman-taman kota telah disusupi kendaraan bermotor yang menyebabkan terbuangnya gas finil hidrocarbon ke dalam taman. Ruang terbuka ini seharusnya terbebas dari segala wujud gas beracun; meminum air tanah yang dikontaminasi oleh polutan yang dibuang secara sembarangan oleh beragam industri. Kontaminasi ini juga telah merambah ke air yang dimanfaatkan untuk produksi bahan pangan yang kita konsumsi dalam keseharian.Namun, tidak bisa dipungkiri jika keberadaan penyakit kanker pada tubuh seseorang juga tergantung dari gaya hidup yang dijalaninya. Ini berkaitan dengan bagaimana dan kapan kita makan; bagaimana pola istirahat (tidur) yang dimiliki; bagaimana seseorang mengontrol kondisi kesehatan psikologisnya; bagaimana kita bergerak dari satu tempat ke tempat satunya, dan lain-lain. Tetapi ketika kita berkeinginan untuk menangani permasalahan ini secara benar dari kaca mata pengaturan lingkungan binaan, kita harus mempertanyakan "Bisakah perencanaan berkontribusi dalam menciptakan lingkungan yang sehat?" Jika jawabannya adalah "ya," maka metode analisis, kebijakan, cara implementasi dan pengendaliannya, juga harus ditetapkan, jika memang belum ada. Dalam teorinya perencanaan didedikasikan untuk kebaikan masyarakat yang diaturnya, termasuk status kesehatan mereka. Namun di dalam prakteknya, kita harus awas, karena perencanaan merupakan sebuah mekanisme kenegaraan yang kemunculannya seringkali merupakan hasil koalisi dengan para pemilik modal. Seperti diketahui bersama, bisnis (kepentingan ekonomi) lebih sering keluar sebagai pemenang dibanding kebutuhan orang banyak. Namun ketika lingkungan tercemari, bisa dipastikan jika perencanaan memiliki peran serta tanggung jawab yang mutlak. Atau secara gamblang bisa dinyatakan perencanaan tidak melakukan tugas yang seharusnya diembannya. Situasi ini bisa disebabkan oleh beragam alasan, misalnya kurangnya sumber daya finansial; praktek-praktek korupsi dalam proses pengeluaran ijin membangun ataupun ijin operasional lainnya; minimnya pengaturan serta pengendalian; absennya pengaturan densitas (kepadatan) di daerah; tata aturan zonasi yang selalu memberi peluang untuk negosiasi dan tawar-menawar; tidak tepatnya kebijakan yang diberlakukan; tidak adanya perhatian terhadap praktek-praktek perencanaan yang sudah dibuktikan keberhasilannya dan sudah diterapkan di level gobal. Perlu juga dipahami disini jika masyarakat bukan selalu objek pasif. Mereka memiliki pilihan dan bisa memilih. Apakah mereka memilih untuk mengekspose dirinya terhadap beragam polutan? Atau kemungkinan sebagian dari mereka memang tidak memiliki pilihan, selain menerima polusi lingkungan sebagai bagian dari kehidupan kesehariannya. Atau kelompok yang lain lagi memutuskan untuk membuat pilihan, bagaimana berhadapan dengan polutan serta menghindari interaksi dengan cara apapun. Berbagai kota di dunia telah memberi perhatian besar terhadap pembangunan lingkungan yang sehat. Sikap ini secara mendasar merupakan langkah yang tepat, termasuk juga jika dikaji dari perspektif bisnis (ekonomi). Transportasi yang bersih dan efisien serta perencanaan yang sudah mapan, selain berdampak positif terhadap elemen-elemen kota juga akan mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi. Oleh karenanya, di negara-negara maju, pola pendekatan semacam ini telah diakomodasi sebagai elemen esensial dan diterima sebagai bagian dari kebijakan perencanaan, serta diprioritaskan sebelum pertimbangan-pertimbangan lainnya. Proses globalisasi yang telah menjadi motor kemunculan dari 'informational class of labour' (Castells) atau yang disebut sebagai the 'creative class' oleh Richard Florida, telah secara jelas mengindikasikan ke kita bahwa kota-kota yang memberi perhatian terhadap lingkungan dan pelestarian kebudayaan menunjukan kesusksesan dalam pembangunannya, sedangkan yang tidak melakukannya berada pada posisi yang sebaliknya. Tidak ada satupun orang di muka bumi ini yang berkeinginan bekerja di lingkungan yang kotor dan terpolusi. Jika sebuah satuan kedaerahan mencanangkan untuk mengundang para pekerja yang berkulitas, rencana ini akan sangat tergantung dari tersedianya lingkungan yang berkualitas, selain adanya proses branding yang menjadi bagian penting dalam berkompetisi di dunia global. Dalam hal ini, beragam pertimbangan penting yang akan berpengaruh, seperti misalnya: dimanakah funsi-fungsi industri akan ditempatkan sehingga karsinogen yang diproduksi akan diserap secara internal dan tidak dibuang ke tanah, udara, dan air yang menjadi sumber kehidupan bagi kita semua?; dimanakah rumah masa dpean akan dilokasikan?; dimana infrastruktur sosial: rumah sakit, sekolah, kantor-kantor publik, dan lain-lain akan direncanakan?; Kapankah pengaturan dan pengendalian kendaraan bermotor akan diimplementasikan, seperti halnya yang sudah diterapkan di berbagai kota di dunia?; Kapankah tata aturan di jalan raya, pemanfaatan jalan raya oleh para pengendara dengan cara yang seolah-olah tidak ada aturan, parkir yang tidak terkontrol, serta pelanggaran-pelanggaran lainnya akan dikendalikan seperti halnya proses pengecekan surat ijin mengemudi? Jawaban atas pertanyaan-pertanyaan di atas tidak hanya berkenaan dengan pembangunan serta penataan keruangan fisik semata, tetapi membutuhkan perencanaan yang inklusif yang juga secara bersamaan merangkul pendekatan tingkah laku. Konsepsi terakhir ini sangatlah penting karena kualitas sebuah tempat tidak bisa dipisahkan, baik dari gaya hidup masyarakat lokal yang diakmodasinya maupun komunitas internasional yang menjadi salah satu faktor penentu, khususnya dalam peran mereka sebagai penyedia sumber daya finansial dan investasi. Selain itu, perencanaan semacam ini tidak bisa jika hanya difokuskan pada usaha pengimplementasian pemerintahan kota yang ketat, tetapi juga perlu diatur secara hukum. Dengan kata lain, mekanismenya harus dilengkapi dengan sanksi-sanksi yang jelas, bagaiman pelanggaran yang kemungkinan terjadi akan ditindak. Semua proposisi yang diajukan disini bersifat nyata dan sangat memungkinkan untuk dilaksanakan, dan bukan sesuatu yang hanya bisa digambarkan sebagai angan-angan semata. Dalam edisi Jurnal Ruang-Space ini, dipublikasi 7 artikel. Artikel pertama oleh Wahyudi Arimbawa, yang membicarakan tentang peranan yang berpotensi untuk diampu oleh desa adat dalam mengendalikan pemanfaatan lahan di Desa Jatiluwih. Tujuan akhir studi adalah membangun sistem pengelolaan tataguna lahan untuk desa ini. Artikel kedua ditulis oleh Anak Agung Gde Sutrisna, yang mengevaluasi bagaimana bhisama kesucian pura - kebijakan lokal yang mengatur pembangunan di zona lindung di sekitar pura - telah dilanggar, khususnya dalam kasus Pura Dang Kahyangan di area pariwisata Kuta Selatan, Kabupaten Badung-Bali. Artikel ini juga menginvestigasi dampak positif dan negatif dari beragam pelanggaran yang terjadi. Artikel ketiga disusun oleh Anak Agung Aritama, yang mendiskusikan keberadaan media penanda yang tidak terkendalikan dan telah merusak image kota, seperti yang terjadi di sepanjang Koridor Jalan Hayam Wuruk, Kota Denpasar. Artikel ini fokus pada pemahaman faktor-faktor yang berkontribusi dalam pemunculan permasalahan ini.Artikel keempat disusun oleh Agus Dharmaputra, yang berjalan beriringan dengan ide pengaturan pembangunan fungsi komersial di kota. Sebagai langkah awal, artikel ini menstudi beragam pertimbangan yang diterapkan sebelum lokasi sebuah minimarket (studi kasus yang diambil)- bisa difinalisasi oleh pelaku bisnis, dan juga sebelum berkas ijin mendirikan bangunan diajukan ke pemerintah. Artikel kelima ditulis oleh Doddy Kastamayasa, sebuah studi tentang layout keruangan Banjar Ujung, sebuah kampung nelayan yang terletak di Kabupaten Karangasem, bagian timur Bali, pasca diterpanya komunitas ini oleh beragam bencana alam. Permukiman ini telah mengalami kerusakan, dampak dari meletusnya Gunung Agung di tahun 1963, dan bencana erosi serta abrasi dalam kurun waktu tiga tahun, dari tahun 1997 sampai dengan 1999. Artikel keenam ditulis oleh Anak Agung Mahendra berkenaan dengan konservasi ruang publik, salah satu potensi pengembangan industri kepariwisataan di Desa Kendran, Kabupaten Gianyar. Desa ini ditunjuk sebagai salah satu destinasi wisata desa, proposisi yang disambut dengan antusiasme tinggi oleh Kabupaten Gianyar. Artikel terakhir disusun oleh Ngakan Juliastika, yang mendiskusikan tentang permasalahan terkait pembangunan perumahan oleh para pengembang, dengan memprioritaskan keuntungan ekonomi di atas konformansi terhadap tata aturan yang ada. Beranjak dari situasi ini, penulis merangkum tujuh set strategi penting yang telah diterapkan oleh para pengembang, dan diimplementasikan dalam tujuh kasus pembangunan perumahan yang berbeda. In its 2014 report, the World Health Organisation (WHO) stated that cancers had been responsible for the death of 8.2 million people in 2012. This is probably a massive underestimation, since poverty and medical services are not available to a multitude of people. Millions of cases therefore are likely to go unrecorded. There were 14 million new cases encountered in the same year. This United Nations Agency cannot see this figure reducing any time soon. The number is instead forecast to climb by 70% in twenty years time. While this agency cannot sufficiently stress how life threathening cancer is, nonetheless it is a complex medical condition whose origin can be traced to human exposure to carcinogens, some environmental, some dietary, and some self inflicted such as smoking. In its report, the WHO states that cancer is a result of an excessive exposure to three forms of poisons, both directly and indirectly, including physical, chemical and biological carcinogens. While one cannot determine a singular cause, human contact with those carcinogens is undoubtedly associated with the quality of the environment people inhabit. This implies at least in part, that any environmentally generated cancers must be addressed and overcome by incorporating anti-cancer strategies. These represent essential practice as part of the totality of existing and planned changes to the built environment. Both policies and practices should be rigorously implemented at all scales and urban forms. This of course includes most importantly the immediate environment of housing –the ancillary spaces where we park our cars; spend our family time over the weekend; the roads we commute on daily, the social infrastructures we inhabit for various reasons, and the public spaces where we interact with other members of the community. The danger begins when the organisation of this living environment, together with the patterns of individual behaviour associated with it, forces us to breath polluted air; to drink contaminated water; to suffer the encroachment into public parks by vehicles contributing cancerous phenyl-hydrocarbons into the very spaces people go to avoid them; having to drink groundwater contaminated by the pollution of the earth by industry, and hence the very water deployed in the processes of food production. There is no doubt that cancer is to a large extent dependent upon the life style we choose. How and when we eat, how we sleep, how we manage our psychological state, how we move around etc. But in order to address the problem correctly from an environmental standpoint, we must consider the question "can planning contribute to the creation of a healthy living environment?'' If so, what methods of analysis, policy, implementation, and policing should be set in place, if these are not in place already? In theory, planning works for the good of the people, including preserving their health. In practice we must retain a healthy dose of suspicion, since planning is a servo mechanism of the state, and in most instances the state works for private capital. So business usually triumphs in the face of the popular demands of the people. But when the environment becomes polluted it is unquestionable that planning plays a significant role by default. Bluntly stated it is not doing what it is supposed to do. This situation has many causes – lack of funding, corrupt practices that are always associated with development permissions, inadequate legislation, the absence of appropriate density controls, negotiable zoning regulation, improper policing, or simply ignorance of contemporary planning practices and global best practice. Nevertheless, people are not always passive victims. They also make choices as to whether or not they expose themselves to pollutants. Some may have no other option but to accept environmental pollution as part of their daily life. Others however may make choices as to how to deal with it, and avoid exposure at all cost. Many cities have placed a great stress on the creation of a healthy living environment. Paradoxically, this is also good for business since clean and efficient transport and a highly regulated planning system are good for everyone. The idea is now adopted as an essential and accepted part of planning policies and given priority over many other considerations in the developed world. The processes of globalisation and the rise of an 'informational class of labour' (Castells) or what Richard Florida calls 'the Ceative Class' has demonstrated without a doubt that those cities that stress environment and cultural services succeed where others fail. Nobody wants to work in a polluted and filthy environment. So attracting high quality workers is highly dependent on the production of a high quality environment and the branding process now essential to urban competition. In this context many concerns come to the force, such as: where are all types of industry to be located in order to guarantee that the carcinogens they produce will be internally absorbed and not dumped into the land, air or water that nourish us? Where are future homes to be located ? Where should the social infrastructure: schools, hospitals, public offices, etc be planned? How should existing planning standards be upgraded to accommodate new open spaces and to compenstate for the incredible current lack of provision for the populace? When will the proper policing and management of motor vehicles be implemented as it is in countless other cities? When will the implementation of road rules, reckless driving, uncontrolled parking and other offences be given equal status to checking driving licenses? The answer however is not merely a matter of establishing a sound physical and spatial plan, but rather an inclusive one embracing human behavioural approaches all together. The latter is of paramount importance as the quality of a place cannot be disconnected either from the lifestyles of the community it accommodates or the international community it depends on for finance and investment. How such necessary planning should be imposed not only implies more rigorous urban governance, but the proper and extensive application of the laws that exist today. None of the above is imaginary. In this issue of Ruang-Space Journal 7 articles are published. The first one is by Wahyudi Arimbawa. It talks about the potential roled played by the desa adat institution in controlling land utilization in Jatiluwih Village. The final objective of this study is to develop a system of land use management for this village. The second article is written by Anak Agung Gde Sutrisna. This research evaluates how the bhisama kesucian pura - local guidelines for development within the protective zone surrounding a temple - has been violated, especially in the case of Dang Kahyangan temples located in a touristy area of South Kuta District, Badung Regency-Bali. This article also investigates the impacts such violations have, both negatively and positively. The third article is authored by Anak Agung Aritama. It discusses the uncontrolled presence of urban signage to a level that ruins the image of a town, as is observed when one walks along the Hayam Wuruk Corridor of Denpasar Kota. The article focuses on the comprehension of factors leading to the overall lack of control that generates such chaotic effects. The fourth article is by Agus Dharmaputra. It supports the idea of regulating the development of commercial functions in an urban area. This article offers a preliminary study of considerations used before the location for any minimarket - the commercial functions taken as case studies - is finalized by owners, prior to building permit application to the government. The fifth article is authored by Doddy Kastamayasa. This is a study of a post natural disaster fishing settlement of Ujung Neighborhood in Karangasem Regency on the eastern coast of Bali Island. This settlement was badly hit by the eruption of Mount Agung in 1963. It was then also eroded by significant storms and resultant erosion abrasions over three years from 1997 up to 1999. The sixth article is documented by Anak Agung Mahendra, which is about the conservation of public spaces of Kendran Village in Gianyar Regency. This study is necessary as the village is denoted as the mext rural tourism destination , a proposition which has been accepted with enthusiasm by Gianyar Regency. The last article is written by Ngakan Juliastika. It discusses problems associated with developers decision to focus more on generating profits rather than conforming to the housing development guidelines and policies that have been established. Taking this situation as a point of departure, this paper suggests seven sets of strategies implemented by various developers at seven different housing developments.

