Suchergebnisse

"Flowering Meadows" is a recently coined term that both designates the first result-based agri-environmental measure and a contest of agri-ecological excellence on hay meadows and pastures, which were introduced in France in 2007. This contest was initially created as a field test for the implementation of the Flowering Meadows measure in the Bauges Massif (Northern Alps). It resulted from a request made to a team of INRA researchers by the Natural Regional Park: "how can the ecological qualities of the land and the qualities of local products be reconciled?" Given the success of local contests among participants and their burgeoning popularity in the media, the Flowering Meadows scaled up to becoming a national competition between Nature Parks in2010. Eventually, it started spreading throughout France in 2014, when the Ministry of Agriculture included it into the famous "Concours Général Agricole" (Paris Agricultural Show). Various socio-economic stakeholders supported the development process analysed in this case study. It has triggered a significant change in the way of taking grasslands into account as a valuable fodder and biodiversity resource in policy making as well as in farm management. Based on an in-depth investigation, this retrospective study was carried out conjointly by a team from the Science for Action and Development division and the ASIRPA unit in compliance with the ASIRPA method standards (www.inra.fr/asirpa). The "Flowering Meadows" case study shows the congruence between a collaborative research programme and public action aimed at biodiversity conservation on grasslands. Drawing on the analysis of the congruence of socio-technical trajectories, the study sheds light on the impacts resulting from the outcomes of major research contributions. These impacts are assessed in various ways. Firstly, the relationship between farmers and the State shifted from management prescriptions to a resultbased commi ent. This was coupled with the incorporation of nonherbaceous vegetation into the definition of the 'Utilised agricultural area'. Secondly, the Flowering Meadows competition was set on the political agenda and became one of the exemplary initiatives of the "agro-ecological project for France". This demonstrated a change in the relationship between agriculture and ecology. Finally, livestock farmers that were considered as underperforming by their peers and polluters by society are now recognised and awarded as "producers of quality products and biodiversity' thanks to this competition of professional excellence. ; "Prairies fleuries" est un néologisme qui désigne à la fois les premières mesures à engagement de résultats (MAE-R) et le concours d'excellence agro-écologique sur les surfaces herbagères et pastorales en France. Inventé en 2007 pour tester les MAE-R, le concours des prairies fleuries répond à l'origine à une demande formulée par le Parc naturel régional du Massif des Bauges (Alpes du Nord) : comment concilier qualité écologique et qualité des produits sur son territoire ? Face au succès de ce concours auprès des participants et à sa notoriété naissante, il devient en 2010 un concours national pour les Parcs naturels de France puis se généralise en 2014 à tous les acteurs territoriaux lorsqu'il est labélisé Concours Général Agricole. La dynamique décrite par ce cas d'étude est portée par divers acteurs socio-économiques. Elle a induit une transformation profonde des logiques d'action politique en faveur des prairies comme ressources fourragères et de biodiversité. Son étude rétrospective est ici restituée à partir d'un travail d'enquête approfondie et organisée conjointement par une équipe du département SAD et une équipe de la cellule ASIRPA selon les standards de la méthode ASIRPA (www.inra.fr/asirpa). Ce cas d'étude établit la congruence entre un dispositif de recherche en partenariat et l'action publique en faveur de la conservation de la biodiversité sur les surfaces herbagères. A partir de l'analyse des trajectoires sociotechniques de cette congruence, il met en lumière les impacts qui sont le résultat des contributions majeures de la recherche. Ces impacts peuvent être appréhendés à plusieurs niveaux : d'abord avec la transition d'obligations de moyens à une obligation de résultats, couplée à l'intégration de végétations non herbacées dans la surface agricole utile ; dans l'agenda politique ensuite puisque le concours prairies fleuries devient une des actions modèle du projet agroécologique pour la France et atteste des transformations des relations entre agriculture et écologie ; à l'échelle des mondes de l'élevage enfin, puisque des éleveurs jugés peu performants par leurs pairs et comme des pollueurs par la société sont reconnus et distingués comme « producteurs de biodiversité et de produits de qualité» à travers un concours mettant en avant des pratiques agri-écologiques.

