Suchergebnisse

En la legislación colombiana, especialmente en la ley de Infancia y Adolescencia, se señalan claramente las obligaciones del Estado, la sociedad y la familia para con los(as) menores de edad; sin embargo, allí no se indican las obligaciones de los(as) adolescentes; por ello, es importante un desarrollo legislativo dirigido a todos los sectores y a la población en general, pero principalmente a los(as) jóvenes menores de 18 años de edad, con el fin de que asuman los deberes que tienen frente a su familia de origen y/o frente a la familia que organicen o construyan, sin descuidar su realidad social, económica y familiar. Se hace necesario, entonces, trabajar el principio de corresponsabilidad sin descuidar el proceso formativo de los(as) adolescentes con el fin de contribuir al desarrollo de un (a) adulto (a) responsable en todos los ámbitos. Si bien, la adolescencia es una etapa diferencial del ciclo vital donde se genera una transición decisiva para la vida, el y la adolescente mayor de 16 años de edad ya tienen una capacidad para discernir el bien y el mal , lo correcto y lo incorrecto. Son Adultos menores. El exigir que los(as) adolescentes reconozcan sus actos y asuman sus consecuencias, especialmente frente a la familia que construyen, ejerciendo una maternidad o paternidad responsable y/o colaborando con sus familias de origen, contribuye, sin duda alguna, a la formación de un adulto(a) responsable y útil para la sociedad. El Estado debe propender por ser el mediador entre la familia y la sociedad, pretendiendo disminuir los altos índices de violencia, la descomposición familiar y la vulneración, inobservancia y amenaza de derechos, diseñando y ejecutando estrategias, tales como el desarrollo y fortalecimiento de políticas públicas relacionadas con la familia lo que traerá como consecuencia, el mejoramiento de sus relaciones entre sus integrantes. El legislador y los operadores de justicia, quienes desarrollan políticas públicas y/o hacen parte del Sistema Nacional de Bienestar Familiar no pueden desconocer la realidad colombiana en este campo en donde los(as) adolescentes deben en una alta proporción trabajar para contribuir a su bienestar y al de sus familias; en donde la educación formal no es la decisión de muchas personas y en donde la protección mal manejada desencadena en perjuicio y no en bienestar, como en el caso del joven padre que no cuenta con red familiar extensa y debe responder por un(a) hijo(a), y a veces siente la vigilancia del Estado como persecución y no como protección. No se puede tratar al(a) adolescente mayor de 16 años, como un incapaz, como solo sujeto de derechos; sino también como generador de obligaciones y deberes frente a los cuales debe sentirse responsable. (Texto tomado de la fuente) ; Under Colombian law, especially the law of Childhood and Adolescence, the obligations of the state, society and the family to children are clearly outlined; but the obligations of adolescents are not shown. Therefore, it is necessary a legislative development aimed at all sectors and the public in general, but mainly at young people under 18, in order to assume the duties they have to their family of origin and / or to the family which they make part of, without neglecting its social , economic and family situation . Then, it is necessary to work the principle of joint responsibility without neglecting the learning process of adolescents in order to contribute to the development of a responsible adult in all areas. While adolescence is a differential stage of the life cycle where a decisive transition to life is generated, teens over 16 have a mental capacity to know what is right and wrong, what is correct and what it is not. Allowing adolescents recognize their actions and assume the consequences thereof, especially in front of their own family, exercising responsible maternity or paternity and / or working with their families of origin, contributes to the formation of a responsible adult useful to society. The State must seek to be the mediator between the family and society, pretending to reduce the high rates of violence, family breakdown and the rights violation, failure and threat, designing and implementing strategies such as the development and strengthening of family-related public policies and contribute to the improvement of relations among its members. The legislature, judicial officers, who develop public policies and / or are part of the National Family Welfare System cannot disregard a reality where adolescents must work to contribute to their welfare and that of their families, where formal education is not the decision of many people and where mismanaged protection triggers damage and no welfare, as in the case of the young father who does not have extensive family network and must hold responsibility of a child, and sometimes feels surveillance from the state, like persecution and no protection. You cannot try to a 16-year old, as incapable, as a subject with rights only, but also as a source of obligations and duties. ; Maestría

The article includes an overview of the development of e-publishing in Estonia. The treatment is based on the analysis and comparison of existing research, mainly student papers; statistical data from the database of Statistics Estonia and the National Library of Estonia, articles in the periodical press and homepages of various institutions.The beginning of the article presents the description of the publishing industry during the 2000s. In accordance with the development of economy the book production has moved from the peak in the mid-2000s to recession in 2008–2010. The declining market led to the decrease in print runs (since 2008) and book title production (since 2010). The number of publishers, however, increased even during the crisis. The small-language market is of no interest to international companies, so the book industry works on local capital.Estonia is characterised by early adoption and wide use of the Internet. The web publishing by organisations, associations and individuals is widespread since mid 1990s, but commercial publishers remained aside of this trend. As in many other European countries, especially small countries, the publishers were uncertain about the application of copyright in the digital environment and technological skill gaps. These worries were largerly overcome by the establishment of e-publishing service providers in 2010, which led to the take off in the publishing of e-books. The number of e-books produced and the sales have increased a number of times, but their share of the book market is rather marginal. The book buyers and readers still hold to traditional book form. The official cultural policy, however, favours e-books and supports different projects that provide free access to Estonian classical literature and modern authors.KEYWORDS: e-publishing, e-book, publishing industry, book title production, e-book market, Estonia. ; Tallin University, Institute of Information StudiesNarva mnt 25, 10120 Tallinn, EstoniaE-mail:aile@tlu.ee Straipsnyje pateikiama skaitmeninės leidybos plėtros Estijoje apžvalga, sutelkiant dėmesį į komercinių leidyklų skaitmeninių knygų estų kalba leidybą.Situacijos analizė paremta rinkoje atliktais tyrimais ir jų lyginimu; daugiausia tai studentų darbai, Estijos statistikos departamento duomenų bazės statistiniai duomenys, periodinės spaudos straipsniai ir įvairių institucijų svetainių duomenys.Straipsnio pradžioje siekiama pristatyti teorinę situacijos apžvalgą. Įvade apibūdinama leidybos industrijos padėtis šalyje XXI amžiaus pradžioje. Knygų leidybos plėtra Estijoje susijusi su bendra ekonomine situacija, kuri po spartaus augimo pačioje XXI amžiaus pradžioje patyrė recesiją 2008–2010 metais. Dėl besitraukiančios rinkos visų pirma sumažėjo leidžiamų knygų tiražai (nuo 2008 metų), o vėliau, krizei užsitęsus, sumažėjo ir leidinių pavadinimų skaičius (nuo 2010). Vis dėlto nepaisant krizės leidėjų skaičius nuo 105 (2003 metais) išaugo iki 147 (2011 metais). Maža estų kalbos rinka nedomina tarptautinių leidybos grupių, todėl šalies knygų industrija plėtojama vietos kapitalo pagrindu.Estija apibūdinama kaip šalis, kurioje anksti įsigalėjo internetas; šiandien interneto skverbtis šalyje yra didelė ir plati. 2013 metais 80 proc. šalies gyventojų, priklausančių 16–74 amžiaus grupei, naudojosi interneto paslaugomis; 80,3 proc. estų buvo įsivedę internetą namuose.Elektroninė leidyba paplito tarp organizacijų, asociacijų ir pavienių asmenų nuo paskutinio praėjusio amžiaus dešimtmečio vidurio. Nuo 1996 metų leidykla "Ilmamaa" ėmė teikti gyventojams nemokamą interneto prieigą prie vertingos jos leidžiamos serijos "Estijos minties istorija" (angl.The History of the Estonian Thought). Leidyklos tikslas – kuo plačiau paskleisti visuomenėje šiosserijos turinį, naudojamą mokyklose ir universitetuose. Jaunų autorių, nemokamai leidusiųsavo kūrinius tik skaitmeninėje terpėje, grupė sukūrė interneto leidėją "Bahama Press".Išskyrus kelis eksperimentus, komerciniai leidėjai liko šios tendencijos nuošalyje. Kaipir daugelyje kitų Europos šalių, ypač mažųjų, leidėjams trukdė su autorių teisėmis susijęklausimai ir technologinių įgūdžių spragos. Be to, jie nelaikė skaitmeninių knygų plėtrosaktualia problema Estijoje. Jų manymu, perkantieji knygas buvo labiau linkę įsigyti popieriniųknygų.Situacija pasikeitė 2010 metų pabaigoje, įsikūrus kelioms elektroninės leidybos paslaugassiūlančioms įmonėms. Jos teikė leidėjams ir autoriams failų konvertavimo, platinimoir rinkodaros paslaugas. Šios naujos įmonės savo klientams siūlo ir skaitmeninių teisių valdymo(angl. DRM) sprendimus. Visa tai rodo, kad anksčiau egzistavusios kliūtys galiausiaibuvo įveiktos; jau 2013 metais pusė leidyklų užsiėmė e. knygų leidyba.Per ateinančius kelerius metus elektroninių knygų antraščių skaičius išaugo nuo 150 antraščių(2010 metais) iki 838 (2012 metais). Didesnis knygų pasirinkimas pagyvino pardavimą – nuo350 skaitmeninių egzempliorių 2010 metais jų prekyba išaugo iki 40 876 egzempliorių 2012 metais.Vis dėlto skaitmeninių knygų rinka šalyje šiuo metu tesudaro apie 0,4–0,6 proc. Esama situacija nepatenkinanė vieno skaitmeninės leidybos verslo dalyvio. Autorių netenkina iš elektroninių knygų leidybosuždirbamos pajamos; leidėjai nerimauja, kad bus pasiektas lūžio taškas; pirkėjai tikisi pigesniųelektroninių knygų, skaitmeninės leidybos paslaugų teikėjai laukia paklausos augimo, kuriai trukdovis dar vilkinamas skaitmeninių knygų pateikimas rinkoje ir nepakankamos rinkodaros kampanijos.Oficialioje kultūros politikoje, kuri įteisinta dokumente "Kultūros politikos pagrindai iki2020 metų", įvardijamas skaitmeninių knygų palaikymas ir parama įvairiems projektams, užtikrinantiemsnemokamą prieigą prie Estijos klasikinės literatūros ir šiuolaikinių autorių kūrinių. Tikimasi,kad tokių galimybių sudarymas teiks naudą skaitytojams ir skatins skaitymą. Sykiu būtina pažymėti,kad Estijos skaitytojai neapsiriboja tik vietinių skaitmeninių knygų skaitymu; jie dažnai perka anglųkalba išleistas skaitmenines knygas, siūlančias skaitytojams greitesnių ir pigesnių galimybių jas įsigyti.Taigi, skaitmeninė leidyba skatina nacionalinės literatūros kultūros prieinamumą ir jos išsaugojimą.Antra vertus, ji gali suardyti šios kultūros pamatus. Knygos kultūros ateitis priklausys nuo jaunesnėskartos atstovų, neturinčių knygų pirkimo ir skaitymo įgūdžių, elgsenos. Skaitmeninė aplinka sudarosąlygas kintančiam tekstų vartojimui, kurio detalės daugiausia lieka nenuspėjamos.