A partire dagli anni Novanta, il Postumanesimo è entrato in maniera crescente nella discussione accademica, riflettendo l'esigenza contemporanea di una riformulazione della prospettiva filosofica in grado di interloquire e interagire teoreticamente con gli sviluppi onto-epistemologici, oltreché scientifici e bio-tecnologici, del XX° e del XXI° secolo. In questo scenario mutato, "postumano" e "transumano" sono divenuti termini di ricerca filosofica, scientifica e, più in generale, esistenziale. Il panorama filosofico che si è andato sviluppando in maniera molteplice e a tutt'oggi in divenire, per far fronte alla ridefinizione del concetto di "umano", comprende diverse scuole di pensiero, i cui sviluppi teoretici sono divergenti e non assimilabili. L'etichetta "postumano" viene spesso evocata in maniera generica e pluri-comprensiva per indicare questi diversi punti di vista, creando confusione metodologica e teoretica nella discussione sia accademica che mediatica. In altre parole, "postumano" è diventato un termine-ombrello che include il Postumanesimo Filosofico, Critico e Culturale; il Transumanesimo (nelle sue varianti in quanto: Estropico, Liberale e Democratico, tra le altre correnti); i Nuovi Materialismi (uno sviluppo postumano di matrice specificamente femminista); il frastagliato panorama dell'Antiumanesimo; le Postumanità e le Metaumanità. Al momento manca uno studio che ponga chiarezza sulle somiglianze e differenze tra i vari termini e scuole di pensiero; sulle loro specifiche genealogie, analogie, e talvolta, sovrapposizioni. Questa tesi tenta, da un lato, di colmare tale vuoto; dall'altro, vuole apportare un contributo critico e teoretico alla discussione postumana, situandosi specificamente nel Postumanesimo Filosofico. Parte 1 Storico-Teoretica La tesi è suddivisa in due parti. La prima parte, più strettamente storico-teoretica, si sviluppa attorno a tre nodi tematici, individuati nelle domande: Cosa è il Postumanesimo Filosofico? Quando e come l'Essere Umano è diventato Umano? Siamo sempre stati/e Postumane/i? Le tre domande non costituiscono nette suddivisioni discorsive, ma sono da considerarsi come spunti e suggestioni che informano lo svilupparsi del discorso. Alla prima domanda, corrisponde una riflessione storica sul Postumanesimo Filosofico, riconosciuto in quanto filosofia in fieri, sviluppo recente del Postumanesimo Critico e Culturale, a sua volta locato nella Critica Letteraria, a partire dalla coniazione del termine (Hassan 1987), fino ad arrivare agli Anni Novanta e alla pubblicazione del testo-chiave "How We Became Posthuman" (1999) di Katherine Hayles. Negli Anni Novanta si può anche individuare il formarsi di una riflessione più strettamente filosofica del Postumanesimo, che si andrà sviluppando dalla prima decade del XXI° secolo fino ad oggi, e la cui genealogia, tracciata a partire dalla "Lettera sull'Umanesimo" di Martin Heidegger (1947), passa attraverso il Postmodernismo, gli Studi delle Differenze (sessuali, etnico-razziali, di genere, classe, età, abilità fisica, etc.) e la Teoria Cyborg. Proprio attraverso il cyborg, specificamente situato nella riflessione critica di Donna Haraway (1985), il Postumanesimo interiorizza l'ibrido come l'origine che non ha origine. Il Postumanesimo è una filosofia della mediazione, post-dualistica, post-centralizzante, inclusiva e comprensiva. Da un lato, si pone, in quanto "post-umanesimo", come una critica radicale all'umanesimo e all'antropocentrismo; dall'altro, nella sua significazione di "postuman-esimo", riconosce quegli aspetti che sono costitutivamente umani, e ciononostante, oltre i limiti costitutivi dell'umano in senso stretto. Il Postumanesimo apre a diversi tipi di conoscenza, offrendo un invito a un pensare teoretico inclusivo, che posizioni genealogicamente l'umanità all'interno della multiversalità, e contemporaneamente, l'alterità dentro il sé. La differenza è il cuore del Postumanesimo: non può essere cancellata nella sua prassi, senza allo stesso tempo minare l'identità teorica dell'approccio postumano prospettivista, che viene tracciato, da un lato, attraverso la proposta di Friedrich Nietzsche (1887; 19061), dall'altro, attraverso il significato biologico della nozione di "autopoiesi" (Maturana / Varela 1972). È importante notare come la prospettiva non gerarchica del postumano, che include la possibilità del punto di vista dell'animale non-umano (Wolfe 2010), dell'intelligenza artificiale e della robotica, fino a forme di vita sconosciute, sia radicata nel riconoscimento che la differenza è già incorporata nella specie umana, con tutti i suoi generi, etnie, varietà sociali, individuali etc. Il Postumanesimo si può considerare un Postmodernismo di seconda generazione, che porta alle estreme conseguenze la decostruzione dell'umano, apportando all'interno della rivisitazione teoretica lo specismo, ossia, il privilegio di alcune specie rispetto ad altre – nel caso specifico, il privilegio riconosciuto all'essere umano dall'essere umano, rispetto a tutte le altre forme di esistenza. La apertura onto-epistemologica del Potumanesimo si colloca in una visione ibrida dell'umano stesso. In questo senso si affronta la seconda domanda, e cioè: quando e come l'essere umano è diventato umano? Nella storia occidentale, il concetto di "umano" è stato reinscritto all'interno di categorie segnate da pratiche esclusiviste. Il sessismo, il razzismo, il classismo, il geriatrismo, l'omofobia e l'abilismo, accanto ad altre forme discriminatorie, hanno informato il paradigma riconoscitivo rispetto a chi considerare umano/a. In questa tesi, viene enfatizzato come il Postumanesimo Filosofico abbia origine nella decostruzione radicale dell' "umano" che, iniziata come una causa politica negli anni Sessanta e tramutatasi in un progetto accademico negli anni Settanta, si è evoluta in un approccio epistemologico negli anni Novanta, producendo una moltiplicazione di prospettive, e riproponendo l'umano in quanto nozione processuale, molteplice, nomade, in divenire. In questo senso, il Postumanesimo è inevitabilmente indebitato con gli Studi di Genere, i Critical Race Studies, la Teoria Queer, gli Studi Postcoloniali, gli Studi sulla Disabilità, e, in generale, lo studio delle differenze (slegate da una norma costitutiva). Questa rivisitazione dell'umano storico viene affrontata anche a livello linguistico e tassonomico, per comprendere se l'esclusivismo che ha caratterizzato i risultati del processo di umanizzazione – concepito come verbo, "umanizzare", più che come "macchina antropologica" (Agamben 2002) –, sia interconnesso ai meccanismi semantici che sostengono il termine "umano", investigato nel suo etimo latino (humanitas), e nella sua classificazione tassonomica in quanto Homo sapiens. Questa investigazione risulta funzionale al fine di riflettere sulla rilevanza di postulare un "post" alla nozione di umano. Da un lato, il post-umano deve essere consapevole della sua relazione genealogica rispetto all'umano, e approfondire il significato di ciò che questo comporta. 1Si fa qui riferimento alla seconda edizione di "La Volontà di Potenza", la cui prima pubblicazione apparve, postuma, nel 1901. D'altro lato, il postumanesimo manifesta con successo il suo impegno critico e stabilisce il suo approccio attraverso le condizioni del "post" (al posto di altri prefissi, quali "trans" e "anti"). Il Postumanesimo viene dunque confrontato con altre correnti di pensiero, in particolare il Transumanesimo e l'Antiumanesimo. Mentre il Postumanesimo nasce dal Postmodernismo, il Transumanesimo cerca le proprie origini nell'Illuminismo, e quindi non espropria l'umanesimo, al contrario, può essere definito come un ultra-umanesimo. È importante notare che il Transumanesimo ospita al suo interno varie correnti che, pur condividendone le linee teoriche, differiscono su punti determinati; verranno interpellate alcune delle principali voci dell'Estropianesimo (More 1990; 1998) (Vita-More 2004), del Transumanesimo Democratico (Hughes 2004), e della Singolarità (Kurzweil 2005). Al fine di potenziare le capacità umane, il Transumanesimo opta per una trasformazione radicale della condizione umana attuale, attraverso tecnologie emergenti e speculative (come nel caso della medicina rigenerativa, l'estensione radicale della vita, l'uploading e la crionica), suggerendo che la diversità e la molteplicità andranno a sostituire la nozione di esistenza umana all'interno di un unico sistema, come è il corpo biologico. Per il Transumanesimo, gli esseri umani potranno eventualmente trasformarsi così radicalmente da diventare postumani/e (il concetto di postumano stesso è interpretato in un'accezione specificamente transumanista). Se la forza della visione transumana consiste nell'apertura rispetto alle possibilità offerte dalla scienza e dalla tecnologia, in questo stesso aspetto, si fonda la sua debolezza, che può essere individuata in una assimilazione tecno-riduzionista dell'esistente, e in una linearità progressivista che non concede spazio a pratiche decostruzioniste. Se la razionalità moderna e il progresso sono al centro della postulazione del transumano, una critica radicale di queste stesse nozioni è al cuore dell'Antiumanesimo, una posizione filosofica che, pur condividendo le sue radici nella postmodernità con il Postumanesimo, non deve essere equiparata ad esso. La decostruzione dell'umano, che è quasi assente nella riflessione del Transumanesimo, è fondamentale per l'Antiumanesimo. Questo è uno dei suoi punti in comune con il Postumanesimo, mentre la loro distinzione principale è già incorporata nelle morfologie, e specificamente, nella loro composizione: l'opposizione strutturale implicita nel prefisso "anti-" è contestata dall'orizzonte post-dualistico ontologico-processuale del "post-". Il Postumanesimo è consapevole del fatto che presunzioni umanistiche e gerarchiche non sono facilmente individuabili. In questo senso, più che con la "morte dell'Uomo" di Michel Foucault (1966), che è uno dei principali punti di partenza di una certa riflessione antiumanista, il postumano è in sintonia con l'approccio decostruzionista di Jacques Derrida (1967). In questa sezione, l'Übermensch di Friedrich Nietzsche (1882; 1883-5) viene messo in relazione, sotto prospettive differenti, sia al Post-, che al Trans-, che all'Anti-Umanesimo. Un aspetto che accomuna lo scenario postumano (qui inteso in senso esteso), è il suo interesse nel riflettere sulle potenzialità offerte alla nozione di "umano", dagli sviluppi tecnologici. Nel Transumanesimo, tale focus è fortemente centralizzante e strumentale; la tecnologia si risolve come mezzo e fine per l'ottenimento di specifici traguardi: a partire da tecnologie sempre più avanzate, fino ad arrivare all'immortalità, ridefinita come estensione radicale della vita. Il Postumanesimo Filosofico, passando attraverso "La questione della Tecnica" (1953) di Martin Heidegger, indaga la tecnologia come una modalità di disvelamento, e ri-accede in questo modo alle sue potenzialità ontologiche ed esistenziali; la nozione di tecnologie del sé (Foucault 1988)2 diventa significativa in un panorama che ha decostruito il dualismo sé / altro, attraverso un'ontologia relazionale. In questo senso, l'essere umano non è percepito come agente autonomo, ma come parte di un network semiotico e materiale (Latour 1987; 2005), oltreché multidimensionale. Ogni manifestazione dell'esistenza, in questo quadro descrittivo, viene percepita come nodo del divenire, operante tecnologia del multiverso. La nozione di multiverso si riferisce alle indagini scientifiche dal micro al macro livello della materia, indagini che, a partire dagli anni Settanta, hanno portato diversi campi di investigazione (dalla Fisica Quantistica alla Cosmologia e all'Astrofisica), alla stessa conclusione ipotetica: questo universo potrebbe essere uno fra tanti. Nonostante la indubbia portata generativa di tale conclusione, l'ipotesi del multiverso è stata per lo più sviluppata in termini che ricalcano prospettive umano-centriche e solipsistiche, sia a livello scientifico (Tegmark 2010), che filosofico – in particolare, nel realismo modale (Lewis 1986). L'ipotesi fisica del multiverso viene rivisitata attraverso il rizoma (Deleuze / Guattari 1987), in una originale acquisizione di senso del multiverso, nozione che si rivela induttiva per un'ontologia postumana monisticamente pluralistica e pluristicamente monista, che ha decostruito il dualismo strutturale Uno/Infinito. In questo senso, viene affrontato il terzo nodo tematico, legato alla domanda: siamo sempre stati/e postumane/i? A questo fine, viene indagato il campo della biologia, i relativi concetti di vita e di evoluzione, e le modalità di ri-accedervi del Postumanesimo, attraverso lo scioglimento di dualismi frontali quali vita/morte, organico/artificiale, animato/inanimato, in una rivisitazione trasversale della materia – in particolare, attraverso la Fisica Quantistica e la Teoria delle Stringhe – indagata attraverso la prospettiva dei Nuovi Materialismi, nella riflessione di Rosi Braidotti, (2002; 2006), Jane Bennett (2010), e Karen Barad (2007). 2Poco prima di morire, nel 1984, Foucault esternò la sua intenzione di lavorare a un libro sulle tecnologie del sé. Nel 1988, il testo "Tecnologie del Sé: un Seminario con Michel Foucault" è stato pubblicato post-mortem, sulla base di un seminario che Foucault aveva presentato presso l'Università del Vermont nel 1982. Parte 2. Empirico-Sperimentale Nella Parte 2, presenterò i risultati empirici della ricerca che ho condotto con il Prof. Kevin Warwick – noto per gli esperimenti "Cyborg I" (1998) e "Cyborg II" (2002) –, presso il Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Reading (Inghilterra), Ottobre 2010 / Gennaio 2011. Un questionario pensato attraverso l'Epistemologia Femminista è stato compilato da più di cento studenti/esse, rilevando questioni cruciali sul ruolo di genere ed etnia nella produzione dell'Intelligenza Artificiale. Le domande teoriche che mi hanno spinto ad investigare questo territorio sperimentale, ibrido, tra la filosofia, la sociologia e le tecno-scienze, possono essere cosí presentate: come viene concepito il cyborg, a livello onto-epistemologico, dal contemporaneo pensiero scientifico? Come maschile? Femminile? Transgender? Rivelare la Weltanschauung di giovani studiosi e studiose della Cibernetica diventa fondamentale per contemplare le possibilità del cyborg, affinché questo non si riveli in un nuovo dualismo, come quello, già contemplato nella letteratura fantascientifica, dell'umano "vero" versus cyborg, che presenta l'intelligenza artificiale come il nuovo "altro", lo specchio differenziale (Irigaray 1974), attraverso cui riaffermare l'umano. Il rischio che tale vuoto simbolico venga assegnato all'automa esiste, in particolare se il progresso della scienza perseguirà strade legate a pratiche storicamente esclusiviste. Nella prospettiva postumana, il valore differenziale della robotica viene interpretato in un'ottica di complementarità. Il fatto che nell'automa si vada sviluppando un tipo di intelligenza diversa rispetto a quella umana, non viene giudicato attraverso l'ottica antropocentrica e dualista (basata sulla dicotomia cartesiana corpo/mente) tipica dei padri dell'Intelligenza Artificiale, secondo cui il modello di intelligenza per eccellenza è quello umano (Minsky 1985: Moravec 1988). Il Postumanesimo dismette la necessità della costituzione simbolica dell'altro/a – che ha storicamente tracciato l'umano, e che oggi si riadotta nella rappresentazione dell'intelligenza artificiale –, in quanto inefficiente, fondata su un confronto esclusivista e settoriale. Il Postumanesimo riconosce il potenziale delle differenze in un'ottica integrata, come estensione di possibilità. Riflettere a livello teoretico sulla costituzione onto-epistemologica del cyborg ha una portata non solo filosofica, ma socio-politica. Questa parte della tesi enfatizza la rivisitazione femminista della tecnologia e della scienza, e più in generale, il contributo del pensiero della differenza nell'interpretazione della moltiplicazione delle differenze attraverso gli sviluppi della robotica e dell'intelligenza artificiale, per far sì che l'inclusivismo situato del pensiero postumano si adoperi in questa storica riformulazione dell'esistente, da cui si generano future ontologie. Conclusioni Questa tesi si propone, da un lato, di chiarire il confuso scenario del postumano; dall'altro, sviluppa la riflessione sul Postumanesimo Filosofico, chiarendo innanzitutto la necessità di stabilire un "post" alla storia esclusivista e gerarchizzata dell'antropocentrismo. Pur consapevole delle proprie limitazioni epistemiche (in quanto teorizzato da e per esseri umani), il Postumanesimo, decentrando l'umano, apre a diversi tipi di conoscenza e comprensione, offrendo un invito a un pensare teoretico inclusivo, che posizioni genealogicamente l'umanità all'interno del multiverso, e contemporaneamente l'alterità dentro il sé. La riflessione sulle possibilità aperte dal Postumanesimo svela la sua carica politica e rievoca l'agency come partecipazione del soggetto situato nella visualizzazione di futuri desiderabili, includendo la bioetica, ma non risolvendosi in essa; il suo campo investigativo include i Futures Studies (la nozione di "futuro" è da intendersi in senso non-lineare). Una volta che l'essere umano, e più in generale, l'esistente, vengono riconosciuti in quanto network semiotici, materiali, e multiversali, immaginare modi di esistenza postumana diventa un processo di significazione che eccede ogni singolo agente, un'intra-attività relazionale non dualisticamente scissa da manifestazioni ontiche. Il Postumanesimo è una prassi: il "cosa" del suo pensiero è necessariamente connesso al "come". Pensare in un'ottica pluralistica, radicata in un ampio resoconto critico di ciò che significa essere umani/e, offre al soggetto storico contemporaneo la capacità di relazionarsi, non solo, all'estrema apertura di possibilità contemplate attraverso gli sviluppi della scienza e della tecnologia, ma anche, al potenziale connesso alle tecnologie evolutive della materia e del divenire, presentandosi come un percorso esistenziale alla scoperta del sé, una volta che il sé è stato riconosciuto in quanto alterità. Queste sono le ragioni per cui, nell'ambito del pensiero contemporaneo, ritengo il Postumanesimo Filosofico come l'approccio più fluido e flessibile per riflettere sul presente, sul passato, e su futuri possibili, sviscerando, da un lato, i significati e le potenzialità di un passaggio onto-epistemologico dall'umano al postumano; dall'altro, rilevando l'importanza della decostruzione filosofica, politica e sociale dell'umano, affinché il Postumanesimo possa sviluppare modalità inclusive, mediate e comprensive, ma allo stesso tempo situate. Il Postumanesimo deve radicarsi in un ampio resoconto critico di ciò che significa essere umane/i, offrendo un terminus a quo strategico da cui immaginare prossime postumanità che mettano in discussione il tradizionale discorso del potere "neutro", e si rivelino inclusive per un crescente numero di soggettività situate. Questa tesi vuole offrire lo spazio teorico per una visualizzazione critica e pluralisticamente desiderabile di futuri postumani, scardinando la necessità della costituzione simbolica dell'altro/a, e riconoscendo che l'essere umano, in quanto ontologicamente differenziale e relazionale, oltreché costantemente in evoluzione, è sempre stato postumano.