"Flowering Meadows" is a recently coined term that both designates the first result-based agri-environmental measure and a contest of agri-ecological excellence on hay meadows and pastures, which were introduced in France in 2007. This contest was initially created as a field test for the implementation of the Flowering Meadows measure in the Bauges Massif (Northern Alps). It resulted from a request made to a team of INRA researchers by the Natural Regional Park: "how can the ecological qualities of the land and the qualities of local products be reconciled?" Given the success of local contests among participants and their burgeoning popularity in the media, the Flowering Meadows scaled up to becoming a national competition between Nature Parks in2010. Eventually, it started spreading throughout France in 2014, when the Ministry of Agriculture included it into the famous "Concours Général Agricole" (Paris Agricultural Show). Various socio-economic stakeholders supported the development process analysed in this case study. It has triggered a significant change in the way of taking grasslands into account as a valuable fodder and biodiversity resource in policy making as well as in farm management. Based on an in-depth investigation, this retrospective study was carried out conjointly by a team from the Science for Action and Development division and the ASIRPA unit in compliance with the ASIRPA method standards (www.inra.fr/asirpa). The "Flowering Meadows" case study shows the congruence between a collaborative research programme and public action aimed at biodiversity conservation on grasslands. Drawing on the analysis of the congruence of socio-technical trajectories, the study sheds light on the impacts resulting from the outcomes of major research contributions. These impacts are assessed in various ways. Firstly, the relationship between farmers and the State shifted from management prescriptions to a resultbased commi ent. This was coupled with the incorporation of nonherbaceous vegetation into the definition of the 'Utilised agricultural area'. Secondly, the Flowering Meadows competition was set on the political agenda and became one of the exemplary initiatives of the "agro-ecological project for France". This demonstrated a change in the relationship between agriculture and ecology. Finally, livestock farmers that were considered as underperforming by their peers and polluters by society are now recognised and awarded as "producers of quality products and biodiversity' thanks to this competition of professional excellence. ; "Prairies fleuries" est un néologisme qui désigne à la fois les premières mesures à engagement de résultats (MAE-R) et le concours d'excellence agro-écologique sur les surfaces herbagères et pastorales en France. Inventé en 2007 pour tester les MAE-R, le concours des prairies fleuries répond à l'origine à une demande formulée par le Parc naturel régional du Massif des Bauges (Alpes du Nord) : comment concilier qualité écologique et qualité des produits sur son territoire ? Face au succès de ce concours auprès des participants et à sa notoriété naissante, il devient en 2010 un concours national pour les Parcs naturels de France puis se généralise en 2014 à tous les acteurs territoriaux lorsqu'il est labélisé Concours Général Agricole. La dynamique décrite par ce cas d'étude est portée par divers acteurs socio-économiques. Elle a induit une transformation profonde des logiques d'action politique en faveur des prairies comme ressources fourragères et de biodiversité. Son étude rétrospective est ici restituée à partir d'un travail d'enquête approfondie et organisée conjointement par une équipe du département SAD et une équipe de la cellule ASIRPA selon les standards de la méthode ASIRPA (www.inra.fr/asirpa). Ce cas d'étude établit la congruence entre un dispositif de recherche en partenariat et l'action publique en faveur de la conservation de la biodiversité sur les surfaces herbagères. A partir de l'analyse des trajectoires sociotechniques de cette congruence, il met en lumière les impacts qui sont le résultat des contributions majeures de la recherche. Ces impacts peuvent être appréhendés à plusieurs niveaux : d'abord avec la transition d'obligations de moyens à une obligation de résultats, couplée à l'intégration de végétations non herbacées dans la surface agricole utile ; dans l'agenda politique ensuite puisque le concours prairies fleuries devient une des actions modèle du projet agroécologique pour la France et atteste des transformations des relations entre agriculture et écologie ; à l'échelle des mondes de l'élevage enfin, puisque des éleveurs jugés peu performants par leurs pairs et comme des pollueurs par la société sont reconnus et distingués comme « producteurs de biodiversité et de produits de qualité» à travers un concours mettant en avant des pratiques agri-écologiques.

