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The reform of China's collectively owned forest land, began in 2008, is arguably the largest land-reform undertaking in modern times in terms of area and people affected. Under the reform, forest lands have been contracted to rural households, allowing them more independence in exercising their rights and interests in the forest lands, giving them more opportunities to improve family incomes, and creating incentives for them to cultivate, conserve, and manage forests. These lands are home to some 610 million people, many of them poor. With urbanization, vast numbers of Chinese men have migrated to cities to work, leaving women as the predominant labor force in rural areas. Indeed, some 70 percent of China's agriculture labor force is now female. The immense scope of this change calls for a systematic examination of how China's rural women gain access to and exploit forest land and associated resources and services. The reform was designed to unfold in two broad stages. In the first, collectively owned forest lands suitable for contracting were allocated on equal terms to each household in affected villages. The ongoing second stage represents a deepening of the reform. It deals with subsidies and ecological compensation, financial services (including use of forest tenure as collateral and transfers of forest land), forest insurance, technical services and training, farmers' associations and cooperatives, and market services. However, the monitoring had not covered the gender dimension of the reform, meaning that the gender data required to accurately reflect the full effects of the reform have been lacking. Building on the annual monitoring conducted by the FEDRC, the study reported here added gender-related investigation and analysis to obtain gender data about the current reform situation, its problems, and their causes. It also included structured interviews with rural women and group meetings with local government agencies, women's federations, and village committees.The ultimate objective of the study is to achieve better gender-responsiveness in China's collective forest tenure reform. Specifically, this includes: (i) equality in access to and control of forest lands, as well as access to associated resources and services; (ii) women's participation and equality in decision-making concerning the conservation and utilization of forest resources; and (iii) impacts of the first two aspects on the status and well-being of women. The World Bank has had over 30 years of successful cooperation with China in the forestry sector. Women's access to the services and resources that are the focus of the second stage of the reform will be a critical element of the World Bank's continuing reform dialogue with its Chinese partners.

10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 1/7 Features | Around Campus | Events | Recognition | Service | SEARCH ARCHIVES October 2015 - Vol. 19, No. 2 P􀶋􈬍􀵾􇸍􀶌􈰍􀶂􈈍􀵽􇴍􀵾􇸍􀶇􈜍􀶍􈴧'􀶌􈰠 M􀵾􇸍􀶌􈰍􀶌􈰍􀵺􇨍􀶀􈀍􀵾􇹔 This is an exciting time for the University! Fresno State is stronger than ever – a place of growingdiscovery, diversity and distinction. Applications from talented and diverse undergraduates from throughoutthe Valley and state hit a record number this year. In fact, our applications have increased at a rate that istwice the CSU average. As I meet these students on campus, I am impressed with the excellence theybring to Fresno State. As we strengthen our student success initiatives, we are seeing our graduation ratesteadily improving. The six-year rate is projected to increase to nearly 58 percent this year. That is morethan a 9 percentage-point increase in the past two years. Our goal is to achieve a 70 percent graduationrate by 2023, and we are well on our way! Thanks to the bold efforts of our faculty and staff, there is muchto be proud of at Fresno State. F􀵾􇸍􀵺􇨍􀶍􈴍􀶎􈸍􀶋􈬍􀵾􇸍􀶌􈱄 Dr. Mohan Dangi: a Fresno State action hero in Nepal One moment Dr. Mohan Dangi was on his way back to Fresno after helping with Nepal earthquake relief efforts, and thenext he was about to be pulverized by a huge rock headed right for his vehicle. The driver gunned it, and thus Dr. Dangisurvived a mortal threat which is reminscent of an Indiana Jones movie. See more . Autism Center is all about serving families Making a big difference is what the Autism Center @ Fresno State is all about. Reaching out to the community, it has10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 2/7 already established a new center in Madera county. See more . Dr. Andrew Fiala examines the big questions in life Thinking and questioning can lead to a satisfying life, according to Dr.Andrew Fiala, professor and chair of the Philosophy Department and directorof the Ethics Center at Fresno State. "We're not all alike, and we don't haveto be," Fiala said. "Socrates, Galileo, Martin Luther, Einstein — theinnovators have been the unique individuals who think differently than themajority." See more . International Student Services and Programs For the second year in a row, Fresno State has been selected for a nationalExcellence and Innovation Award from the American Association of StateColleges and Universities (AASCU). This year, it's for internationalization efforts. See more . The Castros' first two years at Fresno State Remember key moments with President Joseph I. Castro and First Lady Mary Castro. Photos by Cary Edmondson. Seeslideshow . Trek with TimeOut Enjoy some of the fun times with TimeOut, Fresno State's beloved mascot. Photos by Cary Edmondson. Additionalphotos courtesy of Athletics Marketing and Promotions. See slideshow . A􀶋􈬍􀶈􈠍􀶎􈸍􀶇􈜍􀵽􇴠 C􀵺􇨍􀶆􈘍􀶉􈤍􀶎􈸍􀶌􈱓 Submit your input for the strategic planning process President Castro and the Strategic Planning Committee invite members of the campus community to offer input for thestrategic planning process that will identify campus priorities for the next five years. An online form for input is available here . Information about the draft Mission Statement and Strategic Plan priorities is available here. Nursing students take free services to the Valley This September saw the launch of School of Nursing's Community Health Mobile Unit, which offers free health servicesto rural communities. The mobile unit, made from a deconstructed RV, has two exam rooms for services such asimmunizations and diabetes and blood pressure screenings, plus health assessments, education and referrals.Throughout the fall semester, the mobile unit will travel to rural areas in Fresno County, providing free services to thosewho do not have readily available access to health care. See more . New name for Student Affairs, offices The Division of Student Affairs has been renamed the Division of Student Affairs and Enrollment Management. Officeswithin the division have also changed their names: Career Development Center (formerly Career Services), Cross Culture and Gender Center (formerly Center for Women and Culture), and University Health and CounselingCenter (formerly University Health and Psychological Services). Admissions and Records also had offices that changedtheir names: Degree Advising Office (formerly the Evaluations Office) and Student Conduct Office (formerly JudicialAffairs). Also, the Dream Outreach Center is a new office within Student Affairs and Enrollment Management, housed inUniversity Outreach Center's office. Athletics honors academics This season at home sporting events, extraordinary teaching at the University is being showcased by selected facultymembers — such as Miles Ishigaki (Music) and Betsy Hays (MCJ) — who present the game ball to President Joseph I.Castro in front of thousands of Bulldog football fans. Faculty members from the Jordan College of Agricultural Sciencesand Technology are also recognized during football games as the "Actagro Faculty Member of the Game," with CathyPay Zhu (Agricultural Business) and Hend Letaief (Viticulture and Enology) recently receiving this honorary recognition.Additional recognition for academics takes place during Men's Basketball College Nights, which introduces theaccomplishments of the University's colleges and schools to the community and provides the opportunity to bring donors,alumni, staff, faculty and students from together for a fun evening. Athletics also recognizes faculty and staff with anappreciation day, one for each sport (excluding football) which offers faculty and staff free admission. For moreinformation, or if you know an extraordinary faculty or staff member you would like to see honored at a future event,please contact aslater@csufresno.edu .10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 3/7 $10,000 grant will help Fresno State serve students in recovery Fresno State has received a $10,000 Early Seed Grant from Transforming YouthRecovery (TYR), a non-profit charity created by the Stacie Mathewson Foundation,which creates and brings together innovative and sustainable scholastic recoverycommunities. The three-year grant provides funding and technical assistance with agoal to help Fresno State "build a recovery community from the inside out by focusingon community-based assets and mobilizing relationships between individuals,associations and institutions." The grant will help Fresno State spearhead recoveryefforts on campus. Activities include the following: Identifying of a small group of students in recovery to help lead the way to developmentof a program. Conducting a survey and convening focus groups of students in recovery to obtainfeedback on the type of support they need in order to have a successful academiccareer. Based on the results, the University may consider bringing Alcoholics Anonymous meetings or otherrecovery support group meetings to Fresno State. Working with Transforming Youth Recovery on an ongoing basis to develop and strengthen our recovery program. For more information, contact Kathy Yarmo at kyarmo@csufresno.edu . WASC team will visit campus Oct. 20-22 The WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC) will be at Fresno State Oct. 20-22 in connection withthe University's accreditation. The team typically schedules open meetings with students, staff and faculty to provide anopportunity for informal input from all members of the campus community about their experiences with the institution.Individuals who are unable to attend the meetings may contact the WSCUC team through Oct. 22 using this confidentialemail: csufr@wascsenior.org . For more information about Fresno State WASC accreditation, click here. E􀶏􈼍􀵾􇸍􀶇􈜍􀶍􈴍􀶌􈱋 Keyboard Concerts presents Isabelle Demers on Oct. 4 Isabelle Demers performs works by Vierne, Prokofiev, H. Martin, Reger, J.S. Bach, Laurin, andThalben-Ball at 3 p.m., Oct. 4 in the Concert Hall. A French-Canadian artist, she is rapidlybecoming recognized as one of America's most virtuosic organists. Recent highlights of hervast performance activities include her debuts at Davies Hall in San Francisco and Disney Hallin Los Angeles as well as a fourteen concert tour of England and Germany. General admissionis $25, seniors $18, and students $5. For reservations and other information, call 278.2337.This concert is co-sponsored with the San Joaquin Valley Chapter, American Guild ofOrganists and L'Alliance Francaise de Fresno. Farm to Fork Exhibition open through December; Great Grape Event is Oct. 10 Henry Madden Library's exhibition, "Farm to Fork: Food, Family, Farming," features the immigration history of the Valley'slargest ethnic populations, as well as their contributions to agriculture in the Central Valley. It will also showcase antiquefarming equipment as part of a "non-petting zoo." The exhibition is free and open to the public through December 18. Inaddition, a series of related "Farm to Fork" events are being planned throughout the year, beginning with "The GreatGrape" on Saturday, Oct.r 10, from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. at the Department of Viticulture and Enology (located on Barstowbetween Cedar and Maple). For more information, visit www.fresnostate.edu/library or contact Cindy Wathen at 278.1680or ciwathen@csufresno.edu . Universal Design Day is Oct. 16 Universal Design Day is Oct. 16 from 9 a.m.-3 p.m. at the Henry Madden Library, starting at DISCOVERe Hub, first floor.This event is held bring awareness of universal design and accessibility to our campus. Attend a showcase of resourcesand best practices. "Pop-in" to 30-minute workshops. Features include food, prizes, and opportunities in universaldesign. See more . Licensing and Tradmark Vendor Fair is Oct. 22 A Licensing and Tradmark Vendor Fair will be held Oct. 22 from 9 a.m.-2 p.m., North Gym 118, to inform faculty and staffof how to order products with Fresno State's trademark. Companies licensed to provide promotional materials will bepresent with vendor booths and samples. Presentations will be made at 10 a.m., 11 a.m., and 1 p.m. For moreinformation, contact gbehrens@csufresno.edu .10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 4/7 Pianist Sahan Arzruni performs Oct. 25 The Keyboard Concerts series offers a special event with pianist Sahan Arzruniperforming on Sunday, Oct. 25, at 3 p.m. Arzruni has become a familiar figurethrough many television broadcasts such as Johnny Carson and Mike Douglasshows. He has also been featured in a number of PBS specials. The recital is co-sponsored with the Fresno State Armenian Studies Program and the Thomas A.Kooyumjian Family Foundation. General admission is $25, seniors $18, and students$5. For reservations and other information, call 278.2337. University Theatre 2015-16 season begins The upcoming University Theatre season includes the following: Yellowman , by Dael Orlandersmith, Oct. 2-4 and 6-10, Dennis and Cheryl Woods Theatre A Midsummer Night's Dream , by William Shakespeare, Oct. 30-Nov. 1 and Nov. 3-7, Dennis and Cheryl WoodsTheatre Really Really , by Paul Downs Colaizzo, Dec. 4-6 and 8-12, John Wright Theatre Contemporary Dance Ensemble, artistic director Kenneth Balint, Feb. 12-14 and 16-20, John Wright Theatre Malpractice, or Love's the Best Docto r, adapted from The Comedies of Moliére , March 11-13 and 15-19, Dennisand Cheryl Woods Theatre Blue Willow , by Pamela Sterling, May 6-8 and 10-14, John Wright Theatre Tickets are $17 for adults, $15 for Fresno State faculty, staff, alumni, seniors citizens and military, and $10 for studentsand are available at www.fresnostate.edu/theatrearts . Fresno State Concert Schedule To see the entire concert and recital schedule visit the website .Tickets prices are subject to change, Jazz Composer's Orchestra - Oct. 5 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall Fresno State Guitar Studio - Oct. 6 at 8 p.m., Wahlberg Recital Hall Faculty Brass Recital - Oct. 7 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall Cello Fresno – International Cello Festival Concert I, Symphony Orchestra - Oct. 9 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall,General: $15, Employee: $10, Senior: $10, Student: $5 Cello Fresno – International Cello Festival Concerto Competition - Oct. 10 at 8 p.m. Concert Hall, General:$15, Employee: $10, Senior: $10, Student: $5 FSSO/Cello Festival Final Gala Concert - Oct. 11 at 7 p.m., Concert Hall, General: $15, Employee: $10, Senior:$10, Student: $5 Symphonic Band Concert I - Oct. 13 at 7:30 p.m., Concert Hall Wind Orchestra Concert - Oct. 15 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall, General: $15, Employee: $10, Senior: $10, Student:$5 Invitational Choral Festival - Oct. 21-23, Concert Hall Keyboard Concerts Special Event - Sahan Arzruni – Oct. 25 at 3 p.m. Concert Hall, General: $25, Senior: $18,Student: $5. Not a part of the regular Keyboard Concert series Faculty Recital - Oct. 28 at 8 p.m. Concert Hall Jazz-O-Ween - Oct. 29 at 8 p.m., Concert Hall Conley Gallery Exhibitions Gallery hours during shows: Monday - Thursday, 10 a.m. - 4 p.m. unless otherwise noted. See the website for more. Nov. 2 - 5: Miguel Flores Reception: Thursday, Nov. 5, 5-8 p.m. Save the date: Oct. 9 - RAD American Women reception and presentation, University Dining Hall, 6 p.m. Oct. 28 - Fall Faculty/Staff Breakfast, 7:30 a.m.