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AbstractHuman ingenuity and activities have resulted in erosion of ecosystems and their capacity to support the sustainable production of goods and functions that we depend on. Biodiversity i.e. the diversity within and between species and of ecosystems, underpins many of the ecosystem functions critical for human well-being and resilience, and is declining faster than at any time in human history. Thus, the ongoing loss of biodiversity and its associated ecosystem functions is one of the most critical challenges we face today. The intensification of agriculture during the last century, including both in-field intensification and loss and fragmentation of habitats, has played a major role in the degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem services world-wide. The intensification of agriculture has resulted in increased production of private goods such as crops but at the expense of public goods like for example regulation of water and climate. In addition, the intensification of agriculture also erodes regulating ecosystem services such as pollination, which ultimately threatens the provision of sustainable crop production. In this thesis I have investigated how to integrate management of ecosystem services in arable farming, to promote multifunctional landscapes that are able to support sustainably both private and public goods. In a conceptual study, framing the thesis, I suggest that the whole 'ecosystem service cascade' needs to be taken into consideration when formulating agri-environmental policies and that by exploiting synergies between private and public goods, it is possible to let public goods hitchhike on private goods. I have investigated the possibilities of and constraints on integrating ecosystem services under current EU agri-environmental policies, how these policies affect farmer behaviour and the consequences of alternative policy formulations for ecosystem services such as pollination and natural pest control. I contribute to the currently weak evidence base on the ecological effect of agri-environmental measures, using the CAP ecological focus areas as a case study. Annual ecological focus areas sown with flower strips had weak effects on natural enemies but positively affected bumblebees up to several 100 m from the strips. Together the two studies showed the potential for networks of annual flower strips to provide complementary resources in intensively managed agricultural landscapes, where late-season resources are often scarce. By investigating the role of farmer attitudes and farm characteristics for decisions to take up a voluntary agri-environmental measure, we showed that uptake of buffer strips is connected to both attitudes and farm size. The results highlight the importance of ensuring positive attitudes among farmers as well as the need to facilitate environmentally friendly management. Using ecological-economic modelling we demonstrated that by restricting ecological focus areas to such with a high quality with optimal placement, they could have positive effects on functional biodiversity. The same study also showed how the current incentives made the ecological focus areas end up in landscapes were their benefits were lowest, and the structural changes that may occur as an effect of agri-environmental policies, for example when higher management costs caused more farms to close down, resulting in the average farm size increasing. The farmers participating in the workshop in this study, perceived the CAP 'greening measures' as complicated and without any environmental benefits. Through the studies in the thesis, I have shown the importance of combining experimental demonstrations of effects of measures across scales, with investigations on what affects the uptake of measures, and combining ecological and economic aspects to use analyses of policy-scenario to account for the complex consequences of policies.

The years between 1775 and 1815 constitute a crucial episode in the evolutionary history of Europe and America. Between the start of the American Revolution, with the first armed clashes between British regulars and American militiamen at Concord and Lexington, and the closing act of the French Revolution, with the eclipse of Napoleon's dreams of pan-European glory on the battlefield of Waterloo, America and Europe witnessed the rise and fall of radicalism, which left virtually no aspect of public and private life untouched. While the American colonies managed to wrench themselves away from their colonial parent, and while France careered down the stormy rapids of its own Revolution, Great Britain went through the turbulent process of redefining itself vis-à-vis both these emerging nations, and the world at large. But the period 1775 to 1815 offers more than the two ideological Revolutions that determined the face of modern America and Europe: feeding into and emanating from these Revolutions there were major watersheds in virtually all areas of cultural, intellectual and political life - varying from the rise of Romanticism to the birth of abolitionism, and from the beginnings of modern feminism to the creation of modern nationhood and its enduring cultural stereotypes. In this collection of interdisciplinary essays, historians and literary critics from both sides of the Atlantic analyze a broad spectrum of the watersheds and faultlines that arose in this formative era of Euro-American relations. Individually, the essays trace one or more of the transatlantic patterns of intellectual, cultural or scientific cross-pollination between the Old and the New World, between pre- and post-Revolutionary modes and mores. Collectively, the essays argue that the many revolutions that produced the national ideologies, identities and ideas of state of present-day America and Europe did not merely play a role in national debates, but that they very much belonged to an intricate network of transnational and, more particularly, transatlantic dialogues