"Flowering Meadows" is a recently coined term that both designates the first result-based agri-environmental measure and a contest of agri-ecological excellence on hay meadows and pastures, which were introduced in France in 2007. This contest was initially created as a field test for the implementation of the Flowering Meadows measure in the Bauges Massif (Northern Alps). It resulted from a request made to a team of INRA researchers by the Natural Regional Park: "how can the ecological qualities of the land and the qualities of local products be reconciled?" Given the success of local contests among participants and their burgeoning popularity in the media, the Flowering Meadows scaled up to becoming a national competition between Nature Parks in2010. Eventually, it started spreading throughout France in 2014, when the Ministry of Agriculture included it into the famous "Concours Général Agricole" (Paris Agricultural Show). Various socio-economic stakeholders supported the development process analysed in this case study. It has triggered a significant change in the way of taking grasslands into account as a valuable fodder and biodiversity resource in policy making as well as in farm management. Based on an in-depth investigation, this retrospective study was carried out conjointly by a team from the Science for Action and Development division and the ASIRPA unit in compliance with the ASIRPA method standards (www.inra.fr/asirpa). The "Flowering Meadows" case study shows the congruence between a collaborative research programme and public action aimed at biodiversity conservation on grasslands. Drawing on the analysis of the congruence of socio-technical trajectories, the study sheds light on the impacts resulting from the outcomes of major research contributions. These impacts are assessed in various ways. Firstly, the relationship between farmers and the State shifted from management prescriptions to a resultbased commi ent. This was coupled with the incorporation of nonherbaceous vegetation into the definition of the 'Utilised agricultural area'. Secondly, the Flowering Meadows competition was set on the political agenda and became one of the exemplary initiatives of the "agro-ecological project for France". This demonstrated a change in the relationship between agriculture and ecology. Finally, livestock farmers that were considered as underperforming by their peers and polluters by society are now recognised and awarded as "producers of quality products and biodiversity' thanks to this competition of professional excellence. ; "Prairies fleuries" est un néologisme qui désigne à la fois les premières mesures à engagement de résultats (MAE-R) et le concours d'excellence agro-écologique sur les surfaces herbagères et pastorales en France. Inventé en 2007 pour tester les MAE-R, le concours des prairies fleuries répond à l'origine à une demande formulée par le Parc naturel régional du Massif des Bauges (Alpes du Nord) : comment concilier qualité écologique et qualité des produits sur son territoire ? Face au succès de ce concours auprès des participants et à sa notoriété naissante, il devient en 2010 un concours national pour les Parcs naturels de France puis se généralise en 2014 à tous les acteurs territoriaux lorsqu'il est labélisé Concours Général Agricole. La dynamique décrite par ce cas d'étude est portée par divers acteurs socio-économiques. Elle a induit une transformation profonde des logiques d'action politique en faveur des prairies comme ressources fourragères et de biodiversité. Son étude rétrospective est ici restituée à partir d'un travail d'enquête approfondie et organisée conjointement par une équipe du département SAD et une équipe de la cellule ASIRPA selon les standards de la méthode ASIRPA (www.inra.fr/asirpa). Ce cas d'étude établit la congruence entre un dispositif de recherche en partenariat et l'action publique en faveur de la conservation de la biodiversité sur les surfaces herbagères. A partir de l'analyse des trajectoires sociotechniques de cette congruence, il met en lumière les impacts qui sont le résultat des contributions majeures de la recherche. Ces impacts peuvent être appréhendés à plusieurs niveaux : d'abord avec la transition d'obligations de moyens à une obligation de résultats, couplée à l'intégration de végétations non herbacées dans la surface agricole utile ; dans l'agenda politique ensuite puisque le concours prairies fleuries devient une des actions modèle du projet agroécologique pour la France et atteste des transformations des relations entre agriculture et écologie ; à l'échelle des mondes de l'élevage enfin, puisque des éleveurs jugés peu performants par leurs pairs et comme des pollueurs par la société sont reconnus et distingués comme « producteurs de biodiversité et de produits de qualité» à travers un concours mettant en avant des pratiques agri-écologiques.

Los Sistemas de Bicicletas Públicas (SBP), integrados a los sistemas de transporte público urbano, han mostrado beneficios ambientales y socioeconómicos importantes en todo el mundo. Estos desarrollos requieren de la disponibilidad de leyes y normas estructuradas y adecuadas, como un pilar fundamental para implementación de dichos sistemas de transporte en las ciudades. En relación con lo anterior, el desconocimiento del marco legal y normativo, y su suficiencia, constituye un problema en la toma de decisiones en las etapas de gestión, planeación, implementación y operación de los SBP, considerados limpios y sostenibles. En este contexto, el presente trabajo tiene por objetivo identificar y valorar la legislación y normativa aplicables a los SBP como sistema de transporte público en Colombia. La metodología se orientó al contraste, mediante la utilización de una matriz cualitativa, de la legislación y normativa frente a la protección al ambiente, la equidad social y el valor económico, como elementos que definen un sistema de transporte sostenible. Los resultados señalan carencias en la legislación y normativa; principalmente en los aspectos relativos a la regulación de la operación y la