AMÉRICA LATINA Brasil admite haber espiado dependencias de la embajada de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/americas/brazil-acknowledges-spying-on-diplomats-from-us.html?ref=worldhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24828668http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/americas/brazil-spying/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/04/actualidad/1383574787_015627.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/brasil-tambien-ha-espiado-revela-diario-84751.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/11/131105_ultnot_brasil_espionaje_ministro_wbm.shtml Según sondeos Bachelet ganaría en primera vuelta. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633786-bachelet-ganaria-en-primera-vuelta Incendio presuntamente intencional daña sede de Bachelet en Chile. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/incendio-presuntamente-intencional-dana-sede-de-michelle-bachelet-en-chile_13160872-4 Los Zelaya buscan volver al poder en Honduras. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635144-los-zelaya-buscan-volver-al-poder-en-honduras Elecciones en Argentina: Kirchner derrotada en las legislativas. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/elecciones-en-argentina_13145902-4http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/perfil-del-poltico-argentino-sergio-massa_13153376-4 Gobierno argentino encuentra documentos secretos de la dictadura militar. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/americas/argentina-dictatorship-files/index.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383624001_706481.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/governo-argentino-encontra-documentos-secretos-da-ditadura-militar-10686218#ixzz2joShCyyF Sismo de 6,5 grados sacude centro de Chile. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/sismo-de-65-grados-en-chile_13153716-4 Diversos medios analizan las nuevas rutas de la cocaína de America Latina. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2013/11/05/en-amerique-latine-les-nouvelles-routes-de-la-cocaine_3508494_3222.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24800089 Accidente de avión en Bolivia deja ocho muertos y 10 heridos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/accidente-de-avin-en-bolivia-deja-ocho-muertos-y-10-heridos_13159103-4 Ocho países realizan el mayor ejercicio militar aéreo conjunto en Latinoamérica. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383609280_789526.html Ley de medios, un golpe a grupo argentino Clarín. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/ley-de-medios-un-golpe-a-grupo-clarn_13149960-4 Ex presidente de Perú reta a Ollanta a debate. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/reta-ex-presidente-de-peru-a-ollanta-a-debate-963273.html Cuba prohíbe cines privados y venta de artículos importados. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24790569http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cuba-prohbe-cines-3d-privados-y-venta-de-artculos-importados_13157084-4 Guatemala pierde interés en integrarse a Petrocaribe. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/ultimas_noticias/2013/11/131105_ultnot_guatemala_retira_petrocaribe_jgc.shtml México: miles de personas celebraron el Día de los Muertos. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635005-dia-de-los-muertos Maduro decreta el "Día de la Lealtad y el Amor al Comandante Supremo". Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezuela-celebrara-el-dia-de-la-lealtad-y-el-amor-al-comandante-hugo-chavez_13160847-4 Venezuela introducirá nuevo tipo de cambio para turistas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634235-venezuela-introducira-nuevo-tipo-de-cambio-para-turistas Nicolás Maduro y la militarización de la sociedad venezolana. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/nicols-maduro-y-la-militarizacin-de-la-sociedad-venezolana_13156470-4 Diversos miedos crecen respecto a capacidad de Brasil de hospedar el próximo Mundial de Fútbol. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24828804 16 personas han muerto por dengue en Nicaragua en este año. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/16-muertos-por-dengue-en-nicaragua_13157378-4 13 muertos deja enfrentamiento en Matamoros- México. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24803143 Guerrilla colombiana libera rehén estadounidense Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/27/world/americas/colombia-farc-american-hostage-released/index.html Andrés Oppenheimer analiza crecimeinto latinoamericano. Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/11/02/3725607/andres-oppenheimer-world-ranking.html ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Las elecciones parciales en EE UU señalan el camino a la Casa Blanca. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2013/11/05/a-new-york-une-revanche-sur-les-riches-avec-bill-de-blasio_3508302_3222.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635688-nueva-york-elige-nuevo-alcalde-tras-la-era-giuliani-bloomberghttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/los-neoyorquinos-acuden-a-las-urnas-para-elegir-un-nuevo-alcalde_13160877-4http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24813179http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/eleicoes-de-nova-york-poem-fim-era-bloomberg-10687146#ixzz2joSYWLJm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383677774_704970.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21588913-young-recall-clinton-boom-not-scandals-clinton-effect El espionaje de Estados Unidos y la agencia NSA sigue generando tensión internacional. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634977-la-espia-del-siglo-la-nsa-la-agencia-que-todo-lo-puede-y-todo-lo-vehttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/espionaje-en-estados-unidos-john-kerry-dice-que-el-pas-se-sobrepas_13154238-4 Obama continúa luchando para implementar una reforma en el sistema de salud. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24824653 Obama impulsa reforma migratoria ante empresarios. Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/obama-impulsa-reforma-migratoria-ante-empresarios-963220.html Caos y muerte en el aeropuerto de Los Ángeles por atacante solitario. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634906-detalles-siniestros-del-tiroteo-en-el-aeropuerto-de-los-angeleshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/evacuan-el-aeropuerto-de-los-ngeles-tras-un-tiroteo_13154760-4 Hallan muerto al autor de disparos en centro comercial de Nueva Jersey. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/atirador-achado-morto-apos-disparar-em-shopping-de-nova-jersey-10687415#ixzz2joSdm0KI http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635543-encontraron-muerto-al-tirador-de-nueva-jersey-detras-del-shopping-donde-actuohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/atacante-se-suicida-tras-abrir-fuego-en-centro-comercial-de-nueva-jersey-eeuu_13160298-4 Guantánamo le cuesta a Estados Unidos 200 millones de dólares al año. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383672584_280295.html EUROPA El nacionalismo, la xenofobia y cuestiones migratorias siguen siendo el centro de discusiones en Europa. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/04/21303956-thousands-of-russian-nationalist-marchers-raise-specter-of-anti-immigrant-violence?litehttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/03/actualidad/1383507169_514239.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/russia-nationalists-press-anti-immigrant-agenda.html?ref=world&gwh=A1E63C4610173C0114D1DC8933FD4D60http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/25/world/europe/europe-migration-lampedusa/index.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/jovens-voltam-as-ruas-da-franca-para-protestar-contra-deportacoes-10691363#ixzz2joUI5dwO Berlín convoca al embajador británico por espionaje. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2013/11/05/les-grandes-oreilles-britanniques-en-plein-c-ur-de-berli_3508112_651865.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/embaixada-britanica-em-berlim-teria-sido-usada-para-espionagem-diz-independent-10689217#ixzz2joUDLPDN http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383665180_886243.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/germany-uk-spy-report/index.html?hpt=ieu_c1 Un fuerte temporal azotó el norte de Europa y dejó por lo menos diez muertos Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633430-un-fuerte-temporal-azoto-el-norte-de-europa-y-dejo-por-lo-menos-diez-muertoshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/temporal-al-norte-de-europa_13146984-4}http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/29/world/europe/europe-severe-weather/index.html Asesinadas a cuchilladas tres personas en el secuestro de un autobús en Noruega. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/04/21308934-three-killed-in-norway-bus-attack?litehttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/tres-pessoas-morrem-em-sequestro-de-onibus-na-noruega-10682646#ixzz2joUKrwMp http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24824069http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383606597_727668.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/norway.html?ref=world&gwh=C4E420C2A5F8E1A70185F1DDB4DDD8AB La violencia en la zona serbia aplasta el proceso de pacificación de Kosovo. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/04/actualidad/1383558828_534421.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/europe/violence-mars-election-in-kosovo.html?ref=world&gwh=4F5028F6061EA83EFAA63CC3341D932F La Unión Europea retoma el diálogo de adhesión con Turquía tras años de bloqueo. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383672260_160362.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24825002 Diversos medios analizan perspectivas económicas de la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/05/content_17083716.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/business/eu-predicts-anemic-growth-and-high-unemployment-in-2014.html?ref=world&gwh=EEBF2AAAE54EA8AEEB44B2816F9BC94Chttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634353-el-desempleo-en-la-eurozona-bate-un-nuevo-recordhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24817818 En Ginebra diplomáticos trabajan, sin resultados alentadores, para lograr un acuerdo de paz en Siria. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/06/content_17083814.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/middleeast/syria.html?ref=world Miles de cuerpos son encontrados en fosa común en Bosnia. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/01/world/europe/bosnia-mass-grave/index.html Policía alemana recupera 1.500 obras de arte robadas por los nazis. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/05/21318847-nazi-art-trove-in-german-apartment-includes-previously-unknown-matisse?litehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24818541http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635322-hallan-arte-saqueado-por-los-nazis-valuado-en-us-1350-milloneshttp://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-germany-nazi-art-20131105,0,4039020.story#axzz2joJTEsVh Integrante de Pussy Riot es transferida a cárcel en Siberia. Para más información:http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/integrante-do-pussy-riot-transferida-para-siberia-10693915#ixzz2joU9cuSt Francia recibe cuerpos de los periodistas franceses asesinados en Mali. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/africa/france-mali-journalists-killed/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24815614 "CNN" analiza nueva regulación del accionar de la prensa en Reino Unido. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/world/europe/uk-press-regulation-reaction/index.html Masiva protesta en Madrid por el fallo que liberó a dos etarras Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633062-masiva-protesta-en-madrid-por-el-fallo-que-libero-a-dos-etarras Snowden trabajará en una de las principales páginas web de Rusia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/snowden-trabajar-en-una-web-de-rusia_13152559-4 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE "El Tiempo" de Colombia publica desgarrador articulo que cuenta el drama de las niñas novias de Pakistán. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/nias-de-cinco-aos-en-pakistn-que-estan-casadas_13144836-4 Según la ONU el 40% de la población siria necesita ayuda humanitaria. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-syria-humanitarian-crisis-20131105,0,3474610.story#axzz2joJTEsVhhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383645001_000170.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/10/31/world/meast/syria-chemical-weapons-opcw/index.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/onu-40-da-populacao-siria-precisam-de-ajuda-humanitaria-10683911#ixzz2joVz9Zqc http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-iran-us-20131105,0,2110637.story#axzz2joJTEsVhhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/05/21315471-nine-million-syrians-need-humanitarian-aid-due-to-war-un?lite Al menos 40 muertos, incluidos siete niños, deja coche bomba en Siria- Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/atentado-en-mezquita-de-damasco-en-sirira_13144675-4 El hambre como arma: la nueva táctica del régimen sirio para ganar la guerra. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634045-el-hambre-como-arma-la-nueva-tactica-del-regimen-sirio-para-ganar-la-guerra Diplomáticos no logran poner fecha para realizar una nueva conferencia de paz para Siria. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24827718http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/siria-sin-acuerdo-de-paz-este-anio-onu-963251.htmlhttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/conferencia-de-paz-sobre-siria-adiada-10692998#ixzz2joVspJ98 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/middleeast/while-few-seem-eager-to-talk-peace-in-syria-un-mediator-wont-stop.html?ref=world Siria destruye instalaciones de producción de armas químicas. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/armas-qumicas-en-siria_13152535-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634347-siria-destruyo-sus-instalaciones-de-produccion-de-armas-quimicas Muerte del jefe de talibanes dicen que no afectará el proceso de paz en Pakistán. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/01/world/asia/pakistan-violence/index.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/muerte-de-talibn-afecto-proceso-de-paz-en-pakistn_13156855-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634761-en-una-ofensiva-con-un-drone-muere-el-lider-taliban-en-paquistanhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/asia/afghanistan-karzai-pakistan-taliban/index.html?hpt=ias_c2 Condenados a muerte 152 acusados por los motines en Bangladesh en 2009. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/asia/152-soldiers-given-death-penalty-over-revolt-in-bangladesh.html?ref=worldhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383650531_119779.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/asia/bangladesh-soldiers-death-sentence/index.html?hpt=ias_c1http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24817887 India lanza su primera nave exploratoria a Marte. Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/06/content_17083798.htmhttp://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2013/11/05/world/asia/ap-as-india-mars-mission.html?ref=worldhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/asia/india-mars-orbiter/index.html?hpt=wo_c2http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24729073http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-india-launch-mars-mission-20131104,0,3566545.story#axzz2joJTEsVh No hay signos de un proceso de pacificación en Irak. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/04/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/28/21139521-war-weary-iraqis-scared-to-leave-homes-as-violence-reaches-levels-not-seen-since-2008?lite Riad arresta a miles de inmigrantes irregulares tras el fin de la amnistía. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24810033http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383663779_618475.html Kerry visita Arabia Saudita. Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-us-saudi-rift-kerry-visit-20131104,0,6904287.story#axzz2joJTEsVh Gobierno chino detiene a cinco individuos por ataque en la plaza Tiananmen. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/30/world/asia/china---tiananmen---arrests/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/10/30/21246103-five-arrested-over-tiananmen-square-terrorist-attack-chinese-authorities-say?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1633422-un-raro-incidente-en-la-plaza-tiananmen-dejo-5-muertos Kerry intenta promover diálogo de paz entre palestinos e israelíes. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/middleeast/kerry-in-mideast-tries-to-prod-israeli-palestinian-talks.html?ref=world Terremoto de magnitud 5.0 sacude a Tokio. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/03/world/asia/japan-earthquake/index.html Inundaciones dejan decenas de muertos al este de India. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/26/world/asia/india-floods/index.html Irán ahorca a 16 presuntos rebeldes tras la muerte de 17 policías. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/irn-ahorca-a-presuntos-rebeldes-tras-la-muerte-de-policas_13144300-4 Irán y un posible acuerdo sobre su plan nuclear. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/middleeast/iran-says-nuclear-deal-is-possible-this-week.html?ref=world ÁFRICA Morsi desafía a los militares en Egipto. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/05/world/middleeast/egypt.html?ref=worldhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/11/muhammad-morsi-trialhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/04/actualidad/1383532972_935193.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/mursi-desafia-al-gobierno-egipcio-8220soy-el-presidente-legitimo-8221-dice-84753.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24801882http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/presidente-deposto-do-egito-passa-noite-em-hospital-de-prisao-10691700#ixzz2joWgr6Zu http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-trial-20131105,0,4510471.story#axzz2joJTEsVhhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/02/21288349-two-french-journalists-kidnapped-and-killed-in-northern-mali?chromedomain=worldblog Los rebeldes del M23 anuncian el fin de su lucha armada en el Congo. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/06/world/africa/m23-rebels-democratic-republic-congo.html?ref=world&_r=0http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/05/actualidad/1383642968_110904.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/11/05/en-rdc-le-gouvernement-annonce-une-victoire-totale-sur-le-m23_3508091_3212.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/world/africa/congo-rebels-disarm/index.html?hpt=iaf_c1http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/derrotado-grupo-rebelde-encerra-insurgencia-no-leste-do-congo-1-10691553#ixzz2joWjLxAmhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/05/21318777-congos-defeated-m23-rebels-announce-disarmament-seek-diplomacy?lite Asesinados a tiros dos periodistas franceses secuestrados en el norte de Mali. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/11/05/mali-trois-des-ravisseurs-des-journalistes-de-rfi-identifies_3508659_3212.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/02/actualidad/1383414551_209423.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1634953-secuestran-y-asesinan-a-dos-periodistas-franceses-en-mali "China Daily" analiza el rol de Ruanda conectando a África Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/04/content_17077864.htm Túnez extiende su estado de emergencia. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/03/world/africa/tunisia-unrest/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2 28 muertos luego de estampida en Nigeria. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/muertos-en-estampida-en-nigeria_13157615-4 OTRAS NOTICIAS Cada año más de 800.000 personas son víctimas del tráfico humano. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/cada-ao-ms-de-800000-personas-son-vctimas-del-trfico-humano-en-el-mundo_13132278-4 "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21588134-business-week