This paper aims to analyze the basic principles of gender philosophy applying methodological tools of communicative pragmatics; to demonstrate how gender construct can provide gender humanism formation as one of the ideals of democratic society; to specify gender glossary terms such as "gender democracy", "gender equality" and "gender justice". Methodology. In order to investigate a theoretical framework in feminist philosophy, methodological tools of communicative pragmatics and discursive ethics that were elaborated by modern German philosophers J. Habermas, K.-O. Apel for analyzing ethical gender principles and their legitimation ways have been used in this research. Scientific novelty. Based on methodological differences in concepts of J. Habermas and K.-O. Apel, two opposite approaches to gender concept analysis – rational and pragmatic (Habermas) and transcendental conceptual (K.-O. Apel) have been found out. The article helps to specify the framework of categories and concepts. According to the legitimation way of gender ethical theory it was discovered that such notions as "gender democracy", "gender equality" and "gender justice" do not have the same meanings. According to the analysis of communicative action program and consensus, the "gender equality" concept by Habermas is an artificial social construct that is methodologically grounded in cognitivism and diminishes the possibilities of gender values legitimation. According to K.-O. Apel, the concept of "gender justice" is based on transcendental moral and ethical sense of opposite genders unity and does not discharge unequal distribution of responsibilities and any invasion as well as represents certain extent of their difference. Conclusions. Fast growing gender changes in the society face ageold drawbacks of moral and spiritual principles of communities, taking into account social and cultural, national and gender identity. Thorough understanding of various approaches to feminism philosophy leads more to complementarity of male and female principles of humanity with further acceptance of gender roles that reflect more complicated panorama of spiritual life. ; Цель. Осуществить анализ исходных принципов гендерной философии, используя методологический инструментарий комуникативной прагматики. Показать, насколько гендерный конструкт обеспечивает реализацию гендерного гуманизма, как одного из идеалов демократического общества. Уточнить гендерный глоссарий: "гендерная демократия", "гендерное равенство", "гендерная справедливость". Методология. Для реализации теоретического исследования в сфере феминистической философии используется методологический инструментарий коммуникативной прагматики и дискурсивной этики, которые были разработаны немецкими философами Й.Хабермасом и К.О.Апелем для реализации гендерных принципов и путей их легализации. Научная новизна. На основе методологических разногласий между концепциями Й.Хабермаса и К.-О.Апеля были выявлены два противоположных подхода к анализу гендерной теории – рационально-прагматический, который предлагает Й.Хабермас, и трансцендентно-смысловой К.-О. Апеля. Содержания статьи дает возможность уточнить категориально-понятийный аппарат гендерной теории.В зависимости от способа легитимации гендерной этической теории было выявлено, что понятие феминистического глоссария «гендерная демократия», «гендерное равенство», «гендерная справедливость» не несут одинаковое содержание. Исходя из анализа программы коммуникативного действия и дискурсивной этики Й.Хабермаса, понятие «гендерное равенство» выступает искусственным социальным конструктом, имеющим методологическую основу в когнитивизме и сужает возможности легитимации гендерных ценностей. Понятие «гендерная справедливость», согласно К.-О.Апелю, основывается на трансцендентном морально-этическом единстве полов, не упраздняя при этом неравенства обязанностей и предпочтений в способах жизни. Выводы. Предложенные обществу стремительные гендерные изменения, препятствуют существованию извечных и вкорененных моральных и духовных ценностей, базисом которых являются социально-культурные, национальные обычаи и традиции.Осмысление различных подходов в феминистской философии все в большей мере сводятся к взаимодополнительности феминистского и маскулинного начал в человеческой природе с дальнейшим признанием гендерных ролей, которые все большей степени отражают сложную панораму духовной жизни. ; Мета. Піддати аналізу вихідні принципи гендерної філософії, застосовуючи методологічний інструментарій комунікативної прагматики. Показати, наскільки гендерний конструкт забезпечує формування гендерного гуманізму як одного з ідеалів демократичного суспільства. Уточнити гендерний глосарій "гендерна демократія", "гендерна рівність" та "гендерна справедливість". Методологія. Для здійснення теоретичниих розвідок в сфері феміністичної філософії, застосовується методологічний інструментарій комунікативної прагматики та дискурсивної етики, що були напрацьовані сучасними німецькими філософами Ю.Хабермасом, К.-О.Апелем для аналізу етичних гендерних принципів та шляхів їх легітимації. Наукова новизна. На основі методологічних розбіжностей між концепціями Ю.Хабермаса та К.-О.Апеля були виявлені два протилежні підходи до аналізу гендерної концепції - раціонально-прагматичний, який пропонує Й.Хабермас та трансцендентно-смислового К.-О. Апеля. Зміст статті допомагає уточнити категоріально-понятійний апарат гендерної концепції. В залежності від способу легітимації гендерної етичної теорії було виявлено, що поняття феміністського глосарію "гендерна демократія", "гендерна рівність" та "гендерна справедливість" не несуть однакового змісту. Виходячи з аналізу програми комунікативної дії та консенсусу у Ю.Хабермаса поняття "гендерна рівність" виступає штучним соціальним конструктом, що має своє методологічне підґрунтя в когнітивізмі та звужує можливості легітимації гендерних цінностей. Поняття "гендерної справедливості", згідно з концепцією К.-О. Апеля, засноване на трансцендентних морально-етичних відчуттях єдності статей, не скасовує нерівності обов'язків і зазіхань в способах буття та відтворює цивілізовану міру їх інаковості. Висновки. Перед стрімкими гендерними зрушеннями, що запропоновані суспільству, стоять вади віковічної вкоріненості моральних та духовних засад спільнот, з урахуванням соціо-культурної, національної та гендерної ідентичності. Плідне осмислення різноманітних підходів в феміністському напрямку філософії усе більше звужується в стезю взаємодоповнюючого характеру маскулінного та фемінного начал в людській природі з подальшим визнанням гендерних ролей, які відображають більш складну панораму духовного життя.