prestación del servicio; la planeación, gestión, diseño, y financiación de la infraestructura; y los planes, proyectos y programas para la implementación de los SBP. Se concluye sobre la necesidad de proveer una legislación y normativa que fortalezcan la política pública nacional, mediante la creación de normas nacionales y otras con extensión a entes territoriales y municipales, que subsanen los vacíos identificados, y promuevan la implementación de los SBP, principalmente en ciudades medias e intermedias de Colombia. ; Public Bicycle Systems (SBP), integrated into urban public transport systems, have shown significant environmental and socioeconomic benefits throughout the world. These developments require the availability of laws and structured and appropriate rules, as a fundamental pillar for the implementation of such transportation systems in cities. With the above, the ignorance of the legal and regulatory framework, and its sufficiency constitutes a problem in the decision-making process in the stages of management, planning, implementation and operation of the SBP considered clean and sustainable. In this context, this work aims to identify and assess the legislation and regulations applicable to the SBP as a public transport system in Colombia. The methodology was oriented to the contrast, employing the use of a qualitative matrix, of the legislation and regulations against the protection of the environment, social equity, and economic value, as elements that define a sustainable transport system. The results indicate shortcomings in legislation and regulations; mainly in the aspects related to the control of the operation and the provision of the service; the planning, management, design, and financing of the infrastructure; and the plans, projects, and programs for the implementation of the SBP. It concludes on the need to provide legislation and regulations that strengthen the national public policy, through the creation of national standards and others with extension to territorial and municipal entities, to fill in the gaps identified, and promote the implementation of the SBP, mainly in medium and intermediate cities of Colombia. ; Os Sistemas de Bicicletas Públicas (SBP), integrados aos sistemas de transporte público urbano, tem benefícios ambientais e socioeconômicos importantes em todo o mundo. Estes desenvolvimentos requerem de disponibilidades das leis e normas estruturadas e adequadas, como um pilar fundamental para a implementação de ditos sistemas de transporte nas cidades. Em relação com o anterior, o desconhecimento do marco jurídico e normativo, e sua suficiência, constitui um problema na toma de decisões nas etapas de gestão, planejamento, implementação e operação dos SBP, considerados limpos e sustentáveis. Em este contexto, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo identificar e valorizar a legislação e a normativa aplicável ao SBP como sistema de transporte público na Colômbia. A metodologia foi orientada para o contraste, através da utilização de uma matriz qualitativa, da legislação e da normativa frente à proteção ao ambiente, à equidade social e o valor econômico, como elementos que definem um sistema de transporte sustentável. Os resultados indicam carências na legislação e normativa; principalmente nos aspectos relativos à regulação da operação e à prestação do serviço; o planejamento, gestão, design e financiamento da infraestrutura; e os planos, projetos e programas para a implementação dos SBP. Conclui-se sobre a necessidade de fornecer uma legislação e normativa que fortaleçam a política pública nacional, através da criação de normas nacionais e outras com extensão a entes territoriais e municipais, que corrijam os vazios identificados, e promovam a implementação dos SBP, principalmente em cidades medias e intermédias de Colômbia.

Public Bicycle Systems (SBP), integrated into urban public transport systems, have shown significant environmental and socioeconomic benefits throughout the world. These developments require the availability of laws and structured and appropriate rules, as a fundamental pillar for the implementation of such transportation systems in cities. With the above, the ignorance of the legal and regulatory framework, and its sufficiency constitutes a problem in the decision-making process in the stages of management, planning, implementation and operation of the SBP considered clean and sustainable. In this context, this work aims to identify and assess the legislation and regulations applicable to the SBP as a public transport system in Colombia. The methodology was oriented to the contrast, employing the use of a qualitative matrix, of the legislation and regulations against the protection of the environment, social equity, and economic value, as elements that define a sustainable transport system. The results indicate shortcomings in legislation and regulations; mainly in the aspects related to the control of the operation and the provision of the service; the planning, management, design, and financing of the infrastructure; and the plans, projects, and programs for the implementation of the SBP. It concludes on the need to provide legislation and regulations that strengthen the national public policy, through the creation of national standards and others with extension to territorial and municipal entities, to fill in the gaps identified, and promote the implementation of the SBP, mainly in medium and intermediate cities of Colombia. ; Los Sistemas de Bicicletas Públicas (SBP), integrados a los sistemas de transporte público urbano, han mostrado beneficios ambientales y socioeconómicos importantes en todo el mundo. Estos desarrollos requieren de la disponibilidad de leyes y normas estructuradas y adecuadas, como un pilar fundamental para implementación de dichos sistemas de transporte en las ciudades. En relación con lo anterior, el desconocimiento del marco legal y normativo, y su suficiencia, constituye un problema en la toma de decisiones en las etapas de gestión, planeación, implementación y operación de los SBP, considerados