Arlo Mueller ; The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, WeberState University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ; 8p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 video disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Arlo Mueller Interviewed By Steven F. Crane 12 March 2013 i ii Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Arlo Mueller Interviewed by Steven F. Crane 12 March 2013 Copyright © 2013 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in the University Archives, which also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, Weber State University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Mueller, Arlo, an oral history by Steven F. Crane, 12 March 2013, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. Arlo Mueller March 12, 2013 1 Abstract: Arlo Mueller participated in an oral history interview with Steve Crane of the Ogden Rotary Club on March 12, 2013 to share his experiences as a veteran of the Marine Corps. Arlo voluntarily enlisted in the Marines in 1942 and served in World War II with the Marine Air Squadron as a guard and an anti-aircraft machine gun operator. After separating from the military in 1945, Arlo became a member of the Ogden Fire Department from which he retired in 1968. He then worked as a fire inspector at Hill Field (Hill Air Force Base) and retired in 1975. SC: This is the fourth session of the 2013 Rotary Club and Weber State University Veteran's History project held March 12, 2013 at the George E. Whalen Ogden Veteran's Home. My name is Steve Crane, a member of the Ogden Rotary Club and I will be conducting this interview. Also present are Stacie Gallagher from Weber State University and my wife, Donna Crane. Our guest at this session is Arlo Mueller and we will be talking about Mr. Mueller's experiences in the military. First, I would like to thank you very much for being here, we appreciate your time. I would like to ask a few questions to start. I understand you were in the Marines and your date of birth is May 4, 1922. You were in the Marines from 1942 to 1945 and your rank was Corporal. You say your position was to do anything you were told. AM: I was trained with a 50 caliber machine gun for anti-aircraft fire and trained in the aircraft identification. I was with the Marine Air Squadron. My job was guard duty and it took a five man crew to run the machine gun. I had done just about anything that needed done, but most of it was guard duty. SC: How did you come to be in the Marines? 2 AM: The day after Pearl Harbor, my buddy and I went down to enlist in the Navy and we got there and the line was about two blocks long and we had to get back to work. So at about 11:00, we went to work and I didn't join until later on. SC: You said the Navy, but you ended up joining the Marines? AM: Yes. We were going to join the Navy, but it was such a long line and we got tired of waiting and went back to work and sometime later I joined the Marines. SC: Where did you receive your training? AM: San Diego. SC: When you went overseas, where did you go? What were some of the locations that you served? AM: When I left boot camp, I was in the hospital and the platoon was graduating and I was by myself. They sent me to North Lyre which was a Navy base and were starting a brand new squadron now, so we were a charter member of the checkerboard squadron. We left there and I went to school in Norman, Oklahoma and they went to Cherry Point, South Carolina, which was a Marine boot camp. We spent three months gathering other people to get the squadron formed. Then we went to Hawaii for three months of training in Hawaii. That's where I got my experience with the 50 caliber machine gun. From San Diego, we were on a new aircraft carrier Hornet, the old one got sunk. There were 6,000 men and 300 airplanes on this one ship. We slept on the deck on a cot underneath the wing of the airplane. We had two meals a day. After we had our three months or so, we got on another aircraft carrier and went to Espirito Santos, it was a staging point 3 for all the battles in the war in the Pacific. There was a big base there. We had this crew of ground defense and these other guys to protect the pilots and I was on guard duty. They sent this crew of 25 of us to Ulithi. Rabal is a Japanese base comparable to the one that we left and they were given some trouble up around Ulithi. Our squadron was supposed to go up and eliminate this problem. We got there and the planes never showed up. They got sent to the Palawan Islands owned by the British, they had some problems there. So, we had to turn around and come back by an old merchant marine ship to go back to Espirito Santos. As we came out, they had that submarine hatch closed and they opened that up to let us and the merchant marine ship in front of us got torpedoed by a submarine and we had to go 1000 miles all by ourselves. No escort or anything and this old thing would only go ten miles an hour. It was going downhill and no light, no noise or anything. It was a long way back. SC: Which islands were you headed for? AM: We went to Ulithi to get the planes to bomb the Japs in Rabal, then we'd come back to Ulithi. Our planes never arrived, so we went back and regrouped. So, we got all regrouped and the 1st of March, they put us aboard an LST, do you know what that is? SC: A landing craft? AM: It's a landing craft. We call it a "Long Slow Target." It's actually a landing ship for tanks and stuff like that. So we started to load this LST and we got everything all together and we just floated around out in the ocean waiting for the invasion of Okinawa to get all our things together. In the China seas, the ground swells are 4 about 35 to 40 feet. I was sitting on my bunk and there was not much room between the bunks, they were so crowded. All of a sudden, a guy came up and starting beating the heck out of me and pounding on me. All I could do was reach up and grab him around the waist. It's a good thing I did that because his appendix had ruptured and if I would have hit him or anything it would have killed him. They took him to the galley, tied him down and took his appendix out when the whole ship was floating around there. The L-day was April 1, 1945 for Okinawa. SC: That was the invasion day? AM: Yes. It was a very easy landing. I thought, "Gee, this is a cakewalk." They didn't get into any trouble on the third day and the Japanese never put an opposition for landing, but they had ten years to build caves. I called them killing fields. They had everything zero-in on this little valley and let these guys walk into it. Our planes came in about April 6, 1945 and we didn't know it, but up on the mountain across the way there was a 6-inch German Naval gun on railroad tracks that had everything zeroed-in for twenty miles around where we were at. He shelled us for about two months. We called him "Pistol Pete." One day, he took a pot shot at a battleship in the bay and it blew him out of the hill with a 14-inch shell after about two months. SC: The battleship fired back at him and took him out? AM: Yes, he got too cocky I guess. We said, "They got "Pistol Pete" last night. SC: How long were you on Okinawa? 5 AM: Three months. We left just a few days before it was over and I had my 18 months in and I was on my way home. This army started shooting artillery and saying, "The war is over, the war over." They jerked us off of the ship and took the occupation troops to Japan. We unloaded beer for about two weeks until we got a new ship. It was a converted luxury liner and there were thousands of people on that ship. I had the best duty of my whole career on that ship. They gave me a belt and I'd walk the nurse's quarters and keep the officers off. SC: Keep the officers away from the nurses? AM: Yes. We'd keep the officers away from the nurses and walk the corridors where there were 45 of them. SC: Were you on any other islands other than Okinawa? AM: We had been through almost all the others on the ship, but we never actually had any battle or anything. SC: How close contact did you come with the enemy? AM: Well, I don't want to talk too much about what actually happened. When I came in here I had a monkey on my back, and now I've got an angel on my shoulder. So, I'd rather not go into any details that happened. My wife is the only one that knew that I was this way until I told the doctor in here about what my problems were. SC: Were you ever wounded yourself? AM: No, thank God. I had a lot of fun. Well, it wasn't fun either, but – SC: Did you make some close friends in the Marines? 6 AM: It's funny, the guys from the East Coast were hard to get acquainted with. The Westerners were really easy to get acquainted with. If you'd make a friend with one of those guys you had a real friend. The guys from different parts of the country were different. SC: Have you remained close with any of your Marine friends? AM: No. There was one guy I kept for a while, but I haven't contacted any of the others at all. Our Lieutenant disappeared when we went ashore. We didn't know what happened to him. Two years after the war, I was just reading a magazine article that said, "True War Stories." It told about this doctor from Oregon that had to put sandbags on the operating table with this guy that had a live 20mm round in his thigh because he didn't want to explode. He had to put his arms in sandbags to operate on this Marine. I found out that it was our Lieutenant Stevens. It's strange, you know. SC: What have you done since your service? AM: When I came home on my 30 day leave, my uncle worked in the fire department and I stopped by to talk to him. He said, "There's going to be an opening here, what are you waiting for?" So, I put in my application. When I came back on the train the next day I took the test and about a year later I got hired. I retired from the Ogden Fire Department in 1968 and I went to Hill Field and retired from Hill Field in 1975 as a fire inspector. SC: So you've been a fireman and a fire inspector in your life? Do you have children? AM: I have one son. He's 66 years old. 7 SC: Where is he living? AM: He lives in West Point. We've been going to the Golden Corral for breakfast every morning for about seven years. SC: Is that right? AM: Yes, and they know us. We go at 10:30 a.m. and have breakfast and stay for a couple hours and talk. SC: How many grandchildren? AM: My son has three children and the one son had two and the other one has four and had another one yesterday, so I've got seven. SC: Has your wife passed away or is she still with you? AM: She passed away with Alzheimer's. I took care of her for about three years and I couldn't go any further so we put her in a rest home and she died two weeks later. SC: Arlo, thank you for being with us. Is there anything else you would like to share with us that you think we ought to know about your life and your experiences? AM: I lived in South Ogden for forty years and for thirty years I've been to every council meeting in South Ogden. I videotape their meetings and all kinds of stuff. They didn't like me too well, but I kept them on the straight and narrow. I took one mayor to the grand jury. SC: You did? AM: Yes, I was a nice fellow. 8 SC: Sometimes we need citizens to keep track of our elected officials, don't we? AM: That's true. I could say a lot of stuff, but we won't go into it. SC: Well, thank you for being here. It's been a wonderful experience getting to know you and I just want to thank you for your service. My generation is the next generation from yours. My dad served in the World War II and we really appreciate what you did for us. I think the world is a better place for what you did. DC: I hope when I'm 90 years old, I'm in as good a shape as you. SC: I hope she's here when she's ninety years old. AM: Yes. I never smoked and I never drank and I worked hard. That's why I enjoy it here. This is all I own right here is that pair of pants and I'm just as happy. No pressure or anything. I'm enjoying it. SC: Sometimes, the simple life is the best. AM: I've never wanted to be the mayor or the president or anything. I just want to be left alone and be me. SC: Well, thank you for coming. We sure do appreciate you.