Academic research is increasingly subject to managerial practices. It is not the purpose of this chapter to debate the merits, or otherwise, of this trend. Instead, this chapter will chart some of the major developments in research information management in the UK, Europe, the USA, Canada and Australia, and their policy context and drivers. In doing so, it will identify some of the key challenges and points of discussion in 2013. The main challenges faced by universities and other research institutes are related to changes in the wider economy and society, and these might be considered under three headings: 1. Debt: Many, but not all, western governments are saddled with very high levels of debt and are responding by restricitions in public spending. In some countries such as the UK, the research budget has been relatively protected. However, there remains a drive to reduce public spending as a proportion of GDP, and this is likely to impact on research funding sooner or later. As the pressure to delivery more with less increases, the opportunities to do so also increase because of developments in new digital and other techniologies. There are therefore both drivers and opportunities for greater efficiencies in the research process. 2. Growth: Whether growth is measured in purely financial terms or in more rounded metrics that take into account human and environmental well-being, many western countries are in need of more of it to both reduce debt and ensure social stability. There is renewed attention on the role of the public research base in contributing to (having an "impact" on) the wider economy and society. There is a complicated and necessarily ill-defined relationship between research and society, but it is clear that there are increasing calls from politicians (and therefore from public funders) for researchers to demonstrate the impact of their work, 3. Legitimacy. For various reasons, including the current "impact agenda", questions are raised as to the legitimacy of research, both as a recipient of public and charitable funds and, more basically, at an epistemological level. Certainly there are increasing calls for transparency in research, both with respect to how the money is spent (in common with wider moves in that direction), and with respect to research practices being open to scrutiny and demonstrably better than other alternative approaches that make knowledge claims. There are therefore three strong agendas within research, which shape the ways in which research is managed, and therefore the information infrastructure that is needed. These are efficiency, impact and transparency. It is possible to discern two broad responses by the research community to these agendas, These are moves to make research more open, and increasing managerialism in research. There is a lot of talk about "open" at the moment; open access, open data, open source software, open science, and so on. While there are some commonalitiies between these (they all challenge existing business models, for example, and they all exploit the web), there are also important differences. From a research management perspective, they challenge universities and research institutes to provide their researchers with an environment in which they can be open, if they choose to be. This implies the provision of open access repositories, funds to pay open access publication charges, data repositories, IT services departments able to both provide reslient compute infrastructure and cooperate wih researchers writing or using open source tools, and information, IT, library, publication, knowledge transfer and IPR policies that support open approaches. UK universities such as Nottingham and Glasgow have been very active in addressing these challenges, as have universities elsewhere such as Arizona and Queensland. Sometimes associated with open approaches, but sometimes in tension with them, there is a trend toward greater managerial accountability within public sector research. Many universities are implementing integrated research management systems, covering both pre- and post-award workflows, and linked to research information systems, repositories and so on. There are also international initiatives, such as ORCID for researcher identifiers, which are a response to widely felt inefficiencies in the system at the moment, from grant applications to journal manuscript submission. Furthermore, the HE sector is learning from large private sector corporations such as supermarkets and phone companies, that user data is key to business intelligence to guide successful organisations. Information about what its researchers are doing, with whom, to what effect, will be important to those charged with ensuring that public sector and charity-funded is successful, in the same way as it is important to private industry such as pharmaceutical companies. National research assessment exercises and the growth of commercial services such as Elsevier's SciVal are evidence of this. In conclusion, research management, and the gathering, curation and exploitation of information about an increasingly open research process, are more and more central to the success of research. In the US, the phrase is "science of science policy", reflected in the STAR-Metrics initiative that covers some 90 top level US universities. This is intended to provide policy makers and research directors with data that can be treated with scientific methods to optimise the investments made in research. While this has taken things further than perhaps elsewhere, it represents a widespread trend; expect it to impact on your university soon.

Los avances importantes experimentados desde hace un par de décadas por la tecnología satelital y la informática hicieron posible que estudios tales como el modelado del geoide y la materialización de un sistema de referencia vertical único para el continente americano tengan la expectativa de concreción en un mediano plazo. El uso sostenido del GPS para diferentes aplicaciones demanda la necesidad de disponer de modelos geoidales a fin de lograr un mejor aprovechamiento de los mismos. Las alturas con GPS si bien se logran con precisiones milimétricas en el presente, su aplicación es limitada cuando se requiere la materialización de superficies equipotenciales. Los desniveles que provienen de una nivelación clásica y los obtenidos con técnicas GPS no son idénticos, ni en sus consideraciones conceptuales ni numéricas. Asimismo, los lineamientos impuestos por los organismos internacionales de definir y materializar, en particular, un sistema de referencia vertical único para el continente, requiere, entre otras, la ejecución de algunas tareas tales como el cálculo de las cotas geopotenciales de las redes de nivelación de cada país, como así también la instalación de mareógrafos a lo largo de la costa continental con la finalidad de detectar y corregir movimientos en la corteza terrestre y las variaciones en el nivel medio de los océanos. Estas actividades están siendo desarrolladas por el Grupo de Trabajo III del Proyecto SIRGAS. En nuestro país diversos grupos de investigadores provenientes de diferentes universidades (La Plata, Rosario, entre otras) junto al IGM (Instituto Geográfico Militar) han abordado científicamente esta problemática. La suscripción de convenios internacionales permite la cooperación científica y la vinculación de las redes de nivelación nacional a las redes de nivelación de los países limítrofes, entre otros objetivos. En todos los casos se impone la necesidad de la recopilación, revisión, homogeneización, georreferenciación y digitalización de la información altimétrica del país en general y en particular de las provincias que lo integran. En ese sentido se presenta en este trabajo la actividad desarrollada para georreferenciar los puntos altimétricos del IGM para la provincia de Santiago del Estero. Este grupo de trabajo ha recopilado la información cartográfica del IGM del territorio provincial y se encuentra recopilando la información altimétrica. Asimismo, se están georreferenciando los puntos con la finalidad de conformar un banco digital y su representación en un mapa base de la provincia. Se muestran los resultados obtenidos hasta el presente, para la provincia. Se exponen las particularidades más sobresalientes de la información obtenida, como así también se establecen las expectativas futuras para la continuidad del trabajo y las posibles soluciones a la problemática planteada. Se espera que la concreción de los objetivos del proyecto sea una contribución a los estudios científicos del tema ya iniciados en el país. ; The important advances experimented by GPS and technology in the last two decades have allowed studies like geoid model and a unique vertical reference system for the continent which can be done in a short period of time. The usage of GPS for different applications brings the need of getting geoid models to have better results. Heights are very precisely when using GPS, however its application is limited when materialization of surfaces is required. Different levels obtained using the classic measurements are not identical to the ones obtained using GPS, they are different on their conceptual and numerical considerations. The regulations established by the international organizations to define and materialize a system of vertical reference, which will be unique for the continent, would require different tasks like the calculation of geopotentional component of each country's leveling network and the installation of tide gauge tide along the continental coast to detect and correct the movements of the Earth's crust and the variations of the ocean's medium levels. The relationship among the countries leveling network is another issue connected with our topic ( or objective). These tasks are being developed by Project SIRGAS Work Group III. In our country, different groups of investigators from different universities together with the IGM (Military Geographic Institute) have presented this issue. International agreements allow cientific cooperation and the relationship of national networks with neighboring countries. All this requires the need of reviewing, revising, homogenizing, georeferencing and digitalizing the information (of heights) of the country in general and in particular of the provinces (states) that exist in it. We would like to present this project and explain the methodology used for the georeferencing of benchmarks of IGM for Santiago del Estero. We have collected the cartographic information of IGM of the province's terrain and we are collecting the leveling information. We are also taking notes of the geographical points to be able to form a digital bank and its representation on a province's map. The results obtained to the present are showed to the province. We have highlighted the most important information, we have established the future expectations to continue with this project and we have given the possible solutions to the problem. We hope to have concrete results and that the project could be a contribution to the scientific studies already existing in our country. ; Material digitalizado en SEDICI gracias a la colaboración de la Facultad de Ciencias Astronómicas y Geofísicas (UNLP). ; Asociación Argentina de Geofísicos y Geodestas

National audience ; This text is a new edition of two articles written in 1999. Among other things, it allows to ponder about questions that have already been strongly addressed and yet remained unresolved at the end of the past century, as well as on their permanence or their particular variation one or two decades later.The document proposes a double model of understanding about the functioning of city theatres on the one hand and, on the other hand, professional theatre companies in France at the end of the past century.The approach is based on a small number of in-depth case studies that are though contrasted enough to allow a first rise in generality. Beyond the singularity of each situation, a comparative analysis inductively reveals a set of recurring features and that is the backbone of the proposed models.The latter make it possible to assess any other case of the same type, either by proximity or difference in comparison to the recurring traits mentioned. Some of these elements could evolve or be deepened by taking a larger sample into account.The first article focuses on city theatres, which were not labelled at the time by the Ministry of Culture. It is based on three case studies with 1997 or 1998 as reference year.These theatres, either located in medium-sized towns or on the outskirts of city centres, provide a delicate mediation function at the crossroads of at least three worlds in tension : the local populations, the public authorities and the artistic teams. Their particular artistic project is based on a constant triangle of show distribution, cultural action and creative help. These projects are differentiated in particular according to the way in which the following double question is treated : the taking into account of the expressions specific to their local populations and the explanations about the dimensions at work in the artistic processes.The second article deals with professional theatre companies of low or medium reputation. It is based on three studies with 1996 as reference year.These organisations that are true associative enterprises are built around an artistic project which is itself based on theatrical aesthetics, including a type of relationship to the audiences. Between the search for permanence of action and the need to have a great flexibility, the theatre companies develop a plurality of activities which are to be constantly put in relation with the partners they manage to mobilize and the networks to which they belong. The financial dynamic that is always delicate is then to be first understood as a result of the social game in which these organisations manage to position themselves. ; Ce texte est une réédition de deux articles écrits en 1999. Il permet, entre autres, de s'interroger sur des questions déjà fortement prégnantes et non résolues en fin du siècle dernier, ainsi que sur leur permanence ou leur déclinaison particulière une ou deux décennies ans plus tard.Le document propose un double modèle de compréhension concernant le fonctionnement, d'une part, des théâtres de ville et, d'autre part, des compagnies théâtrales professionnelles en France à la fin du siècle dernier. L'approche s'appuie sur un petit nombre d'études approfondies de cas, néanmoins suffisamment contrastés pour permettre une première montée en généralité. Au-delà de la singularité de chaque situation, une analyse comparée permet ainsi de dégager inductivement un ensemble de traits récurrents, qui constitue l'ossature des modèles proposés. Ceux-ci permettent d'évaluer tout autre cas de même type, par proximité ou écart aux traits récurrents avancés. Certains de ces éléments pourraient évoluer ou être approfondis par prise en compte d'un échantillon plus large.L'article initial s'intéresse aux théâtres de ville, équipements non labellisés à l'époque par le ministère de la Culture. Il s'appuie sur trois études de cas, avec 1997 ou 1998 comme année de référence.Ces théâtres, implantés dans des communes de taille moyenne ou situées à la périphérie de villes-centre, assurent une délicate fonction de médiation à la croisée en tension d'au moins trois mondes : les populations locales, les collectivités publiques et les équipes artistiques. Leur projet artistique particulier se décline autour d'un triangle constant de diffusion de spectacles, d'action culturelle et d'aide à la création. Ces projets se différencient notamment selon la manière dont est traitée la double question de la prise en compte des expressions propres à leurs populations locales et de l'explicitation des dimensions à l'œuvre dans les processus artistiques.Le second article s'intéresse aux compagnies théâtrales professionnelles de faible ou moyenne notoriété. Il s'appuie sur trois études, avec 1996 comme année de référence.Véritables entreprises associatives, ces compagnies sont constitués autour d'un projet artistique, lui-même fondé sur une esthétique théâtrale incluant un type de rapport aux publics. Entre recherche d'une permanence d'action et nécessité de disposer d'une grande flexibilité, les compagnies développent une pluralité d'activités à constamment mettre en relation avec les partenaires qu'elles arrivent à mobiliser et les réseaux auxquels elles appartiennent. La dynamique financière, toujours délicate, est alors à d'abord comprendre comme une résultante du jeu social dans lequel la compagnie arrive à se positionner.