-9:30 a.m., Residence Dining Hall East Wing (reservations required) Oct. 29-30 - California Latino Leadership Education Summit10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 5/7 Nov. 15-18 - Accreditation site visit for entry-level Department of Physical Therapy Nov. 19 - President's Forum for Faculty and Staff, 10-11 a.m., North Gym 118 R􀵾􇸍􀵼􇰍􀶈􈠍􀶀􈀍􀶇􈜍􀶂􈈍􀶍􈴍􀶂􈈍􀶈􈠍􀶇􈝂 Brad Hyatt (Construction Management) was appointed by Mayor Ashley Swearengin to the city of Fresno's Capital ProjectsOversight Board. Sam Lankford (Recreation Administration) had his report, "The Impact of the Arctic Winter Games: A Social Capital Perspective,"published this summer. It is the culmination of his 23 years of research on the social benefits of the Arctic Winter Games. Read more . Miguel Perez (Public Health) led 15 public health students on a global service learning course in the Dominican Republic, where theyprovided health education activities to some of the region's most destitute individuals. He also won an HonoraryProfessor award from the Universidad Central del Este (Central University of the East, UCE) in the Dominican Republicas part of UCE's Global Health Week. Kathie Reid-Bevington and Geoffrey Thurner (Jordan College) are participants in the Fresno County Farm Bureau's Future Advocates for Agriculture Concerned aboutTomorrow Class XIII, which is an eight-month educational program for community leaders who want to discussagriculture, labor and immigration, air quality, land-use planning, food production and more. Scott Sailor (Kinesiology) was officially inducted as president of the National Athletic Trainers Association. In this role, he'll lead39,000+ athletic trainers from across the nation, including Fresno State's Dr. Paul Ullucci (Physical Therapy), whoreceived the Most Distinguished Athletic Trainer Award at the 66th Annual NATA Meeting this summer in St Louis. Readmore . Anil Shrestha (Plant Science) was named Winrock International's August Volunteer of the Month for his recent work in two separatethree-week projects in Nepal. See more . Bhupinder Singh (Physical Therapy) presented his research, "Balance Control during Common Rehabilitation Exercises in ObeseFemales," at the American Society of Biomechanics meeting in Columbus, Ohio, this summer. S􀵾􇸍􀶋􈬍􀶏􈼍􀶂􈈍􀵼􇰍􀵾􇹓 Save Mart Center's Shehady Tower turned red for Blood Cancer Awareness Fresno State teamed up with the Save Mart Center, Leukemia Lymphoma Society, Central California Blood Center andthe new Be the Match On Campus student group to support Blood Cancer Awareness Month in September. The partnersmet for a kick-off in the early morning hours of Sept. 9 to view Shehady Tower illuminated in red lights. The lighting is partof the national Leukemia Lymphoma Society campaign, to light iconic buildings in cities across America red. Iin addition to the tower lighting, Fresno State also hosted an on-campus blood drive and marrow registry drive Sept. 16-18. Hundreds of generous members of the Fresno State community donated blood and registered for the national Be theMatch marrow registry. The next on-campus blood drive and marrow registry drive will take place Nov. 17-19. For more information about Be the Match on Campus, contact Giuffrida at 559.278.5716 or tgiuffrida@csufresno.edu . Forthe Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, contact Korina Mendoza at 559.490.6943 or korina.mendoza@lls.org . For theFresno State blood drives contact Renee Delport at 559.278.7063 or rdelport@csufresno.edu .10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 6/7 Taste of Service Event introduces students to Fresno State's Culture of Service Taste of Service, a new addition to the annual Community ServiceOpportunities Fair took place in early September. In addition to learningabout community benefit organizations and volunteer opportunities theyoffer, the new area provided students the opportunity to try out several on-the-spot service projects. More than 650 students participated in the event that took place adjacent tothe traditional Service Fair. The service projects included writing advocacyletters with the Fresno State Food Recovery Network, making pinwheel toysand cards for patients at Valley Children's Hospital, and writing thank youcards for military veterans who live in the Fresno Veteran's Home. The event was coordinated by the Jan and Bud Richter Center forCommunity Engagement and Service-Learning and sponsored by Associated Students, Inc., Humanics, and StudentInvolvement. Make a Difference Day is Oct. 24 "Make a Difference Day," a national community service event encompassingthe most comprehensive nation-wide day of helping others, is Saturday, Oct. 24from 8 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. The Richter Center for Community Engagement andService-Learning is asking all faculty, staff, students, and alumni to participate.Volunteers may participate individually or as a group. More information aboutthe event, including registration details, is available at http://www.fresnostate.edu/academics/cesl/about/events.html In case you missed it: Fresno State's football win against Abilene Christian Relive the Fresno State Bulldogs' 34-13 football win against Abilene Christian Wildcats, Bulldog Stadium, Sept. 3,2015. See slideshow . Fall 2015 Residence Hall move-in See highlights from the Residence Hall move-in this fall. Photos by Cary Edmondson. See slideshow . New Student Convocation 2015 Fresno State welcomed new freshman, transfer and graduate students at the New Student Convocation in theSave Mart Center Aug. 24. See the slideshow . Ribbon cutting for Physical Therapy and Intercollegiate Athletics Building The University celebrated the opening of its new state-of-the-art 22,000-square-foot building with a ribbon cuttingSept. 15. The facility houses the Department of Physical Therapy, as well as athletics offices, and is located atBarstow Avenue and Campus Drive. See the slideshow . Bienvenida! Enjoy scenes from the Bienvenida celebration in the Fresno State Peace Garden, September 16. See theslideshow . Slideshow photos by Cary Edmondson. 10/28/2020 Campus News - October 2015 www.fresnostatejournal.com/vol19no2/index.html 7/7 Still looking for more news? For the latest University press releases, visit FresnoStateNews.com. For sports news, visit GoBulldogs.com . Find announcements, events, and more on BulletinBoard . For the academic calendar, see the catalog . Find additional calendars through Academic Affairs . A listing of season stage performances is available through Theatre Arts and music performances through the Music Department . Campus News is the Fresno State employee newsletter published online the first day of each month – or the weekday closest to the first – fromSeptember through May. The deadline for submissions to the newsletter is 10 days prior to the first of each month. Please e-mail submissions to campusnews@csufresno.edu ; include digital photos, video clips or audio clips that are publishable online. Phone messages, PDFs, faxes, and printedhard copies will not be accepted. President , Joseph I. Castro Vice President for University Advancement , Paula Castadio . Campus News is published by the Office of University Communications. Archives | Academic Calendar | FresnoStateNews | Campus News Deadlines | University Communications Print this Page

The variety of presently occurring economic and political processes and phenomena contribute to continuous changes in world economy, affecting its subjective structure and the changes in the relations and co-dependencies between its subjects. Globalisation is undoubtedly one of such processes, as it affects the positions of countries and international organisations within global economy. It is a multidimensional process, connected to the intensifi cation of relations both on the economic grounds, resulting from accelerated fl ow of goods and services, technologies, capital, workforce, and on the political grounds. The dynamic development of globalisation has been happening under the infl uence of ICT technologies, facilitating the reduction of the costs of production factors movement and increasing their mobility. The distribution of benefi ts resultant from this process is disproportional, as it strengthens the position of some countries and regions, at the same time weakening the importance of economic and political centres functioning to date as its leaders. A growing importance of new centres can be observed on the global scene – Asian countries, including China, are coming into strength and affecting the positions of the economic powers to date, such as the European Union and the USA. A complicated pattern of economic and political relations is being formed, and it is necessary to ensure that proper balance is kept. A new global order is being introduced, resultant from these particular relations, the existing connections and interferences occurring among its actors. Apart from that, the process of globalisation facilitates the intensifi cation of the economic integration processes. The international groups aiming at strengthening their positions in the global economy, as well as their spheres of infl uence, are implementing new inter-state agreements of economic and political character, thus affecting the global structure of power and co-dependencies, together with the changes occurring within these structures. The European Union must continually take up actions to provide stability and European security in the increasingly more complicated global order. Ensuring stability in the neighbouring regions through the European Neighbourhood Policy is of particular importance. This multithreaded issue was undertaken in the research carried out by Centre of Excellence at Warsaw School of Economics – CEWSE on European Union's Security and Stability in a new Economic, Social & Geopolitical Settlement and its partners, scientists representing a wide range of scientifi c centres, including international ones. The research focuses on challenges regarding: uniting or divisive history, transformations of contemporary European countries, European culture, national cultures, innovativeness and creativity of economy, science, migration crisis, refugee crisis, the relations between the EU and the Russian Federation, the crisis in Ukraine, energy security, public security, sustainable growth, social solidarity, demographic changes, Brexit, institutional crisis in the EU, the future of the EU, and more. As a signifi cant actor in global economic and political relations, the EU holds an important economic position, intensifying the pre-existing relations with third countries, organisations and groupings. It is very active in external contacts, negotiating and forming transatlantic agreements, with Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) between the EU and Canada as an example. The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP), whose intended aim was to create a free trade zone between the biggest players – the EU and the USA – previously under negotiations, has been suspended for the time being. Nevertheless, talks are being held as regards deepening the relations between the EU and MERCOSUR, and creating a free trade zone. The new transatlantic agreements, signed or undergoing negotiations, surpass the traditionally accentuated trade relations, covering also the issues of investment, intellectual property rights, legal regulations and standards, as well as regulating other spheres of socio-economic life, which in turn causes the process of negotiating and fi nalising such agreements is prolonged and complicated. The EU also intensifi es its relations with the dynamically developing African continent, hoping to mark its presence there next to other, for example Chinese, investors. Another dimension of external economic and political relations are the developing alliances with Asian countries, which constitute another strategic aim of the EU. The EU undergoes transformations from its very beginning, due to both the processes of expanding and deepening. The latest expansion of the EU took place on 1st July 2013, when Croatia became a new Member State. At the same time, the process of deepening mutual relations was advancing. Thus, the structure of the EU is very dynamic. Currently, the EU is facing numerous challenges of economic, political and social character. However the common values which accompanied the establishment of this organisation and which constitute the foundation of its unity should be supported through realizing agreed-upon operations. Some countries constitute the Eurozone, while other remain outside this hub of enhanced economic co-operation. This creates the so-called "multi-speed" Europe, with diversifi ed economic dimensions, and – as highlighted in the White Paper on the future of Europe1 – the scenarios for further EU development are also diverse. The EU also shapes its external relations in the international arena, economic and political relations with non-member countries on the European continent. Actions are being taken to provide protection and security in the area, which experiences numerous confl icts and crises. After the accession of 10 new countries to the European Union, it was necessary to develop relevant forms of co-operation and relations with the organisation's neighbouring countries. One of the dimensions of implemented policy is the European Neighbourhood Policy, as the neighbouring countries, as well as those maintaining deepened relations with the EU, have been offered the opportunity to develop co-operation and mutual connections within the areas of politics, security, economy and culture. In its original formula, it put forward a list of priorities to be met by the countries covered by the Policy and which have to be included in the Action Plans for numerous key areas, including political dialogue and reforms, trade, justice system, energy, transport, information society. The neighbouring countries deepen their relations with the EU while respecting mutual values. The fi nancial support for this policy is provided by the European Neighbourhood Instrument, the introduction of which is supposed to create the framework conditions for deepening further regional co-operation, at the same time enhancing stability and security in the region2. The present publication, as a product of the research carried out, approaches the subject of the EU's role in providing security and stability in the global order, with particular focus on the Neighbourhood Policy. The hereby publication consists of four thematically integral and interconnected parts.Part 1, entitled "The Concept of European Integration and the Role of the EU in the Global Order", consists of papers concentrating on the presentation of the effects of the European integration to date and the challenges which the EU is currently facing, the issues related to the system for protection of human rights. The diversifi cation of the integration process is highlighted.The importance of the EU as a global partner is also emphasized, indicating the activities dedicated to the least-developed countries. Part 2, "The European Neighbourhood Policy: A Need for Evolution or Revolution?" concentrates around the issues regarding diverse dimensions of integration. It discusses the questions related to the mechanisms of monitoring and solving disputes within the framework of association agreements with Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. Attention has been paid to threats and opportunities for Europe due to new eastern neighbourhood. Institutional aspects of the transformation of the eastern countries have also been indicated, as well as its fi nancial aspects. This brings about new quality and opportunities in the context of EU cohesion policy, where new subjects have a chance to be sanctioned and obtain certain liberties. The third part, "EU Trade & Investment Policy: Engine for Growth and Job Creation?; The Economic Effects of New FTAs Generation – How to Assess Their Effects?", concerns the non-trade effects of DC-FTAs. The connections between the EU and China within the framework of multilateral WTO system have been indicated. Trade relations with MERCOSUR, integration processes in Africa have been discussed, with emphasis on the EAC – EU Economic Partnership Agreement. The trade and investment policies in the countries of the Visegrad Group have also been discussed. Nowadays, trade relations are growing in importance as compared to the past. Due to lasting, long-term co-operation, a tendency to tighten relations can be observed. The last, fourth part "The EU External Policy at a Crossroads Facing New Challenges and Threats from the East and Mediterranean Region" concentrates on the issues regarding external relations between the EU and the countries of the Mediterranean and Eastern regions. Issues related to the foreign policy of Turkey in the context of its relations with the EU are also raised in this part. The structure adopted in this publication introduces the reader to a review of the newest issues regarding mostly the external challenges facing the EU and the actions taken in order to overcome them and provide stability. Papers included in the publication refl ect their authors' own opinions and it is the authors who take full responsibility for their texts. We would like to express our gratitude to all the people and institutions who, through their expertise and fi nancial support, have contributed to the commencement of the present publication. Hereby, we would like to express our most sincere gratitude to the Jean Monnet Chair of European Union, SGH Warsaw School of Economics, University of Warsaw (Centre for Europe), University of Gdańsk (Research Centre on European Integration),University of Economics in Katowice, New Vision University, Tbilisi, Faculty of Administration and National Security of the Jacob of Paradies University in Gorzów Wielkopolski, College of Economics and Social Sciences, Warsaw University of Technology, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, the worldwide networks of the European Community Studies Association (ECSA-World), including Polish European Community Studies Association (PECSA), ECSA Moldova, ECSA Ukraine, ECSA Georgia. The present publication presents the outcomes of research and is supposed to enable the reader to identify the role of the EU in providing stability and security and shaping effective co-operation not only with the neighbouring countries, on the political and economic platform. It is also supposed to inspire further scientific research. ; Centre of Excellence at Warsaw School of Economics (CEWSE); European Commission within the Erasmus+Programme – Jean Monnet Activities.