limpios y sostenibles. En este contexto, el presente trabajo tiene por objetivo identificar y valorar la legislación y normativa aplicables a los SBP como sistema de transporte público en Colombia. La metodología se orientó al contraste, mediante la utilización de una matriz cualitativa, de la legislación y normativa frente a la protección al ambiente, la equidad social y el valor económico, como elementos que definen un sistema de transporte sostenible. Los resultados señalan carencias en la legislación y normativa; principalmente en los aspectos relativos a la regulación de la operación y la prestación del servicio; la planeación, gestión, diseño, y financiación de la infraestructura; y los planes, proyectos y programas para la implementación de los SBP. Se concluye sobre la necesidad de proveer una legislación y normativa que fortalezcan la política pública nacional, mediante la creación de normas nacionales y otras con extensión a entes territoriales y municipales, que subsanen los vacíos identificados, y promuevan la implementación de los SBP, principalmente en ciudades medias e intermedias de Colombia. ; Os Sistemas de Bicicletas Públicas (SBP), integrados aos sistemas de transporte público urbano, tem benefícios ambientais e socioeconômicos importantes em todo o mundo. Estes desenvolvimentos requerem de disponibilidades das leis e normas estruturadas e adequadas, como um pilar fundamental para a implementação de ditos sistemas de transporte nas cidades. Em relação com o anterior, o desconhecimento do marco jurídico e normativo, e sua suficiência, constitui um problema na toma de decisões nas etapas de gestão, planejamento, implementação e operação dos SBP, considerados limpos e sustentáveis. Em este contexto, o presente trabalho tem por objetivo identificar e valorizar a legislação e a normativa aplicável ao SBP como sistema de transporte público na Colômbia. A metodologia foi orientada para o contraste, através da utilização de uma matriz qualitativa, da legislação e da normativa frente à proteção ao ambiente, à equidade social e o valor econômico, como elementos que definem um sistema de transporte sustentável. Os resultados indicam carências na legislação e normativa; principalmente nos aspectos relativos à regulação da operação e à prestação do serviço; o planejamento, gestão, design e financiamento da infraestrutura; e os planos, projetos e programas para a implementação dos SBP. Conclui-se sobre a necessidade de fornecer uma legislação e normativa que fortaleçam a política pública nacional, através da criação de normas nacionais e outras com extensão a entes territoriais e municipais, que corrijam os vazios identificados, e promovam a implementação dos SBP, principalmente em cidades medias e intermédias de Colômbia.

Colombia ha logrado reducir la Mortalidad Infantil (MI), gracias al fortalecimiento de políticas y al desarrollo de estrategias que han contribuido a mejorar determinantes sociales; no obstante, se han ampliado las brechas en algunas regiones y grupos vulnerables. OBJETIVO: Describir la tendencia de la MI, las principales causas registradas y el comportamiento de los determinantes sociales en los municipios fronterizos de Colombia durante los años 2005 a 2011. METODOLOGÍA: Estudio ecológico de tipo transversal desarrollado en los municipios fronterizos del país a partir información de registros rutinarios, encuestas y estudios de instituciones del Estado y otras de orden internacional. RESULTADOS: El país ha logrado reducir la MI, gracias al fortalecimiento de políticas y al desarrollo de estrategias que han contribuido a mejorar las condiciones de vida de la población, sin embargo, la presente investigación pudo evidenciar la existencia de brechas en el comportamiento de la MI entre departamentos y municipios, y reveló que la mayor carga de MI (Por lo menos un 73%), en municipios frontera, está relacionada con causas consideradas evitables. Por otra parte, permitió tener una aproximación a lo que se podría catalogar como un perfil de riesgo para MI elevada en municipios frontera, que responde a variables relacionadas con la etnia, la raza, la educación, la dependencia infantil, el bajo peso al nacer, la calidad del agua, la ruralidad, la jefatura femenina del hogar, cobertura de vacunación, acceso a controles prenatales, la satisfacción de los usuarios con los servicios de salud y la cobertura de afiliación al sistema de salud. DISCUSIÓN: Los hallazgos del presente estudio sugieren que la dinámica social, económica, ambiental, cultural, política y epidemiológica de los municipios fronterizos es diferente y que dichos aspectos tienen impacto en la MI. El tratamiento homogéneo que los gobiernos han dado a estas regiones, así como, las débiles capacidades de gestión de sus administraciones territoriales, parecen estar acentuado esta problemática en algunos de ellos; ante este escenario y con el propósito de disminuir las brechas existentes entre territorios, es de vital importancia que se realice un ejercicio de armonización de las políticas y planes de salud cuyo fundamento sea la comprensión y abordaje de las necesidades reales de las comunidades, así como, el fortalecimiento de las capacidades de gestión de estas entidades territoriales. ; Abstract Colombia has reduced Infant Mortality (IM) by strengthening policies and developing strategies that have helped to improve social determinants; however, the gaps have expanded in some regions and vulnerable groups. OBJECTIVE: To describe the trends of IM, the main registered causes, and social determinants in the border municipalities of Colombia from 2005 to 2011. METHODS: Cross-sectional ecological study developed in the Colombian border municipalities, from routine records, surveys, and other studies from state and international institutions. RESULTS: The country has reduced infant mortality by strengthening policies and developing strategies that have helped to improve the living conditions of the population; however, this research found that there are gaps in IM between the territorial entities and showed that the