Much of the sociological literature on professions is based on the traditional professions that emerged in the nineteenth century in response to the Industrial Revolution. This Portfolio uses literature from the sociology of professions to examine evaluation as a recently emerged area of work. The implications of this are considered for the further professionalisation of the practice of evaluation and contribution to our understanding of the sociology of professions. Research Stage One This Paper considers four theoretical approaches that have made a significant contribution to the sociology of professions literature. First, the work of the social commentator Herbert Spencer (1896) and his social Darwinian approach is reviewed. Spencer's work led to the development of the second approach to be considered, trait theory (Chitty, 1997; Flexner, 1915, reprinted 2001; Greenwood, 1957, 1972). Both of these approaches come from within the structural functionalist school of sociology. In response to trait theory and its focus on the attributes of professions that developed under very specific social conditions, feminist approaches and the professional project concept emerged from the symbolic-internationalist school of sociology (Larson, 1977; Maack, 1997; Macdonald, 1995). While structural functionalists are concerned with how professions function in society, symbolic-internationalists are concerned with how occupations are granted professional status by society. This paper considers these different approaches and develops a pluralist model of professionalisation. This approach is then used in Paper 3 to explore the professionalisation of the practice of evaluation and to suggest how this could be further developed in the future. Research Stage Two In the major western economies of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia, evaluation emerged as a distinct area of work in the 1970s as a result of the growth of government spending on social services and a need for public accountability. Evaluation has been described as a transdiscipline that serves practitioners from other disciplines (Scriven, 2013) and a metaprofession that draws practitioners from other professions to its workforce (Australasian Evaluation Society, 2013). It is generally accepted that evaluation is not a profession, but is professionalising (Canadian Evaluation Society, 2004; Cousins & Aubry, 2006). Evaluation offers an opportunity to apply learnings from the sociology of professions literature to understand the process of professionalisation in the modern era and consider the implications of this for both the future professionalisation of evaluation and the theoretical base of the sociology of professions. The recent history of evaluation demonstrates a continued process of professionalisation through the establishment of a need for services, the development of a community of practice, the establishment of ethics and development of evaluation specific theories and methods. The process of professionalisation of the practice of evaluation will be considered in Paper 3, using the model developed in Paper 1. Research Stage Three Most of the discourse on sociology of professions is derived from research on two professions – doctors and lawyers (Torstendahl, 1990b). While this gap in research has begun to be addressed in recent years with studies on the professionalisation of other groups such as nurses (Chua & Clegg, 1990; Johannisson & Sundin, 2007), librarians (Maack, 1997; Sundin & Hedman, 2004), engineers (Ressler, 2011) and others, there remains an opportunity to further contribute to the growing body of knowledge and theory of professions in general and professionalisation in different social contexts in particular. Similarly, the early studies in sociology of professions were based on initial research in the United Kingdom and the United States, then applied to continental Europe and elsewhere, not as a specific-type but as an ideal-type (Torstendahl, 1990b). This limited the inclusion of many knowledge-based occupations in the field of study (Maack, 1997) and disregarded the impact of the state on the development of professions (Torstendahl, 1990a). Using the approach developed in Paper 1, which incorporates themes from trait theory and the professional project, this final research stage examines the professionalisation of evaluation since the 1980s, when the first associations were established in evaluation. These associations established academic journals, professional development programs, international conferences and ethical guidelines for members. Evaluation has developed specific methods and is developing its own theories. The weaknesses of the professionalisation of evaluation generally relate to a lack of occupational closure: no qualifications and experience are required to work as an evaluator and evaluation associations accept non-evaluators as full members. Canada is the only country to have in place an evaluation credentialing system. The Canadian model, led by the Treasury Board of Canada, involves a partnership between educational providers, the Canadian Evaluation Association and the Treasury Board's Centre for Evaluation Excellence in order to develop and administer a voluntary evaluator credentialing system (Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat, 2012a, 2012b). Comparison of the Canadian model with the approach taken in Australia demonstrates the important role of government as the main purchaser of evaluation in generating market pressure for improved quality. The Canadian model also demonstrates the importance of engagement with the educational sector to ensure an academic pathway into evaluation with a consistent national curriculum. While at a practical level this research suggests options to improve the professionalisation of the practice of evaluation in Australia, at a theoretical level the research demonstrates how trait theory and the professional project can be integrated in a pluralist model to advance the professionalisation of an occupation. Furthermore, an occupation, by establishing a deliberate plan for professionalisation that includes goals (or objective traits) linked to outputs and outcomes (or subjective traits), develops a framework to test the logic of the relationships within the model. This resolves the issue of untested causal assumptions that have been one of the main limitations of trait theory. This approach takes a continuous improvement perspective, where professionalisation is both an objective and a process. The award of the title profession is controlled by public opinion on the merit and achievements of the goals of the occupation through this process of professionalisation.

PurposeUsing integrated, constructivist and inquiry-based curricular experiences to expand student understanding of historical thinking and exposure to Native perspectives on Utah history, this paper aims to analyze the thinking and practice of teaching the Utah fourth grade social studies curriculum. As a team of researchers, teachers and administrators, the authors brought differing perspectives and experience to this shared project of curriculum design. The understanding was enhanced as the authors reflected on authors' own practitioner research and worked together as Native and non-Native community partners to revise the ways one group of fourth grade students experienced the curriculum, with plans to continue improving the thinking and implementation on an ongoing basis. While significant barriers to elementary social studies education exist in the current era of high-stakes testing, curriculum narrowing and continuing narratives of colonization in both the broad national context and our own localized context, the authors found that social studies curriculum can be a space for decolonization and growth for students and teachers alike when carefully planned, constructed and implemented.Design/methodology/approachThis article represents an effort by a team of teachers, administrators and researchers: D, a councilman and historian dedicated to sharing the history of the Northwestern Band of the Shoshone Nation; S, an eleventh-year teacher, teaching fourth grade at Mary Bethune Elementary School (MBES); E, the director of experiential learning and technology at MBES; L, the MBES vice principal and EL, a faculty member in the adjacent college of education. Working in these complementary roles, each authors recognized an opportunity to build a more robust set of curricular experiences for teaching the state standards for fourth grade social studies, with particular attention to a more inclusive set of narratives of Utah's history at the authors' shared site, Mary Bethune Elementary School, a K-6 public charter school that operates in partnership with the College of Education in a growing college town (population 51,000) in the Intermountain west. The complexity of Utah history embedded within the landscape that surrounds MBES has not always been a fully developed part of our fourth grade curriculum. Recognizing this, the authors came together to develop a more robust age-appropriate curricular experience for students that highlights the complexity of the individual and cultural narratives. In addition to smaller segments of classroom instruction devoted to the Utah Core fourth grade standards (Utah Education Network, 2019) that focus particularly on the history of Utah, the authors focused the curriculum improvement efforts on four specific lengthy spans of instruction.FindingsThese fourth-grade students read, contextualized and interpreted the primary source documents they encountered as historians; they both appreciated and challenged the authors' perspectives. It is our belief that students are more likely to continue to think like historians as they operate as "critical consumers" (Moore and Clark, 2004, p. 22) of other historical narratives. This ability to think and act with attention to multiple viewpoints and perspectives, power and counter stories develops more empathetic humans. While the authors prize the ability of students to succeed in intellectually rigorous tasks and learn content material, in the end this trait is the most important goal for teaching students history.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors recognize operating within primarily non-Native spaces and discourses about social studies; with curricular efforts, there are a variety of ways the authors could do harm. Along the way, the authors recognized places for future improvement, critically examining the authors' work. As the authors look to future planning, there are several issues identified as the next spaces that the authors wish to focus on improving the Utah Studies curriculum experience of fourth graders at MBES. This is an area for further exploration.Practical implicationsThis precise set of primary sources, field experiences and assessments will not be the right fit for other classrooms with differences in resources, space and time. The authors hope it will serve as an example of how teachers can create curriculum that addresses the failings of status quo social studies instruction with regard to Indigenous peoples. The students were not the only beneficiaries of change from this curriculum development and implementation; as a team the authors also benefited. The experience solidified our self-perception as decision makers for our classroom. The authors' ability to extend past the packaged curriculum of textbooks and worksheets made it easily available to engage students as historical inquirers into the multiple perspectives and complex contexts of decolonizing-counter narratives built the authors' confidence that such work can be successful across the curriculum.Social implicationsThe authors believe this is a more potent antidote to the colonizing-Eurocentric narratives of history that they will undoubtedly be exposed to in other spaces and times than simply teaching them a singular history from an Indigenous perspective; if students are able to contextualize, interpret, and question the accounts they encounter, they will be more likely to "challenge dominant historical and cultural narratives that are endemic in society" (Stoddard et al., 2014, p. 35). This too can make them more thoughtful consumers of today's news, whether that news is about Navajo voting rights in southeastern Utah or oil and gas development in South Dakota.Originality/valueWorking against the colonizing narratives present in media, textbooks and local folklore is necessary if the authors are to undermine the invisibility of Native experiences in most social studies curriculum (Journell, 2009) and the stereotyping and discrimination that Native American students experience as a result (Stowe, 2017, p. 243). This detailed look at how the authors developed and implemented standards-based curriculum with that intent adds to the "little research [that] exists on teacher-created curricula and discourse" (Masta and Rosa, p. 148).