La revista Tendencias de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y dministrativas de la Universidad de Nariño, una vez más entra en la escena académica regional y nacional con el segundo número de 2014, un año muy importante para el desarrollo de la Revista, que no solo busca mantenerse vigente al ofrecer este espacio para la publicación de resultados de investigación; de reflexión y de revisión sobre temas afines a la realidad contemporánea, verdadero apoyo para la formación de profesionales. Además, procura cada día actualizar sus sistemas de afiliación a las redes, que en algunos casos significa romper con un determinado esquema de organización, siempre con el firme propósito de contribuir a una mayor y mejor calidad de publicación y divulgación ajustadas al respectivo semestre de aparición.En este número presentamos tres artículos resultados de investigaciones: los dos primeros de la Universidad de Nariño: el profesor Luis Hernando Portillo Riascos escribe sobre Extractivismo clásico y neoextractivismo, ¿dos tipos de extractivismos diferentes? I Parte, donde el autor hace un importante aporte al debate sobre los tipos de Extractivismo y realiza un análisis de los principales cambios del marco regulatorio del sector petrolero de Colombia y Ecuador, relacionados con la intervención del Estado y los modelos de explotación para conocer su impacto. El segundo es de los profesores Carlos Córdoba-Cely, Francisco Javier Villamarín Martínez y Harold Bonilla quienes abordan el tema sobre Innovación social: aproximación a un marco teórico desde las disciplinas creativas del diseño y las ciencias sociales, en el que se hace una propuesta de carácter multidisciplinar para articular el diseño y el emprendimiento empresarial con las ciencias sociales, especialmente la sociología. Y el tercer artículo de investigación es de los profesores de la Universidad del Rosario Giovanni E. Reyes y Sandra Milena Chacón Colombia 2003-2013: estructura y tendencias de las exportaciones, un estudio de las exportaciones colombianas y de los países destinatarios en el que queda manifiesto la constante de los montos de la demanda de Colombia con las modificaciones con respecto a Venezuela y China; y muestra además los desafíos que enfrenta Colombia en su comercio internacional.Entre los artículos de reflexión de investigaciones en curso presentamos cuatro artículos: de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia los profesores Alberto Romero y Mary Analí Vera-Colina abordan el tema sobre Las empresas transnacionales y los países en desarrollo en el que se hace un planteamiento sobre la caracterización de las empresas transnacionales, su importancia e impacto en los países en desarrollo a partir de la sistematización de información relacionada; de la Universidad de La Salle, el profesor Gonzalo Cómbita Mora escribe acerca de Entre el realismo y la abstracción: una evaluación metodológica de la macroeconomía, en el que muestra cómo la macroeconomía moderna está formada por una serie de pensamientos que permiten, de una parte el enriquecimiento del debate, y de otra el avance de la ciencia. Y que sin embargo, dicha pluralidad ha sido anulada por el dominio del enfoque mainstream, obstaculizando el progreso de la macroeconomía.De la Universidad Mariana de Pasto, los profesores Carlos Castillo Muñoz, Jorge Xavier Córdoba Martínez y José Luis Villarreal presentan el tema Estándares internacionales de educación (IES) en contabilidad y aseguramiento: nuevos retos de la profesión contable en el que se refieren al ejercicio profesional del Contador Público en el país, pero también su inserción en el ámbito internacional. Sus reflexiones van más allá al involucrar a la educación superior en la responsabilidad de su adecuada formación. Y de la Universidad del Tolima el profesor Gonzalo Camacho Vásquez en su artículo El enfoque Problémico tomasino a la luz del saber cómo problema, hace un análisis crítico de los planes de asignatura de aulas virtuales de aprendizaje de los programas de pregrado desde el enfoque tomasino.Dos profesores, Ernesto Galvis-Lista de la Universidad del Magdalena y Jenny Marcela Sánchez-Torres de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, abordan en un artículo de revisión la temática sobre la Evaluación de la gestión del conocimiento: una revisión sistemática de literatura, dentro de dos maneras de análisis: uno de carácter cienciométrico básico, y otro de contenidos relacionados con una serie de aspectos de los modelos como la estructura, la función y objetivo de la evaluación, métodos de investigación, sectores económicos de aplicación, entre otros. Finalmente, presentamos el ensayo De programa de salud ocupacional a sistema de gestión de seguridad y salud en el trabajo, un aporte sobre Salud Ocupacional, desde la perspectiva y experiencia del doctor Carlos Patiño Bucheli, como factor decisivo en cualquier espacio laboral.Expresamos nuestro agradecimiento a cada uno de los autores de los diferentes tipos de artículos que se publican en este número, extendemos una fraternal invitación a todas las universidades de la región y del país para que nos presenten sus propuestas de publicación, y hacemos un llamado universitario a los grupos de investigación tanto de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas como del resto de la Universidad de Nariño para que continúen liderando investigaciones que permitan la divulgación clara y precisa de los avances de las distintas áreas del conocimiento. La Revista, factor de desarrollo académico, ha recibido el constante apoyo desde la Decanatura, aspecto que resaltamos y agradecemos.LA DIRECTORA PRESENTATIONTendencias, the journal of the School of Economics and Management, as part of the University of Nariño, offers in this issue an important achievement as part of the development process regarding its own contents. Here, we present articles which are products of specific and updated research, and articles more oriented in terms of theoretic, conceptual and qualitative basis, as well. All our topics and presentations aim to be effective tools for learning processes.We in Tendencias, are trying to update our links to national and international scientific networks. Sometimes this effort implies to carry out changes, improvements and innovations in terms of organizational work. Our permanent purpose is to increase the quality of our publication. In this issue we present three products of research. Two of them from the Universidad de Nariño; first: professor Luis Hernando Portillo Riascos writes about extractivism and neo-extrativism processes, a first part of a set of research outcomes. Here a comparison between regulatory oil sector conditions is analyzed specifically for Ecuador and Colombia. Governmental controls and exploitation models are taken into account.Second, an article by professors: Carlos Andrés Córdoba Cely, Francisco Javier Villamarín Martínez and Harold Bonilla, addresses the topic concerning theoretical basis for social innovation from a sociological perspective. They suggest a multidisciplinary model about formulation of entrepreneurship, based on sociological conceptual basis.A third research article is written by Giovanni E. Reyes and Sandra Milena Chacón, both part of the faculty of Universidad del Rosario. This article deals with structure and trends of exports from Colombia, during 2003-2013. It shows dynamical processes belonging to the main Colombian international partners, such as Venezuela, United States and China. This article points out what are the major challenges Colombian economy needs to face in terms of international marketplaces.Another set of four articles underlines rather thoughtful features. The first one by professors Alberto Romero and Mary Analí Vera-Colina –from Universidad Nacional de Colombia- addresses a topic with current and important repercussions, namely the transnational enterprises and their relationships with less developed countries. In this contribution principal features, impact and influences in development aspects are discussed.Professor Gonzalo Cómbita Mora –Universidad de La Salle- writes about a perspective derived from realism and abstraction, as basis of perception and characterization of macroeconomics. It shows how the sphere of macroeconomic principles and applications is founded in basic notions from which scientific debated rise, as well as the advancing processes of this discipline. However, and according to this article, the mainstream-predominant macroeconomic vision has been a sort of obstructionist element for theoretical improvements.In other article, professors Carlos Castillo Muñoz, Jorge Xavier Córdoba Martínez and José Luis Villareal –Universidad Mariana de Pasto– take into account main features related to international standards for education concerning accounting and insurance. They frame their claims within conditions of Colombian society and international links with international universities. They underline the importance of a comprehensive formation of human capital for those two areas of study.Professor Gonzalo Camacho Vásquez –University del Tolima- holds a critical analysis in his article devoted to views approaching problematic perceptions from a "tomasino" standpoint. He addresses teaching-learning processes as part of methodologies based on virtual education within the scope of undergraduate studies.Two professors from the Universidad del Magdalena, Ernesto Galvis-Lista y Jenny Marcela Sánchez-Torres, write about the topic of knowledge management, particularly in terms of a systematic literature review. To accomplish their goal, these authors use two approaches: (i) scientific assessment; and (ii) a rather qualitative method which takes into account –among other criteria– structure, functions, economic sectors for applying knowledge and aims of appraisal.Finally, this issue presents an essay devoted to occupational health program management, with the specific target of safety and health issues at work -a critical factor of the general labor sphere. It is a contribution from Salud Ocupacional. This article is based on the perspective and work experience of Dr. Carlos Patiño Bucheli.We want to express our recognition to each one of the authors whose work is published in this issue. We want to extend a fraternal invitation to all universities in the region and Colombia as a whole, to submit their proposals for publication as part of our journal. We call the research groups that belong to the School of Economics and Management, and the rest of the Universidad de Nariño, to continue in the task of leading the scientific research in several areas of knowledge. This journal, as a factor of academic development, has received constant support from the dean office at the School of Economics and Management. We want to highlight this sponsorship; we are sincerely grateful for that.THE DIRECTOR

Einführung Tropische asiatische Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländer zeigten rasches städtisches Wachstum dadurch, dass Bauern einwanderten, um ein besseres Leben in der Stadt zu suchen. Dadurch ergab sich in vielen Städten ein Mangel an geeigneter Infrastruktur und an sozialen Diensten. Die städtische Müllversorgung bildet keine Ausnahme; sie wird sogar oft an das Ende der Prio-ritätenliste für städtische Aufgabenpläne gestellt, da dabei zuerst die Gesetze und Verordnun-gen formuliert und umgesetzt werden müssen. Das Problem des nicht entsorgten städtischen Mülls führt (mit Sicherheit) zu Luftverschmutzung, Krankheit und zur Verseuchung des Bo-dens und des Wassers. Diese Probleme stehen in tropischen Klimaten im Zusammenhang mit hoher Temperatur und Feuchtigkeit, mit heftigem Regen und mit häufigen Überschwemmun-gen. Stehendes Wasser und Ausschwemmung aus dem Abfall werden sehr schnell zu Brutstät-ten von Insekten, Nagern und Bakterien, und damit zu einer Gesundheitsgefahr für Arbeiter und die allgemeine Bevölkerung. Darüber hinaus kann Wasser- und Grundwasserverschmut-zung/Kontamination zu einer ernsten Umweltzerstörung führen, mit direkten Auswirkungen auf die Wasserressourcen, und auf raschen Qualitätsverlust der pflanzlichen Erzeugnisse, des Rückgrates der meisten tropischen asiatischen Länder. Müllentsorgung und die Verantwortlichkeiten Lokale Regierungen müssen die öffentliche Gesundheit ihrer lokalen Bevölkerung sicherstellen und sind deshalb für die Müllentsorgung verantwortlich. Asiatische tropische Klimate sich rasch ändernde Müllzusammensetzung machen die Müllbehandlung und –entsorgung zu einer dauernden Herausforderung der Entscheidungsträger. Vor einer Entscheidung über das ver-wendete Entsorgungssystem muss eine geeignete Abfall-Charakterisierung treten. Diese Cha-rakterisierung liefert Kenntnisse über die Abfallmenge, die Feuchte, den Heizwert und die Menge der verschiedenen Komponenten im Abfallstrom, wie z. B.: organisches Material, Plas-tik, Papier, Karton, Holz, Textilien, Gummi, Leder, Glas, Metalle, Nichtmetalle, Steine und Keramiken. Darüber hinaus ist die Herausforderung, der sich asiatische Länder gegenüber se-hen, ein Mangel an Raum und damit wird die Platzierung eine Deponie zunehmend schwierig. Die Abfallwirtschaft ist eine kostenintensive, aber trotzdem notwendige Maßnahme, um das Wohlergehen sowohl der Bevölkerung als auch für die Umwelt sicher zu stellen. Es wird ge-schätzt, dass Asien im Jahr 2025 etwa 47 Milliarden US$ aufwenden muss, um 0,5 bis 1 Kg städtischen Müll je Person und Tag abzufahren und zu behandeln, oder 5 US$ je Kopf und Jahr. In Entwicklungsländern sind unzählige Leute nicht in der Lage, diese hohen Preise für die Ab-fallentsorgung zu zahlen. Deshalb liegt es in der Verantwortung der Regierung, die Abfallent-sorgung zu betreiben und zu finanzieren, um die Bevölkerung, die Gemeinde und die Umwelt zu schützen. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen jetzt bezahlbare und nachhaltige Verfahren für die Entsorgung ihrer zunehmenden Menge täglichen Abfalls benennen, wobei gleichzeitig auf minimale Umweltbelastung, auf soziale Akzeptanz und auf minimale Landverbrauch zu achten ist. Eine leicht anwendbare Entscheidungshilfe zur Wahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungs-system der Gemeinde wäre deshalb sehr nützlich. Proposition Der Zweck dieser Dissertation war die Entwicklung eines nutzerfreundlichen Instrumentariums für das Verwaltungs- und Regierungspersonal in tropischen Entwicklungs- und Schwellenlän-der. 1. Diese Vorgehensweise basiert auf einem Netzwerk, das eine Liste ausgewählter entschei-dungsrelevanter Tatsachen in Betracht zieht, die nötig sind, um eine informierte Entschei-dung machen zu können. Das entscheidungshelfende Verfahren muss von Entscheidungs-trägern bei einer vorläufigen Feststellung des Abfallentsorgungs- und -behandlungssystems für ihre Gemeinde benutzt werden. 2. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen eine Reihe von Faktoren berücksichtigen, wenn sie über ihren Abfallwirtschaftsplan entscheiden. Dazu gehören die immerwechselnde Menge und Zusammensetzung des Abfalls infolge der zunehmenden Bevölkerungszahl und des Ein-kommens je Kopf, der hohe Feuchtigkeitsgrad, Verbrennungswärme-Werte und die oft be-grenzten finanziellen Möglichkeiten. 3. Ferner sind gesetzliche, politische, verwaltungstechnische, soziale, finanzielle, ökonomi-sche und technische Faktoren bestimmend. 4. Die Verwaltung muss dabei die Wichtigkeit jedes Teilschrittes der Abfallwirtschaft im Au-ge behalten, also Abfallerzeugung, Sammlung, Transport, Abfallcharakterisierung, Entsor-gung und Behandlung. 5. Die Rolle der lokalen Gemeinden in der Entscheidungsfindung ist nicht hoch genug einzu-schätzen; deshalb müssen Mitglieder der Gemeinde aktiv am Schutz der Umwelt und an der Verhinderung ihrer Zerstörung mitwirken. Mehrere Entscheidungshilfsverfahren für ver-schiedene Anwendungen wurden entwickelt. Jedoch zieht die Mehrzahl von ihnen nicht notwendigerweise eine öffentliche Teilnahme in Betracht, und sie sind auch nicht benutzer-freundlich. 6. Um die Komplexität der Probleme besser zu verstehen, die bei tropischen asiatischen Städ-ten auftreten, wurde die Innenstadt von Bangkok, Thailands größte Stadt und Hauptstadt, als repräsentativer Fall ausgewählt, für die Entsorgung der 9000 t Müll der täglich produ-ziert wird. Thailands Klima ist, besonders während der jährlichen Monsunzeit, heiß und feucht mit einer mittleren Temperatur von 28,4°C und einer Feuchtigkeit zwischen 70 und 100%. Die Gesetze und Verordnungen zeigen sehr deutlich an, wie wichtig die Behandlung des städtischen Abfalls genommen wird. Zahlreiche Interviews, verbunden mit der Durch-sicht von Dokumenten, Berichten und Ortsbesichtigungen ergaben Kenntnisse der zahlrei-chen Entscheidungsmaßnahmen, denen sich die städtischen Entscheidungsträger einer tro-pischen Stadt gegenüber sehen. Die Durchsicht und die Analyse der Entscheidungsmaß-nahmen in Bangkoks Abfallentsorgungsstrategien zeigten, wie das Entscheiden als Werk-zeug in verschiedenen asiatischen tropischen Städten benutzt werden kann. 7. Ein Entscheidungsrahmen wurde erstellt auf der Grundlage von Literatur-Recherchen und persönliche Erfahrungen, und anhand der in der Stadt Bangkok gesammelte Daten über-prüft. Die Entscheidungspunkte im Netzwerk umfassen eine allgemeine Beschreibung der Stadt, ihre klimatischen und hydrogeologischen Bedingungen, die Menge und Art des er-zeugten Mülls, einen Überblick über die bestehenden Anlagen und die existierenden Pro-gramme, öffentliche Aufmerksamkeit zu gewinnen, den sozioökonomischen Aspekt eines Abfallbehandlungssystems und die öffentliche Teilnahme. Es berücksichtigt ferner Ge-sundheits- und Sicherheitsüberlegungen im Zusammenhang mit Abfallentsorgungsmög-lichkeiten und ihrer Kosten. 