AMÉRICA LATINAEl priista Peña Nieto sobrevive al segundo debate electoral en México.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18392041 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/11/actualidad/1339389512_089683.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/11/actualidad/1339388032_196682.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481215-pena-nieto-consolida-su-ventaja#comentar http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/06/12090303-mexican-presidential-candidate-becomes-poster-boy-for-infidelity?lite http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/12/world/americas/mexicos-final-presidential-debate-lacks-fire.html?ref=world&gwh=9DB2BB122D5C378AFD9CCC79BC75B592Estado mexicano sigue luchando la guerra contra el narcotráfico.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-18418374http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47783671/ns/us_news-the_new_york_times/#.T9f80FLMqw4 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/americas/us-braces-for-mexican-shift-in-drug-war-focus.html?_r=1&ref=world&gwh=F45FE3DDEDDB5A073BD231F284902C8B http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47733123/ns/world_news-americas/#.T9f8_FLMqw4Islas Malvinas votará a través de referéndum su status político.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18412195 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/americas/falklands-referendum/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/ilhas-malvinas-decidirao-em-referendo-se-continuam-britanicas-5177979#ixzz1xdOjkSIA http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/12/12185386-falkland-islands-to-hold-referendum-on-rule-by-britain-or-argentina?lite7Presidenta argentina lleva caso de Malvinas a la ONU.http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/852945.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cristina-fernndez-reclamar-las-malvinas-en-la-onu_11941302-4Chávez presenta su candidatura para perpetuarse dos décadas más en el poder.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/americas/venezuela-http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/chavez-de-governante-onipresente-candidato-virtual-5170666http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481271-chavez-se-inscribio-para-luchar-por-la-reeleccion#comentarhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18403483chavez/index.html?hpt=wo_bn http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/_portada/noticias/6F70BA90-B40A-4B0F-92CE-ABD32EF33991.htm?id={6F70BA90-B40A-4B0F-92CE-ABD32EF33991}http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/10/world/americas/mexico-protests/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/11/actualidad/1339408816_653974.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/americas/venezuela-chavez/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8El líder opositor venezolano también formaliza su candidatura en un acto multitudinario.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/11/actualidad/1339408816_653974.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/miles-de-personas-marchan-en-caracas-con-el-candidato-de-la-oposicin_11935185-4Venezuela tendrá fábrica de pólvora y de aviones no tripulados: Chávez.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/chavez-impulsara-fabrica-de-polvora-y-de-aviones-no-tripulados_11942783-4El homenaje a Pinochet se celebra en Chile pese a la indignación ciudadana.http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/video/2012/06/11/un-hommage-a-pinochet-vire-a-l-affrontement-dans-les-rues-de-santiago_1716206_3222.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/10/actualidad/1339342219_508856.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/americas/chileans-protest-pro-pinochet-film-screening.html?ref=world&gwh=51257F566C91D6730BAB7494ACD8BBFA http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18388571Crimen amenaza el Día de los Enamorados en Brasil. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18417137 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/10/world/americas/in-brazil-violence-hits-tribes-in-scramble-for-land.html?ref=world&gwh=E2EFFCBDB6B44EB0CA8B5A2E4BF68943Presidente de Brasil, Dilma Rousseff, orgullosa de su política de protección a la forestación.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-18396917Bolivia critica la posición de Brasil de dar asilo a líder de la oposición.http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/bolivia-critica-decisao-do-brasil-de-dar-asilo-lider-da-oposicao-5180916#ixzz1xdOyw08rRescatadores buscan sobrevivientes de barco con migrantes haitianos que se hundió en Bahamas.http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/06/12/2846324/survivors-mourn-haitian-migrants.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/americas/haiti-boat-deaths/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Colombia es el país más bélico de Latinoamérica, según índice global.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/los-pases-ms-pacficos-y-ms-blicos-del-mundo_11937541-4Arrestado ex jefe de la armada boliviana.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/americas/bolivia-ex-general-arrested/index.htmlPolémica en Ecuador por cierre de seis medios por incumplir contratohttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/polmica-en-ecuador-por-cierre-de-seis-medios-por-incumplir-contrato_11941303-4Perú: 14 muertos en accidente en helicóptero.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/10/world/americas/peru-helicopter/index.htmlSecretaría de Unasur pasa a Venezuelahttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/832EE726-CAD8-4FCA-810E-172D26C29564.htm?id={832EE726-CAD8-4FCA-810E-172D26C29564}http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/unasur-pasa-este-lunes-a-manos-venezolanas_11935482-4Narco jamaiquino condenado a 23 años de prisión.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/08/world/americas/jamaica-drug-lord-sentenced/index.htmlNo se llega a un acuerdo entre las naciones sobre Cumbre Rio+20.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18412306"BBC" publica: "El agua no llega a La Habana".http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2012/06/120612_video_cuba_agua_tuberias_cch.shtmlGuatemala abre extraditación de capo del cártel de Sinaloa.http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/853099.html Alianza del Pacífico El nuevo bloque latinoamericano. http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/_portada/noticias/2C64B9D6-09A0-4DC2-87DF-F8D9610CB5D3.htm?id={2C64B9D6-09A0-4DC2-87DF-F8D9610CB5D3} ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁDiversos medios hacen referencia a elecciones en Estados Unidos.http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/853125.htmlhttp://clesnes.blog.lemonde.fr/2012/06/07/romney-depasse-obama-dans-la-course-a-largent/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/853087.html"El País" de Madrid analiza: "Obama deja su reelección en manos de Europa".http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/08/actualidad/1339185138_833447.htmlClinton busca soluciones para la escalada de violencia en Siria. http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/12/12190111-clinton-says-russia-is-sending-gunships-to-syria-could-escalate-conflict-quite-dramatically?liteTiroteo en Alabama deja tres muertos y dos heridos.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/tiroteo-en-alabama-deja-tres-muertos-y-dos-heridos_11935063-4http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/eua-tiroteio-deixa-vitimas-perto-de-universidade-no-alabama-5161815#ixzz1xdP8JTbJ Joe Arpaio, la pesadilla de los hispanos en Arizona.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/joe-arpaio-la-pesadilla-de-los-hispanos-en-arizona_11934955-4Estados Unidos exime a 7 economías de las sanciones de petróleo iraní . http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15494317.htmPoder adquisitivo de los estadounidenses se redujo casi un 40%.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/poder-adquisitivo-de-los-estadounidenses-se-redujo_11937522-4Fallece la segunda víctima del tiroteo en centro comercial de Toronto. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/americas/canada-mall-shooting/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8Obama: "No todo puede ser recortar mientras el desempleo crece".http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/08/actualidad/1339167796_597012.htmlPolicía de Montreal dispersa manifestantes que atacaron bancos.http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/06/11/montreal-la-police-disperse-des-manifestants-qui-s-en-sont-pris-a-des-banques_1716059_3222.htmlLatinos, gran potencial electoral en Estados Unidos, pero indecisos. http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/latinos-gran-potencial-electoral-en-ee-uu-pero-indecisos_11934184-4"The Economist" analiza situación económica de los Estados Unidos.http://www.economist.com/node/21556585 EUROPA"Le Monde" publica: "Italia se hunde en vías de la recesión".http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/06/11/en-italie-la-recession-se-confirme-au-premier-trimestre_1716176_3234.htmlDiversos medios hacen referencia a la crisis de la eurozona.http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/06/09/les-banques-espagnoles-auraient-besoin-de-40-milliards-d-euros-supplementaires_1715497_3234.htmlhttp://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15494235.htm http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/05/world/europe/europe-banks-euros/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/business/global/banks-living-on-borrowed-money-and-time.html?ref=world&gwh=8F9CF71AAA58DB190906D048B46A9B11http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2012/06/euro-crisis-2La ayuda a los bancos de España: el rescate desilusiona a los mercados.http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/06/11/la-zone-euro-se-donne-un-repit-en-volant-au-secours-de-l-espagne_1716140_3214.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/europe/mariano-rajoy-of-spain-steps-up-in-debt-crisis.html?ref=world&gwh=9661CEF65E30D0722921CFBAA4791AB8http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/06/11/rasserene-par-le-plan-d-aide-aux-banques-madrid-s-engage-a-poursuivre-les-reformes_1716136_3234.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/10/business/spain-aid-questions-remain/index.html?hpt=wo_t5 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18405729 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1480985-mas-presion-sobre-rajoy-tras-el-rescate#comentar http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15496745.htmEl FMI dice que la Unión Europea debe tomar "medidas decisivas".http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481389-el-fmi-dice-que-que-la-union-europea-debe-tomar-medidas-decisivas#comentarLagarde pide una institución paneuropea que actúe directamente sobre los bancos.http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339213227_126831.htmlHollande anuncia el retiro de tropas francesas de Afganistán a comienzos de julio.http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2012/06/11/afghanistan-la-france-assure-maintenir-le-cap_1716182_3216.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339236734_178636.html http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2012/06/11/londres-s-oppose-a-bruxelles-sur-la-securite-des-forages_1716184_3244.htmlLa policía registra casas de opositores en vísperas de otra manifestación en Moscú.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339252648_995241.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/11/actualidad/1339401160_501497.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/europe/russia-arrests-5-more-people-in-protest-investigation.html?ref=world&gwh=6230662EA1BE339789560717631C718DManifestaciones contra presidente Putin: policía rusa allana casas de opositores en víspera de protesta. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/europe/russia-protest/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18405306 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/milhares-de-russos-vao-as-ruas-em-desafio-lei-antiprotestos-de-putin-5177127#ixzz1xdQo7H27 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/seis-meses-de-protestos-anti-putin-na-russia-5178621 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/5D1E6D4F-5C6E-42EF-80A3-8DEA35254FA9.htm?id={5D1E6D4F-5C6E-42EF-80A3-8DEA35254FA9} http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/11/12169615-russian-police-raid-opposition-leaders-homes-ahead-of-anti-putin-rally?lite http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481365-rusia-la-oposicion-copo-las-calles-de-moscu-en-repudio-a-putin#comentarhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/europe/russia-arrests-5-more-people-in-protest-investigation.html?ref=world&gwh=6230662EA1BE339789560717631C718DRusia no se opondrá a la salida de El Asad si lo deciden solo los sirios.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339248424_826849.htmlRusia no autorizará en la ONU el recurso a la fuerza contra Siria.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/rusia-asegura-que-no-hay-alternativa-al-plan-annan-en-siria_11932181-4Elecciones de la Asamblea Nacional en Francia: ¿Qué tan poderoso será Hollande tras los comicios legislativos?.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/europe/socialists-fare-well-in-french-parliamentary-elections.html?ref=world&gwh=1219927E6B2580B434B5C2D3BC5A1F24http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/10/actualidad/1339359958_334342.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339252648_995241.htmlhttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/_portada/noticias/C19FE103-84E2-4509-A041-AF142A61D4F2.htm?id={C19FE103-84E2-4509-A041-AF142A61D4F2}http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/europe/socialists-fare-well-in-french-parliamentary-elections.html?ref=world&gwh=1219927E6B2580B434B5C2D3BC5A1F24El ex primer ministro Brown y el ministro Osborne, ante la comisión Leveson.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/11/actualidad/1339405937_077176.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/12/world/europe/british-hacking-inquiry-questions-political-heavyweights.html?ref=world&gwh=4F0A6AA0D16458202754C1688D6DC037Los nuevos comicios auguran en Grecia un escenario más incierto que en mayo.http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18417642 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339239030_443372.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481223-atenas-quiere-negociar-mejores-condiciones-para-su-rescate#comentar http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/11/12168468-greek-politician-who-attacked-rivals-on-tv-sues-victims-for-defamation?liteLa Unión Europea analiza un corralito si Grecia abandona el euro.http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481222-la-ue-analiza-un-corralito-si-grecia-abandona-el-euro#comentarAung San Suu Kyi viaja a Europa a recibir el Nobel de la paz.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/aung-san-suu-kyi-viaja-a-europa-a-recibir-tras-21-anos-el-nobel-de-paz_11941162-4Sismo en Turquía deja 60 personas heridas.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/cerca-de-60-personas-heridas-tras-sismo-en-turqua_11935461-4Iglesias enfrentan a gobierno británico contra casamiento gay.http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/igrejas-enfrentam-governo-britanico-contra-casamento-gay-5179123 Suecos tuitean en la cuenta oficial del país. http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/19ABFB10-3E3A-4FB9-8EEE-88BA6E3D120E.htm?id={19ABFB10-3E3A-4FB9-8EEE-88BA6E3D120E}http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/europe/many-voices-of-sweden-via-twitter.html?ref=world&gwh=AAA0F4114326E31E13341CA8C6CA4E42"The Economist" analiza: "¿Alemania: un bote aparte?" .http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2012/06/germansAmnistía Internacional: Europa pone en peligro a migrantes.http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/853133.html ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTESiria tortura y utiliza a niños como escudos humanos.http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/06/11/l-armee-syrienne-libre-dement-la-presence-de-combattants-etrangers-dans-ses-rangs_1716185_3218.htmlhttp://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/12/12178489-un-children-tortured-used-as-human-shields-in-syria?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481350-siria-en-la-lista-de-la-verguenza-de-la-onu-mata-y-tortura-ninos#comentarhttp://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/12/12178489-un-children-tortured-used-as-human-shields-in-syria?liteEl opositor Consejo Nacional Sirio elige a un kurdo como su presidente.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/10/actualidad/1339325254_255146.htmlEjército sirio mata cientos de civiles, crece indignación por masacre.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ejrcito-sirio-mata-23-civiles-crece-indignacin-por-masacre_11932141-4http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-forces-shell-cities-as-opposition-picks-leader.html?ref=world&gwh=C89D7B56038B70F6DF419DABBD175AFFhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481216-ofensiva-de-al-assad-en-un-bastion-rebelde#comentar http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2012/06/syriaAl Assad acudió a empresas occidentales para lavar su imagen. http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/A4132A07-5989-4661-A3FE-0BB800704068.htm?id={A4132A07-5989-4661-A3FE-0BB800704068}Al menos 59 muertos y 200 heridos dejan atentados en Irak.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/atentados-en-irak_11939721-4Los combates y bombardeos se intensifican en la provincia siria de Homs.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/los-combates-y-bombardeos-se-intensifican-en-la-provincia-homs_11935583-4http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18417952http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15495913.htmFMI pronostica un crecimiento de 3.25% a Corea del Sur.http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15496504.htm"The Economist" analiza coyuntura económica india.http://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2012/06/indias-slowdownAtaque suicida talibán mata a 4 soldados franceses en Afganistan.http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47746558/ns/world_news-south_and_central_asia/#.T9f9U1LMqw4Hu Jintao pide "flexibilidad y pragmatismo" a Ahmadineyad.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/08/actualidad/1339169281_558475.htmlLa OTAN pide disculpas por una matanza de civiles en Afganistán.http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2012/06/11/l-otan-s-engage-a-ne-plus-bombarder-les-zones-habitees-en-afghanistan_1716058_3216.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/06/actualidad/1338979460_059133.htmlCrisis en Myanmar por choques entre budistas y musulmanes. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/asia/state-of-emergency-declared-in-western-myanmar.html?ref=world&gwh=815D59F28CA8AECF6954CECC7A7D7795 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/asia/myanmar-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Tropas yemeníes toman bastión de Al Qaeda.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/meast/yemen-al-qaeda-battle/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Joven detenido en Bahréin es liberado bajo fianza.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/10/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11Dos ataques suicidas causan al menos 20 muertos en Kandahar.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/06/actualidad/1338967860_946474.htmlÁFRICAMubarak, sometido a intervención médica por complicación cardiaca.http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/africa/egypt-mubarak/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/mubarak-sometido-a-intervencin-mdica-por-complicacin-cardiaca_11935521-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1481113-mubarak-sufrio-dos-paros-cardiacos#comentarhttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/_portada/noticias/25CA20B8-159C-47C5-A5C8-DBDF1AC157E7.htm?id={25CA20B8-159C-47C5-A5C8-DBDF1AC157E7}http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/10/actualidad/1339344359_268080.htmlLa CPI exige la liberación de cuatro delegados que visitaban al hijo de Gadafi.http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/06/10/actualidad/1339327431_258826.htmlTúnez declara toque de queda tras disturbios.http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/12/12188446-tunisia-declares-curfew-after-riots?litehttp://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/tunisia-impoe-toque-de-recolher-apos-disturbios-5182578http://www.lemonde.fr/tunisie/article/2012/06/11/ayman-al-zaouahiri-appelle-les-tunisiens-a-defendre-la-charia_1716093_1466522.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18416328Cadena perpetua a expresidente tunecino Ben Ali por violenta represión.http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/cadena-perpetua-a-expresidente-tunecino-ben-ali_11941706-4Libia: atacan convoy de embajador británico.http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/06/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/0C823F9E-6A80-4CA5-985A-803325E7FA8F.htm?id={0C823F9E-6A80-4CA5-985A-803325E7FA8F} Se acercan las elecciones en Libia.http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15494290.htmAccidente aéreo en Nigeria.http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-06/12/content_15495545.htmhttp://www.miamiherald.com/2012/06/05/2833868/pilot-in-nigerian-plane-crash.html#storylink=cpyParte del gabinete de Kenia fallece en accidente.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/africa/kenyan-government-official-killed-in-helicopter-crash.html?ref=world&gwh=FB765D2F169487347E841DE925FA4BB8http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/06/10/accident-d-helicoptere-au-kenya-un-ministre-parmi-les-victimes_1715755_3212.htmlhttp://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/06/10/12148558-kenyas-ex-vp-and-presidential-candidate-george-saitoti-killed-in-chopper-crash?liteSangrientos ataques en contra iglesias en Nigeria .http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47755595/ns/world_news-africa/#.T9f8yFLMqw4http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/africa/jos-and-biu-attacks-in-nigeria-target-christians.html?ref=world&gwh=6538014BAD0C32AF924FF7A8AD5AC30F OTRASReporte asevera que el mundo es un lugar más pacífico en comparación al año pasado.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/47777413/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.T9f7cVLMqw4Según reporte de ONG existen 21 millones de personas en situación de trabajo forzado.Para más información: http://thecnnfreedomproject.blogs.cnn.com/2012/06/01/rights-group-21-million-now-in-forced-labor/?hpt=wo_c2"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21556630