[spa] Al analizar los servicios ecosistémicos ecuatorianas del "Programa Nacional de Reforestación con fines de conservación ambiental, protección de cuencas hidrográficas y beneficios alternos (PNR)" mediante la adaptación y el uso del método de evaluación IAPro, se espera facilitar la participación ciudadana en el proceso de toma de decisiones, y con ello aportar conocimiento científico y práctico para el diseño de políticas de gestión de recursos naturales. Del ejercicio de evaluación de las consecuencias del cambio climático en la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos se derivará la discusión de alternativas de gestión para la adaptación al cambio. La integración de los resultados técnico-científicos del PNR con las perspectivas y conocimientos de los usuarios locales y nacionales, permitirá proporcionar las guías para la correcta gestión de las cuencas a futuro, el aprendizaje social y una mayor implicación y adopción de las medidas de gestión de estos ecosistemas. Los resultados de interés socioeconómico se relacionan con la cantidad y calidad de agua que las cuencas pueden aportar a la sociedad. Finalmente, la elaboración una propuesta metodológica para el manejo participativo de los servicios ecosistémicos en las localidades beneficiadas por del PNR y su área de influencia supondrá un avance en el campo del manejo participativo de cuencas hidrográficas ecuatoriales, lo que servirá como modelo extensible a otras áreas de Ecuador y Países Andinos Tropicales. De esta manera se enuncian los siguientes objetivos: 2.1 OBJETIVO PRINCIPAL Realizar la evaluación integral de la ejecución del Programa Nacional de Reforestación con fines de Conservación Ambiental y Protección de Cuencas Hídricas y Beneficios Alternos (PNR) en la provincia de Manabí. 2.2 OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS 2.2.1 Adaptar el método IAPro para el PNR como modelo extensible a otras áreas de Ecuador y Países Andinos Tropicales. 2.2.2 Evaluar los servicios ecosistémicos brindados por el PNR mediante el método de evaluación IAPro. 2.2.3 Elaborar una propuesta metodológica para el manejo participativo de los servicios ecosistémicos en los lugares beneficiados por el PNR y su área de influencia. ; [eng] The National Program for Forest Restoration with the purpose of environmental conservation, protection of hydrographic basins, and alternative benefits (PNR), applied several strategies and management practices to restore ecosystem services affected by climate and anthropogenic actions throughout Ecuador. This Ph. D thesis proposes a participatory evaluation methodology of the PNR results in two Autonomous Decentralized Governments (GADs) of the province of Manabí i.e. Rocafuerte and Membrillal. For this purpose, the PRACTICE IAPro protocol was used as the main methodology, this protocol integrates various participatory methods as a way of learning in the evaluation of the restoration of degraded ecosystems and has been used in 12 countries on 4 continents. IAPro was adapted to the Ecuadorian context as a response to the need for a tool that leads to a holistically informed decision-making. A learning- centered approach is presented, through knowledge sharing and integration of biophysical and socio-economic data based on both science and stakeholder vision. The results generated data about learning of different groups: scientists learning from local actors and decision makers, local actors explaining which indicators and why they must be considered in the evaluations of ecological restoration projects, decision makers learning about the best criteria to implement and evaluate management actions against desertification. From the survey and data analysis to measure indicators, it was obtained that: in Rocafuerte a total of 298.17 hectares were intervened with 11 different species, and a cost of $ 120,433.60. In Membrillal, the intervention was in 280.97 hectares, where the y were used 15 species with an investment of $ 212,000. As a whole, the restoration actions offered poor results. Plantations had a very low survival: 2.16% for Rocafuerte and 0.02% for Membrillal. For both GADs, the action with the lowest mortality was that showed the best survival was Prosopis juliflora. The NDVI index was measured before and after the PNR intervention. In Rocafuerte, it was found that most of the p lots showed an increase of more than 0.1 in the NDVI values, while in Membrillal this average increase was greater than 0,2. The total carbon capture was 0.037 Mg/ha for the intervention in Rocafuerte and 0.012 Mg/ha for the intervention in Membrillal. A total of 21 direct jobs were created during 12 months for each studied GAD. Biomass production was insignificant due to the high mortality rate of the planted specimens. These poor results are mainly attributed to the lack of plantations maintenance, especially during the dry season of the year. The average income during the execution of PNR actions increased in the frequency of incomes from $ 400 to $ 800 for both Rocafuerte and Membrillal. 93,33% of respondents in the province of Manabí perceived that the aesthetic value of the landscape will provide a positive change if these types of actions continue, since they will improve the visual quality of the environment. Likewise, the role of these restoration actions in touristic and recreational use has influenced the appearance and perception of most of the sites studied, thus improving the tourist potential. For both GADs, the interventions preferred by the stakeholders were initially block plantations and forest enrichment. After presenting the results of each indicator by alternative, this perspective changed, all the alternatives obtained lower scores and "No action" became the best qualified, which may be interpreted as the rejection by the interested parties towards the poor results of the restoration actions. The obtained results in this thesis expose, from the perspective of the social agents and in a global way, the results of the PNR application, its deficiencies and possible improvement ways for future restoration plans in the region. As a result of this thesis, the PRACTICE IAPRO Manual adapted for Ecuador is presented.