8. Das Entscheidungsinstrumentarium hat als Ziel, ein geeignetes Abfallbehandlungssystem zu ermöglichen, das als Grundlage soziale, klimatische und technische Informationen be-nutzt. Ihre Einfachheit erlaubt einem Verwaltungspersonal, das wenig Erfahrung mit Ab-fallwirtschaft und Computerwissen besitzt, verschiedene Optionen zu analysieren und Sze-narien auszutesten. Des weiteren werden verschiedene Möglichkeiten überprüft, und es wird versucht, die Optionen in die Abfallwirtschaft zu integrieren. 9. Das Instrumentarium beinhaltet über ein Hundert geschlossene Fragen, die auf das Analy-sieren der Bedürfnisse und der gegenwärtigen Situation der Abfallwirtschaft einer be-stimmten Gesellschaft ausgerichtet sind und die es ermöglichen, ein geeignetes Abfallwirt-schaftssystem für die entsprechende Gesellschaft zu wählen. Diese Fragen hatten als Grundlage die Rahmen und Eckpunkte des Entscheidungsinstrumentariums. Dieses Instru-mentarium ist selbsterklärend, und gleichzeitig bietet es Flexibilität bei der Entscheidung, um wie viel Prozent des Abfalls wieder verwertet wird, kompostiert oder behandelt durch irgend eine von den sechs Behandlungsoptionen; Kompostierung, Vergärung, nicht-Verbrennungssysteme, Verbrennung, Deponierung und Energiegewinnung. 10. Die Ziele eines integrierten Abfallwirtschaftssystems können vom Benutzer geändert und modifiziert werden. Dies ermöglicht die Überprüfung verschiedener Szenarien und die Auswahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungssystems. Das System kann sehr einfach sein und nur ein Behandlungssystem beinhalten oder mit einer Auswahl mehrere Behandlungs-systeme sehr kompliziert sein. In einigen Ländern ist es Vorschrift mehrere Systeme anzu-wenden. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaftssysteme, die mindestens zwei oder drei Abfallbe-handlungssysteme beinhalten, sind deshalb gefragt. 11. Die Ziele der Gesellschaft sind ausschlaggebend und sind die Schlüsselfaktoren für den Entscheidungsprozess. Die Menge der wiederverwertbaren Materialien, die Brauchbarkeit des Komposts, die Interesse an Vergärung, die Möglichkeit einer Verbrennungsanlage, das Verstehen eines nicht-Verbrennungssystems und die Verfügbarkeit von Land für Deponien, die Notwendigkeit für Elektrizität sind einige Schlüsselfaktoren die überlegt werden müs-sen. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaft ist wahrscheinlich die vernünftigste Vorgehensweise. Dies ermöglicht Flexibilität bei Abfallwirtschaftstechniken und ergänzt sie gegenseitig. 12. Öffentliche Verwaltungen können DMT als eine erste Bewertung der geeignetesten Tech-nologie benutzen. Des weiteren gibt DMT dem Verwaltungspersonal Flexibilität in ihrer Wahl bezüglich der Menge an wiederverwertbarem Abfall unter der Anwendung verschie-denen Technologien, welches eine gut konstruiertes und gut integriertes Abfallbehand-lungssystem für die Gesellschaft darstellt. Fazit Das Fazit ist: die Abfallwirtschaft in einem tropischen Schwellenland ist mit bestimmten Her-ausforderungen verbunden, die behandelt werden müssen. Ökonomische, technische und sozi-ale Kriterien müssen in Betracht gezogen werden bei der Wahl geeigneter städtischer Abfall-wirtschaftsysteme. Begrenzte finanzielle Möglichkeiten, Mangel an öffentlichem Bewusstsein und ein schwaches Wirtschaftssystem sind manchmal verantwortlich für die Wahl eines schlechtes Abfallbehandlungssystems, mit kurzsichtigen und über die Jahren teuren Entschei-dungen statt langfristigen und vernünftigeren Entscheidungen. Wetterbedingungen und die Knappheit an Land in Stadtnähe sind besondere Herausforderungen. Das Entscheidungsinstru-mentarium DMT macht die Identifizierung von Schlüsselfragen nötig für die Formulierung eines nachhaltigen Abfallwirtschaftskonzepts und für die Wahl eines technisch-, ökonomisch- und sozial-akzeptierbaren Abfallwirtschaftssystems, das besonders geeignet ist für tropische Klimate. Die Ergebnisse der DMT-Daten-Analyse bietet eine faire Auswertung für ein adäquates integ-riertes Abfallbehandlungssystems. Wenn einmal ein System identifiziert wurde, werden weitere Studien bezüglich Umsetzbarkeit und Anwendbarkeit nötig sein. Jedoch wird die Notwendig-keit, ausführliche Studien am multiplen Szenarien durchzuführen, minimiert, was erhebliche Ersparnisse für die Stadtverwaltung bedeutet. Eine Feasibility-Study und ein Masterplan haben zu folgen, um die standortspezifischen und Finanzierungsfragen zu klären sowie die Auswahl der spezifischen Anlagentechnik zu definieren. ; Abstract Developing and emerging tropical Asian countries have encountered fast urban development due to the migration of farmers seeking a better life in the city. This resulted in a lack of appro-priate infrastructure and inappropriate social services in many cities. Municipal solid waste management is no exception and is in fact often placed at the bottom of the list of priorities for the cities' appropriate urban management plans since laws and regulations must first be for-mulated and implemented. The problem of unmanaged municipal solid waste certainly leads to air pollution, disease, and to soil and water contamination. These problems in tropical climates are compounded with high temperature, high-level humidity, heavy rainfall and frequent flooding. Stagnant water and leachate from waste quickly become the breeding grounds of in-sects, rodents and bacteria, thus creating a health hazard for workers and local populations. Moreover, water and groundwater contamination may lead to serious environmental degrada-tion with direct impacts on water supplies, and in the fast degradation of agricultural products, the backbone of most tropical Asian countries. Many cities still allow or tolerate dumping of waste in uncontrolled sites, and open burning that disperses particulates that most likely contain dioxins and furans. Even with increasingly scarce land availability within or in proximity of the cities, sanitary landfill is still the most often cho-sen disposal method around Asia because of its lower cost when compared to modern treatment systems. Yet, most of these landfill sites do not have proper lining, daily covering, methane recovery devices, leachate control systems, nor do they have long-term closure and monitoring plans, which implies short and long-term hazards. Some municipalities opted for incineration, which usually entails high operation and maintenance costs because of the need for supple-mental fuel and often-inappropriate running conditions. Although tropical conditions appear to favor certain disposal systems such as composting, appropriate technology needs to be identi-fied in order to reduce operation and maintenance costs while ensuring good quality outputs; compost plants have often been closed because of poor quality products due to the high content of plastic and glass particulates in the finished product. Tropical Asian cities are now required to identify affordable and sustainable solutions for the management of their increasing amount of waste generated daily, while ensuring minimal environmental impact, social acceptance and minimal land use. The purpose of this dissertation was to develop a user-friendly decision-making tool for public administrators and government officials in tropical Asian developing and emerging cities. This tool was developed based on a list of selected decision-making issues necessary in making an informed decision. The decision-making tool is to be used by decision-makers in making a pre-liminary assessment of a most appropriate waste management and treatment system for their municipality. Tropical Asian cities must consider a number of issues when deciding on their waste management plan such as the continuously changing quantum and composition of waste associated with the increasing population and income per capita, the high humidity levels, and the often-limited financial resources. Other determinant factors include legal, political, institu-tional, social and technical issues. Furthermore, administrators must realize the importance of each stage involved in waste management, which includes waste generation, collection, trans-port, waste characteristics, disposal and treatment. To better understand the complexity of the issues involved in tropical Asian municipalities, the city of Bangkok, Thailand's largest city and capital, was selected as a case study for the management of its 9,000 tonnes of waste gen-erated daily. Numerous interviews, meetings along with the review of documents, reports and site visits offered an inside view of the tropical city's various decision-making issues towards its waste management plan, and examine specific problems encountered by the city's decision-makers. The review and analysis of the decision-making issues involved in Bangkok's waste management plan showed how the decision-making tool can be used in various Asian tropical cities. In conclusion, waste management in an emerging tropical country involves specific challenges that need to be addressed. Economical, technical and social criteria need to be fully understood as to capacitate government officials in the selection of the most appropriate urban waste man-agement system. Limited budgets, lack of public awareness and poor systems' management often cloud decision-makers in choosing what appears to be the best solution in the short term, but more costly over the years. Weather conditions and scarcity of land in proximity of the city make waste management especially challenging. The decision-making framework offers a tool to decision-makers, as to facilitate the understanding and identification of key issues necessary in the formulation of a sustainable urban waste management plan and in the selection of a tech-nically, economically and socially acceptable integrated MSW management system. A detailed feasibility study and master plan will follow the preliminary study as to define the plant´s specifications, its location and its financing.

Einführung Tropische asiatische Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländer zeigten rasches städtisches Wachstum dadurch, dass Bauern einwanderten, um ein besseres Leben in der Stadt zu suchen. Dadurch ergab sich in vielen Städten ein Mangel an geeigneter Infrastruktur und an sozialen Diensten. Die städtische Müllversorgung bildet keine Ausnahme; sie wird sogar oft an das Ende der Prio-ritätenliste für städtische Aufgabenpläne gestellt, da dabei zuerst die Gesetze und Verordnun-gen formuliert und umgesetzt werden müssen. Das Problem des nicht entsorgten städtischen Mülls führt (mit Sicherheit) zu Luftverschmutzung, Krankheit und zur Verseuchung des Bo-dens und des Wassers. Diese Probleme stehen in tropischen Klimaten im Zusammenhang mit hoher Temperatur und Feuchtigkeit, mit heftigem Regen und mit häufigen Überschwemmun-gen. Stehendes Wasser und Ausschwemmung aus dem Abfall werden sehr schnell zu Brutstät-ten von Insekten, Nagern und Bakterien, und damit zu einer Gesundheitsgefahr für Arbeiter und die allgemeine Bevölkerung. Darüber hinaus kann Wasser- und Grundwasserverschmut-zung/Kontamination zu einer ernsten Umweltzerstörung führen, mit direkten Auswirkungen auf die Wasserressourcen, und auf raschen Qualitätsverlust der pflanzlichen Erzeugnisse, des Rückgrates der meisten tropischen asiatischen Länder. Müllentsorgung und die Verantwortlichkeiten Lokale Regierungen müssen die öffentliche Gesundheit ihrer lokalen Bevölkerung sicherstellen und sind deshalb für die Müllentsorgung verantwortlich. Asiatische tropische Klimate sich rasch ändernde Müllzusammensetzung machen die Müllbehandlung und –entsorgung zu einer dauernden Herausforderung der Entscheidungsträger. Vor einer Entscheidung über das ver-wendete Entsorgungssystem muss eine geeignete Abfall-Charakterisierung treten. Diese Cha-rakterisierung liefert Kenntnisse über die Abfallmenge, die Feuchte, den Heizwert und die Menge der verschiedenen Komponenten im Abfallstrom, wie z. B.: organisches Material, Plas-tik, Papier, Karton, Holz, Textilien, Gummi, Leder, Glas, Metalle, Nichtmetalle, Steine und Keramiken. Darüber hinaus ist die Herausforderung, der sich asiatische Länder gegenüber se-hen, ein Mangel an Raum und damit wird die Platzierung eine Deponie zunehmend schwierig. Die Abfallwirtschaft ist eine kostenintensive, aber trotzdem notwendige Maßnahme, um das Wohlergehen sowohl der Bevölkerung als auch für die Umwelt sicher zu stellen. Es wird ge-schätzt, dass Asien im Jahr 2025 etwa 47 Milliarden US$ aufwenden muss, um 0,5 bis 1 Kg städtischen Müll je Person und Tag abzufahren und zu behandeln, oder 5 US$ je Kopf und Jahr. In Entwicklungsländern sind unzählige Leute nicht in der Lage, diese hohen Preise für die Ab-fallentsorgung zu zahlen. Deshalb liegt es in der Verantwortung der Regierung, die Abfallent-sorgung zu betreiben und zu finanzieren, um die Bevölkerung, die Gemeinde und die Umwelt zu schützen. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen jetzt bezahlbare und nachhaltige Verfahren für die Entsorgung ihrer zunehmenden Menge täglichen Abfalls benennen, wobei gleichzeitig auf minimale Umweltbelastung, auf soziale Akzeptanz und auf minimale Landverbrauch zu achten ist. Eine leicht anwendbare Entscheidungshilfe zur Wahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungs-system der Gemeinde wäre deshalb sehr nützlich. Proposition Der Zweck dieser Dissertation war die Entwicklung eines nutzerfreundlichen Instrumentariums für das Verwaltungs- und Regierungspersonal in tropischen Entwicklungs- und Schwellenlän-der. 1. Diese Vorgehensweise basiert auf einem Netzwerk, das eine Liste ausgewählter entschei-dungsrelevanter Tatsachen in Betracht zieht, die nötig sind, um eine informierte Entschei-dung machen zu können. Das entscheidungshelfende Verfahren muss von Entscheidungs-trägern bei einer vorläufigen Feststellung des Abfallentsorgungs- und -behandlungssystems für ihre Gemeinde benutzt werden. 2. Tropische asiatische Städte müssen eine Reihe von Faktoren berücksichtigen, wenn sie über ihren Abfallwirtschaftsplan entscheiden. Dazu gehören die immerwechselnde Menge und Zusammensetzung des Abfalls infolge der zunehmenden Bevölkerungszahl und des Ein-kommens je Kopf, der hohe Feuchtigkeitsgrad, Verbrennungswärme-Werte und die oft be-grenzten finanziellen Möglichkeiten. 3. Ferner sind gesetzliche, politische, verwaltungstechnische, soziale, finanzielle, ökonomi-sche und technische Faktoren bestimmend. 4. Die Verwaltung muss dabei die Wichtigkeit jedes Teilschrittes der Abfallwirtschaft im Au-ge behalten, also Abfallerzeugung, Sammlung, Transport, Abfallcharakterisierung, Entsor-gung und Behandlung. 5. Die Rolle der lokalen Gemeinden in der Entscheidungsfindung ist nicht hoch genug einzu-schätzen; deshalb müssen Mitglieder der Gemeinde aktiv am Schutz der Umwelt und an der Verhinderung ihrer Zerstörung mitwirken. Mehrere Entscheidungshilfsverfahren für ver-schiedene Anwendungen wurden entwickelt. Jedoch zieht die Mehrzahl von ihnen nicht notwendigerweise eine öffentliche Teilnahme in Betracht, und sie sind auch nicht benutzer-freundlich. 6. Um die Komplexität der Probleme besser zu verstehen, die bei tropischen asiatischen Städ-ten auftreten, wurde die Innenstadt von Bangkok, Thailands größte Stadt und Hauptstadt, als repräsentativer Fall ausgewählt, für die Entsorgung der 9000 t Müll der täglich produ-ziert wird. Thailands Klima ist, besonders während der jährlichen Monsunzeit, heiß und feucht mit einer mittleren Temperatur von 28,4°C und einer Feuchtigkeit zwischen 70 und 100%. Die Gesetze und Verordnungen zeigen sehr deutlich an, wie wichtig die Behandlung des städtischen Abfalls genommen wird. Zahlreiche Interviews, verbunden mit der Durch-sicht von Dokumenten, Berichten und Ortsbesichtigungen ergaben Kenntnisse der zahlrei-chen Entscheidungsmaßnahmen, denen sich die städtischen Entscheidungsträger einer tro-pischen Stadt gegenüber sehen. Die Durchsicht und die Analyse der Entscheidungsmaß-nahmen in Bangkoks Abfallentsorgungsstrategien zeigten, wie das Entscheiden als Werk-zeug in verschiedenen asiatischen tropischen Städten benutzt werden kann. 7. Ein Entscheidungsrahmen wurde erstellt auf der Grundlage von Literatur-Recherchen und persönliche Erfahrungen, und anhand der in der Stadt Bangkok gesammelte Daten über-prüft. Die Entscheidungspunkte im Netzwerk umfassen eine allgemeine Beschreibung der Stadt, ihre klimatischen und hydrogeologischen Bedingungen, die Menge und Art des er-zeugten Mülls, einen Überblick über die bestehenden Anlagen und die existierenden Pro-gramme, öffentliche Aufmerksamkeit zu gewinnen, den sozioökonomischen Aspekt eines Abfallbehandlungssystems und die öffentliche Teilnahme. Es berücksichtigt ferner Ge-sundheits- und Sicherheitsüberlegungen im Zusammenhang mit Abfallentsorgungsmög-lichkeiten und ihrer Kosten. 