greatest burden of child mortality (at least 73%) in these municipalities is related to causes considered preventable. On the other hand, this allowed an approximation of what could be named as a risk profile for high IM in the municipalities of the border, regarding variables related to ethnicity, race, education, child dependency, low birth-weight, water quality, rurality, female head of household, vaccination coverage, access to prenatal controls, user satisfaction with health services and coverage of health system affiliation. DISCUSSION: The findings of this study suggest that social, economic, environmental, cultural, political and epidemiological dynamic of the border municipalities is different, and these aspects are related to the distribution the IM. The homogeneous treatment that governments have given to the border regions, as well as the weak capacity in management of the local entities, seem to accentuate issues such as IM in some of them. In this scenario, and in order to reduce the gaps between regions, it is very important to perform an exercise harmonizing policies and health plans whose basis would be understanding and addressing the real needs of the communities, as well as strengthening the management capabilities of the local entities. ; Maestría

Archetypes of the complex interactions between humans and ecosystems in protected areas rich in Common Pool Resources (CPR), the Galapagos Islands and the Yasuní in Ecuador share a history of environment degradation, socio-environmental conflicts and chaotic land development. The abundance of CPR, source of a lucrative rent from biodiversity and crude (in the Yasuní case) have attracted the interests of oil and tourism businesses over the last fifty years. These industries have consistently steered public decisions over the creation, spatial organisation and administration of these natural reserves, additionally affecting their governance, a reality which has hindered the implementation of land-use planning policies for these areas which are two UNESCO MAB Reserves. The Galapagos and Yasuní protected areas are also a powerful example of the peculiar way whereby Ecuador governments over the last five decades have "instrumented" policy making, preferring the use of policy tools to public policies to decide on the two areas' fate. This thesis shows how a structural problem such as the absence of a land use planning policy, has thrust the practice of policy tools adoption, instead of policy making, to manage the two protected areas. The "revolución ciudadana" led by president Correa succeeded in re-founding State institutions and launching a new development paradigm (Sumak Kawsay or Buen Vivir) however, it did not advance on land-use management related issues particularly regarding the two areas. Correa has placed national planning at the heart of public policy making it the state policy – backed by a powerful bureaucratic structure – but in this process, land use planning is considered as an instrument in support of national planning. This research, carried out under an interdisciplinary perspective, using policy tools as analytical key, wishes to contribute new insights and methods of analysis on public land use planning and management, as well as governance of common pool resources in protected areas. ; Espaces emblématiques des dynamiques complexes entre l'homme et l'écosystème dans des aires protégées abritant des ressources naturelles commune, les îles Galápagos et le Yasuní en Équateur partagent une histoire de dégradation environnementale, conflits socio-environnementaux et chaos territorial. La présence de biens communs, source d'une rente économique liée à la biodiversité et aux hydrocarbures (Yasuní) attire depuis un demi-siècle les intérêts des industriels du pétrole et du tourisme qui ont systématiquement exercé un poids déterminant sur les décisions en matière d'aménagement et de gestion de ces espaces, influant également sur leur gouvernance. Cette réalité joue à l'encontre de politiques d'aménagement territorial pour les deux espaces, Réserves de la Biosphère de l'UNESCO, depuis des décennies. Les Galápagos et le Yasuní témoignent en même temps de la manière dont les gouvernements équatoriens ont eu recours à une « instrumentation » des politiques pour décider le sort des deux aires protégées. Cette thèse montre comment un problème structurel – l'absence d'une politique d'aménagement territorial – a facilité la mobilisation d'instruments de politique pour administrer les deux réserves naturelles. L'histoire du Yasuní est un exemple éloquent de cette pratique d'instrumentation de politiques. La création du parc en 1979, puis les modifications de ses limites et le découpage de la Réserve de la Biosphère Yasuní, dont le parc est le noyau, ont été tous réalisés par des instruments de politiques. De même, aux Galápagos la puissance publique a opéré ses choix en matière d'accès aux espaces protégés et d'utilisation de leurs ressources, en privilégiant les instruments de politique. La loi spéciale des Galápagos (LOREG) a de facto gouverné l'archipel depuis son entrée en vigueur en 1998. Dans les deux cas, l'absence d'une politique d'aménagement territorial a permis l'adoption de décisions top-down sur l'administration des deux espaces.La «révolution citoyenne» du président Correa, en dépit d'une profonde refonte institutionnelle et d'un nouveau paradigme de développement – le Buen Vivir, ou Sumak Kawsay – ne saura changer la manière d'aménager les espaces des deux aires protégées. La planification est élevée à politique d'État qui prime sur toute autre politique, mais dans cette vision l'aménagement du territoire devient un instrument au service de la planification étatique.Ce travail, conduit dans une perspective interdisciplinaire en utilisant une grille de lecture encore peu explorée (les instruments de politique publique) veut aussi contribuer à de nouvelles pistes de réflexion sur l'action publique en matière d'aménagement du territoire ainsi que sur la gouvernance d'aires protégées riches en ressources naturelles communes.