IntroducciónEs común intentar adelantar el veredicto sobre una presidencia antes de que ésta se complete. Esto es más cierto de la presidencia de George Walker Bush que de cualquier otra reciente: los juicios de valor se vienen adelantando desde hace mucho tiempo, incluso desde 2003. Es solamente ahora, que su último día ha transcurrido, que puede analizarse adecuadamente. Aún así, el paso del tiempo probará ser un prisma muy valioso para evaluar las consecuencias de las decisiones tomadas por Bush y su equipo. Sin embargo, el carácter dramático de lo acontecido en estos ocho años merece un estudio ahora, aún si con el tiempo es posible que se interprete de otra manera.El análisis de los ocho años de gobierno de Bush se divide en dos partes: la política exterior y la política interna, llamada en el léxico anglófono política doméstica. Esta primera entrega refiere a la política exterior, no necesariamente porque sea más importante que la segunda, sino porque es la que más interés despertó durante el período.Política exterior: Ocho años de extremosMás allá de opiniones favorables o desfavorables, los ocho años de gobierno de Bush coincidieron casi milimétricamente con un período de enormes turbulencias para la humanidad en numerosos aspectos.Es así que esta administración ofrece, en términos de política exterior, un resultado mixto: sus logros tienen alcance histórico; sus errores también tienen consecuencias extremas. La administración Bush fue radicalmente distinta de la de su antecesor Bill Clinton, de la de su padre y la de cualquier otro presidente de las últimas décadas, exceptuados Ronald Wilson Reagan y Lyndon Baines Johnson. En períodos de alta conmoción, la reacción del gobierno de Estados Unidos, dada su posición única, da lugar a efectos que gravitan hacia los extremos, ya sean positivos o negativos. La era Bush no fue la excepción.Es evidente que la mayor parte de la opinión mundial, sea de élites o de encuestas generales, arroja un profundo rechazo a la administración Bush. Por lo tanto, es inevitable comenzar por enumerar los errores que ésta cometió en política exterior. Para hacerlo, es fundamental refutar un par de mitos.El primero de estos es Iraq, un país que parece dominar el legado de Bush. El consenso martilleado hasta el cansancio por los medios informativos, la oposición demócrata, los gobiernos europeos, las Naciones Unidas y los propagandistas islámicos es que se trató de un desastre equiparable a Viet Nam. Estados Unidos habría perdido una guerra y habría sido humillado por la valiente "resistencia" iraquí; el país sería ahora un títere de Irán y el retroceso para Washington, por no mencionar la sociedad iraquí, sería enorme.La realidad es distinta. Es cierto que la guerra en Iraq conoció un período oscuro en el que la legitimidad de todo el emprendimiento se hizo cuestionable, pero lo que la multitud de críticos no logra comprender –con demasiada frecuencia por odio a Estados Unidos y Bush, y por lo tanto por la irracionalidad- es que fue eso mismo: un período. Más precisamente, Iraq se sumió en las tinieblas durante tres años: 2004, 2005 y 2006.Durante esos años se conocieron momentos de anarquía, de guerra civil, de violencia extrema y de terrorismo salvaje, encarnado por momentos en Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, quizá el terrorista más violento de todos los tiempos. Mientras la oposición a la guerra publicaba estadísticas y teorías falsas, como los cien mil o más muertos en el conflicto o la idea de que Estados Unidos invadió el país "por el petróleo", Abu Musab, sus acólitos y sus imitadores decapitaban rehenes, dinamitaban escuelas y ambulancias, atacaban funerales y practicaban todo tipo de horrores de los que los medios de comunicaciones nunca hablaron. No caben dudas que Iraq conoció el horror.La clave es que ese período se superó. No es común que en una guerra a la deriva se invierta una estrategia bajo el mismo comandante: no lo hicieron ni Johnson en Viet Nam, ni Truman ni Eisenhower en Corea y ni siquiera Churchill en los momentos oscuros de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Bush pasará a la historia por sí haber reconocido el error y haberlo solucionado. Se deshizo de sus comandantes, Donald Rumsfeld en el Departamento de Defensa y George Casey en Central Command, y le entregó el conflicto a David Petraeus. Este general había dedicado los últimos años a estudiar y redactar la nueva doctrina anti-insurgencia de las Fuerzas Armadas estadounidenses. Bush le confió a él y a Raymond Odierno la guerra en los primeros días de 2007, y su éxito ha sido histórico.La situación en Iraq antes de 2003 era de extrema pobreza bajo un régimen totalitario brutal como pocos. La situación a partir de 2007-8 fue de una democracia liberal en gestación, con una economía de mercado, con reconcilliación étnica en medio del mundo islámico, con un tratado negociado entre partes iguales con Estados Unidos y con prospectos a corto plazo de retiro de las tropas internacionales. La guerra está ganada; el resultado es sumamente positivo para Estados Unidos y, sobre todo, para Iraq y la región. Ahora se cuenta con una democracia en medio del mundo islámico, un conjunto de bases militares desde las cuales vigilar la región y un importante baluarte en la lucha contra el terrorismo. El famoso tema de las armas de destrucción masiva, un importante error de parte de Bush y su equipo, perderá progresivamente importancia para la historia, mientras que los logros de la sociedad iraquí y las tropas estadounidenses cada vez cobrarán mayor prominencia. Otro factor de discordia en la saga iraquí, la falta de aprobación del Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas, fue un punto legítimo de debate. Sin embargo, el paso del tiempo le va restando cada vez más importancia a esa organización, sumida como está en escándalos de corrupción moral y ética, algunos de ellos con el desaparecido régimen de Saddam Hussein.El segundo error mítico de la administración Bush es el de Guantánamo-waterboarding. Por un lado, es muy razonable debatir Guantánamo y algunas prácticas de las fuerzas de seguridad estadounidenses. Por el otro, los críticos de estas prácticas todavía no han ofrecido una opción distinta respecto a dónde enviar a los prisioneros de la guerra contra la jihad, ni tampoco respecto a cómo obtener información crítica sobre posibles ataques y células terroristas. Los medios suelen omitir el hecho de que el submarino (o waterboarding) se practicó solamente a tres -3- personas en todo el período, todos confesos terroristas. El punto no es si estuvo bien o mal hacerlo, sino el grado de importancia que puede tener en un contexto donde hay acontecimientos mucho más importantes.También se suele omitir el hecho de que el waterboarding funcionó, ya que en particular en el caso de Khaild Sheihk Mohammed sirvió para desmantelar planes específicos para ataques terroristas en Estados Unidos y Europa. Aunque es discutible el uso de esa técnica, es responsabilidad del gobierno evitar otro once de septiembre, y es un hecho que los capturados son prisioneros de guerra. Si nadie recuerda a prisioneros alemanes, italianos, coreanos o vietnamitas en cortes estadounidenses compareciendo por sus crímenes es porque nunca ocurrió: pertenecían al ámbito militar y no tenían derechos civiles que defender en una corte.Por lo tanto, más allá de que sea necesario un debate sobre los métodos empleados por Estados Unidos, es una exageración considerarlo uno de los hechos definidores de la era Bush. Esto no hace más que revelar la parcialidad a la hora de fijar una agenda antiamericana de quienes más han propulsado este tema.Ya descartados esos mitos, sí corresponde señalar los verdaderos fracasos de la administración Bush. El más grande de todos, por lejos, no es entonces Iraq, sino Darfur. Aunque no ocupe las primeras planas –como sí lo hizo el escándalo de Abu Ghraib en el New York Times cincuenta días seguidos-, Darfur es el acontecimiento más nefasto para la humanidad de los últimos diez años. El que lo precedió fue otro genocidio en el que Estados Unidos se abstuvo de actuar: Rwanda en 1994, bajo Bill Clinton.Tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial y la Shoah, el mundo libre se prometió no volver a permitir que ocurriese algo similar; el líder en ese esfuerzo fue Estados Unidos. El genocidio es considerado, y con razón, el mayor peligro y justificativo para la intervención armada, tanto en términos morales como legales. El fracaso de Estados Unidos en impedirle al régimen de Omar Bashir en Sudán, para el asesinato de ya más de cuatrocientos mil civiles desarmados en Darfur, pasará a la historia como un profundo abismo moral.El segundo mayor fiasco de Bush fue su política respecto a Rusia. Los ocho años de su gobierno marcan un período en el que ese país se desvió de una democracia liberal recién nacida hacia una dictadura abiertamente imperialista. Bush es,personalmente, uno de los principales culpables, como lo atestigua su famoso veredicto sobre Vladimir Putin de que había "logrado tener una noción de su alma", y que lo que ahí había era algo bueno. En estos ocho años Rusia pasó, en términos de conducta, de ser un cadáver en descomposición a un agente del caos mundial. Domésticamente se tomó por asalto la economía y asesinó e intimidó a la oposición política. Internacionalmente Rusia ha financiado, protegido diplomáticamente y armado a regímenes como el de los Castro en Cuba, Hugo Chávez en Venezuela, Aleksandr Lukashenko en Belarus, el gobierno genocida de Sudán, el proyecto nuclear iraní, y otros coloridos casos. Esto es sin mencionar las violentísimas agresiones a Ucrania, Estonia y, sobre todo, Georgia. Bajo Bush, la gravedad del accionar ruso llegó a su punto más grave desde 1968, ocasión de la represión de la Primavera de Praga bajo la era soviética.El tercer mayor fracaso de Bush es no haber eliminado al mismo Eje del Mal que describió tan polémicamente. Entre la propaganda a la que se hacía referencia anteriormente se dibujó la imagen de Bush el vaquero, que no sabe lo que es la diplomacia y apuesta invariablemente por la fuerza militar. Sin embargo, la administración apostó claramente por la diplomacia con dos de los tres integrantes del Eje –Irán y Corea Comunista-. Los resultados han sido pésimos.Corea del Norte se ha vuelto una potencia nuclear, aunque el esquema militar con el cual tiene de rehén a Seúl y millones de surcoreanos hacía difícil una intervención militar. No se puede decir lo mismo de Irán, país en el que Bush podría haber intervenido, o ante el cual al menos podría haber dado garantías de apoyo militar a Israel. Para los próximos años, gracias a las actitudes equivocadas de Bush, el régimen responsable por la AMIA, Hizb Allah y el totalitarismo islámico posiblemente contará con bombas nucleares.Queda claro que fueron varios los errores de la administración, aunque no necesariamente los mismos que señala el consenso mediático internacional. Es hora de ver algo que casi ni figura en esos círculos: los logros en los ocho años de gobierno de Bush y su equipo.El primero, más evidente y más importante, es evitar algo que casi el 100% de la opinión mundial –incluso la especializada- daba como un hecho el doce de septiembre de 2001: que "pronto" se verían más ataques terroristas en suelo estadounidense. Ahora mismo, en el calor del momento y con el odio a Bush todavía respirable en el aire, este hecho clave queda sepultado – pero no será así con el paso del tiempo. Bush revolucionó la política exterior, militar, de vigilancia y de espionaje de su país, y el resultado fue exactamente el esperado. Así, se logró cumplir con la función primaria de todo gobierno: proteger las vidas y el ejercicio de las libertades de sus ciudadanos.El segundo logro de Bush que probablemente registrará la historia fue la apertura de India. Ese país, que representa una reserva inmensa de calidad democrática, liberal y capitalista para el futuro, se encontraba prácticamente ignorado desde su entrada a la economía de mercado en 1991. Bush fue el presidente que, de forma similar a Richard Nixon con China, estableció los vínculos clave con ese país. A partir de ahora, la relación de Estados Unidos con India conoce cauces estratégicos, comerciales, nucleares y sobre todo políticos de mucho mayor alcance. Será un aliado clave para enfrentar a una multitud de problemas que tienen en común las democracias, en particular las más grandes: el terrorismo islámico, Rusia y China.Un tercer éxito de la Administración Bush fue su promoción del libre comercio. Bajo esta presidencia se extendió a casi toda América, algo que se suele olvidar. Basta sumar el NAFTA –gran logro de Bill Clinton-, el CAFTA-DR –que cubrió casi toda América Central y la República Dominicana-, los tratados de libre comercio firmados con Colombia, Perú y Chile, y por último los ofrecidos a Ecuador y Uruguay.Además, la administración concluyó tratados con países clave como Australia, Corea del Sur y Singapur.Entre estos fracasos y logros extremos existen algunos pocos puntos de término medio, en los cuales generalmente Bush tuvo razón pero no logró sus objetivos. Un ejemplo claro es América Latina. Fue en estos ocho años donde se formó la ahora tradicional división entre países "serios", como México, Colombia, Perú, Brasil, Chile y Uruguay, y países autodestructivos, como Cuba, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia y Argentina. Los intentos de Bush por tener buenas relaciones con América Latina fueron abiertos y claros. La ya tradicional arrogancia latinoamericana no lo recibió bien y se creyó superior alcowboy tonto. La respuesta de Bush fue pragmática: trataría con quienes estuviesen dispuestos, y a los demás los ignoraría. El resultado es esclarecedor: México lucha contra el narcotráfico y prospera; Colombia derrota al terrorismo narco-comunista-paramilitar tras cuarenta años de guerra, Perú por fin conoce la estabilidad, Brasil se vuelve un modelo atractivo a nivel mundial. Mientras tanto, Cuba conoce la pobreza extrema; Bolivia arde en llamas, Venezuela está sumida en más violencia que Iraq, y Argentina languidece detrás de Etiopía, China y Surinam en el Índice de Libertad Económica. Los logros de los países latinoamericanos arriba mencionados les pertenecen de pleno derecho; Bush se limitó a acompañarlos y premiar la buena conducta, por lo cual merece crédito. Sin embargo, sus omisiones en temas de seguridad en México y Venezuela constituyen problemas sin resolver.Otro punto medio de Bush fue Afganistán, país que se conquistó fácilmente pero que en los últimos años del gobierno pareció escurrirse nuevamente hacia la guerra de alta intensidad. El remedio que buscó aplicar Bush al resurgimiento de los talibanes en el Este del país es el mismo que el de Iraq: David Petraeus y un aumento de tropas anti-insurgentes. Sin embargo, los resultados se verán solamente bajo el gobierno de Barack Obama, a diferencia de Iraq. Bush debería haber solucionado el problema antes, ya que sólo en sus últimos meses en el gobierno dio las órdenes de elevar el número de tropas a 35.000, lo cual aún no alcanza para llegar a la proporción de habitantes por soldado que indica el propio Manual de Contrainsurgencia de su Ejército.ConclusiónLa Administración Bush resulta una de las más interesantes en mucho tiempo para quien estudia la política exterior. Buscó asociarse explícitamente con la escuela del liberalismo internacional o idealismo, en términos de promoción de la democracia y la libertad. Sin embargo, fue un gobierno que tuvo relaciones muy cercanas con regímenes totalitarios como el de Arabia Saudí o China, o con el de su aliado clave Pakistán.La personalidad del Presidente resultó contradictoria. Aunque siempre mantuvo una fuerte convicción moral, en algunas ocasiones predicaba su propia inmovilidad en la persecución de un objetivo de cierta manera, mientras que en otras reconocía la realidad y cambiaba de método – como lo demostró en Iraq en momentos en que casi existía un consenso favorable a la retirada.Bush desplegó el arsenal estadounidense para proteger a sus ciudadanos y expandir la única forma de gobierno legítima, y que constituye el antídoto para la intolerancia, el autoritarismo y la violencia. Sin embargo, en el camino cometió errores, algunos de ellos muy graves y, sobre todo, ignoró otros problemas. La historia, para que sea historia y no propaganda, deberá reconocer esa pluralidad de hechos. Lic. en Estudios Internacionales. Universidad ORT - Uruguay

John M. Hobson
on Eurocentrism, Historical Sociology and the Curious Case of Postcolonialism







International
Relations, it is widely recognized, is a Western discipline, albeit one that
claims to speak for global conditions. What does that mean are these regional
origins in and by themselves a stake in power politics? This Eurocentrism is
often taken as a point of departure for denouncing mainstream approaches by self-proclaimed
critical and postcolonialist approaches to IR. John Hobson stages a more
radical attack on Eurocentrism, in which western critical theories, too, are
complicit in the perpetuation of a dominantly western outlook. In this extensive
Talk, Hobson, among others, expounds
his understanding of Eurocentrism, discusses the imperative to historicize IR,
and sketches the outline of possible venues of emancipation from our provincial
predicament.



Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is,
according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current
International Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in
this debate?



In my view, there
are two principal inter-related challenges that face IR. The first is the need
to deal with the critique that the discipline is constructed on Eurocentric
foundations. This matters both for critical and conventional IR. The latter
insists that it works according to value-free positivistic/scientifistic
principles. But if it is skewed by an underlying Western-centric bias, as I
have contended in my work, then the positivist mantra turns out to constitute a
smokescreen or veil behind which lies the dark Eurocentric face of conventional
IR. And of course, if Eurocentrism in various forms infects much of critical
IR, then it jeopardizes its critical credentials and risks falling back into
problem-solving theory. For these reasons, then, I feel that the critique of
Eurocentric IR and international political economy (IPE) poses nothing short of
an intellectually existential challenge to these disciplines.



The second inter-related
challenge is that if we accept that the discipline is essentially Eurocentric
then we need to reconstruct IR's foundations on a non-Eurocentric basis and
then advance an alternative non-Eurocentric research agenda and empirical
analysis of the international system and the global political economy. This is
a straightforward challenge vis-à-vis conventional IR/IPE theory but it is more
problematic so far as critical IR/IPE is concerned (which is why my answer is
somewhat extended). The more postmodern wing of the discipline would view with
inherent skepticism any attempt to reconstruct some kind of (albeit
alternative) grand narrative. And the postmodern postcolonialists would likely
concur. It is at this point that the thorniest issue emerges in the context of postcolonial
IR theory. For however hard this is to say, I feel that simply proclaiming the
Eurocentric foundations of the discipline does not hole its constituent
theories deep beneath the waterline; a claim that abrades with the view of most
postcolonialists who view Eurocentrism as inherently illegitimate either
because it renders it imperialist (which I view as problematic since there are
significant strands of anti-imperialist Eurocentrism and scientific racism) or
because they conflate Eurocentrism with the unacceptable politics of (scientific)
racism (which I also find problematic notwithstanding the point that there are
all manner of overlaps and synergies between these two generic Western-centric
discourses, all of which is explained in my 2012 book, The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics). The key point—one
which will undoubtedly get me into a lot of trouble with postcolonialists—is
that I feel we need to recognize that in the end Eurocentric IR (and IPE)
theory constitutes a stand-point approach, just like any other, and its merits
or de-merits can ultimately only be evaluated against the empirical record,
past and present (notwithstanding the points that I find Eurocentrism to be
deeply biased and that what I find so deeply galling about it is its dismissive
'put-down' modus operandi of all
things non-Western, wherein all non-Western achievements are dismissed outright,
alongside the simultaneous (re)presentation of everything that the West does as
progressive and/or pioneering).



So the second
principal challenge facing the discipline—one which will no less get me into
trouble with many postmodern/poststructuralist thinkers—is the need to
reconstruct an alternative non-Eurocentric set of disciplinary foundations,
which can then generate fresh empirical narratives of the international system
and the global political economy. For my view is that only by offering an
alternative research agenda and empirical analysis of the world economy can IR
and IPE be set free from their extant Eurocentric straitjackets and the
Sisyphean prison within which they remain confined, wherein IR and IPE scholars
simply re-present or recycle tired old Eurocentric mantras and tropes in new
clothing ad infinitum. For if nothing
else, the absence of an alternative reconstruction and empirical analysis means
that IR and IPE scholars are most likely simply to default to, or retreat back
into, their Eurocentric comfort zone. Accordingly, then, the battle between
Eurocentrism and non-Eurocentrism needs to be taken to the empirical field and
away from the high and rarified intellectually mountainous terrain of
metanarratival sparring contests.





How did you
arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about International
Relations?



Another way of
asking this question would be: what influenced you to become a non-Eurocentric
thinker? I get asked this question a lot, especially by non-white people. A
good deal of this is related to my life-experience, much of which is
sub-conscious of course and both too personal and too detailed to openly reflect
upon here (sorry!) More objectively, the initial impetus came around 1999 when
I came across a book on Max Weber by the well-respected Weberian scholar, Bryan Turner, in
which he argued inter alia that Weber's
sociology had Orientalist properties; none of which had occurred to me before.
Following this up further I became convinced that Weber was indeed Eurocentric,
as was Marx. More importantly, I came to see this as a huge problem that
infected not just Marx and Weber but pretty much all of historical sociology
(which was reinforced in my mind when I came to read James Blaut's books, The Colonizer's Model of the World (find
it here), and Eight Eurocentric Historians). So I set
out to develop an alternative non-Eurocentric approach to world history and
historical sociology as a counter (which resulted in my 2004 book, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation).




Two further key IR
texts that I became aware of were L.H.M. Ling's seminal 2002 book, Postcolonial International Relations and
Naeem Inayatullah and David Blaney's equally brilliant 2004 book International Relations and the Problem of
Difference, both of which led me to explore further the Eurocentric nature
of IR and later IPE. But it would be remiss of me not to mention the influence
of Albert Paolini; a wonderful colleague whom I had the pleasure to know at La
Trobe University in Melbourne back in the early 1990s before his exceedingly
unfortunate and premature death (and who, I must say, was way ahead of the game
compared to me in terms of developing the critique of Eurocentrism in IR (see
his book, Navigating Modernity (1997)).
However, it would be unfair to the many others who have influenced me in
countless ways to single out only these books and writers, though I hope you'll
forgive me for not mentioning them so as to avoid providing yet another overly
extended answer!



What
would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a
global way?



This is an excellent but very challenging question and I want to try and make
a succinct answer (though I shall build on it in some of the answers I will
provide later on). The essential argument I make about 'thinking
inter-culturally' is that while the more liberal side of the discipline thinks
that its cosmopolitanism does just this, its Eurocentrism actually prevents it
from fulfilling this. Because ultimately, cosmopolitanism wants to impose a
Western standard of civilization upon the world, thereby advancing cultural
monism rather than cultural pluralism. And this is merely the loudest
expression of a spectre that haunts much of the discipline. But I guess that in
the end, to achieve genuine cultural pluralism and to think inter-culturally
requires us to take seriously how other non-Western peoples think of what their
cultures comprise and what it means to them, and how their societies and states
work along such lines. Dismissing them, as Eurocentrism always does, as
inferior, backward and regressive denies this requirement outright.
Interestingly, my great grandfather, J.A. Hobson flirted
with this idea in his book, Imperialism: A Study
(though this has largely escaped the notice of most people since few have read
the more important second part of that book where all this is considered). But
this is merely a first step, for as I will explain later on in the interview,
ultimately thinking inter-culturally requires an analysis of the dialogical
inter-connections and mutual co-constitutive relations between West and
non-West which, in turn, presupposes not merely the presence of Western agency
but also that of non-Western agency in the making of world politics and the
global political economy. 



All of which is clearly a massive challenge and I am certainly not
advocating that the discipline of IR engage in deep ethnographical study and
that it should morph into anthropology. And in any case I think that there are
things we can do more generally to transcend Eurocentrism while learning more
about the other side of the Eurocentric frontier without going to this extreme.
I shall talk about such conceptual moves later on in this interview. One such theoretical
move that I talk about later is the need to engage historical sociology (albeit
from a non-Eurocentric perspective) or, more precisely global historical sociology. Again, though, I'm not advocating that
the discipline should morph into historical sociology. And I'm aware that one
of the biggest obstacles to IR making inroads into historical sociology is the
sheer size of the task that this requires. It has always come naturally to me
because that is where I came from before I joined the IR academic community.
But there is quite a bit of historical sociology of IR out there now so I do
think it possible for new PhD students to enter this fold. All of this said,
though, I'm unsure if I have answered your question adequately.





The west is often seen as the source of
globalization and innovation, which have historically radiated outwards in a
process without seeming endpoint. What is wrong with this picture, and, perhaps
more interestingly, why does it remain so pervasive?