8. Das Entscheidungsinstrumentarium hat als Ziel, ein geeignetes Abfallbehandlungssystem zu ermöglichen, das als Grundlage soziale, klimatische und technische Informationen be-nutzt. Ihre Einfachheit erlaubt einem Verwaltungspersonal, das wenig Erfahrung mit Ab-fallwirtschaft und Computerwissen besitzt, verschiedene Optionen zu analysieren und Sze-narien auszutesten. Des weiteren werden verschiedene Möglichkeiten überprüft, und es wird versucht, die Optionen in die Abfallwirtschaft zu integrieren. 9. Das Instrumentarium beinhaltet über ein Hundert geschlossene Fragen, die auf das Analy-sieren der Bedürfnisse und der gegenwärtigen Situation der Abfallwirtschaft einer be-stimmten Gesellschaft ausgerichtet sind und die es ermöglichen, ein geeignetes Abfallwirt-schaftssystem für die entsprechende Gesellschaft zu wählen. Diese Fragen hatten als Grundlage die Rahmen und Eckpunkte des Entscheidungsinstrumentariums. Dieses Instru-mentarium ist selbsterklärend, und gleichzeitig bietet es Flexibilität bei der Entscheidung, um wie viel Prozent des Abfalls wieder verwertet wird, kompostiert oder behandelt durch irgend eine von den sechs Behandlungsoptionen; Kompostierung, Vergärung, nicht-Verbrennungssysteme, Verbrennung, Deponierung und Energiegewinnung. 10. Die Ziele eines integrierten Abfallwirtschaftssystems können vom Benutzer geändert und modifiziert werden. Dies ermöglicht die Überprüfung verschiedener Szenarien und die Auswahl des geeignetesten Abfallbehandlungssystems. Das System kann sehr einfach sein und nur ein Behandlungssystem beinhalten oder mit einer Auswahl mehrere Behandlungs-systeme sehr kompliziert sein. In einigen Ländern ist es Vorschrift mehrere Systeme anzu-wenden. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaftssysteme, die mindestens zwei oder drei Abfallbe-handlungssysteme beinhalten, sind deshalb gefragt. 11. Die Ziele der Gesellschaft sind ausschlaggebend und sind die Schlüsselfaktoren für den Entscheidungsprozess. Die Menge der wiederverwertbaren Materialien, die Brauchbarkeit des Komposts, die Interesse an Vergärung, die Möglichkeit einer Verbrennungsanlage, das Verstehen eines nicht-Verbrennungssystems und die Verfügbarkeit von Land für Deponien, die Notwendigkeit für Elektrizität sind einige Schlüsselfaktoren die überlegt werden müs-sen. Integrierte Abfallwirtschaft ist wahrscheinlich die vernünftigste Vorgehensweise. Dies ermöglicht Flexibilität bei Abfallwirtschaftstechniken und ergänzt sie gegenseitig. 12. Öffentliche Verwaltungen können DMT als eine erste Bewertung der geeignetesten Tech-nologie benutzen. Des weiteren gibt DMT dem Verwaltungspersonal Flexibilität in ihrer Wahl bezüglich der Menge an wiederverwertbarem Abfall unter der Anwendung verschie-denen Technologien, welches eine gut konstruiertes und gut integriertes Abfallbehand-lungssystem für die Gesellschaft darstellt. Fazit Das Fazit ist: die Abfallwirtschaft in einem tropischen Schwellenland ist mit bestimmten Her-ausforderungen verbunden, die behandelt werden müssen. Ökonomische, technische und sozi-ale Kriterien müssen in Betracht gezogen werden bei der Wahl geeigneter städtischer Abfall-wirtschaftsysteme. Begrenzte finanzielle Möglichkeiten, Mangel an öffentlichem Bewusstsein und ein schwaches Wirtschaftssystem sind manchmal verantwortlich für die Wahl eines schlechtes Abfallbehandlungssystems, mit kurzsichtigen und über die Jahren teuren Entschei-dungen statt langfristigen und vernünftigeren Entscheidungen. Wetterbedingungen und die Knappheit an Land in Stadtnähe sind besondere Herausforderungen. Das Entscheidungsinstru-mentarium DMT macht die Identifizierung von Schlüsselfragen nötig für die Formulierung eines nachhaltigen Abfallwirtschaftskonzepts und für die Wahl eines technisch-, ökonomisch- und sozial-akzeptierbaren Abfallwirtschaftssystems, das besonders geeignet ist für tropische Klimate. Die Ergebnisse der DMT-Daten-Analyse bietet eine faire Auswertung für ein adäquates integ-riertes Abfallbehandlungssystems. Wenn einmal ein System identifiziert wurde, werden weitere Studien bezüglich Umsetzbarkeit und Anwendbarkeit nötig sein. Jedoch wird die Notwendig-keit, ausführliche Studien am multiplen Szenarien durchzuführen, minimiert, was erhebliche Ersparnisse für die Stadtverwaltung bedeutet. Eine Feasibility-Study und ein Masterplan haben zu folgen, um die standortspezifischen und Finanzierungsfragen zu klären sowie die Auswahl der spezifischen Anlagentechnik zu definieren. ; Abstract Developing and emerging tropical Asian countries have encountered fast urban development due to the migration of farmers seeking a better life in the city. This resulted in a lack of appro-priate infrastructure and inappropriate social services in many cities. Municipal solid waste management is no exception and is in fact often placed at the bottom of the list of priorities for the cities' appropriate urban management plans since laws and regulations must first be for-mulated and implemented. The problem of unmanaged municipal solid waste certainly leads to air pollution, disease, and to soil and water contamination. These problems in tropical climates are compounded with high temperature, high-level humidity, heavy rainfall and frequent flooding. Stagnant water and leachate from waste quickly become the breeding grounds of in-sects, rodents and bacteria, thus creating a health hazard for workers and local populations. Moreover, water and groundwater contamination may lead to serious environmental degrada-tion with direct impacts on water supplies, and in the fast degradation of agricultural products, the backbone of most tropical Asian countries. Many cities still allow or tolerate dumping of waste in uncontrolled sites, and open burning that disperses particulates that most likely contain dioxins and furans. Even with increasingly scarce land availability within or in proximity of the cities, sanitary landfill is still the most often cho-sen disposal method around Asia because of its lower cost when compared to modern treatment systems. Yet, most of these landfill sites do not have proper lining, daily covering, methane recovery devices, leachate control systems, nor do they have long-term closure and monitoring plans, which implies short and long-term hazards. Some municipalities opted for incineration, which usually entails high operation and maintenance costs because of the need for supple-mental fuel and often-inappropriate running conditions. Although tropical conditions appear to favor certain disposal systems such as composting, appropriate technology needs to be identi-fied in order to reduce operation and maintenance costs while ensuring good quality outputs; compost plants have often been closed because of poor quality products due to the high content of plastic and glass particulates in the finished product. Tropical Asian cities are now required to identify affordable and sustainable solutions for the management of their increasing amount of waste generated daily, while ensuring minimal environmental impact, social acceptance and minimal land use. The purpose of this dissertation was to develop a user-friendly decision-making tool for public administrators and government officials in tropical Asian developing and emerging cities. This tool was developed based on a list of selected decision-making issues necessary in making an informed decision. The decision-making tool is to be used by decision-makers in making a pre-liminary assessment of a most appropriate waste management and treatment system for their municipality. Tropical Asian cities must consider a number of issues when deciding on their waste management plan such as the continuously changing quantum and composition of waste associated with the increasing population and income per capita, the high humidity levels, and the often-limited financial resources. Other determinant factors include legal, political, institu-tional, social and technical issues. Furthermore, administrators must realize the importance of each stage involved in waste management, which includes waste generation, collection, trans-port, waste characteristics, disposal and treatment. To better understand the complexity of the issues involved in tropical Asian municipalities, the city of Bangkok, Thailand's largest city and capital, was selected as a case study for the management of its 9,000 tonnes of waste gen-erated daily. Numerous interviews, meetings along with the review of documents, reports and site visits offered an inside view of the tropical city's various decision-making issues towards its waste management plan, and examine specific problems encountered by the city's decision-makers. The review and analysis of the decision-making issues involved in Bangkok's waste management plan showed how the decision-making tool can be used in various Asian tropical cities. In conclusion, waste management in an emerging tropical country involves specific challenges that need to be addressed. Economical, technical and social criteria need to be fully understood as to capacitate government officials in the selection of the most appropriate urban waste man-agement system. Limited budgets, lack of public awareness and poor systems' management often cloud decision-makers in choosing what appears to be the best solution in the short term, but more costly over the years. Weather conditions and scarcity of land in proximity of the city make waste management especially challenging. The decision-making framework offers a tool to decision-makers, as to facilitate the understanding and identification of key issues necessary in the formulation of a sustainable urban waste management plan and in the selection of a tech-nically, economically and socially acceptable integrated MSW management system. A detailed feasibility study and master plan will follow the preliminary study as to define the plant´s specifications, its location and its financing.

The World Bank and The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) jointly developed this report to calculate the potential human and economic benefits to be gained from increasing nutrition investments in the Kyrgyz Republic. This report provides compelling evidence of the potential to improve health and economic outcomes through scaling up effective nutrition interventions and introducing new proven interventions to reduce the direct causes of under nutrition in order to support the Kyrgyz government's commitment to the well-being and prosperous future of the Kyrgyz people. This situational analysis examines and quantifies the scope of under nutrition in the Kyrgyz Republic by presenting: (1) the epidemiology of under nutrition; (2) an estimate of the health consequences of under nutrition in terms of mortality and disability adjusted life years (DALYs), and the economic losses due to lost workforce and productivity; (3) the health, social protection, and agriculture and food intervention systems relevant to delivering interventions for improving nutrition; (4) the current coverage of nutrition interventions; and (5) the potential economic gains achievable by scaling up effective nutrition interventions. The current context is very favorable for scaling up nutrition interventions in the Kyrgyz Republic. Investing in nutrition has increasingly proven to have excellent development and health returns. The international development community has recognized (1) the need to scale up nutrition interventions; (2) the potential for public-private partnerships; and, (3) a growing consensus around a common framework for action. Reducing under nutrition worldwide is a priority for the World Bank and UNICEF, and also critical to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

ABSTRACT The main objectives of this study is to determine the interactions between deposit interest rates, foreign exchange rates and stock market index (LQ45) in Indonesia pre and post crisis 2008. The data period before the crisis is October 2000 until November 2008. The data period after the crisis is December 2008 until December 2015. Descriptive quantitative analysis is used in this research. Descriptive analysis method is performed by using analytical table and graphic. Quantitative analysis method is performed by making a regression equation econometric model with time series method to describe the presence or absence of the influence of the independent variable towards the dependant variable. The result showed that during the pre crisis 2008, unidirectional causality existed from Deposit Interest Rates towards Foreign Exchange Rates, Stock Market Index (LQ45) towards Deposit Interest Rates, Deposit Interest Rates towards Stock Market Index(LQ45), and Stock Market Index (LQ45) towards Foreign Exchange Rates. The result post crisis 2008 showed that unidirectional causality existed from Foreign Exchange Rates towards Deposit Interest Rates, Deposit Interest Rates towards Foreign Exchange Rates, and Stock Market Index (LQ45) towards Foreign Exchange Rates. It is found that the direction of causality between the three variables tends to demonstrate a hit-and-run behavior and changes according to the lag selection. This implies that great caution should be taken when interpreting granger causality result. Keywords: Deposit Interest Rates, Foreign Exchange Rates, Stock Market Index, LQ45, Granger Causality and Subprime MortgageBIBLIOGRAPHY (2008, September 15). 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La tesi, dedicata alle committenze dei Comneno Duca in Epiro tra il 1204 e il 1318, è articolata in sette capitoli. Nel primo è tracciato il quadro storico-politico, entro gli estremi cronologici della dinastia dei Comneno Duca: dalla costituzione dello "stato" di Michele I, a ridosso del 1204, alla morte di Tommaso nel 1318. Il "secolo d'oro" (I.1) è stato suddiviso in tre segmenti cronologici, che corrispondono a) all'ascesa e alla disfatta di Teodoro e dei suoi immediati eredi (I.1.2), nel loro progetto di occupare Salonicco per riconquistare, forti del titolo imperiale, la capitale Costantinopoli (1204ca.-1246); b) al "regno" in Epiro di Michele II, cui viene conferito il titolo di «despota» e che fonda, di fatto, quello che viene definito «Despotato»; c) agli anni di potere di Niceforo e del figlio Tommaso, quest'ultimo sostenuto dalla co-reggenza della madre Anna. I successivi due paragrafi tracciano il quadro culturale e artistico, sia del periodo precedente a quello in esame per comprendere quale fosse la tipologia dei committenti in queste regioni periferiche dell'impero bizantino tra IX e XII secolo (I.1.3); sia del Duecento, prestando attenzione ad alcuni personaggi importanti, impegnati, oltre che sul versante politico, anche su quello artistico (Giovanni Bardanes, Demetrio Chomatenos), o a singoli centri (Hagios Nikolaos a Mesopotamon, Hagios Nikolaos a Kremastos, Bonitza), in cui è attestata – da fonti testuali o da sottoscrizioni librarie – la produzione di manoscritti (I.1.4). Il secondo capitolo si apre con una serrata disamina storiografica dei termini «despota» e «De-spotato» (II.1), necessaria a comprendere come venisse concesso tale titolo e che cosa implicasse nel XIII secolo. È inoltre occasione per ripercorrere i principali studi sul tema e presentare le figure dei Comneno Duca (da Michele I a Tommaso), cui è espressamente dedicato il paragrafo successivo (II.2). Dopo una breve premessa sulla tipologia di fonti utilizzate (numismatica, sfragistica, diplomatica, epigrafia), sono illustrate in modo analitico tutte quelle attestazioni nelle quali ogni "regnante" ha inteso esprimere in modo consapevole e con una certa chiarezza il proprio ruolo nelle vicende del tempo. Attraverso queste scelte di autorappresentazione emergono chiaramente le ambizioni politiche e ideologiche dei Comneno Duca, anche tenendo conto dell'assenza di fonti testuali "interne", ossia redatte da intellettuali organici alla corte di Arta. Il terzo capitolo è dedicato a un contesto cronologicamente e geograficamente circoscritto (l'Etoloakarnania tra il 1210 e il 1240 circa) attraverso l'approfondita analisi dell'attività di due figure eccezionali: il metropolita Giovanni Apokaukos e Costantino, il fratello di Michele I. Proprio le numerose lettere dell'arcivescovo aiutano a illuminare le vicende molto travagliate che riguardano questa "strana" e irrequieta coppia di rivali. La contesa per la giurisdizione su Naupaktos e l'area circonvicina si trasformò ben presto in un violento scontro: a questo tema, nonché alla presentazione del territorio e dei due "contendenti", è dedicato il primo paragrafo (III.1). Nel successivo (III.2) sono per la prima volta sistematicamente raccolte e commentate tutte le fonti, gli oggetti e i monumenti che è possibile riconnettere, per varie ragioni, al metropolita Apokaukos: in primis, attraverso uno spoglio della sua corrispondenza allo scopo di ricostruire la sua attività di committente sia sul versante dell'architettura e della decorazione monumentale sia su quello delle arti minori (in particolare i tessuti). Emerge in questo paragrafo anche il suo ruolo di concepteur di programmi iconografici e di autore di epigrammi destinati ad accompagnare oggetti preziosi. Il paragrafo III.3 introduce invece la