In April 2019, Greta Thunberg made TIME Magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2019 list. The 16 year-old climate activist, who has also been nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize, started a movement that saw a multitude of student protests and school strikes around the world centred on action against climate change. TIME Magazine quoted her saying, "We can't save the world by playing by the rules, because the rules have to be changed." With her engagement, Thunberg inspired thousands of youth activists to join her in her efforts and has thus put not only climate change on the political agenda but also the political participation and representation of the young. And this even though Thunberg and many of her fellow protesters do not yet enjoy (full) voting rights in their respective countries.Just like the previous issue of the Intergenerational Justice Review, this one is also dedicated to the topic of the underrepresentation of younger people in political decision-making. The first two contributions in this issue pay particular attention to the existence – or lack thereof – of networks and contacts in politics that seem to be important for political representation.Daniel Stockemer and Aksel Sundström's article titled "Youth's underrepresentation in the European Parliament: Insights from interviews with young Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)" reports results from qualitative interviews with 23 MEPs on the factors contributing to the success and failure of young people to enter the European Parliament. They find that, in general, three common themes or complaints amongst the successful young MEPs, irrespective of their party affiliation: "(1) a general reluctance within parties to nominate young candidates, (2) young candidates lacking the necessary contacts in parties to get elected, and (3) young candidates having too little experience to gain nomination for an electable seat." Despite these heavy criticisms of established politicians and (party) structures, the authors also summarise some more hopeful suggestions by respondents centring around the role of party youth organisations.The second contribution, by Emilien Paulis, also highlights the important role of networks and contacts, yet already at an earlier stage: when joining a political party. Drawing on social network and political participation theory and novel survey data from Belgium, Paulis explores what network patterns contribute to young people's enrolment in a political party. He discovers strong social ties between young party members and suggests that this indicates "a certain exclusivity in recruitment patterns of political parties".In addition, his analysis also points out that a highly homogenous network composition is a statistically significant predictor of joining a political party. Overall, Paulis, similar to Stockemer and Sundström, suggests a review of institutional processes and structures within established political organisations such as parties in order to promote a more diverse and above all younger profile of politically active citizens.The final contribution in this issue offers insights from an online survey conducted among young adults in Germany suggesting that these respondents were indeed politically interested and felt willing to assume responsibility through participation. As a consequence, Philipp Köbe concludes from his analysis that the supply-side of political organisations is the main problem in the underrepresentation and not so much young people's lack of engagement. His four specific recommendations to political organisations follow very much from this conclusion: (1) providing transparent and suitable information to meet young people's interests and demands; (2) lowering the electoral threshold for parties' parliamentary representation to improve the representation of minority opinions; (3) expanding youth-friendly opportunities for political participation such as video conferences and social media usages in order to reach out to the appropriate groups; (4) improving the efficiency and impact of political decision-making to reward political engagement amongst young people. Köbe finally suggests a steering instrument for political organisations to help them achieve these goals.In the book review section, we continue the theme of political participation and representation of the young. Simon Pistor reviews the book Youthquake 2017: The Rise of Young Cosmopolitans in Britain (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019) by James Sloam and Matt Henn. The book investigates youth political participation in Britain around and after the Brexit referendum in 2016 and is built around the new notion a "youthquake" – a term initially introduced by British media to describe the surprising success of the movement behind the Labour Party but later on also becoming Oxford Dictionaries' 2017 word of the year.Pistor writes that Sloam and Henn expand the concept of a youthquake in their book to "youthquake elections" – "ones in which dramatic changes in how many young people vote, who they vote for and how active they are in the campaign have, quite literally, shaken up the status quo" (Sloam/Henn 2019: 8). Using this concept, the book's central claim is that it was a youth movement based on a broader appeal to the needs of young people(especially by the Labour Party) which spiked the higher voter turnout among young people.Pistor's review of the book is unequivocal: using methods from comparative politics, the authors provide a "very interesting argument" and "a clear empirical case for the youthquake during the 2017 General Election in the UK". Pistor also welcomes especially two implications of the book: (1) many young British people are not as politically disenfranchised as general wisdom holds (and there is much more to be said about that); (2) many of them are not only cosmopolitans but also British cosmopolitans interestedand engaged in national politics. Overall, Simon Pistor concludes that Sloam and Henn's book is "an empirically rich and informed study", which might suggest that the key to future democratic successes does indeed lie with the young.Ann-Kristin Kölln (Guest Editor, Aarhus University, Denmark)Antony Mason (IF)Jörg Tremmel (University of Tübingen)Markus Rutsche (University of St. Gallen)Maria Lenk (FRFG)

У статті проведено аналіз надання підтримки силам безпеки Афганістану з боку НАТО. Визначено основні ключові напрями діяльності Північноатлантичного Альянсу в ході "Операції з підтримання безпеки в Афганістані" силами контингенту ISAF, місії "Рішуча підтримка" та довгострокового співробітництва. ; На сегодня коллективная оборона остается главной задачей НАТО. Появление новых вызовов и угроз, которые возникают далеко за пределами зоны ответственности этой организации, в частности терроризм, являют собой вызовы, которые невозможно преодолеть, исходя лишь из "территориального" понимание безопасности. Итак, изучение и анализ поддержки НАТО сил безопасности других стран является важным, учитывая процессы, происходящие на востоке Украины.В статье проанализирован опыт деятельности НАТО по оказанию поддержки институтам обороны и безопасности Афганистана во время "Операции по поддержанию безопасности в Афганистане" силами контингента ISAF (International Security Assistance Force, ISAF) во время миссии НАТО "Решительная поддержка" (РП-А), а также в рамках долгосрочного сотрудничества.Поддержка во время "Операции по поддержанию безопасности в Афганистане" силами контингента ISAF. Мандат ИСАФ сначала ограничивался обеспечением безопасности в Кабуле и вокруг него. В октябре 2003 года ООН распространила полномочия ИСАФ на всю территорию Афганистана (Резолюция СБ ООН № 1510), что положило путь для расширения деятельности миссии по всей стране.Поддержка в ходе выполнения миссии "Решительная поддержка" (РП-А). Принципиальной функцией миссии РП-А является предоставление консультативной помощи правительству Афганистана по развитию операционных возможностей Афганских национальных сил безопасности и обороны, в том числе с применением экспедиционных групп советников (Expeditionary Advisory Package) вне пунктов постоянной дислокации. По словам Генерального секретаря НАТО, миссия РП-А является миссией по учебной подготовке консультированию и содействию афганским силам безопасности.Поддержка в рамках долгосрочного сотрудничества. Несмотря на то, что НАТО сосредоточивает усилия по поддержке Афганистана в рамках миссии РП-А и финансирование афганских сил безопасности продолжается работа и в области долгосрочного партнерства, которое включает политический диалог и практическое сотрудничество между НАТО и Афганистаном.Выводы.1. Поддержка сил безопасности и обороны Афганистана проводится НАТО по трем важным направлениям – в рамках не боевой миссии "Решительная поддержка", которая стала логическим продолжением боевой операции – "Операции по поддержанию безопасности в Афганистане" силами контингента ISAF, финансовая поддержка в рамках фонда, которым руководит НАТО совместно с фондом ООН и в рамках долгосрочного сотрудничества.2. Несмотря на значительный объем финансирования и поддержки сил безопасности и обороны Афганистана не способны полностью контролировать ситуацию в стране самостоятельно без международной помощи.3. Перспективным направлением практической помощи НАТО Афганистан считается постепенный переход к "Устойчивому партнерству".Дальнейшие исследования целесообразно сосредоточить на изучении опыта поддержки НАТО сектора безопасности и обороны других стран, не являющихся членами НАТО с целью определения концептуальных подходов, общих принципов и тенденций по оказанию помощи, а также особенностей формирования и принятия решений в поддержку отдельных стран в политической, военной и других сферах. ; Today, collective defense remains the main task of NATO. The emergence of new challenges and threats that arise far beyond the borders of the area of responsibility of this Organization, in particular terrorism, are challenges that can not be overcome solely on the basis of a "territorial" understanding of security.Therefore, the study and analysis of NATO support to the security forces of other countries is important given the processes taking place in easternUkraine.The purpose of the article. Analyze the experience of NATO activities to provide support to Afghanistan's defense and security institutions during the "Security Operations in Afghanistan" by the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) contingent within the NATO Resolute Support Mission (RS-A), as well as in the within the framework of long-term cooperation.Support for the "Security Operations in Afghanistan" by the contingent of ISAF.The ISAF mandate was initially confined to security in and around Kabul. In October 2003, the UN extended the mandate of ISAF to the entire territory of Afghanistan (UNSCR 1510), which paved the way for expanding its mission throughout the country.Support during the mission "Resolute Support" (RS-A).The principal function of the RS-A mission is to provide advisory and consultative assistance to the Government of Afghanistan on the development of the operational capabilities of the Afghan national security and defense forces, including with the use of Expeditionary Advisory Packages outside the permanent locations. According to the Secretary-General of NATO, the RS-A mission is a mission to train advisers and assist the Afghan security forces.Support in the framework of long-term cooperationDespite the fact that NATO focuses its support efforts onAfghanistanwithin the framework of the RS-A mission and the financing of the Afghan security forces, work continues in the area of long-term partnership, which includes political dialogue and practical cooperation between NATO andAfghanistan.Conclusions:1. The support of the Afghan security and defense forces is carried out by NATO in three important areas - within a non-combat Resolute Support Mission, which was the logical continuation of the military operation, "Operation Security Assistance in Afghanistan" by the contingent of the ISAF, financial support under the fund managed by NATO together with the UN fund and in the framework of long-term cooperation.2. Despite the significant amount of funding and support to the Afghan security and defense forces, they are not able to fully control the situation in the country independently without international assistance.3. A promising direction for NATO's practical assistance to Afghanistan is the gradual transition to a Sustainable Partnership.Further studies should focus on the study of NATO's support of the security and defense sector of non-NATO countries in order to identify conceptual approaches, general principles and tendencies in providing assistance, as well as the peculiarities of shaping and decision-making in support of individual countries in political, military and other areas.