Bienen gelten als drittwichtigstes Nutztier. Ein Großteil der landwirtschaftlichen Erträge ist von Bestäubungsleistungen abhängig, wodurch sich der ökonomische Wert der Biene und deren Leistungen als enorm darstellen (Calderone 2012, S. 6). So erfuhr die Imkerei in den letzten Jahren große wissenschaftliche, politische als auch mediale Aufmerksamkeit. Hervorzuheben ist, dass durch die vom Menschen veränderte Umwelt, Honigbienen beinahe ausschließlich auf menschliche Pflege angewiesen sind um dauerhaft überleben zu können. Dies zeigt die große Verantwortung der Imkerschaft (Hausmann & Dossenbach 2014, S. 7; Wermelinger 2013, S. 10) und die Abhängigkeit von Mensch und Umwelt (Keppler & Hähnle 2008, S. 21). Oft verbleiben ImkerInnen jedoch im Un-wissen über ihre Wahl der Bienenbewirtschaftungsform. Die vorliegende Arbeit gibt einen Überblick über mögliche Chancen und Risiken der biologischen Imkereiform im Vergleich zu konventionell geführten Imkereien aus Sicht der ImkerInnen. Zur Erarbeitung einer Stärken-Schwächen-Chancen-Risiken-Analyse (SWOT-Analyse) werden auf Basis der EU Bio Verordnung 889/2008 und ergänzender Literatur Unterschiede der Imkereitypen systematisch aufgearbeitet. Eine schriftliche Umfrage unter konventionellen und biologischen ImkerInnen ermöglicht eine Evaluierung der aufgestellten SWOT-Elemente. Daneben werden Einstellungen und Wahrnehmun-gen hinsichtlich verschiedener Netzwerkfaktoren der Imkerschaft erhoben. Dies bietet eine Grundlage um Netzwerkfaktoren der Imkerschaft mittels deskriptiver Statistik zu analysieren und mögliche Strukturen zu erkennen, die Rückschlüsse auf Chancen und Risiken einer biologischen Imkereiform liefern. Als Chancen, welche sich für ImkerInnen aus einer biologischen Bewirtschaftungsform im Vergleich zur konventionellen Bienenbewirtschaftung ergeben, lassen sich Zertifizierungen zur Qualitätssicherung, Trend zu Produkten aus biologischer Herkunft sowie der naturnahe Umgang mit Bienen identifizieren. Dem hingegen werden geringes Wissen über die biologische Betriebsweise, Abhängigkeiten der Standortwahl sowie etwaige höhere Imkereikosten als Risiken angesehen. Diese spiegeln sich zudem in den Netzwerkverbindungen sowie den wahrgenommenen Einflussstärken wider. Zur Auswertung wird ein Python-Skript entwickelt, welches für weiterführende oder ähnliche Auswertungen als Basis dienen kann. ; Bees are considered as the third most important livestock. A huge amount of agricultural yields depends on its pollination (Calderone 2012, p. 6). In recent years, beekeeping has received great scientific, political and media attention. In this regard, it should be emphasized, that honey bees rely on human care to survive in the long term because of the man-made surroundings. This shows the responsibility of beekeeping (Hausmann & Dossenbach 2014, p. 7; Wermelinger 2013, p. 10) and the dependence between humans and environment (Keppler & Hähnle 2008, p. 21). Often, beekeepers are uncertain in their choice of beekeeping type.The present work gives an overview of chances and risks of organic beekeeping in comparison to conventional beekeeping practices in the point of view of beekeepers. To develop a strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats analysis (SWOT analysis), based on EU Organic Regulation 889/2008 and further literature differences in beekeeping types are systematically acquired. A written survey among conventional and organic beekeepers allows an evaluation of the formulated SWOT elements. In addition, attitudes and perceptions regarding network factors of beekeeping are enquired. This provides the basis of the analysis of the network factors of beekeeping, using descriptive statistics. Moreover, possible structures which provide information on the chances and risks of organic beekeeping are identified. As opportunities arise for beekeepers from a biological management compared to conventional beekeeping, certifications for quality assurance, a trend towards organic products, as well as the natural approach to bees can be recognized. On the other hand, the low level of knowledge about biological beekeeping, the dependency of location and higher beekeeping costs compared to conventional beekeeping are apprehended risks. These results are also reflected in the network connections as well as the perceived influences. For analysis, a Python script including descriptive statistics is developed, which can be used as a basic model to compare management options concerning their influencing factors. ; vorgelegt von Victoria Allmer, BSc ; Zusammenfassungen in Deutsch und Englisch ; Abweichender Titel laut Übersetzung des Verfassers/der Verfasserin ; Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Masterarbeit, 2018 ; (VLID)2581476

Proceedings Report from a virtual event on Neonicotinoid Insecticides, held on 18 November 2020. ; Agriculture is critically important for African societies and economies but ensuring food security for Africa's growing population is a major challenge. One particular concern are pesticides called 'neonicotinoids', which render all parts of a plant toxic to all insects and contaminate the soil and water bodies. By exposing all organisms to the toxins, neonicotinoids also harm beneficial insects that provide many important 'ecosystem services', such as pollination, soil development, and natural pest control, which are an integral part of sustainable agriculture. Neonicotinoids have contributed to the loss of ecosystem services from pollinators and other insects in Europe and elsewhere, and several of them have been banned in the (European Union) EU and other countries due to their harmful effect on beneficial insects. Africa, with its rich biodiversity and heavy reliance on agricultural production, is one of the fastest-growing pesticide markets in the world, so protecting it from the harmful effects of neonicotinoids is vital to ensuring a sustainable agriculture that provides food security. The Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf), in collaboration with the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) has recently completed a project exploring the use and effects of neonicotinoids in African agriculture. This project brought together experts from 17 African countries, reviewed the relevant African scientific literature, and analysed the state of