figura di Costantino attraverso l'esame dell'exonartece del monastero di Varnakova, che egli fece costruire come mausoleo per sé e la sua famiglia: sfortunatamente molto alterato dopo la parziale distruzione del 1826, vengono in nostro soccorso documenti scritti seriori ed epigrafi metriche che dovevano essere apposte sulle due tombe. Grazie ad Apokaukos è poi possibile, nel paragrafo III.4, dare conto di altre iniziative "artistiche" di Costantino: in particolare la costruzione a Naupaktos di un soufas, ossia di una sala di ricevimento, che almeno nel nome richiama modelli dell'Anatolia selgiuchide. Tale impresa è stata letta alla luce del contesto in cui viene ricordata della citazione (una lettera di Apokaukos indirizzata al collega Chomatenos) e specificandone le particolarità sia architettoniche che simbolico-funzionali. L'ultimo paragrafo (III.5) verte su un altro monumento e in particolare sulla sua decorazione pittorica, patrocinata (come apprendiamo dall'iscrizione) da un certo Alessio Comneno Duca intorno al 1230. Si tratta, nonostante le precarie condizioni conservative, di un caso di studio molto interessante sia per gli elementi prosopografici (può Alessio essere identificabile con l'omonimo sepolto a Varnakova ed essere, quindi, un parente di Costantino?) sia per alcune soluzioni iconografiche, specie nel catino absidale. Il quarto capitolo è dedicato alla capitale del Despotato, Arta. Il nuovo ruolo di cui la città venne investita, soprattutto a partire dal 1230, comportò estese trasformazioni che le conferirono un'inedita facies monumentale, specie tenendo conto che nei secoli precedenti essa doveva apparire più dimessa, nonostante vi fossero – come si evince dal primo paragrafo (IV.1) – già diversi monumenti, alcuni dei quali ancora oggi esistenti. Il successivo paragrafo (IV.2) raccoglie le fonti storiche e i dati archeologici sulla città al fine di ricostruirne un più ampio quadro sociale, politico e topografico nel XIII secolo. Ciò permette di passare in rassegna (IV.3), evidenziando gli aspetti più interessanti ai fini della nostra ricerca, i monumenti che costellarono il centro urbano e l'area circonvicina, ma in un modo diacronico, ossia privilegiando una trattazione cronologica progressiva piuttosto che l'analisi sistematica di ogni chiesa o monastero. Questo perché ciascun monumento ha più fasi cronologiche, che spesso corrispondono a committenti differenti e quindi a diversi periodi storici. Un'analisi di Arta decennio per decennio può offrire quindi un quadro più chiaro del processo di monumentalizzazione iniziato da Michele II e proseguito da Niceforo, non senza il contributo delle rispettive mogli, Teodora e Anna. L'ultimo paragrafo (IV.4) getta uno sguardo d'insieme sulla città, seguendo un taglio particolare, quello topografico, per evidenziare – attraverso i monumenti principali – lo sviluppo di quella che Eastmond ha definito, a proposito di Trebisonda, «the ritual geography of the city». Nel Capitolo V, sempre privilegiando una lettura diacronica, si analizzano i due monumenti che più di tutti esprimono la ktetoreia dei despoti Michele II e Niceforo: i monasteri della Pantanassa presso Philippiada e della Parigoritissa di Arta. Essi presentano una storia costruttiva comune, segnata da due fasi, la prima legata a Michele II (1242-1267/1268) e la seconda a Niceforo I (1268-1296/1298). È proprio in questi due edifici che si manifesta con chiarezza non solo il "passaggio di consegne" tra una generazione e l'altra, ma anche la complessità della produzione artistica in Epiro. Ribaltando la prospettiva storiografica corrente, si prende in considerazione dapprima la Pantanassa e poi la Parigoritissa, questo perché, come emerge dal paragrafo V.1.1, è il monastero di Philippiada a vantare la precedenza cronologica su quello di Arta, che invece, nella sua prima fase, molto probabilmente non venne mai terminato (V.1.2). Niceforo, dopo aver ereditato il potere paterno, intervenne sui due edifici in modo differente. Nel caso della Pantanassa (V.2.1), provvide a costruire un complesso peristoon che inglobava il nucleo originario della katholikon e che si contraddistingueva per alcune soluzioni architettoniche estranee al contesto epirota, quali le volte a crociera costolonate e i portali strombati. La riqualificazione del monastero fondato dal padre Michele si tramutava, così, in un'"occidentalizzazione" del suo aspetto esterno. Nel caso della Parigoritissa (V.2.2) Niceforo optò per una ricostruzione integrale, secondo un progetto architettonico davvero straordinario e arricchito da alcuni elementi (come le gallerie e il baldacchino "aperto" sul prospetto occidentale) che richiamano soluzioni "imperiali" costantinopolitane. Per decorare il nuovo edificio reclutò mosaicisti da Oriente (Costantinopoli? Salonicco?) e scultori da Occidente: questi ultimi realizzarono opere molto singolari, che tuttavia rispondono – come vedremo – a un programma iconografico unitario. Nel Capitolo VI è tratteggiato il fenomeno della committenza aristocratica in Epiro, finora ri-masto decisamente ai margini degli studi. Si inizia con una disamina delle fonti epigrafiche attraverso cui è possibile conoscere il nome di questi altrimenti ignoti fondatori, di cui si precisano – per quanto possibile – i dati prosopografici. Nel primo paragrafo si cerca di tracciare un filo rosso tra le loro committenze, sia dal punto di vista artistico (stesse maestranze, stessi materiali) sia, soprattutto, da quello politico-topografico: una prospettiva di lettura, questa, che ci consente di ipotizzare una sorta di progetto "a tavolino" nella distribuzione geografica di tali fondazioni (VI.1). All'unico personaggio cui è possibile ascrivere più di un'opera, ossia Michele Zorianos, è invece dedicato il paragrafo successivo (VI.2). L'esame delle fonti epigrafiche e testuali si associa allo studio delle opere a lui sicuramente riferibili, il codice Barocci 29 della Bodleian Library di Oxford, l'anello d'oro del Metropolitan Museum di New York e, soprattutto, il complesso di chiese a Mokista in Etolia, per il quale venne coinvolto anche il monaco Cosma Andritzopoulos. Il VII e ultimo Capitolo raccoglie le conclusioni della ricerca, da un lato soffermandosi sui luoghi e i protagonisti delle imprese artistiche (in particolare sugli scultori occidentali della Pantanassa e della Parigoritissa, VII.1.1, e sui mosaicisti attivi in quest'ultimo cantiere, VII.1.2), dall'altro sulle componenti ideologiche e politiche sottese alle opere esaminate nei capitoli precedenti (VII.2).

INTRODUZIONE L'essenza di questo elaborato nasce dall'esigenza di mettere in luce le attuali difficoltà riscontrabili nella fruizione dell'area archeologica di Ostia Antica. L'analisi e la riflessione elaborate durante le recenti perlustrazioni del sito hanno portato alla definizione di una serie di problematiche più o meno contingenti. Si possono dunque evidenziare alcune problematiche comuni a tutti gli insediamenti antichi e di grande estensione, la cui complessa stratificazione ha spesso causato incomprensioni nella lettura dei complessi; e alcune problematiche peculiari al sito di Ostia sorte con gli sviluppi delle indagini archeologiche e delle strategie di conservazione e valorizzazione programmate nel tempo. Caratteristica peculiare del sito è certamente l'eccezionalità della restituzione per intero del tessuto urbano della città antica. Eccezionalità dovuta sia alle contingenze storiche che hanno visto sin dall'età tardo-antica il provvidenziale abbandono del sito, senza successive riedificazioni e obliterazioni del tessuto urbano, sia alle fortunate scelte operative del personale direttivo che nel tempo si è occupato dell'area archeologica. Nella storia dell'archeologia è accaduto raramente, infatti, che si potesse procedere all'esplorazione integrale delle città antiche seppur interamente conservate, e Ostia rappresenta un unicum - insieme a Pompei - in quanto ad occasione di esplorazione ed indagine integrale di un importante centro urbano di età romana. Le esperienze di ricerca su entrambi i siti sono accomunate dalla pianificazione di una programmazione di ricerca fortemente correlata alle connotazioni storiche del periodo di predisposizione. Le esplorazioni e gli interventi nel contesto ostiense si originarono in un contesto di chiaro stampo positivistico di fine Ottocento e si svilupparono grazie all'accelerata nelle programmazioni delle attività predisposte in merito all'Esposizione Universale di Roma del 1942, sostanzialmente orientate a una valorizzazione dei resti archeologici che mirasse all'esaltazione dell'essenza di romanità da rievocare nel popolo italiano. A differenza dei precedenti approcci culturali al patrimonio archeologico, con l'esperienza ostiense si giunge a una nuova concezione del complesso archeologico, verso cui approcciarsi non solo relativamente alle principali evidenze monumentali da esaminare singolarmente, ma da analizzare e interpretare all'interno del contesto di riferimento. Il sito archeologico non viene più considerato come miniera di materiali da prelevare ed esporre in museo ma come campo d'indagine e scenario di esposizione allo stesso tempo. Uno scenario che trova in Ostia una delle miglior rappresentazioni in termini di vita quotidiana, di specchio di una società antica che si configura differenziata e sfumata nei suoi contorni sociali e nel suo sviluppo. La lunga storia degli studi su Ostia ha rivelato l'importanza del sito non solo in quanto avamposto militare e commerciale della capitale, ma in quanto sua diretta emanazione. Ostia sorge infatti nelle vicinanze di Roma, cui è strettamente connessa seppur all'insegna di un rapporto di interdipendenza che si riverbera nelle stesse evoluzioni urbanistiche ed edilizie e nella sua organizzazione sociale: elementi che la rendono un inestimabile punto di riferimento per una più completa conoscenza della romanità. Ostia rappresenta al meglio le dinamiche di una città connessa alla capitale pur non essendone provincia: un avamposto con la funzione di crocevia di traffici e commerci ma al contempo fedele compagna dell'ascesa, del culmine e del declino della potenza di Roma. Sostanzialmente le operazioni di scavo e ricerca non si sono orientate alla scoperta di eccezionali evidenze monumentali, bensì mirate alla restituzione di un tessuto urbano di attività imprenditoriali, rinvenuto in condizioni di straordinaria conservazione e di chiara leggibilità. Proprio sulla base di queste condizioni di ritrovamento, il sito archeologico si è distinto nel tempo non solo come insostituibile testimonianza per la ricostruzione storica dell'antichità, ma anche come eccezionale campo di sperimentazione di strategie di comunicazione e valorizzazione dei contesti. Per la prima volta infatti si stabilirono le coordinate per un progetto di ricerca che non mirasse soltanto alla messa in luce delle evidenze archeologiche ma alla loro contestualizzazione in termini di interventi conservativi ed espositivi. In quest'ottica risulta cruciale l'esperienza della programmazione di interventi elaborati nell'ambito dell'Esposizione Universale del 1942 che condussero a una serie di operazioni di conservazione, restauro, ricostruzione e sistemazione del sito mirati all'esaltazione della romanità e alla rievocazione di contesti atti a favorire l'interpretazione della storia del sito. Un piano di "scavo, restauro, assetto archeologico ed estetico delle rovine" elaborato da G. Calza nel 1937 che, seppure nei suoi limiti progettuali e scientifici strettamente connessi alle tendenze concettuali del periodo, si rivelò un inedito tentativo di rendere vitale e fruibile un'area da musealizzare all'aperto. Anche in termini di esposizione museale il sito vide nascere le fondamenta di quelle che saranno le basi delle prospettive museologiche del futuro. La struttura museale non venne più concepita come semplice contenitore di materiali estratti dal sito, ma come struttura espositiva delle evidenze più rappresentative, da prevedersi in situ per garantirne la conservazione e al contempo esaltarne la connessione col contesto di rinvenimento esterno. Si apre quindi la strada a una riconsiderazione delle evidenze in termini educativi allo scopo di reinterpretare la ricerca archeologica come un momento di comunicazione di un dato complesso di strutture, idee e dinamiche derivate dal sito di riferimento. Furono in particolare questi quattro anni di intense operazioni a portare i maggiori cambiamenti nell'ottica di interpretazione e lettura del sito. Un'intenzione di valorizzazione che sembra poi arrestarsi dopo la seconda guerra mondiale, in seguito a un cambiamento di rotta nell'approccio al patrimonio culturale derivata dall'acquisizione dei principi brandiani in chiave di conservazione e rispetto della storicità dell'opera. Prende il via quindi un lungo periodo che vede ridimensionarsi le strategie di valorizzazione a una serie di esperienze isolate che non propongono una riconsiderazione dell'intero comprensorio di riferimento ma che realizzano interventi conservativi ed espositivi solo in alcune selezionate zone campione. La scelta di queste progettazioni pilota ha mirato comunque a suggerire un brano di porzioni privilegiate, caratterizzate da evidenze monumentali o documenti storici rilevanti, con l'obiettivo di offrire un quadro il più efficace possibile dell'intero complesso ostiense. Alla stregua di queste esperienze "campione", che pur nella loro eccezionalità si isolano nel tempo, possiamo ricondurre anche le recenti operazioni di conservazione e valorizzazione intraprese in merito al Grande Giubileo del 2000 che se hanno ancora una volta avuto il merito di mostrare le innumerevoli potenzialità didattiche ed espressive del sito, ne hanno anche evidenziato i limiti alla luce degli esiti del progetto elaborato. Il progetto infatti ha comportato la realizzazione di una serie di iniziative focalizzate in una zona campione - il tratto più battuto dalla visita - ma si prefiggeva originariamente un'estensione degli interventi all'intero comprensorio prevedendone, al contempo, la tutela in termini di manutenzione programmata e controllo. Lo scopo primario delle numerose perlustrazioni effettuate di recente nel sito è stato proprio quello di chiarire e documentare lucidamente le condizioni di fruizione del sito, il fallimento di alcune aspettative attualmente disattese e e di porre in evidenza le potenzialità operative che si possono intravvedere dalla riconsiderazione dei contesti ostiensi come terreno di sperimentazione in termini di comunicazione e valorizzazione. La testimonianza della situazione attuale e la descrizione delle criticità osservabili generano una spontanea elaborazione di proposte operative in merito alle innegabili potenzialità comunicative che l'area ostiense ha saputo sviluppare nel tempo e che potrebbe certamente realizzare in un immediato futuro. L'analisi della storia del sito e dell'approccio del personale direttivo alla valorizzazione dell'area archeologica origina, di conseguenza, una naturale riflessione sul concetto di musealizzazione Il caso dello sviluppo del sito ostiense permette di inquadrare lucidamente il lungo processo con cui si è sviluppata la considerazione delle antichità attraverso la definizione di un concetto di parco archeologico come di un luogo privilegiato su cui convergono necessità di conservazione e di valorizzazione del contesto. I primi interventi di valorizzazione legati all'Esposizione Universale del 1942 vedono nascere un'idea embrionale di musealizzazione, ancora orientata a un concetto di parco archeologico come area delimitata di cui garantire la tutela attraverso interventi di restauro e suggerire la presentazione di un'immagine attraverso la sistemazione del sito e attività di comunicazione e propaganda. Interventi di conservazione e sistemazione, ma sostanzialmente mirati alla valorizzazione dell'area archeologica. A questo proposito è utile ricordare come per anni sia regnata – e regni tuttora – una certa ambiguità circa il concetto di valorizzazione. Secondo la definizione ministeriale attualmente in vigore, la valorizzazione consiste in qualsiasi attività diretta a migliorare le condizioni di conoscenza e conservazione del patrimonio culturale al fine di garantire e incrementare la fruizione. Appare evidente quanto la definizione risulti riduttiva, limitandosi al solo contesto di fruizione, accesso e godibilità dell'area, senza porre in evidenza tutti gli aspetti che fanno riferimento alla musealizzazione ovvero tutte le soluzioni tecniche che - scaturite da un processo di analisi, scavo e conoscenza - mirino a garantire la miglior lettura di un complesso archeologico all'interno del suo contesto di riferimento. La musealizzazione risulta dunque un processo operativo strettamente connesso alla fruizione, ma strutturato in modo più complesso. Un processo che non mira solo a creare le condizioni per garantire la fruizione di un sito, ma a svilupparne le potenzialità comunicative ed educative attraverso la programmazione di interventi e strategie studiati e articolati, la cui elaborazione, sperimentazione ed evoluzione sono perfettamente ravvisabili attraverso l'inquadramento storico e metodologico del parco archeologico di Ostia Antica.