ABSTRACTThis thesis discusses the issue of Law Enforcement Civil Service Discipline In Personnel Management System in Indonesia (Case Study in Government Environmental Singkawang). From theresults ofresearchusingnormative legalandsociologicalmethods, it is concluded: 1 . Enforcement Mechanism for Civil Servants Disciplinary Sanctions in personnel management system in Indonesia, in 1980 and 2010 have been set by Government Regulation Number 30, 1980 About the Civil Service Disciplinary Code. Then, because it is considered incompatible with the needs and development of the state civil servants to realize a reliable, professional, and moral as government administrators who apply the principles of good governance, then government regulation is replaced by Government Regulation Number 53, 2010 Concerning Civil Service Discipline. Under these Regulations, enforcement of disciplinary procedures, is done through the stage dialing, checking, imposition, and Submission Decisions Disciplinary Punishment of Civil Servants, who alleged breach of discipline. If the affected civil servants disciplined was not satisfied with the decision Punish Officials Authority, the Civil Service can be pursued through the Objection and Appeal administrtif Administrative. 2.Heavy Punishment Implementation in the Government Discipline Singkawang against M. Sehan , S.E , and Dr. Mohammad Iksan . Liau Songkono , SpOG that violate laws and regulations , have not fully consider whether the act of polygamy or living together with a woman in lawful wedlock : 1) have a negative impact on the government and / or the State as ; 2) have a negative impact on the work unit ; or 3) negative impact on the agency concerned . referred to in Article 8, point 2 , Article 9, paragraph 4 and Article 10 item 2 of Government Regulation Number 53, 2010 Concerning Servants Discipline. Further recommended : 1. To avoid an arbitrary decision and discipline embodies the principle of the rule of law the Civil Service that is fair, then forward any competent authority to punish , must act carefully in considering the background and the negative impact of civil servants who act in violation of discipline. 2. Every civil servant who feel competent authority decision to punish unfair or unsatisfactory , in order to take legal action in the form of administrative effort and objection procedures for administrative appeals Personnel Advisory Board.Keywords : Law Enforcement , Discipline , Civil Servants.ABSTRAKTesis ini membahas masalah Penegakan Hukum Disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil Dalam Sistem Pengelolaan Kepegawaian Di Indonesia (Studi Kasus Di Lingkungan Pemerintah Kota Singkawang). Dari hasil penelitian menggunakan metode hukum normatif dan sosiologis, diperoleh kesimpulan: 1. Mekanisme Penegakan Hukuman Disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil dalam sistem pengelolaan kepegawaian di Indonesia, pada tahun 1980 sampai 2010 telah diatur berdasarkan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 30 Tahun 1980 Tentang Peraturan Disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil. Kemudian karena dinilai sudah tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan perkembangan keadaan untuk mewujudkan PNS yang handal, profesional, dan bermoral sebagai penyelenggara pemerintahan yang menerapkan prinsip-prinsip kepemerintahan yang baik (good governance), maka peraturan pemerintah tersebut diganti dengan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 53 Tahun 2010 Tentang Disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil. Berdasarkan Peraturan Pemerintah ini, tata cara penegakan2hukuman disiplin, dilakukan melalui tahap Pemanggilan, Pemeriksaan, Penjatuhan, dan Penyampaian Keputusan Hukuman Disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil, yang diduga melakukan pelanggaran disiplin. Apabila Pegawai Negeri Sipil yang terkena hukuman disiplin merasa tidak puas terhadap Keputusan Pejabat Yang Berwenang Menghukum, maka Pegawai Negeri tersebut dapat menempuh upaya administrtif melalui Keberatan dan Banding Administratif. 2. Penerapan Hukuman Disiplin Berat di lingkungan Pemerintah Kota Singkawang terhadap M. Sehan, S.E, Muhammad Iksan dan Dr. Liau Songkono, SpOg yang melanggar peraturan perundang-undangan, belum sepenuhnya mempertimbangkan apakah perbuatan poligami atau hidup bersama dengan wanita di luar ikatan perkawinan yang sah: 1) berdampak negatif pada pemerintah dan/atau Negara sebagaimana; 2) berdampak negatif pada unit kerja; ataukah 3) berdampak negatif bagi instansi yang bersangkutan. sebagaimana dimaksud Pasal 8 angka 2, Pasal 9 angka 4 dan Pasal 10 angka 2 Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 53 Tahun 2010 Tentang Disiplin Pegawai Negeri. Selanjutnya disarankan: 1. Untuk menghindari putusan yang sewenang-wenang dan mewujudkan prinsip penegakan hukum disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil yang berkeadilan, maka ke depan setiap pejabat yang berwenang menghukum, haruslah bertindak cermat dalam mempertimbangkan latar belakang dan dampak negatif dari perbuatan Pegawai Negeri Sipil yang melakukan pelanggaran disiplin. 2. Setiap Pegawai Negeri Sipil yang merasa Keputusan pejabat yang berwenang menghukum dinilai tidak adil atau tidak memuaskan, agar menempuh jalur hukum upaya administratif berupa prosedur keberatan dan banding administratif ke Badan Pertimbangan Kepegawaian.Kata Kunci : Penegakan Hukum, Disiplin, Pegawai Negeri Sipil.