knowledge on neonicotinoids and their impact on ecosystem services for agriculture and on biodiversity in Africa. The resultant report 'Neonicotinoid insecticides: use and effects in African agriculture. A review and recommendations to policy makers' (NASAC, 2019) has collated an unprecedented amount of information, identified gaps in scientific knowledge and research relating to neonicotinoids in Africa, and developed key recommendations from science to policy-makers to ensure the sustainability of African agriculture and thus food security. One year after the launch of the NASAC report, the purpose of this virtual event was to introduce the report, including an update on recent global scientific and African policy developments regarding neonicotinoids, and to discuss its implications with a wide range of stakeholders, with the aim of stimulating policy and research action on this important issue. The target audience and participants included South African and Southern African Development Community (SADC) policymakers, regulatory agencies, government departments, agricultural associations, extension-service providers, research institutes, international development agencies, representatives of embassies, and other interested stakeholders. ; German Government through the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF)

Overview:The Big-Bee project will advance research on bee ecology and taxonomy through the creation and standardization of open datasets for taxonomic and computational analysis. It will overcome challenges in bee identification and discovery by linking ecological and anatomical traits. Today, the vast majority of digital insect records include only taxon names, dates, and locations. This paucity of data greatly limits opportunities for research. To achieve fundamental changes in how insect specimens are digitized, the project will supply innovative methods for deep digitization of target taxa, including high-resolution imaging methods. These image data will enable the scoring of life-history traits and will facilitate identification from digitized specimens. Big-Bee will further revolutionize processes of insect specimen digitization by enabling global bee data to be integrated and linked. The project will produce important partnerships between researchers, industry, and government agencies. Specifically, Big-Bee will:1) Digitize over 0.5 million new specimens via an image-to-data workflow that will capture both labels and specimens of 5,509 agriculturally and phylogenetically important global bee species.2) Create over 1.3M specimen images from which the project will capture detailed functional trait information at the specimen level. It will create a widely accessible and citable image datasets. The data will include 109K high-resolution, focal-stacked exemplar and diagnostic images, and 10,300 image suites each consisting of 64 images capturing 360 degrees views of specimens, including over 659,000 high-resolution images of bees. This will enable the scientific-grade 3D reconstruction of specimens from images and will supply rich data for computational discovery and computer vision applications.3) Create and steward a new Symbiota portal, Bee Library, that will index all digitized bee occurrence data. Through it, the project will furnish new tools for annotating and sharing ecological and anatomical information. The Bee Library will facilitate identification by producing curated, and openly reviewed datasets about critical bee functional traits, biotic interactions (parasites, floral associates), geographic distributions, and identification features. Project data curators will steward the Bee Library, evaluating and correcting georeference data for all digitized bee species, and providing reports back to collections.Intellectual Merit: Animal pollination accounts for 35% of global food production. Insects pollinate 80% of wild plants. Most of these insect pollinators are bees. Although limited in scope, extant data show bee abundance is declining due to anthropogenic disturbances. A growing body of research demonstrates that pollinator responses to anthropogenic disturbances, such as land use and climate change, are mediated by functional or life-history traits that impact the fitness of individual species within the community. These effects impact plant-pollinator interactions in both natural and agricultural systems. While the US currently possesses a wealth of digitized historic bee specimen data, most records do not include associated data reflecting functional traits. This greatly limits the mechanistic insights they can provide about factors driving long-term community response to anthropogenic disturbances. In order to accurately track how and why pollinators are declining, better tools are urgently needed to support bee identification, functional trait annotation, and the exchange of historical species and trait information among researchers, industry, and policymakers.Broader Impacts: Big-Bee will collaborate on the creation of the US National Native Bee Monitoring Plan as part of the Bee Monitoring Research Coordination Network currently funded through the USDA. It will create an infrastructure to support hundreds of bee researchers in specimen digitization. The project published datasets contribute to the Open Traits Network, Global Biotic Interactions, and other downstream applications. It will develop computer science and collections-based undergraduate curricula, increasing capacity in entomology for bee identification and research. Participating institutions will develop undergraduate course materials that involve examination of bee specimens and the use of data derived from specimens, and will contribute lesson plans to BLUE (Biodiversity Literacy for Undergraduate Education). Extensive workforce training in biodiversity informatics, museum preparation, bee identification, and the creation of citizen science monitoring programs will be offered to collections within and outside the Big-Bee network. Big-Bee museums will contribute to a new syndicated college radio science program, The Buzz, that will be produced by undergraduate students in science communication.