A Comment on: "Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Europe" by Thomas Ertman(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997, 350 pp.)Understanding the origins of the modern state –and the different forms these political units eventually took- is a central enterprise in the discipline of political science. Relevant not only as a necessary first step in the development of several fields inside political science (e.g. how can we talk of an international, or better inter-state system, if we do not know where this concept of "inter-state" comes from?) but also for the contemporaneity of state-building in the 21st century. Pivotal as it is, the literature still has too many open-ended pathways and many more to discover. It is in this scenario that Thomas Ertman's Birth of the Leviathan appears as a very welcome contribution to the study of the origins of the Modern State.The problem Ertman poses is not entirely new. In his own words: "Why had some states developed in a constitutionalist direction during the formative centuries of European state-building, while others had become absolutist? And why had military pressures driven some states to construct effective, proto-modern bureaucracies, while others remained wedded to administrative methods that seemed highly dysfunctional?" (p. xi). The resemblance to the questions in which, to take a well-known example, Charles Tilly had been working on for a long time is strong. (1) Notwithstanding, three features stand out in the Birth of the Leviathan: a) the type of intra- and inter-state changes that the author discusses along the extended process of state-building (the time frame for the study is circa the fall of the Roman Empire and the French Revolution), b) the complexity of the theory proposed, and c) the impressive empirical research undertaken to support his theory.As Ertman's quote above suggests, the goal of the book is to explain why some states developed an absolutist regime while others came up with a constitutionalsystem. Moreover, and reaching to Max Weber's thought, the author also provides an answer to the diversity (divergence??) in the paths of state infrastructure –that is: why some states ended up with a modern bureaucratic administration while others remained, to their own detriment, with patrimonial systems. Thus four variables define the typology of states presented: patrimonial absolutism (France and Spain), bureaucratic constitutionalism (Great Britain), bureaucratic absolutism (Germany), and patrimonial constitutionalism (Poland and Hungary).There are two sets of dependent variables. The political regime on one side – i.e.absolutism and constitutionalism- respond to differences in the strength of representative institutions. Grosso modo, polities situated inside those territories characterized by large-scale and mostly unsuccessful experiments to install homogeneous political regimes during the Dark Ages will be more prone to an absolutist regime. (2) On the other hand, states on the periphery of these historical processes could "begin their state-building from zero" and thus were more prone to develop constitutional regimes with strong representative institutions that constrained royal power.The other dependent variable is the one concerning state-infrastructure. This can take the form of patrimonialism or bureaucracy. The core of the explanatory or independent variable would be that the states involved in early conflict (3) –"early" being defined as pre-1450- tended to build state infrastructures with "outmoded and even dysfunctional" institutional arrangements (most commonly office-holding and the grant of state functions, such as taxing, to private hands). On the contrary, latecomers to war were able to take a bureaucratic path for two reasons: a) they could benefit from the know-how and learn from the errors of states which had been involved in the expansion of the state-authority for a long time, and b) the exponential increase in the supply of personnel professionally trained to run state affairs. (4)A problem the author encounters is that this scheme cannot explain two of its four cases: bureaucratic-constitutionalism and constitutional-paternalism. Why did Great Britain follow the bureaucratic path given it was a clear case of early state-builder for war purposes? And why is it that Hungary and Poland, two cases of latecomers to war, ended up with patrimonial administrations? The explanation for this anomaly rests in the existence of strong representative institutions that influenced state infrastructure. In the case of Great Britain, redirecting the state in a bureaucratic path (against the attempts of interest groups to impose patrimonialism), in the cases of Hungary and Poland, acting as an agent of patrimonial administration.Let me offer some final comments (in an unjustly oversimplified manner) that follow from the reading. Ertman's book turns out to be a rigorous and intensely (with historical descriptions that might be too dense in some instances) researched study. His comprehension of the subtleties of state-building in modern Europe certainly surpass most of the work this reader has seen in the literature. While the work of a Charles Tilly analyzed the role of war, coercion, and capital in trying to explain why such different paths of state-building ended up with the same outcome -i.e. the nation-state- Ertman's book goes much deeper. The inclusion of the analysis of changes in the domestic structures is particularly welcome. In other words, where Tilly saw a path towards convergence in the form of the nation-state, Ertman disentangles a process that leads to the formation of critically different types of states. This divergence becomes particularly relevant when one reflects on the contemporaneity of this work, since it was not only the convergence in the nation state form, but also the stark differences –especially in state infrastructure- that defined and continue to define the European countries studied. (5)Some final thoughts, that would have to be more developed to do the author justice, will be irresponsibly thrown as questions for further consideration:The author seems to focus too much in the methods of resource extraction (e.g. taxing) without taking seriously the given pool of resources each territory had. A better consideration of this issue –for example benefiting from Tilly's hypothesis on the importance of cities as centers of capital and their interplay with central governments- might be a good idea (Was it the same for a King to have a Madrid than a Ghent?)What is the real role of war? The author measures the effectiveness of state administration by their fighting performance. But, is losing a war, let's say Jena, a valid yardstick to define efficient and inefficient administrations, or as in the case of Jena other things might be in play (Napoleon's mighty army)?Is it acceptable to have such a flexible theoretical model? Are not the explanatory variables modified to fit the cases, thus incurring in a grave methodological problem? In general, how heavy are the costs in parsimony of such a detailed and complex study?In any case, The Birth of the Leviathan is an essential study for anyone trying to understand where the central political unit in international relations comes from, and why has this institution differed, not only in its path –as Tilly tells us- but also in its final form. The interested reader should save some time to seriously engage in a dialogue with Ertman and his Birth of the Leviathan.(1) "What accounts for the great variation over time and space in the kinds of states that have prevailed in Europe since A.D. 990, and why did European states eventually converge on different variants of the national state? Why were the directions of change so similar and the paths so different?" Tilly, Charles, "Cities and States in Europe, 1000-1800"; Theory and Society, Vol. 18, No. 5, Special Issue on Cities and States in Europe, 1000-1800 (September, 1989, p.565). Nevertheless, there is one important distinction between these two questions that will be discussed at the end of this essay.(2) It is not completely clear though, at least to this reader, the logical explanation for this hypothesis. Is it that the post-Dark Ages and its failed attempts to impose working political systems (e.g. the Carolingian Empire) generated such a marked decentralization in the political landscape that the only viable solution for the Crowns was to try to impose a severe centralization over the aristocratic landlords? Or that such decentralization and the pattern of landlord aristocracy that followed were not compatible with the bicameral representative organizations (typical of constitutional regimes)? Or both? This is particularly troublesome since the author defines the variance in political regime as "a ruler who was relatively constrained (constitutionalism) or unconstrained (absolutism)" (p. 19).(3) Here the author wisely sticks to Tilly's maxim "War made the state and the state made war." (4) A phenomenon linked to the proliferation of the University as a social institution.(5) As the author remarks at the end of the book: "…patrimonial institutions can also have nagging long-term consequences. Despite the reforms of the 19th century, patron-client relations, lack of clear boundaries between politics and administration, and redistribution of public funds towards political insiders remain a serious problem in Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy…" p. 322. *Ph.D. StudentDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of Pennsylvania.Profesor Depto. Estudios Internacionales. FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay. MA en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di TellaE-mail: gcastro@sas.upenn.edu

Con prácticamente la misma superficie territorial que Europa, con más del doble de población que el Viejo Continente y una historia caracterizada por ser tan profunda como rica (con más de 3500 años de antigüedad, si no más), la civilización china se consagra como un universo cultural, económico, político, social y hasta filosófico completamente distinto al que estamos acostumbrados en Occidente. Ese "micro-cosmos" civilizatorio que constituye la sociedad china, está confeccionado por numerosísimos retazos culturales, étnicos, lingüísticos, religiosos, etc. que desafían la homogeneidad necesaria para erigir un Estado- Nación; uniformidad que, como veremos, fue pretendida largamente por varios gobiernos chinos a lo largo de su historia. Si bien es cierto que la mayoría de la población (un 92% aproximadamente) pertenece a la etnia Han, es de destacar que el restante 8% (nada más ni nada menos que unas 120 millones de personas) tiene una importancia considerable, dada tanto por su plural composición (hay 56 grupos étnicos) como por su dispersión en el territorio chino (se encuentra en un 60% de éste).La voluntad por acaparar esa pluralidad bajo una gran nación china es otro de los propósitos manifiestos de la presente dictadura; como dijimos, dicha pretensión, sin embargo, no es nueva. Más bien, toda la literatura con respecto al tema coincide en señalar que los sueños por concretar una única nacionalidad comienzan a vislumbrarse insípidamente luego de la Guerras del Opio (iniciadas en 1840) que terminaron con dos derrotas chinas a manos de las escuadras inglesas y francesas. A estas guerras se le sumó la adquisición (en 1847), por parte de Gran Bretaña, de Hong Kong, enclave británico en la China continental que perduraría hasta nuestros días. Al imperialismo occidental se le agregarían, tiempo después (para 1894), los arrestos expansionistas japoneses. Éstos se plasmarían en la guerra sino-japonesa, en donde el Japón le demostraría al mundo su poderío tras la revolución Mejí derrotando a una débil China que, luego de firmar el Tratado de Shimonoseki, le cedería al primero la isla de Formosa (Taiwán), lasislas Pescadores y la península de Liaodong.La merma del poder chino, la seria limitación de su soberanía -que últimamente parecía pendular entre intereses de potencias extranjeras- y la humillación que significase dichos enfrentamientos ante la comunidad internacional, confluyeron, como suele suceder en la mayoría de los casos, en la creación de un sentimiento anti-occidental y anti-japonés. Éstos devendrían luego, y como producto de la expansión de las ideas occidentales sobre la "nación", en un sentimiento nacionalista; nacionalismo que, podemos decir, nació en principio como producto de las continuas amenazas y vejaciones exteriores. Uno de los primeros hechos nacionalistas que podemos constatar se produjo en 1900 con la revolución Boxer, un levantamiento nacionalista que buscó expulsar a todos los extranjeros y a los chinos cristianos de China. Su punto más álgido ocurrió en Pekín, en donde los Yihetuan (los revolucionarios) arremetieron contra los extranjeros instalados en la actual capital china. Rápidamente los franceses, británicos, rusos, alemanes y estadounidenses, italianos, austro-húngaros y japoneses, configurando la "Alianza de las ocho naciones", enviaron tropas para contrarrestar el ataque; China otra vez perdería ante la explotación extranjera. Previamente, el nacionalismo chino comenzaba a mirar, para finales del siglo XVIII, para dentro de fronteras. Es así que se gestaría el malestar para con la dinastía Qing (gobierno chino, hasta ese momento); dinastía implementada por los manchúes, hoy minoría étnica en China, en el siglo XVII. Por oposición a los manchúes, tildados de "bárbaros" y de corruptos, la definición de lo propiamente "chino" sufriría una transformación: se restringiría solamente a lo Han, nuevo sinónimo de lo civilizado. Esta misma actitud llevaría a considerar a los manchúes como un elemento foráneo a la nación china. Inflamado por estas ideas, animado por la instalación, al estilo Occidental, de una República (demandada por los sectores más populares del país) y tras el fracaso del movimiento Reformista, Sun Yat-sen comandó la "Revolución Xinhai", la cual derrocaría a la dinastía Qing y la sustituiría por una efímera República China. Inmediatamente luego de instalada la República, el concepto de lo que puede ser identificable como "chino" mutó nuevamente. Inversamente a lo que ocurrió antes de la revolución, lo "chino" se ensancharía para albergar en él a los diversos grupos minoritarios (incluyendo los manchúes). Esa ampliación tuvo lugar seguramente porque la acotación del término chino a lo Han hubiera devenido en un nuevo conflicto generalizado que hubiese puesto en peligro la reunificación nacional, la unidad y cohesión interna del país. Durante el período en que duró la República de China, el poder del Estado iría consolidándose, aunque muy lentamente. Asimismo es durante este período que se labraría el concepto de "Zhonghua minzu" (noción que hasta hoy en día es invocada por el gobierno chino) y que recoge la idea de una nacionalidad sumamente inclusiva, y que perseguía la unión de las "Cinco nacionalidades" (han, manchúes, mongoles, hui, y tibetanos).La Gran Guerra cambiaría el curso de las cosas. Pese a que China formó parte del bando ganador, el Tratado de Versalles supuso condiciones desfavorables. Entre ellas la transferencia de territorios al Japón en Manchuria. Con lo cual, otra vez, el pueblo chino sentiría que se le impusieron, desde el exterior, condiciones humillantes. Así detonarían las protestas estudiantiles reclamando la no ratificación del Tratado. Es por ese entonces cuando se produce la germinación del Partido Comunista Chino (PCC), de corte claramente nacionalista. Y es que muchos de los estudiantes que participaron en los disturbios contra el Tratado de Versalles confluyeron en sentar las bases, en 1921, del Partido Comunista. De esta manera, el nacionalismo se fusiona con el planteo comunista, siendo el primero la propulsión primigenia y un componente distintivo del PCC. Como señala Lui Kang (profesor de Cultura China en Duke University) "The current Chinese communist government is more a product of nationalism than a product of ideology like Marxism and Communism". El corolario del nacionalismo chino se consolidaría definitivamente con la Segunda Guerra Mundial y con las catastróficas arremetidas japonesas en territorio chino, y su ocupación desde el 1931 al 1945.Canalizando los resentimientos históricos, recogiendo los malestares del gran campesinado y haciéndose eco, en general, de todos los descontentos acumulados durante siglos, el Partido Comunista se haría con el gobierno para 1949, luego de la hazañosa y memorable "Larga Marcha". Siendo consecuente con su matriz nacionalista, el Partido Comunista replantearía, desde la práctica gubernamental, el nacionalismo chino, poniendo el acento, sobre todo, en la centralización del poder de la nueva nación China. Para ello, dicho Estado-Partido, prensaría la multiculturalidad existente en el territorio chino y adoptaría una postura de negación de la multinacionalidad de la civilización china, trabajando, por el contrario, el ya señalado concepto de "Zhonghua minzu". Esa ambición por generar una nacionalidad ampliada sería plasmada durante la famosa Revolución Cultural cuando, en nombre del "progreso" y de la homogeneización cultural, los diversos grupos minoritarios se vieron atacados por el gobierno en sus costumbres tradicionales, en la utilización de su lenguaje, en sus creencias religiosas, etc. siendo sometidos, posteriormente, a una "reeducación" más acorde con el ideal maoísta. La modernización estaba teniendo lugar, y en su paso debía eliminar todo lo "antiguo," sean ideas, costumbres, hábitos o culturas enteras.Durante esa etapa reciente de la historia de la China moderna, es cuando se comenzó a forjar el Estado-Nación propiamente dicho. Es un proceso que hasta el día de hoy continúa en marcha, y no es posible comprender cabalmente el comportamiento del actual PCC si no logramos atender la dimensión histórica que la construcción de tal anhelado Estado-Nación chino le significa al gobierno comunista. Hoy en día, el PCC se encuentra correspondiendo aquel profundo legado histórico; herencia que claramente marca el compás de cada uno de sus movimientos. Si observamos los hechos que se suceden en el interior de China a través de esta lupa nos percataremos de que cada golpe que da el gobierno se potencia por ese peso histórico. De ahí la desproporcionalidad de las respuestas para con los movimientos autonomistas; de ahí la mano dura con Taiwán. Y es que ceder en Taiwán, concederle la autonomía a los tibetanos, ser flexibles con los disturbios en la provincia musulmanas de Xinjiang en el norte o dar el brazo a torcer a cualquier tipo de afán secesionista, no representaría solamente una pérdida de territorio, de recursos económicos y de capital humano. Sería muchísimo más que eso: significaría la renuncia expresa a la construcción de la "gran China"; simbolizaría la frustración de albergar a todos los grupos bajo una misma bandera y representaría el fin de un sueño largamente alimentado, de una quimera motivadora pero, tal vez, y desde siempre, irrealizable. * Estudiante de la Licenciatura en Estudios Internacionales, FACS, Universidad ORT.