In essence I
believe this familiar picture—one which is embraced by conventional and many
critical IR/IPE and globalization theorists—is wrong because this linear
Western narrative brackets out all the many inputs that the non-West has made
(which returns me to the point made a moment ago concerning the dialogical
relations that have long existed between West and non-West). In my
aforementioned 2004 book I argued that the West did not rise to modernity as a
result of its own exceptional rational institutions and culture but was
significantly enabled by many non-Western achievements and inventions which
were borrowed and sometimes appropriated by the West. In short, without the
Rest there might be no modern West. Moreover, while the West has been the
principal actor in globalization since 1945, the globalization that preceded it
(i.e., between 1492 and c.1830) was non-Western-led (as was the process of
Afro-Eurasian regionalization that occurred between c.600 and 1492 out of which
post-1492 globalization emerged). And even after 1945 I believe that
non-Western actors have played various roles in shaping both globalization and
the West, all of which are elided in the standard Eurocentric linear Western
narrative of globalization.



But why has this
image remained so persistent? This is potentially a massive question though it
is a very important one for sure. Conventional theorists are most likely to
disagree outright with my alternative picture in part because they are entirely
comfortable with the notion that the 'West is best' and that the West single-handedly
created capitalism, the sovereign inter-state system and the global economy.
Critical theorists are rather more problematic to summarize here. But one that
springs to mind is the type of argument that Immanuel Wallerstein (Theory Talk #13) made in a1997 article, in which he insisted that it be an imperative to hold the
West accountable for everything that goes on in the world economy so that we
can prosecute its crimes against the world. Arguments that bring non-Western
agency in, as I seek to do, he dismisses as deflecting focus away from the West
and thereby diluting the nature of the crimes that the West has imparted and
therefore serves merely to weaken the case for the critical prosecution. I
fundamentally disagree with him for reasons that I shan't go into here (but
will touch upon below). But in my view it is (or should be) a key
debate-in-the-making not least because I suspect that many other critical
theorists might agree with him and, more importantly, because it brings
fundamentally into question of what Eurocentrism is and of what the antidote to
it comprises. Either way, though, critical theorists, at least in my view, often
buy into the Western linear narrative, albeit not by celebrating the West but by
critiquing it. All of which means that both conventional and many critical IR scholars
effectively maintain the hegemony of Eurocentrism in the discipline though for
diametrically opposed reasons; and which, at the risk of sounding paranoid,
suggests a deeply subliminal conspiracy against the introduction of non-Eurocentrism.



Nevertheless one
final but rather obvious point remains. For the biggest reason why Eurocentrism
persists is because it makes Westerners feel good about themselves. And at the
risk of sounding like sour grapes (notwithstanding very decent sales for my non-Eurocentric
books), I have been struck by the fact that there seems to be an insatiable
appetite—particularly among the Western public readership—for high profile
Eurocentric books that celebrate and glorify Western civilization; though, to
be brutally frank, many of these rarely add anything new to that which has been
said countless times in the last 50 years, if not 200—notwithstanding Ricardo
Duchesne's recent avowedly Eurocentric book The
Uniqueness of Western Civilization as constituting a rare exception in this
regard. All of which means that writing non-Eurocentric books is unlikely to
get your name onto the bestseller list (though granted, the same is true for many
of the Eurocentric books that have been written!)





International theory and political theory
originates mainly from Europe, but makes universal claims about the nature of
politics. How does international theory betray its situated roots and how do
these roots matter for how we should think about theory?



I'm not sure
that I can answer this question in the space allowed but I'll try and get to the
broad-brush take-home point. I guess that when thinking about modern IR theory
we can find those theorists who in effect advocate a normative Western
imperialist posture even if they claim to be doing otherwise. Robert Gilpin's
work on hegemonic stability theory is perhaps the clearest example in this
respect. Anglo-Saxon hegemony, he claims, is non-imperialist because it always seeks to help the rest of the
world, not exploit it. But the exercise of hegemony, it turns out, returns us
to the old 19th century trope of the civilizing mission where
Western practices and principles are transferred and imposed on non-Western
societies in order to culturally convert them along Western lines. And this in
turn issues from the assumption that the British and American interests are not
selfish but are universal. This mantra is there too in Robert Keohane's (Theory Talk #9) book, After Hegemony, where cultural conversion of non-Western societies to
a neoliberal standard of civilization by the international financial
institutions through structural adjustment is approved of; an argument that is
developed much more expansively in his later work on humanitarian intervention.
And this trope forms the basis of cosmopolitan humanitarian interventionist
theory more generally, where state reconstruction, which is imposed once
military intervention has finished, is all about re-creating Western political
and economic institutions across the world. I don't doubt for a moment the
sincerity of the arguments that these authors make. But they can make them only
because they believe that the Western interest is truly the universal. In such
ways, then, IR betrays its roots.



Ultimately,
Western IR theory constructs a hierarchical conception of the world with the
West standing atop and from there we receive an image of a procession or
sliding scale of gradated sovereignties in the non-Western world. For much of
IR theory that has neo-imperialist normative underpinnings, it is this
construction which legitimizes Western intervention in the non-Western world,
thereby reproducing the legal conception of the (imperialist) standard of
civilization that underpinned late 19th century positive law.
Nevertheless, there has been a significant strand of anti-imperialist
Eurocentrism within international theory (and before it a strand of anti-imperialist
scientific racism, as in the likes of Charles HenryPearson and LothropStoddard). But once again, as we find in Samuel Huntington's famous 1996
book, The Clash of Civilizations—which
comprises a modern equivalent of Lothrop Stoddard's Eugenicist texts, The Rising Tideof Color (1920) and Clashing Tides of Color
(1935)—the West is held up as the highest expression of civilization, with
non-Western societies viewed as socially inferior such that the West's mandate
is not to imperially intervene across the world but to renew its uniquely
Western civilized culture in the face of regressive and rampant non-Western
regions and countries (particularly Middle Eastern Islam and Confucian China). Hedley Bull's
anti-imperialist English School argument provides a complementary variant here
because, he argues, it is the refusal of non-Western states to become Western
wherein the source of the (unacceptable) instability of the global
international society ultimately stems. All of which, as you allude to in your
question, rests on the conflation of the Western interest with the universal. It
is for this reason, then, that the cardinal principle of critical
non-Eurocentrism comprises the need to undertake deep (self) reflexivity and to
remain constantly vigilant to Eurocentric slippages.



In turn, this returns
me to the point I made before: that IR theory does not think inter-culturally
because it denies the validity of non-Western cultures. Because it does so,
then it ultimately denies the full sovereignty of non-Western states. For one
of the trappings of sovereignty is what Gerry Simpson usefully refers to as
'existential equality', or 'cultural self-determination'. It seems clear to me
that the majority of IR theory effectively denies the sovereignty of
non-Western states because it rejects cultural pluralism and hence cultural
self-determination as a function of its intolerant Eurocentric monism. The
biggest ironies that emerge here, however, are two-fold; or what I call the
twin self-delusions of IR. First, while conventional IR theory proclaims its
positivist, value free credentials that sit comfortably with cultural pluralist
tolerance, nevertheless as I argued in my answer to your first question, this
positivist mantra turns out to constitute a smokescreen or veil behind which
lies the face of intolerant Eurocentric cultural monism. And second, it means
that while IR proclaims that its subject matter comprises the objective
analysis of the international system which focuses on anarchy and the sovereign
state, nevertheless it turns out that what it is really all about is narrating
an analysis of Western hierarchy and the 'hyper-sovereignty' of Western states versus
the 'conditional sovereignty/gradated sovereignty' of non-Western states.





Linking your work to Lizée's as
a critique of extrapolating 'universals' on the basis of narrow (Western)
experiences, Patrick Jackson (Theory Talk #44) wrote as follows: 'Perhaps the
cure for the disease that Hobson and Lizée diagnose is a rethinking of what
"theory" means beyond empirical generalizations, so that future
international theorists can avoid the sins of the past.' What is your
conception of what theory is or should be?



As noted
already, I am all in favor of developing non-Eurocentric theory. To sketch this
out in the most generic terms I begin with the proposition that Eurocentric IR/IPE
theory is monological, producing a reductive narrative in which only the West talks
and acts. It is essentially a 'winner/loser' paradigm that proclaims the non-West
as the loser or is always on the receiving end of that which the West does, thereby
ensuring that central analytical focus is accorded to the hyper-agency of the
Western winner. And its conception of agency is based on having predominant
power. We find this problem particularly within much of critical IR theory,
where because the West is dominant so it qualifies as having (hyper) agency
while the subordinate position of the non-West means that it has little or no
agency. In turn, particularly within conventional IR and IPE we encounter a
substantialist ontology, where the West is thought to occupy a distinct and
autonomous domain. From there everything else follows. And even in parts of
critical IR and IPE where relationalism holds greater sway we often find that
the West still occupies the center of intellectual gravity in the world.



My preference is
for a fully relationalist approach which replaces the monologism of Eurocentrism
and its reification of the West with the aforementioned conception of dialogism
that brings the non-West into the discussion while simultaneously focusing on
the mutually constitutive relations between Western and non-Western actors. It
also allows for the agency of the non-West alongside the West's agency (even
though clearly after c.1830 the West has been the dominant actor). This in
effect replaces Eurocentrism's either/or problematique with a both/and logic,
enabling us to reveal a space in which non-Western agency plays important roles
without losing focus of Western agency, even when it takes a dominant form as
it did after c.1830. In this way then, to reply to Wallerstein's argument discussed
earlier, one does not have to dilute the critique of the West when bringing
non-Western agency in for both can be situated alongside each other. While I
could of course say much more here, these conceptual moves are paramount to me and
inform the basis of my empirical work on the international system and the
global political economy.



All in all, IR theory
needs to take a fully global
conception of agency much more seriously; structuralist theory in its many
guises is necessary but is ultimately insufficient since it diminishes or
dismisses outright the prospect or existence of non-Western agency. Moreover, I
seek to blend materialism and non-materialism, which means that neither constructivism
nor poststructuralism can quite get us over the line. Even so, blending
materialism and non-materialism is not an especially hard task to achieve
though IR's preferred ontologically reductionist stance certainly makes this a
counter-intuitive proposition.





You combine historical sociology with
international relations. What promises does this interdisciplinary approach
hold? Why do we need historical sociologies of IR?



Following on
from my previous answer I argue that a relationalist non-Eurocentric historical
sociology of IR is able to problematize the entities that IR takes for granted—states,
anarchy (as well as societies and civilizations)—in order to reveal them, to
quote from the marvelous introduction that Julian Go and George Lawson have
written for their forthcoming edited volume Global
Historical Sociology, as 'entities in motion'. Indeed such entities are
never quite complete but change through time. Here it is worth quoting Go and
Lawson further, where they argue that



'social
forms are "entities-in-motion": they are produced, reproduced, and breakdown
through the agency of historically situated actors. Such entities-in-motion,
whether they are states, empires, or civilizations often appear to be static
entities with certain pre-determined identities and interests. But the
relational premise, and perhaps promise, of GHS is its attempt to denaturalize
such entities by holding them up to historical scrutiny'.



It is precisely
this global historical sociological problematique that underpins the approach
that I develop in a forthcoming book, provisionally entitled Reorient International Political Economy
where inter alia, I show how many of
the major processes of the global economy are never complete but are constantly
mutating as they are shaped by the multiple interactions of Western and
non-Western actors. To take the origins of capitalism or globalization as an
example, I show how these have taken not a Western linear trajectory but a
highly discontinuous path as West and non-West have interacted in complex ways.




A good number of
IR historical sociologists have focused specifically on particular historical
issues—especially that of the rise of the sovereign state in Europe. Such
analyses have in my view proven to be extremely valuable because they allow us
to puncture some of the myths that surround 'Westphalia' that populate standard
or conventional IR reportage (particularly that found in undergraduate text-books).
But ultimately I feel that the greatest worth of the historical sociology of IR
project lies in using history (understood in historical-sociological terms
rather than according to traditional historians' precepts) as a means of
problematizing our understanding of the present international system and global
political economy. Thus, for me, historical sociology is ultimately important
because it can disrupt our understanding and explanations of the present. And I believe that this kind of
inter-disciplinarity can bear considerable fruit (notwithstanding the
difficulty that this task poses for IR scholars).





You famously criticized IR's Eurocentrism
and argued for the need for inter-cultural thinking. What is inter-cultural
thinking and how can it benefit IR?



As I already
discussed what inter-cultural thinking is a bit before, I shall consider how it
might benefit IR and indeed the world in various ways. First, if the rise of
the West into modernity owes much of this achievement to the help provided by
non-Western ideas, institutions and technologies, then acknowledging this debt
could go a long way to healing the wounds that the West has inflicted upon the
non-West's sense of self-esteem. Moreover, the hubristic claim ushered in by
Eurocentrism, that the West made it to the top all by itself and that the very
societies which helped it get there are then immediately denounced as inferior
and uncivilized, significantly furnishes the West with the imperialist mandate
to intervene and remake non-Western societies in the image of the West. So in
essence, the help that the once-more advanced non-Western societies that the
West benefited from is rewarded by 150 years of imperial punishment! Of course,
IR scholars do not really study the rise of the West, but it is implicit in so
much of what they write about. So acknowledging this debt could challenge the
West's self-appointed mandate to remake the world in its own image as well as
problematize many of the historical assumptions that lie either explicitly or
implicitly within IR.



Second, and
flowing on from the previous point, thinking inter-culturally means recognizing
the manifold roles that the non-West has played in shaping the rise of Western
capitalism and the sovereign state system as well as the global economy, as I
have just argued, but also appreciating their societies and cultures on their
own terms rather than simply dismissing them as unfit for purpose in the modern
world. Less Western Messianism and Western hubris, more global understanding
and empathy, is ultimately what I'm calling for. But none of this is possible
while Eurocentrism remains the go-to modus
operandi of IR and IPE. And this is important for IR not least because
significant parts of it have informed Western policy, most especially US
foreign policy.



Third, a key
benefit that inter-cultural thinking could bring to IR is that while the
discipline presumes that it furnishes objective analyses of the international
system, the upshot of my claim that the discipline is founded on Eurocentrism
is that all the discipline is really doing is finding ways to reaffirm the
importance of Western civilization in world politics, defending it and often
celebrating it, rather than learning or discovering new things about the world
and world politics. I believe that only a non-Eurocentric approach can deliver
that which IR thinks it's doing already but isn't.





You've said that 'what makes an argument
[institutionally] Eurocentric…lies with the nature of the categories that are
deployed to understand development. And these ultimately comprise the perceived
degree of 'rationality' that is embodied within the political, economic,
ideological, and social institutions of a given society.' In order to think
inter-culturally, does IR needs new conceptions of rationality, or standards
other than rationality altogether?



What an
extremely interesting and perceptive question which has really got me thinking!
Again, it's something that I've been aware of in the recesses of my mind but
have never really thought through. Certainly the essence of Eurocentrism lies
in the reification of Western rationality (or what Max Weber called Zweckrationalität)
and its simultaneous denial to non-Western societies. But what with all the
revelations that have happened in Britain in the last decade, where a seemingly
never ending series of fraudulent practices have been uncovered within British
public life—whether it be MPs' expenses scandals, banking scandals, newspaper
scandals and the like—then one really wonders about the extent to which the
West operates according to the properties of Zweck-rationality that Weber
proclaimed it to have. Corruption and fraud happen in the West but clearly they
are much more hidden than in those instances where it occurs in non-Western
countries (notwithstanding the revelations mentioned a moment ago). But if one
were to open the lid of many large Western companies, for example, and delve
inside one might well find all sorts of 'rationality-compromising' or
'rationality-denial' practices going on. To mention just two obvious examples:
first, promotions are often tainted by personal linkages rather than always
founded on merit; and second, managers often mark out and protect their own
personal position/territory even when it (frequently) goes against the
'rational' interests of the said organization.



To return to
your question, then, one could conclude that many Western institutions are far
less rational than Eurocentrism proclaims, which in turn would challenge the
foundations of Eurocentrism. Of course, corruption and fraud are not unique to
the West, but it is the West that proclaims its unique 'rational standard of
civilization'. Whether, therefore, we need to abandon the term (Zweck)
rationality on the grounds that it is an impossibly conceived ideal type
remains the question. Right now I don't have an answer though I'll be happy to
mull over this in the coming years.





You've written that engaging with the
East 'creates a genuinely global
history' and articulate a 'dream wherein the peoples of the Earth can finally
sit down at the table of global humanity and communicate as equal partners'. Do
you consciously operate with an 'ontology' of 'peoples' and 'civilizations' as
opposed to 'individuals'? How do you conceive of the relationship between
global humanity and plural peoplehood? Is there an underlying philosophical or
anthropological view that you are drawing on in these and similar passages?