El concepto de agrobiodiversitad se refiere a los ecosistemas con su flora, su fauna, su componente microbiológico y genético que derivan de la acción ejercitada inicialmente por la selección natural en la evolución de la vida y por el hombre que ha domesticado la naturaleza desde el tiempo de los primeros agricultores cerca de 10.000 años atrás hasta el dia de hoy. La biodiversidad es un elemento esencial del ambiente natural y garantiza numerosos beneficios para el hombre, beneficios que son llamados: Servicios Ecosistémicos. Los ecosistemas naturales, consituidos por un conjunto de especies que han evolucionado en el tiempo en equilibrio con el ambiente físico, son la garantía de la sustentabilidad de bienestar humano. Los servicios ecosistémicos pueden ser de diferente naturaleza como: suministro (madera, comida, medicinas, etc), regulación (filtrado del agua, descomposición de residuos orgánicos, regulación del clima con el ciclo del carbono, etc), de base (ciclo de los nutrientes, fotosíntesis y formación de biomasa, formación de los suelos), cultural (recreación, estética, espiritual, etc). La ley 194 de diciembre del 2015 del gobierno italiano, sobre la seguridad y la conservación de la biodversidad de los productos agrícolas y alimentarios, ha cubierto la diferencia entre la rica reglamentación internacional y la normativa italiana aun en fase de desarrollo y ha dado particular resalto a la protección de la rica herencia de biodiversidad presente en el territorio italiano. Esta ley tiene como principal objetivo la actulización de la normativa italiana adaptándola al marco normativo internacional en diferentes niveles que van desde la seguridad y conservación de la biodiversidad de alimentos, necesaria para conservar los recursos genéticos locales, a la definición de medidas para prevenir riesgo de extinción y erosión genética y específica de la biodiversidad a escala nacional. En fin, viene presentado y comentado un trabajo piloto sobre la integración de los servicios ecosistémicos en la planificación de las áreas protegidas. El proyecto se ha realizado utilizando fondos europeos LIFE+ y se llama LIFE+mgn (making good nature). En particular en el proyecto LIFE+mgn se propone a través de la participación de las comunidades locales y la utilizacion de PES (Pay for Ecosystems Services= Pago por servicios ambientales) de definir los planes de gestión y conservación de la biodiversidad dentro de la red de áreas protegidas europeas (Red Natura 2000). La propuesta ha sido desarrollada y puesta en práctica en un set de 22 áreas de la red con características ambientales, territoriales y culturares muy heterogéneas y que son representativas de la realidad italiana. La aplicación del modelo LIFE+mgn, que se ha demostrado muy eficaz para integrar los servicios ecosistémicos en la planificación sustentable de la red Natura 2000, podría ser extendida a toda la red de áreas protegidas incluyendo otras áreas como los Parques nacionales y regionales. ; Agricultural biodiversity entails the wealth of plant, animal and microbial genetic resources formed through biological mechanisms, natural selection and a lengthy evolution process, and accumulated ‐since the appearance of the agriculture about 10.000 years ago‐ by generations of farmers who patiently and diligently domesticated, selected and moved from different areas, the species from which the products necessary to manʹs existence would derive. Biodiversity is an irreplaceable element in the natural environment, producing a range of benefits for humanity realized by the so‐called ecosystem services, in the form of different types of goods and services such as food, timber, drinking water, pollination, energy, climate regulation, protection from natural hazards/risks, erosion control, ingredients for medicines and cosmetics, leisure activities The Italian act 194, passed of the 1st of December 2015, on safety and conservation of agricultural and food biodiversity, attempts to fill a gap between a set of prolific international agreements – aimed, in different ways, at regulating the delicate topic of the safety of biological and agricultural diversity– and a likewise productive season of regional acts, focused on the protection of our territory's remarkable genetic heritage. This legislation's main objective is to achieve an international framework, arranged through different levels and competences, for the safety and conservation of agricultural and food biodiversity, able to safeguard local genetic resources ‐ both agricultural and food‐ from the risk of genetic erosion and extinction. A pioneering work aimed at defining new management tools that include Ecosystem services in the governance of the network of protected areas (Natura 2000 network) has been recently done in Italy in the context of the LIFE+ European program (called LIFE+mgn). The proposed procedure was implemented and tested in a pool of 22 protected areas representative of the environmental, social and economic heterogeneity in Italy. Specific PES (Payment for ecosystem services) and contracts were defined. The model LIFE+mgn seems adequate for including ES in defining a sustainable plan of the Natura 2000 network. ; Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) - Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales

Water Co-Governance (WaterCoG) is an Interreg EU project in which the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden participated from 2016 to 2020. Each participating country has implemented pilot projects to investigate how to best increase local participation and collaboration to improve aquatic environments. This report is about the project work carried out within Sweden. The pilot projects in Sweden have been carried out by three water councils, who have independently defined problems while developing visions and work areas. The councils have approached this work differently and looked at different questions/issues. As a result, the projects cover a wide range of areas and work practices. The project has included a number of different people, organisations, meetings, networks and sub-projects. This has revealed a number of recurring patterns, which are highlighted in the report: There is a tremendous degree of involvement in the pilot groups and a clear desire to work cooperatively to increase knowledge and identify solutions. The level of involvement around a particular place, where people live or own land, is particularly evident. There is often a desire to include more people in the groups and create a climate where everyone can have their say. Groups that contain this kind of diversity offer a broader knowledge base and a variety of perspectives. The level of confidence within the groups gradually increases when participants learn from each other and see the results of what they can create together. Issues relating to water are often expanded to include the environment and biodiversity, both in aquatic environments and terrestrial environments. Issues raised also relate to sustainable use through agriculture, forestry and electricity production. Ecosystem services, such as the province's water level management, water purification and access to recreation and learning, are also relevant. The groups often emphasise the connection to the cultural heritage around water. Another important issue highlighted in the groups is local influence. Collaboration and participation on issues relating to water will therefore be a starting point for sustainable development and democratic development. There is a need for forums that transcend borders between different groups and stakeholders, between authorities and the local community – including landowners, businesses and residents. These forums are needed to facilitate collaboration, to develop a holistic view and to identify new, creative solutions. The water councils are clearly already functioning as forums, but they also have tremendous potential to be developed further. Water councils need access to an increased number of stable platforms with greater continuity. This needs to be carried out, for example, through long-term funding, by creating time for meetings and by increasing the visibility of the water councils so they can secure a more clearly defined role. It is also important adopt work practices or tools that help create a climate characterised by listening, dialogue and openness where individuals can participate on equal terms and where no individual stakeholders or persons take precedence. A lack of time among participants and need for coordinators are issues that are repeatedly highlighted. Someone needs to handle invitations, summarise notes, prepare meetings, submit applications for funding and provide continuity. Compensation may also need to be arranged for individuals who set aside working hours to attend water council meetings. The importance of networking and communication is clear. The forums that the water councils create are a part of, and have an important role in, the cooperative networks of, for example, landowners, businesses, schools, local householder's associations, consultants, associations and authorities. For networks to function effectively, communication is key. When problems arise, it is often due to a lack of communication. Effective communication is clear, easy to understand and based on dialogue instead of one-way communication. The project has yielded many results. Around 650 people have participated in a variety of ways. Significantly more people have been informed about the work in the project. Over 20 sub-projects have been developed within the three water councils. Grant applications and grants awarded for various projects amount to SEK 6.6 million. There is a significant increase in invested funds. For the funding the water authority has allocated to support the water councils, including the grant received through Water Co-Governance, twelve times as much money has flowed in through, for example, approved applications for other grants. To this we can add all the hours allocated on a voluntary basis or within the framework of an individual's employment for municipal officials or private employees who work with water issues as part of their position. This work has yielded a number of results, including inventories, water sampling, information materials and education/training. A variety of measures have been implemented, such as the opening up of fish migration routes, restoration of biotopes in watercourses, construction of wetlands, structural liming of fields, decontamination of environmentally hazardous waste, controlling stormwater discharge and saving dead wood and trees by watercourses. This strengthens ecosystem services, such as food production, water purification, water retention landscapes, drinking water, biodiversity, pollination and recreation. Measures have