Este libro contiene la selección de los mejores trabajos de investigación y desarrollo tecnológico postulados y presentados al CIINATIC2014. El Congreso Internacional en Innovación y Apropiación de las Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones - CIINATIC es una iniciativa de la Red de Decanos y Directores de Ingeniería de Sistemas y Afines del Nororiente Colombiano, red compuesta por las siguientes universidades: Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana Seccional Bucaramanga, Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, Universidad Autónoma de Bucaramanga y Unisangil. En la versión de este año se contó con el patrocinio de Colciencias, la Gobernación de Santander y su Secretaria de tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones. El libro ofrece una mirada a la Innovación y la Apropiación de las TIC en Colombia, desde la diversidad de los diferentes aportes incluidos. Todas las comunicaciones fueron evaluadas por pares académicos con reconocimiento y visibilidad internacional. Esperamos que este libro se constituya en un referente sobre el estado del arte de las TIC en el Oriente Colombiano. ; Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (UPB) ; OTRI Estratégica Oriente ; Universidad del Magdalena ; Universidad de los Andes (ULA) ; Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander (UFPSC) ; Unisangil ; Universidad Industrial de Santander (UIS) ; SENA ; La identificación por radiofrecuencia en la gestión de la cadena de suministro: una mirada desde el laboratorio de logística UIS…. Capítulo 1 Análisis técnico basado en estándares internacionales para la implementación del Data Center de apoyo a la gestión tecnológica y de formación por competencias en el CEET del SENA Distrito Capital…… Capítulo 2 Voto electrónico con SSL/TLS e IPSEC…… Capítulo 3 Red abierta, libre y neutral para la ciudad de Cúcuta……. Capítulo 4 Implementación de una experiencia de usuario a través de una aplicación móvil para la personalización de productos usando realidad aumentada……. Capítulo 5 Aplicación del Webcast como estrategia de instrucción para el aprendizaje significativo en la enseñanza de Fisiología Médica…… Capítulo 6 Pruebas de seguridad en aplicaciones web como imperativo en la calidad de desarrollo del software……. Capítulo 7 Sistema de comunicación OFDM Óptico-Criptográfico…… Capítulo 8 Análisis de las principales amenazas de la base de datos utilizando MS SQL Server…… Capítulo 9 Entorno de aprendizaje para la toma de decisiones en sistemas dinámicos complejos……. Capítulo 10 Sistema de información web para la gestión investigativa de sistemas automatizados (SIGSA)…… Capítulo 11 Formación de formadores en Blended Learning…… Capítulo 12 Pensamiento ausubeliano en el paradigma constructivista articulado en las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación…… Capítulo 13 TIC y formación académica: una mirada desde los docentes de la UPB-Bucaramanga…… Capítulo 14 Estrategia digital para reducir el consumo de papel en la corporación autónoma regional del Chocó – CODECHOCO…… Capítulo 15 Algoritmos y sistemas instrumentados de seguridad y control distribuido para la automatización de los procesos en la planta piloto de la UNAB…. Capítulo 16 Detección de ataques de denegación de servicio basada en la estimación del ancho de banda disponible…… Capítulo 17 Plataforma NetFPGA para la clasificación de tráfico de red…. Capítulo 18 Educación en creatividad para la innovación y desarrollo tecnológico en ingeniería……. Capítulo 19 Lineamientos para definir estrategia para la gestión dinámico sistémica de la cooperación en proyectos de software libre…. Capítulo 20 Análisis de la teoría de la mente humana basada en el reconocimiento de patrones…… Capítulo 21 Una nueva forma de concebir la memoria: entre la filosofía de la mente y el aprendizaje automático. Capítulo 22 Aplicación de la educación formativa a las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TIC) y seguridad de la información digital…. Capítulo 23 Orientación de la fase preliminar de TOGAF para su aplicación en proyectos de arquitectura empresarial en universidades: revisión de literatura…. Capítulo 24 "IN" Seguridad de la información y delitos informáticos en Colombia……. Capítulo 25 Propuesta de redes para la implementación del observatorio A TIC…… Capítulo 26 Sistema de gestión de proyectos integradores para la facultad de ingeniería de sistemas e informática - Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana seccional Bucaramanga…. Capítulo 27 Modelo empírico que permite evaluar el rendimiento de la red LAN basada en el estándar Homeplug AV para la transmisión de voz sobre el protocolo IP…. Capítulo 28 Optimización de una red HAN sobre PLC mediante el uso de la teoría de juegos cooperativos en un escenario realista…. Capítulo 29 Adaptación del modelo LTI de canal PLC a las condiciones de la red eléctrica colombiana…. Capítulo 30 ; This book contains the selection of the best research and technological development papers postulated and selected for CIINATIC2014. The International Congress on Innovation and Appropriation of Information and Communication Technologies - CIINATIC is an initiative of the Network of Deans and Directors of Systems Engineering and Afin of the Colombian Northeast, a network made up of the following universities: Universidad Ponti fi cia Bolivariana Seccional Bucaramanga, Francisco de Paula Santander University, Autonomous University of Bucaramanga and Unisangil. This year's version was sponsored by Colciencias, the Government of Santander and its Secretariat for information and communication technologies. The book offers a look at the Innovation and Appropriation of ICT in Colombia, from the diversity of the different contributions included. All communications were evaluated by academic peers with international recognition and visibility. We hope that this book becomes a reference on the state of the art of ICT in the Colombian East.

The World Bank's assistance strategies showed strong client orientation and were aligned with Uganda's poverty reduction strategy. The programs were substantially effective in decentralization, public sector reform, growth and economic transformation, education, and water and sanitation. However, more could have been done to help counter the perception of increasing corruption, improve power supply, reduce transport costs, enhance agricultural productivity, and help with family planning and reproductive health. The AfDB's assistance was also relevant and aligned with the government's development goals. Its support substantially achieved its objectives for decentralization, public sector finance, growth and economic transformation, improved competitiveness, agriculture, and water and sanitation, as well as education and health. However, there were some shortcomings in the assistance provided for power and roads and in reducing corruption. This report evaluates World Bank and African Development Bank assistance to Uganda during 2001-07. The motivation to undertake a joint evaluation was the shift to a common strategic framework, the Uganda Joint Assistance Strategy (UJAS), to guide the formulation and delivery of their programs. Under a common strategic framework joint evaluation is, in principal, more cost effective than the equivalent separate evaluations, since at least some aspects of the evaluation can be done together. This also helps to reduce government transaction costs. The evaluation discusses the outcome of the support of each bank, rates each independently, noting that the two banks are of different size, capacity, and institutional setting. In addition, the two banks have programs that were not implemented jointly but in parallel, although they regularly engaged with one another as development partners. The outcome ratings for the two institutions are therefore not comparable and should not be used to imply that one institution did 'better' than the other.

Dear readers, Take a long and deep breath… For many of us, it is the first time we can truly breathe since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and the murder of George Floyd. It is without a question that last year brought many challenges, but it also gave us an unintended reprieve to discover and reflect upon new solutions to tackle ongoing systemic crises, such as racism, gun violence, and the COVID-19 pandemic. It is with much excitement that our board's June 2021 issue features research and analyses crossing the spectrum of "Public Health Preparedness and Response." In this issue, you will find a study on a policy addressing gun violence, analyses underscoring the threat of antimicrobial resistance, and a look at the toll food deserts take on Hispanic communities. As the new board of the Public Health Review (PHR), we focused on rebranding our journal with a new logo and revitalized social media accounts, in addition to launching new communication priorities for the year to expand our readership and public engagement with our journal and podcast, Perspectives. More than ever, researchers are recognizing the importance of incorporating an antiracist approach, and we aim to help elevate their work to a broad audience. To complement this mission, we are currently in the process of developing several community-building strategies, which we are excited to implement in the latter half of this year. Through Perspectives, our podcast editors have highlighted the work of BIPOC public health leaders who are at the forefront of advancing health equity in Minnesota. We are also creating more transparency within and across our board. To that end, we are ecstatic to launch a new space where you, as readers, can hear us speak more directly to our values as an editorial board and share the knowledge that each board member brings. Our first piece comes from Section Editor, Faiza Hassan, regarding the abrupt change of the CDC mask mandate. CDC Friend or Foe? : Reflections on the latest mask mandate It is no secret the United States government did not handle the deadly pandemic well. Often, the Trump administration and political servants across the nation struggled to keep up with millions of Americans losing income, little support or PPE for frontline healthcare workers all the while COVID-19 ran rampant, crashing in wave after wave throughout every community. Yet, despite some missteps, the CDC—a trusted voice—worked hard to provide constant updates to scared Americans. It was a relief. A year later, epidemiologists have learned more about the virus and a massive health care effort has rapidly provided not just one vaccine but several highly effective ones. As more and more individuals get vaccinated, the restrictions from last year are quickly lifting. The CDC says fully vaccinated individuals can remove their masks, and in many cases resume activities they engaged in prior to the pandemic. For individuals that have not been vaccinated yet, the leading U.S. public health agency recommends continuing to wear your mask in public and to schedule your vaccine appointment. This sounds easy enough to understand. However, it opens doors for misinformation, deliberate misunderstandings of the mask mandate, and leaves our vulnerable communities even more so. Gaps in the new CDC mask mandate beg the question: Which Americans exactly is the CDC protecting? All of us? Or just communities that have the highest vaccination rates—typically, white communities with higher incomes. Most communities of color are still waiting to receive the vaccine, which the government often struggled to distribute equitably. In our nation's capital, 80% of recent COVID-19 cases now occur within the Black community in part due to issues with access. Immunocompromised individuals and families with children still too young to receive a shot feel left out to dry with no clear guidance for them. Most importantly, this will make it harder to distinguish who has truly been vaccinated. The CDC guidelines require we place trust in individuals to be honest and help protect their community, where in many cases these are the same people who refused to abide by CDC precautions in the depth of the pandemic. Their actions were selfish, short-sighted, and did a disservice to the vulnerable communities as case rates increased. Ultimately, I fear these new guidelines will throw the country into confusion again. Vaccination rates may struggle to cross the necessary threshold and the pandemic will continue to simmer. After the past year, we cannot allow any more individuals to die in part due to the selfish behavior of others. In my humble opinion, the CDC has been irresponsible in how they communicated this mask mandate. And I'm not alone: The Washington Post and NPR report concerns from national nurses union to health equity researchers. Many in the medical community also share this sentiment; it has been an abrupt and rather jarring transition from strict restrictions toward this push back to normalcy. The CDC would do well to retract and revise their guidance. Editor's note: The opinions expressed in this piece are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Public Health Review. * * * As you take this opportunity to breathe, we hope that reading and listening to these exciting public health research and initiatives at PHR might reinvigorate yourself and sustain your momentum in our collective fight against health inequities. Remember that at stressful times like these, where our collective thoughts and efforts are continuously demanded, we must pause and breathe. Sincerely, Serena Xiong 2021 Executive Editor, Public Health Review