The present master thesis analyzes REDD+, a market-based climate mitigation instrument designed by the UNFCCC to reduce and prevent carbon dioxide emissions from tropical regions. The analysis presented hereafter aims at both understanding the preconditions for REDD+ to be implemented globally, and at examining the impacts of REDD+ on peoples' everyday lives in rural Indonesia. While scientific research about advantages, limitations and impacts of REDD+ is diverse and abundant, this thesis presents a novel approach to analyze REDD+ by using Henri Lefebvre's theory on "the production of space" as theoretical background. Bringing in Lefebvre's conceptualization of "space" as being actively produced by various actors across various scales, allows for an encompassing analysis of REDD+ from global to local scale, linking politicoeconomic dynamics with everyday micro-social processes. Literature review was chosen as a method to analyze processes at the global scale. To assess micro-social processes at the local scale, an ethnographic three-month field research was conducted at a REDD+ project site "Kalimantan Forest and Climate Partnership" in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Open participative observation, ethnographic interviews and focused interviews represent the pillars of the empirical data collection. Analysis of literature shows that tropical forest and peatland regions to be successfully inserted into a global carbon market, must at first undergo a discursive, scientific and technological transformation which turns them into abstract space: UNFCCC politics discursively evokes a spatial imagination of tropical regions of being exposed to a win-win-win-situation (local development, cost efficient climate protection, and nature conservation). Carbon arithmetic and remote sensing technology create quantifiable representations of tropical landscapes, marking them as so-called carbon sinks. These produced spaces then are given an exchange value by being converted into the fictitious commodity "CO2e". Hence tropical regions become tradable on the international carbon market which, in turn, justifies the international control of local peoples' daily use of these very same regions. Results from empirical data analysis show that REDD+ project implementation strongly impacts the way villagers produce their social space locally. Practical use, conception and perception of space are influenced and altered. While before, spatial practice was focused on cultivation and resource exploitation for daily income, it then was turned into project-compliant performance engaging all available local workforce for REDD+ ends. New concepts of space, propelled by both (inter)national carbon sequestration proponents and their opponents defending customary land rights, enter the local scene. In consequence, new discourses, new land use maps as well as new laws on customary land rights are imposed, giving power to those ones who introduced them. Prior to REDD+, (physical) space was primarily used and not conceived of, and hence ideas about space and its (customary) use were strictly bound to the body, thus remaining fluid and uncodified. Spatial perception changed insofar as villagers now hope for the restoration of the village's degraded forests. Those ones actively involved in the REDD+ project hope for convergence with "city culture" due to increased wealth and the village's internationalization. Still, there is distrust amongst local citizens and a major perception that REDD+ will not change the living conditions on the ground, just as any other project hasn't done before. The depicted changes in the local production of space eventually lead to accelerated rural class formation, an increased recurrence on local adat identity in a multiethnic village, and the marginalization of local people in the carbon trade profit, conceding them, if ever at all, an extremely small amount of carbon rights (400ha in a project region of 120.000ha). On a meta-level, the afore-mentioned results lead to the conclusion that REDD+ changes the relationship between man and nature at selective locations in rural tropical regions whereas global economic structures, and hence the societal relationship with nature, remain unchanged. Nature is turned into an abstract sign and prohibition of resource use is imposed. Responsibilities for climate protection are shifted from global North to global South, justifying the subordination of people's everyday life at REDD+ project sites to a carbon sequestration rationale. Nature itself is being fetishized, becoming a tradable good only if untouched, voided by human use and submitted to highly technologized and scientifically elaborate quantification. This all serving the goal to achieve a "frenetic mobilization of space" (Lefebvre) which now is extended from the city to nature, serving to buffer worldwide overaccumulation of capital. To conclude, this research has shown that i) REDD+ is a very powerful instrument both in the international arena by evoking hope for easy and cost-efficient climate protection to feed the global carbon economy with cheap CO2e-certificates, and in places of project implementation where it causes domination of peoples' daily land and resource use; ii) Despite of the REDD+ project's failure, Indonesia with its vast territory of tropical forests and peatlands will probably adhere to its REDD+ policy. Given the unclear situation of customary land rights throughout the country and the strong pressure of REDD+ projects on the codification of land rights, there is a real danger that local peoples' access to resources will be strongly limited, while at the same time giving them no secure access to carbon rights; iii) Lefebvre's theory of the "production of space" has proven to be fruitful for the analysis of socio-economic processes across scales. Theory use can be developed by further elaborating on Lefebvre's concept of "nature" and by applying additional concepts/theories to look at micro-social interaction from different viewpoints.

Four technology forecast reports from the Fraunhofer Institute have been reviewed by staff at the Department of Military-Technology at the Swedish National Defence College. The task given by the Swedish Defence Material Administration, FMV, was to assess the military utility of the given technologies in a time frame to 2040, from a Swedish Armed Forces (SwAF) point of view. We assess the military utility of a certain technology as its contribution to the operational capabilities of the SwAF, based on identified relevant scenarios. Since a new capability catalogue is under development at the SwAF Headquarters, we will only present general assessments of the capability impact from the technologies under study. The technologies were grouped in three classes; technologies with potentially significant, uncertain or negligible military utility. The classification uncertain is given for technologies that are difficult to put in the two other classes, however it is not because the technology readiness level (TRL) is not reached by 2040. The following technologies were assessed to have a potential for significant military utility; Kinodynamic motion planning This technology is a prerequisite for reaching full autonomy of highly agile unmanned systems and is probably a logical, evolutionary way to go forward. It will affect most SwAF capabilities through enhanced mobility. This technology should be studied by the SwAF, preferably within all operational environments. Bio-inspired Adaptive Camouflage Surfaces "Bio-inspired camouflage" should be viewed in a broad multispectral perspective involving design requirements for low contrast in the visual- and IR-spectrum as well as, for most applications, low reflectivity in the radar-band. There is an ongoing duel between sensor development and camouflage systems and our assessment is that the fewer and more valuable platforms we have, we will need better camouflage performance in order to maintain low probability of detection and short detection distances for an adversary, at least if faced with a technologically mature adversary. Our overall assessment is that bio-inspired adaptive camouflage systems have significant potential for military utility. UCAV If the idea that UCAV are superior in air combat is realizable, we may be facing a paradigm shift of the same magnitude as that which airborne radar or air-to-air missiles introduced. Thus, UCAV are deemed to have potential for significant military utility in future air operations even though it is, at present, hard to predict how they will be used to maximize their military utility. The following technology was assessed to have uncertain military utility; Bulk metallic glass (BMG) If BMG innovations prove to form a new performance step in armour and weapons development, it will from a Swedish perspective be crucial to take part in that development or else take the risk of being inferior on the battlefield. Given the many uncertainties concerning production and applications, we assess BMGs to have uncertain potential for military utility in 2040. However, the SwAF should monitor the development and applications in this area. None of the studied technologies were found to have negligible military utility. . The method used in this technology forecast report was to assign each Fraunhofer report to one reviewer in the working group. First, a summary of each forecast report was made. The Fraunhofer assessment of technical readiness level (TRL) in 2030-40 was held to be correct. The technology was then put into one or more scenarios that were assessed to be suitable in order to assess the military utility as well as indicate possibilities and drawbacks of the technologies. Based on a SWOT-analysis, the contribution to SwAF capabilities and the cost in terms of acquisition, C2 footprint, logistic footprint, doctrine/TTP, training, facilities and R&D were assessed. Finally, conclusions regarding the potential military utility of the technology were drawn. The chosen definition of military utility clearly affects the result of the study. The definition (the military utility of a certain technology is its contribution to the operational capabilities of the SwAF, within identified relevant scenarios) is the same that was used in the Technology Forecast 2013. It is believed to be good enough for this report, but could be further elaborated in the future. An article that in depth presents our concept of military utility has been elaborated at the department.1 Our evaluation of the method used shows that there is a risk that the assessment is biased by the participating experts' presumptions and experiences from their own field of research. The scenarios that were chosen do not cover all aspects of the technology and their possible contribution to operational capabilities. It should be stressed that we have assessed the four technologies' potential military utility within the specific presented scenarios, not the technology itself. When additional results have been found in the analysis this is mentioned. The greatest value of the method used is its simplicity, cost effectiveness and the tradeoff that it promotes learning within the working group. The composition of the working group and the methodology used is believed to provide for a broad and balanced coverage of the technologies under study. This report provides executive summaries of the Fraunhofer and Recorded Future reports and the intention is to help the SwAF Headquarter to evaluate the military utility of emerging technologies within identified relevant scenarios. Overall, the quality of the Fraunhofer reports is considered to be balanced and of a high level of critical analysis regarding technology development. These reports are in line with our task to evaluate the military utility of the emerging technologies. We appreciate that the Department of Military Technology at SNDC this time has been involved in the early phase of the Technology Forecast process.