often been implemented on the initiative of individual landowners, but increased local collaboration in applying for funding and the implementation of measures has been highlighted as an important aspect. Through the forums created by local water groups and water councils during the project period, networks have formed consisting of landowners, consultants, authorities and water council members, which have contributed to the initiation of measures. The exchange of knowledge that has occurred thanks to the forums and dialogue between people with different interests and backgrounds has added new perspectives while increasing interest and knowledge about water issues and the activities of other participants. The river walks have been an especially positive development, where participants are able to explore the natural environment together. The walks have helped build relationships, both with the natural environments and each other, which provides a source of inspiration and increased knowledge. Municipalities, authorities and the state need to support, facilitate and understand the value of these forums for participation and collaboration. This may include recognising the water councils and the local community as a major resource that is able to engage with issues, such as community planning, at an early stage. It could also mean that the state significantly increases long-term funding and strives to avoid rapid changes in grants and rules. Sudden cuts to funding or short-term increases creates a risk of reduced quality, inefficiency and stress. Administrative hurdles should also be reduced, for example, by establishing long-term grant rules, simplifying grant and procurement rules and reducing micromanagement. There is also a need for increased collaboration within and between authorities by allocating more time for internal collaboration and dialogue, with broader competence. By ensuring better collaboration at all levels, the work is likely to become more efficient, creative and sustainable. The effort is a long-term learning process, which makes it essential that structures are created to allow knowledge to be carried over, rather than starting from scratch in new projects. This will also contribute to the creation of context and meaningfulness, which is a key to the willingness to participate.

This paper investigates the mechanisms involved in the dispersion, structure, and mixing in the vertical column of atmospheric pollen. The methodology used employs observations of pollen concentration obtained from Hirst samplers (we will refer to this as surface pollen) and vertical distribution (polarization-sensitive lidar), as well as nested numerical simulations with an atmospheric transport model and a simplified pollen module developed especially for this study. The study focuses on the predominant pollen type, Pinus, of the intense pollination event which occurred in the region of Barcelona, Catalonia, NE Spain, during 27–31 March 2015. First, conversion formulas are expressed to convert lidar-derived total backscatter coefficient and model-derived mass concentration into pollen grains concentration, the magnitude measured at the surface by means of aerobiological methods, and, for the first time ever, a relationship between optical and mass properties of atmospheric pollen through the estimation of the so-called specific extinction cross section is quantified in ambient conditions. Second, the model horizontal representativeness is assessed through a comparison between nested pollen simulations at 9, 3, and 1 km horizontal resolution and observed meteorological and aerobiological variables at seven sites around Catalonia. Finally, hourly observations of surface and column concentration in Barcelona are analyzed with the different numerical simulations at increasing horizontal resolution and varying sedimentation/deposition parameters. We find that the 9 or 3 km simulations are less sensitive to the meteorology errors; hence, they should be preferred for specific forecasting applications. The largest discrepancies between measured surface (Hirst) and column (lidar) concentrations occur during nighttime, where only residual pollen is detected in the column, whereas it is also present at the surface. The main reason is related to the lidar characteristics which have the lowest useful range bin at ∼ 225 m, above the usually very thin nocturnal stable boundary layer. At the hour of the day of maximum insolation, the pollen layer does not extend up to the top of the planetary boundary layer, according to the observations (lidar), probably because of gravity effects; however, the model simulates the pollen plume up to the top of the planetary boundary layer, resulting in an overestimation of the pollen load. Besides the large size and weight of Pinus grains, sedimentation/deposition processes have only a limited impact on the model vertical concentration in contrast to the emission processes. For further modeling research, emphasis is put on the accurate knowledge of plant/tree spatial distribution, density, and type, as well as on the establishment of reliable phenology functions. ; The lidar data analysis has been supported by funding from the H2020 program from the European Union (grant nos. 654109, 778349, and 871115), the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (grant no. CGL2017-90884- REDT), the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (grant