Certainly I
prefer to think of peoples and even of civilizations rather than individuals
and states, though I'll confess right now that dealing theoretically with
civilizations and articulating them as units of analysis is extraordinarily
challenging. At the moment I leave this side of things to better people than
me, such as Peter Katzenstein (Theory Talk #15) and his recentpioneering work on civilizations. The term 'global humanity' concerns me
insofar as it is often a politically-loaded term, particularly within
cosmopolitanism, where its underbelly comprises the desire to define a single
civilizational identity (i.e., a Western one) for 'global humanity'. In essence,
cosmopolitanism effectively advances the conception of a 'provincial (i.e.,
Western) humanity' that masquerades as the global. So I prefer the notion of
plural peoplehood, so as to allow for difference. I wouldn't say that I am
operating according to a particular philosophical view although it strikes me
that such a notion is embodied in Johann Gottfried Herder's
work which, on that dimension at least, I am attracted to. But to be honest,
this is generally something that I have not explored though it is something
that I've thought that I'd like to research for a future book (notwithstanding
the point that I'll need to finish the book that I have started first!).





In your reply toErik Ringmar, you draw on psychoanalytic metaphors to discuss the benefits
of overcoming Eurocentrism, writing that, 'Eurocentrism leads to the repression
and sublimation of the Other in the Self. Thus, doing away with Eurocentrism
can end the socio-psychological angst and alienation that necessarily occurs
through such sublimation.' How do you envision what we now call the West (or
Europe) after its socio-psychological transformation? What does a world after
angst and alienation look like? Is it possible, and is that the goal you think
IR theory should aim at?  



Another massively challenging and fascinating
question, let me have a go. Since you raised the issue of socio-psychological/psycho-analytical
theory (though it is something that I am no expert on), it has always struck me
that Eurocentrism itself is not simply a construct designed to advance Western
power and Western capitalist interests in the world. This seems too
mechanistic. For recall that it was a series of largely independent sojourners,
travel-writers, novelists, journalists and others rather than capitalists who
played such an important role in constructing Eurocentrism. Something more
seems to be at play. One can think of the battles between 'Mods and Rockers' or
Skinheads and heavy metal fans in Britain in the 1960s and 1970s, who detested
each other simply because they held different identities and prized different
cultural values. Most importantly, I feel, the constant need to denounce, put
down and dismiss the Other as inferior seems reminiscent of those kinds of
people we sometimes meet who, in constantly putting down others to falsely elevate
themselves to a position of superiority, ultimately reveals merely their own
insecurities. The same issues, of course, underpin racism and Eurocentrism. The
West rose to prominence in my view as a late-developer and having got to the
top it very quickly came to view its duty as one of punishing all others for
being different – all done, of course, in the name of helping or civilizing the
very 'global humanity' that had done so much to help the West rise to the top
in the first place! And to want to culturally convert everyone in the world
according to the Western standard of civilization seems to be symptomatic of a
deeply insecure mindset. A secure person or society for that matter does not
feel threatened by, but openly embraces, difference.



Can we move beyond this stand-off given that
such a mentality has been hard-wired within Western culture for at least three
centuries? And ten if you count the sometimes terse relations between Europe
and Middle Eastern Islam that emerged after 1095! We need to move beyond an
identity that is based only on putting others down. It's 'bad karma' and, like
all bad karma, damages the Western self, not just the non-Western other. But to
transcend this identity-formation process requires us to do away with
logocentrism; clearly a very big task. Nevertheless, that is exactly what my
writings are all about. And it is something that I think IR theory needs to
strive to achieve. Because IR theory is to an extent performative then I live
in the hope, at least, that such a mentality might, just might somehow seep
into international public life, though if it were to happen I strongly suspect
that I would not be around to see it. Still, your question—what would a world
beyond Eurocentrism look like?—though very important is nevertheless perhaps
too difficult to answer without seeming like a hopeless idealist… other than to
say that it could be rather better than the current one.





You write
that 'IPE should aim to be an über-discipline, drawing on a wide range
of disciplines in order to craft a knowledge base that refuses to become lost
in disciplinary over-specialization and the depressing academic narcissism of
disciplinary methodological differentiation and exclusion.' Why do you prefer
that IPE should be the überdiscipline,
instead of IR (or something else altogether), with IPE as a subset?



My degree was in Political Economy, my Masters
in Political Sociology and my PhD in Historical Sociology and (International)
Political Economy. Despite the fact that the majority of my academic career to
date has been in IR research, I have always returned at various points to my
old haunting ground, IPE (as I have most recently). I have always found IR a
little alienating for its reification of politics, divorced from political
economy. I'm not a Marxist, but I share in the view that political economy, if
not always directly underpinning developments and events in the international
system is, however, never far away.



The quote that you took for this question came
from the end of my 2-part article that came out in the 20th
anniversary edition of Review of
International Political Economy. This was partly responding to Benjamin
Cohen's (Theory Talk #17) 2008 seminal book, International Political Economy: A
Intellectual History. One of the challenges that I issued to my IPE readership,
echoing Cohen, is the need for IPE to return to 'thinking big' (in large part
as a reaction to the massive contraction of the discipline's boundaries that
has been effected by third wave American IPE, which labors under the intellectual
hegemony of Open Economy Politics). In that context, then, I argued that IPE
needs to expand its boundaries outwards not only to allow big or macro-scale issues
to return to the discipline's research agenda but also to incorporate insight
from other disciplines. For in my view IPE has the potential to blend the
insights of many other disciplines that can in turn transcend the sometimes
myopic or tunnel-vision-based nature of their particular constituent specialisms.



One of the implications of 'thinking big' is
that IPE should be able to cover much of that which IR does… and more. Like
Susan Strange, who expressed her exasperation with IR for its exclusion of
politico-economic matters, so I feel that the solution lies not with IR
colonizing IPE (which is not likely for the foreseeable future!) but with IPE
expanding its currently narrow remit. If it could achieve this it could become
the 'über-discipline', or the
'master discipline', of the Social Sciences, notwithstanding the point that my
postcolonial and feminist friends will no doubt upbraid me for using such terrible
terms!





Final question. Beyond the East outside
the West, Greece is now being remade as the 'East' within the West, with a
range of measures applied to it that had hitherto been the preserve for the
'East' or Global South. How can your work help to make sense of the stakes?



Your question
reminds me of a similar one that I was asked in an interview for Cumhurieyet Strateji Magazine concerning
Turkey's ongoing efforts to join the EU, the essence of my answer comprising: 'be
careful what you wish for'. One of the things that I have felt uneasy about is
the way, as I see it (and I might not be quite right in saying this), that European
Studies (as a sub-discipline) sometimes appears as rather self-affirming,
thereby reflecting the core self-congratulatory modus operandi of the EU. I am not anti-European or in any way ashamed
to be Western (as some of my critics might think). But I'm deeply uneasy about
the EU project, specifically in terms of its desire to expand outwards, not to
mention inwards as we are seeing in the case of Greece today. For this has the
whiff of the old civilizing mission that had supposedly been put to rest back
at the time of the origins of the European Economic Community. Although Greece
is a member of the EU (notwithstanding its non-European roots), it seems clear
that what is going on today is a process of intensified internal colonization
under the hegemony of Germany, wherein Greece is subjected to the German
standard of civilization. All of which brings into question the
self-glorification of the self-proclaimed 'socially progressive' EU project.
And to return to my discussion of Turkey I recognize that candidate countries
have their reasons for wanting to
join the EU. But I guess that what my work is ultimately about is restoring a
sense of dignity to non-Western peoples, in the absence of which they will
continue to self-deprecate and live in angst in the long cold shadow of the
West. All of which brings me back to the answers I made to quite a few of the
earlier questions. So I would like to close by saying how much I have enjoyed answering
your extremely well-informed questions and to thank you most sincerely for
inviting me to address them.



Professor Hobson gained his
PhD from the LSE (1991), joined the University of Sheffield as Reader and is
currently Professor of Politics and International Relations. Previously he
taught at La Trobe University, Melbourne (1991–97) and the University of Sydney
(1997–2004). His main research interest concerns the area of
inter-civilizational relations and everyday political economy in the context of globalization, past and present. His work is principally involved in carrying
forward the critique of Eurocentrism in World History/Historical Sociology, and
International Relations.





Related
links





Faculty Profile at the University of Sheffield
Read Hobson's The Postcolonial Paradox of Eastern
Agency (Perceptions 2014) here
(pdf) 
Read Hobson's Is critical theory always for the white West
and for Western imperialism? (Review of International Studies 2007) here
(pdf)





0
0
1
6773
38610
Danish Institute for International Studies
321
90
45293
14.0








Normal
0




false
false
false

EN-US
JA
X-NONE









































































































































































/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin:0cm;
mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;}



















































































































































































































































Print version of this Talk (pdf)

Part 1. Challenges of the Modern Economy as Barriers to Sustainable Development -- 1. Statistic Indicators for Assessing the Measuring Efficiency to Counter Economic Sanctions -- 2. The Innovative and Sustainable Development of Energetics Under the Conditions of the Post-pandemic Recovery of the Economy -- 3. Scenario Analysis of the Development of the Russian Digital Economy Until 2025 -- 4. The Post-pandemic Analysis of the Specifics of Industrial Economies' Development from the Positions of Innovativeness and Sustainability -- 5. The Post-Pandemic Model of the Sectoral Development of Emerging Economies' Industry -- 6. Perspective Role of Digitalization in the Well-Balanced Development of the Global Economic System of the Future -- 7. The Role of Digital Security for the Stable Development of the Global Economic System of the Future -- 8. Sustainable Development of the World Economy of the Future on the Basis of Digitalization: the 2030 Perspective -- 9. Dialectics of Systems Development -- 10. Problems of Consideration of Environmental Factors in Urban Planning as a Mechanism for Sustainable Development -- 11. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Agri-Food Policy as a Component of the Economic Security of the Region -- 12. Employment of Workers in Green Jobs: Industry, Product and Skill Approaches -- 13. Problems and Implementation Prospects of Experimental Legal Regimes in Russia -- 14. Globalization as a Factor of Influence on Russian Federation's Foreign Economic Activity: Engineering Exports -- 15. Import Substitution: the Main Directions of Import Substitution, the Pros and Cons of the Implemented State Program, Some Success Stories of Import Substitution and its Prospects -- 16. Problems and Prospects for the Development of Import Substitution in the Agro-Industrial Complex of the Russian Federation -- 17. Cooperation, Humanism, Tolerance: Realities of History and Modernity -- 18. Features of the Sustainable Development of the Tourism Economy in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic -- 19. Development of the Cooperative Movement in the Republic of Bashkortostan: Problems and Prospects -- 20. Supervision and Control over the Investigation of Crimes in the Field of Entrepreneurial Activity -- 21. Countering Aggressive Tax Planning -- 22. Problems of Economic Security of Special Economic Zones -- 23. Conceptual Approach to the System of Controlling in the Public Sector -- 24. Sustainable Development Based on Knowledge Sharing: An International Aspect (a review of the problem) -- 25. New Functional Product as a Result of International Interaction -- 26. Anti-Corruption Strategies: Forms and Mechanisms of Participation of Civil Society Institutions -- 27. Methods of Acquisition and Termination of Subjective Rights to Immovable Property as an Element of Social Security of Citizens -- 28. Problems of Practical Application of Legal Norms Containing Accessory Obligations in the Legislation of the Russian Federation in the Conditions of the COVID-19 Pandemic -- 29. Uncertainty and Risk as Factors in the Development of Insurance -- 30. School and University Cooperation in the Aspect of Studying Linguistic and Cultural Literacy of Migrant Children -- Part 2. Economic and Legal Foundations and Cooperative Mechanisms for Sustainable Development -- 31. Program-Targeted Approach to the Innovative Development of Industrial Economies under the Modern Post-COVID Conditions -- 32. State and Corporate Management of Industrial Economies for Their Sustainable Development and Recovery after the Pandemic -- 33. Credit Cooperation in Russia: Problems and Possible Solutions -- 34. Leasing as an Effective Tool for the Implementation of Investment Projects in Different Countries -- 35. Optimization of the Use of the Potential of Specially Protected Natural Areas within the Framework of the Sustainable Development of Domestic Tourism in the Russian Federation -- 36. Changes in Cooperative Legislation in the Context of Solving Socio-economic Problems -- 37. Development of Legislation on Cooperation in Ukraine in 1992-2014 -- 38. Assessment of the Socio-economic Sphere of the Countries of the European Union in the Context of the Implementation of Joint Strategies and Programs -- 39. Role of Consumer Cooperatives in Overcoming Unemployment in Contemporary Russian Society -- 40. Development of Cooperation Legislation in Germany -- 41. Agricultural Cooperatives in France: Toward Environmental Neutrality and Sustainability -- 42. A National Model of Cooperation as a Track of Sustainable Development of New Zealand -- 43. Development of the Cooperative Sector in Canada: Features of the National Model -- 44. Infrastructural Factors of the Digital Economy Development and Their Management in the Interests of Accelerating Its Growth -- 45. New Opportunities for Human Potential Development in the Digital Economy and Their Implementation in Developed and Developing Countries -- 46. Integration Mechanisms of Development of the Digital Economy and the Prospects for Their Activation in Russia -- 47. Designed Innovative and Investment Development of the Region in the Conditions of Digital Economy to Ensure Economic Security -- 48. State Regulation of the Development of Cooperative Formations in Agriculture of the Republic of Bashkortostan -- 49. Regional Features of Digital Transformation During the Pandemic -- 50. Formation of a Conceptual Tourist Product for the Effective Development of Territories Without a Pronounced Tourist and Recreational Potential -- 51. Sustainable and Advanced Development of Region's Economy Based on Digital Competitiveness -- 52. Regional Aspects of the Development of the Consumer Lending Sector in Russia during the Pandemic -- 53. Methodological Aspects for Assessing the Financial Stability of Regions in the Context of the Coronavirus COVID-19 in 2021 -- 54. Development of the Nuclear Icebreaker Fleet as a Strategic Priority of the Arctic Region -- 55. Sustainable Development Capital of Rural Territories: The Role and Significance of Cooperation -- 56. Methods for Quality Control of Products of the Kamchatka Territory -- 57. Improving the Competitiveness of the Regional Fishery Complex by Strengthening Foreign Economic Relations of the Region -- Part 3. Advanced Digital Technologies and Their Contribution to Sustainable Development -- 58. Current Vectors of Investment Security of the Krasnodar Territory -- 59. Social Orientation of the Regional Economic Cluster of Consumer Cooperation -- 60. Prospects for the Development of the Cooperative Movement in Public Catering Enterprises of Almetyevsky District of the Republic of Tatarstan -- 61. Cluster Cooperation as a Factor in Ensuring Sustainable Development of the Region -- 62. Development of Agricultural Cooperation in the Republic of Tatarstan -- 63. Industrial Cooperation in Chuvashia in the Post-war Years: Historical and Legal Aspect -- 64. Role of Agricultural Cooperation in the Development of Regional Food Markets -- 65. Formation of the Model of the Social-Oriented Cluster as Method of Cooperation of the Subjects of SMEs of the Smolensk Region -- 66. Methods of Organizing the Design of Construction Works -- 67. Corporate Social Responsibility in Industrial Economies as the Basis of their Innovative and Sustainable Development in the Post-COVID Period -- 68. Digital Mechanisms of the Future Development of Social Entrepreneurship and Humanisation of Economic Growth -- 69. Formation of Experimentation Skills in Children 5–6 Years Old through Visual Modeling -- 70. Project Technology in Education as a Promising Form of University and Business Cooperation -- 71. Innovative Corporate Strategies as Sources of Sustainable Development -- 72. Strategic Guidelines for the Development of Non-profit Corporate Structures in the Context of the Transformation of the Regional Information -- 73. Standard for the Development of Competition in the Subjects of the Russian Federation as a Tool for the Development of Entrepreneurship in Regional Commodity Markets -- 74. Innovations in Corporate Relations and their Contribution to the Development of Cooperation -- 75. Cooperative Strategy in Sociosystems -- 76. Strategic Management, Analysis, and Control: General Provisions -- 77. Development of Professional and Qualification Potential of an Employee -- 78. Efficiency of the Organization's Performance as a Factor of Sustainable Development and Economic Security -- 79. Controlling as an Accounting and Analytical System of Personnel Management -- 80. Foreign Language Training of Specialists in the Economic Sphere as a Factor of Sustainable Development: Historical and Pedagogical Aspect -- 81. Entrepreneurship Development as the Basis for a Competitive Environment After the Pandemic -- 82. Service System and Service Targeting as a Key Aspect of the Company's Competitiveness -- Part 4. Prospects for the Sustainable Development of Countries: Review of International Experience -- 83. Formation of Responsible Cooperative Entrepreneurship Based on Socially-Oriented Cluster -- 84. Efficiency of Biopreparation Treatment of Wheat Grain; Baking Properties of Flour and Quality of Baked Bread in Consumer Cooperative Enterprises -- 85. Experience of Cooperation of All Levels of Education in the Process of Project Development -- 86. Problems of Liability for Illegal Entrepreneurship Committed within the Framework of Cooperative Legal Relations -- 87. Business Support During the Pandemic: View of the Representatives of the European Cooperative Movement -- 88. Biosocial Essence of Person and Crime -- 89. Assessing the Institutional Framework for Russia's Foreign Trade Cooperation with North African Countries: Foreign Trade and Customs Aspects -- 90. Modern Marketing Technologies in Promoting Consumer Cooperation Organizations -- 91. Actual Issues of the Development of Consumer Cooperation Legislation in Addressing Social Questions -- 92. Development of Cooperation between the Europea.