[full article and abstract in Lithuanian; abstract in English] This article examines the concept of environmental security and assesses its role in international, regional and national security studies. The study is aimed at providing conceptual "mental map" of this field, thereby giving analytical background and gui­dance for comprehensive environmental security studies, which are known for the diversity of conceptual approaches, methods and levels of analysis.The fundamental question of environmental security – how various environmen­tal factors (climate, resources, etc.) and processes can affect the security of states and societies. It examines the relationships between different environmental issues, their effects and various security problems. Environment is considered as integrated part of a security concept together with the dimensions of economic, social, energy or information security. In order to identify the main academic schools of the environmental security, this article uses four key questions, theoretically defining the core of environmental secu­rity concept: (i) what makes an impact (source of threat); (ii) to whom/what an impact is made ("victim"); (iii) what kind of impact is made (threat); (iv) how an impact is made (mechanisms and "channels"). On the basis of these theoretical dimensions, five main academic schools of environmental security are identified and examined by focusing on their features and findings, methodology and critical assessment:1. Resource scarcity school examines the nexus between scarcity of renewable resources (e.g. freshwater) and various internal and international conflicts (their incidence, intensity and dynamics).2. Resource abundance school explores the relations between non-renewa­ble resources (e.g. diamonds, oil, etc.) and internal conflicts, especially civil wars.3. Climate change school focuses on nature (and human) induced environ­mental change and its implications for international security, socioeconomic development and social disruptions in various regions.4. Human security school focuses on environmental impacts on individual and "people-centered" security, which is closely related with sustainable develo­pment (food security, health and education, welfare, gender issues, etc.).5. Natural disasters school examines the socioeconomic impacts of various disasters (earthquakes, floods, etc.) with specific focus on the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of various social systems (states, communities, etc.).Analysis shows that environmental dimension becomes increasingly impor­tant element of international relations and security studies. Comprehensive security assessment, especially in developing countries, is not possible without taking into account the social and economic impacts made by resources, climate change and natural disasters.Research by 1 and 2 schools, despite various methodological problems, demons­trates the impact resources have to various internal conflicts and social disorder. Scar­city of renewable resources generates certain social effects (for example, decreased productivity of agriculture, migration, weakening of state institutions etc.), which, in turn, can fuel different types of conflicts (ethnic conflicts, coup d'état, poverty conflicts, etc.). Abundance of non-renewable resources can have various direct (for example, direct financial source for rebel groups), as well as indirect (affecting eco­nomy, political regime, separatism, etc.) impact to conflicts.Specific conditions in the developing countries play a significant role in terms of explaining the nexus between resources and security. Developing countries are often dependent on climate-sensitive agriculture and suffer from poverty. As a re­sult, various climate change effects (3 school) often amplify mechanisms, which lead to insecurity and violence, such as political instability, weak governance structures, poor economic performance, etc. This is especially relevant for those regions where several "conflict constellations" (water and food shortage, regular natural disasters, rapid demographic change, etc.) are overlapping. Environmental change also has a certain impact to international security in terms of possible increase in the number of weak and fragile states, risks for global economic development, intensification of migration, territorial disputes, etc.Generally, environmental security research (apart from the 1 and 2 schools) is based on a broad approach to security, which is not limited to military conflicts and include various elements of sustainable development and economic welfare. On the one hand, it is understandable, as interdisciplinary character of environmental securi­ty requires complex approach to security.On the other hand, research based on the concept of human security (4 school) often equates security with economic and social well-being, thus blurring the line between security and development studies. It also undermines the assessment of the impact environmental issues can have to traditional security problems (conflicts, regi­me change, political instability, etc.). Finally, securization of various social problems (AIDS, migration, poverty, gender inequality, etc.) might be used for political purpo­ses by legitimizing the use of military force or restricting human rights.Various natural disasters (5 school) have a substantial destructive power, which not only causes substantial damage (humanitarian crises, destroyed infrastructure, etc.), but also has complex socioeconomic and political effects, which affect politi­cal regimes, critical economic sectors, social stability, etc. From this perspective, a key role is played by physical and socioeconomic characteristics of vulnerability and adaptive capacity, which can absorb negative effects of natural disasters and mitigate the risk. ; [straipsnis ir santrauka lietuvių kalba; santrauka anglų kalba] Straipsnyje analizuojami svarbiausi ekosaugumo koncepcijos bruožai ir jos reikšmė tarptautinių santykių studijose. Ekosaugumas traktuojamas kaip sudedamoji saugumo sampratos dalis šalia akademiniame diskurse jau įsitvirtinusių ekonominio, socialinio, energetinio ar informacinio saugumo komponentų. Ekosaugumo studijų objektas – kompleksiniai ryšiai tarp gamtos (aplinkos, klimato, resursų) veiksnių, jų daromo poveikio ir įvairių saugumo problemų. Straipsnyje identifikuojamos ir nagrinėjamos penkios svarbiausios ekosaugumo studijų "stovyklos": 1. Resursų trūkumo. 2. Resursų gausos. 3. Klimato pokyčių. 4. Žmogiškojo saugumo. 5. Gamtos stichijų.

ABSTRACTThe European integration project founded with the aim of providing a lasting peace in the Continent in 1957 has developed from an economic community of six into a union of twenty-seven member states. Today, the European Union is no more a simple free trade area or only an intergovernmental structure with limited objectives on economic issues. It has moved far beyond an international organization and evolved into a unified and unique entity over the fifty-one years that have passed since its first establishment. From a modest economic community, it has evolved into a political entity which functions by means of both intergovernmental and supranational methods. However, the unsolved unemployment problem, which started with the economic crisis in the 70s and continued with the challenges of globalization, caused European people to be discontented with their situation. Furthermore, the steps taken for political integration has brought forth the legitimacy problem, which stems from the democratic deficit of the Union, requires the construction of a well-informed cohesive body of citizens, namely, a 'demos'. The emergence of this need has increased the necessity for the construction of European identity.As a solution to these two crucially important issues, after the Maastricht Treaty the Union gave momentum to the developments in the field of education by expanding the cooperation between the member states and by creating a new educational space. The European Area of Higher Education, which was launched with the Bologna Declaration and continued to develop with the Bologna process, has been the most ambitious step taken in the field of education so far. Parallel to its objective of constructing a coherent and compatible European area of higher education with a view to reform and converge the existing structures while preserving the autonomy of higher education institutions and respecting national, cultural and linguistic differences, the European Area of Higher Education has improved the competency and the competitiveness of Europe and the Europeans in the global market. Furthermore, the mobility, the multicultural and multilingual spaces that it provides for the people of Europe promotes a civic dimension and a sense of belonging to Europe which is an important dimension in the construction of European identity.Within this framework, this study explicates and exhibits the role and the impact of education and the European educational space on the construction of European identity and the development of Union citizenship from a social constructivist perspective. In order to reach a comprehensive assessment, the creation of the European educational space with its key actors and documents are examined in a historical perspective, discourse analyses of the two pivotal educational documents; the 1995 White Paper and the Bologna Declaration are made, and the concept of identity, its construction process and the role of education in this process is explored in detail. As a result of these meticulous explorations, it is concluded that the creation of the European Area of Higher Education as a part of the European educational space could play a major role in the construction of European identity and the development of Union citizenship which could be a solution for the legitimacy problem of the European Union.ÖZET1957'de Avrupa'da uzun süreli barışı sağlamak için başlatılan Avrupa bütünleşme projesi sadece altı üye devletten oluşan ekonomik bir topluluktan yirmi yedi üyesi olan bir birliğe dönüşmüştür. Aradan geçen 51 yıllık süre içinde Avrupa Birliği sadece bir serbest ticaret bölgesi ya da amaçları sadece ekonomik konularla sınırlı uluslararası yapıya sahip bir oluşum olmanın çok ötesinde hem uluslararası hem de uluslarüstü yöntemlerle işleyen kendine özgü siyasi bir birlik halini almıştır.Ancak bugün, 70lerde başlayan ve küreselleşmenin getirdiği zorluklarla günümüze kadar devam eden ve hala çözümlenemeyen işsizlik problemi Avrupalıları kaygılandırmaktadır. Ayrıca siyasi bütünleşme için atılan adımlar demokrasi eksikliğinden kaynaklanan meşruiyet tartışmalarını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Birliğin demokrasi eksiğini giderebilmesi için demos'a, başka bir deyişle, ortak değerler üzerinde birleşmiş bir topluma ihtiyacı vardır. Bu ihtiyaç da ortak bir Avrupa kimliğinin yapılandırılması gereğini ortaya çıkarmıştır. Avrupa Birliği, eğitimi bu iki önemli soruna çözüm olarak görmüş ve özellikle Maastricht Antlaşması sonrası üye devletlerin eğitim alanındaki işbirliğini hızlandırıp genişleterek Avrupa eğitim alanının yapılandırılmasını sağlamıştır. Bolonya Deklarasyonuyla temelleri atılan ve Bolonya süreciyle oluşumu devam eden Avrupa Yüksek Öğretim Alanı şu ana kadar bu yönde atılan en önemli adım olmuştur. Bu oluşumun temel amaçlarından biri ulusal, kültürel ve dilsel farklılıkları ve yüksek öğretim kurumlarının özerkliğini koruyarak, bu kurumların hali hazırda varolan eğitim yapılarını iyileştirerek ve birbirine yakınlaştırarak kaliteli ve bütünleşmiş bir Avrupa eğitim alanı yaratmaktır. Diğer bir amacı ise Avrupa'nın ve Avrupalıların küresel pazardaki rekabet gücünü arttırarak işsizlik sorununa çözüm bulmaktır. Ayrıca, bu alanın sağladığı hareketlilik, çok-kültürlü ve çok-dilli sosyal alanlar Avrupa bilincinin ve kimliğinin oluşturulması için gerekli 'sivik' boyutu oluşturmaktır.Bu çerçeve içinde, eldeki çalışma Avrupa eğitim alanının, Avrupa kimliğinin oluşturulması ve Avrupa Birliği vatandaşlığının geliştirilmesi üzerindeki rolünü ve etkilerini sosyal inşacı açıdan incelemekte ve göstermektir. Kapsamlı bir sonuca varabilmek için Avrupa eğitim alanı temel oyuncuları ve belgeleriyle tarihi bir perspektif içinde incelenmiş, en önemli eğitim belgelerinden olan 1995 Beyaz Kitabı ve Bolonya Deklarasyonunun söylem analizi yapılmış, ve kimlik kavramı, gelişim süreci ve bu süreçte eğitimin rolü araştırılmıştır. Tüm bu detaylı ve titiz çalışmaların sonucunda, Avrupa eğitim alanının bir parçası olarak oluşturulan Avrupa Yüksek Öğretim Alanının Avrupa kimliği ve Avrupa Birliği vatandaşlığının inşasında önemi yadsınamaz bir rol oynayacağı ve bunun da Avrupa Birliğinin meşruiyet sorununa çözüm getirebileceği sonucuna varılmıştır.