no. PID2019-103886RB-I00), and the Unity of Excellence "María de Maeztu" financed by the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (grant no. MDM-2016-0600). Modeling activities have been supported by funding from the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, as part of the BROWNING project (grant no. RTI2018-099894-BI00) and ACTRIS-España (grant no. CGL2017-90884-REDT). Airborne pollen data sampling and analyzing have been supported by funding from sponsors of the Catalan Aerobiological Network (LETI Pharma, Diputació de Tarragona, Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya, Diputació de Lleida, Sociedad Española de Alergología e Inmunología Clínica (SEAIC), Societat Catalana d'Al·lèrgia i Immunologia Clínica (SCAIC), and J Uriach y Compañía, S.A.), and from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (grant nos. CGL2012- 39523-C02-01, CTM2017-89565-C2-1-P, and CTM2017-89565- C2-2-P). This work is contributing to the ICTA "Unit of Excellence" (MinECo; grant no. MDM2015-0552). ; Peer Reviewed ; Postprint (published version)

This paper investigates the mechanisms involved in the dispersion, structure, and mixing in the vertical column of atmospheric pollen. The methodology used employs observations of pollen concentration obtained from Hirst samplers (we will refer to this as surface pollen) and vertical distribution (polarization-sensitive lidar), as well as nested numerical simulations with an atmospheric transport model and a simplified pollen module developed especially for this study. The study focuses on the predominant pollen type, Pinus, of the intense pollination event which occurred in the region of Barcelona, Catalonia, NE Spain, during 27-31 March 2015. First, conversion formulas are expressed to convert lidar-derived total backscatter coefficient and model-derived mass concentration into pollen grains concentration, the magnitude measured at the surface by means of aerobiological methods, and, for the first time ever, a relationship between optical and mass properties of atmospheric pollen through the estimation of the so-called specific extinction cross section is quantified in ambient conditions. Second, the model horizontal representativeness is assessed through a comparison between nested pollen simulations at 9, 3, and 1g€¯km horizontal resolution and observed meteorological and aerobiological variables at seven sites around Catalonia. Finally, hourly observations of surface and column concentration in Barcelona are analyzed with the different numerical simulations at increasing horizontal resolution and varying sedimentation/deposition parameters. We find that the 9 or 3g€¯km simulations are less sensitive to the meteorology errors; hence, they should be preferred for specific forecasting applications. The largest discrepancies between measured surface (Hirst) and column (lidar) concentrations occur during nighttime, where only residual pollen is detected in the column, whereas it is also present at the surface. The main reason is related to the lidar characteristics which have the lowest useful range bin at g1/4g€¯225g€¯m, above the usually very thin nocturnal stable boundary layer. At the hour of the day of maximum insolation, the pollen layer does not extend up to the top of the planetary boundary layer, according to the observations (lidar), probably because of gravity effects; however, the model simulates the pollen plume up to the top of the planetary boundary layer, resulting in an overestimation of the pollen load. Besides the large size and weight of Pinus grains, sedimentation/deposition processes have only a limited impact on the model vertical concentration in contrast to the emission processes. For further modeling research, emphasis is put on the accurate knowledge of plant/tree spatial distribution, density, and type, as well as on the establishment of reliable phenology functions. ; The authors thankfully acknowledge the computer resources at MareNostrum 4 and the technical support provided by BSC (grant nos. RES-AECT-2019-3-0001 and RES-AECT-2020-1-0007). The lidar data analysis has been supported by funding from the H2020 program from the European Union (grant nos. 654109, 778349, and 871115), the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (grant no. CGL2017-90884-REDT), the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (grant no. PID2019-103886RB-I00), and the Unity of Excellence "María de Maeztu" financed by the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigación (grant no. MDM-2016-0600). Modeling activities have been supported by funding from the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, as part of the BROWNING project (grant no. RTI2018-099894-BI00) and ACTRIS-España (grant no. CGL2017-90884-REDT). Airborne pollen data sampling and analyzing have been supported by funding from sponsors of the Catalan Aerobiological Network (LETI Pharma, Diputació de Tarragona, Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya, Diputació de Lleida, Sociedad Española de Alergología e Inmunología Clínica (SEAIC), Societat Catalana d'Al⋅lèrgia i Immunologia Clínica (SCAIC), and J Uriach y Compañía, S.A.), and from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (grant nos. CGL2012-39523-C02-01, CTM2017-89565-C2-1-P, and CTM2017-89565-C2-2-P). This work is contributing to the ICTA "Unit of Excellence" (MinECo; grant no. MDM2015-0552).

Preface -- Part 1 Landscapes -- Mountain Landscapes and Watersheds of the Hindu-Kush Himalaya (HKH) and their Biogeography: A descriptive overview and introduction for 18 nations in the Anthropocene -- HKH in the global and climate context: Major weather systems, monsoon, Asian Brown Cloud (ABC) and global connections -- From the mountains and glaciers down to the rivers to the estuaries and oceans: A tale of 18 rivers -- HKH in the global and marine context: Major estuaries, 2 billion people and global food security -- A view from space on Poyang Lake: What we can already see and what it means -- Poyang Lake: A local view downstream from the Hindu Kush Himalaya. The Future of Biodiversity in the Changing Watersheds of Kashmir Himalaya, Pakistan: Conservation Challenges and Opportunities -- Towards a Landscape Perspective of Diseases in Plants: An Overview and Review of a Critical but Overlooked Ecology Issue in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region -- Change of Hindu Kush Himalaya region through photo monitoring -- Paper parks in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region -- Forestry Management in Nepal: An example and a review of growth & yield -- Part 2 Concepts, Cultures, Religions and the Mind -- What it is like to be a land-locked nation: Examples from Nepal and Bhutan -- Ethnobiology and indigenous regimes in the conservation of species, watersheds, and landscapes: Experiences and evidences from the Hindu Kush-Himalayan nations for a global application -- Spirituality beats it all: A quick overview, self-organization and great value of (indigenous) religions: 2,000 years later -- The terror of your mind: Fear, Anxiety, inherent Chaos and Self-doubt in Himalaya expeditions and research -- Part 3 Real-world Policy, Conservation Management of Wildlife, Habitat, and Biodiversity Data -- The relevance and role of Mid-elevation for conservation in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Nepal example -- Nature and landscape governance in royal times: Experiences from the Shah and Rana regimes in Nepal re-assembled from literature and interview data -- Urban Ecology in shops and housing: An example of culture, religion and how (nesting) Barn Swallows, House and Tree Swallows create for a lively human-wildlife link at the commercial interface -- Pallas's Cat in Annapurna, Nepal: What we know thus far and what is to come -- Status of otters in Nepal: A link with ancient waterways and people -- Wildlife Diplomacy and Gifting in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region: A chronological history and opinion of Nepalese literates -- Birds of Nepal: their status and conservation especially with regards to watershed perspectives -- A governance analysis of the snow leopard, its habitat and data: Who owns charismatic animals and who drives and uses the agenda for what?- The Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP): Towards a success story in landscape feature and watershed conservation management -- The forgotten species and their data: Museums in Nepal and examples -- A rather short story of the GIS data layers in HKH -- A pollination, insect and IUCN view: Ecological Services matter the most -- Sarus Cranes and Stork species hotspots from geo-referenced rapid assessments in Lumbini: Holy species and religious attitudes drive entire ecological communities and services for the benefit of a nation -- Part 4 Very Serious Problems in the HKH nations -- A 'global change' eulogy, sermons and obituaries: Everest, the models, the reality, the governmental mis-behavior, associated institutional terror and the global abuse of the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region -- The gods are angry: A first-hand account and an experience of the earthquake in hindsight -- Hydrodams: Death by over 500 cuts and blockages virtually build without Impact Assessment -- Hydrodams again: Lost Dolphins, expensive Gharials, cut Fish migration, and energy for non-sustainable mining and societies abroad fueling non-democratric governance and industry -- Persistent evidence for a dramatic decline in Langurs in Nepal, and likely elsewhere, too -- Snow Leopards in 2100?- The fate of the great woodpeckers and hornbills in Nepal: No big trees, no life -- Poaching and illegal Trade of Wildlife: What do the media say for the Nepali-Chinese and Nepali-Indian border?- Looking at Road and Railroad Development Data in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya: Rock-solid impacts created by Globalization, The World Bank and its affiliates, as well as by the Great Himalaya Trail -- Why do some many Nepalis, medical doctors, CEOs and Hedge Fund Managers get sick or die on Everest (Sagarmatha, Chomolungma) ? A review and indicators that capitalism went awful while searching human dignity and itself -- Part 5 A fresh look and successful templates for HKH: Business as usual is dead -- Small and effective NGOs as a role model for bigger success: The Global Primate Network (now 'Third Pole Conservancy') -- When Micro drives the Macro: A fresh look at disease and their massive contributions in the Himalaya -- What Mining has in stock down river for Mongolia and beyond: A personal assessment of watersheds and rivers -- Good Citizen Science experience downstream of Everest: The Koshi Birding Club -- Citizen Science experience: Green Youth Club promoting Cranes in Lumbini region -- When governments cannot do it anymore and capitalism, neoliberal policies and globalization get imposed without democracy: Self-organization beyond E. Ostrom -- Quo Vadis the Hindu Kush-Himalaya Realistic Sustainable Development horror scenarios while climate change, human increase and global conservation decay rise further?- Index. .