The Niger River Basin covers 7.5% of the African continent, and is shared between nine riparian countries. The basin countries can be categorized into water resources producers, consumers, both producers and consumers, and minimum contributors and consumers. As in the case for most transboundary rivers, upstream and downstream conflicts emanating from the development and utilization of the Niger River are inevitable and are expected to be intense, particularly given the escalating demands for water from the many uses and users. The basin is divided into four major sections, namely Upper Niger, Inland Delta, Middle Niger, and Lower Niger. But these divisions, though useful, are too generic to provide a complete understanding of biophysical, hydrological and socioeconomic processes impinging on the basin's water resources, and to provide intervention recommendations. On average, the basin's population is two-thirds (64%) rural and a significant part of the northern zones of the basin is unpopulated. People in the basin are engaged in various livelihood strategies such as dry- and wet-season cropping systems, pastoral systems, crop-livestock systems, and fishing. The dry-season livelihood systems include fadama (lowland or inland valleys) farming, recession flood farming, agroforestry, irrigated rice farming and fishing. Wet-season livelihood systems center mostly on cereal cropping and transhumance. The major crops grown in the basin are yam, cassava, rice, groundnut, millet, sorghum, plantain, cocoa, maize, sugarcane, and cotton. Agriculture represents a large part of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the Niger River Basin with crop production alone contributing 25-35% of the basin's GDP, while livestock and fishery contribute 10-15% and 1-4%, respectively. All countries of the Niger Basin suffer from chronic and acute poverty and are ranked 'poor' by most poverty indicators (Human Development Index [HDI]), child mortality, life expectancy, Social Vulnerability Index, etc.). Several structural (social and institutional) factors hold a large segment of the basin's population in the throes of poverty. Niger Basin's challenge is to break this vicious circle by using resources to generate sustainable growth that is favorable to the poor. Some of the prominent water-related challenges are degradation of land and water resources, climate change and variability, vulnerability to disasters, inefficiency and poor performance of agriculture (rain-fed and irrigation), competing demands between sectors and water users and inadequate investment in water infrastructure. At a wider level, inadequate public services, institutional and governance failure, high population growth and urbanization, poor macro-economic performance, and unemployment have also undermined the development of the basin. The severity of these challenges varies from location to location in the basin. The basin's development goals and objectives originate as a response to the development challenges and are articulated in various policy documents such as the Niger Basin Shared Vision (NBA PADD), poverty reduction strategy papers, United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), specifically the pillars 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP). The goals of the basin countries are eradicating extreme poverty and hunger; achieving universal primary education; promoting gender equality and empowerment of women; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), malaria and other diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability; and developing a global partnership for development. viii The specific development objectives of the basin countries are the following: • Increase income, generate jobs, improve living standards, and alleviate poverty, especially among the poorest section of the population while at the same time safeguarding the environment including the sustainable management of the Niger Basin water resources. • Improve access to health and education services, and increase life expectancy. • Achieve political stability, good governance and an appropriate institutional framework. • Improve the investment climate for private-sector development where infrastructure plays a decisive part. • Develop infrastructures and the productive sector to ensure better productivity of factors of production and economic growth. • Reduce food imports, boost agricultural exports through stabilization, intensification and expansion of agricultural production. To realize the basin's development goals and objectives the following water-centered intervention clusters needed to be synergistically pursued. • Ensuring right to secure access to water for the poor. • Developing new infrastructure. • Improving access to agricultural water management innovations. • Strengthening Niger Basin's water governance. • Upgrading rain-fed systems. • Reducing the vulnerability of poor people to climate shocks and other hazards. • Minimizing degradation of the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. • Diversifying livelihood strategies.

Von den drei aktuell in Deutschland zu unterscheidenden Großschutzgebietskategorien Nationalpark, Naturpark und Biosphärenreservat stellt der Nationalpark gewiss die höchsten Ansprüche an den Naturschutz. Im Idealfall sollen bis zu drei Viertel der betreffenden Flächen gänzlich aus der Nutzung genommen werden. Dieser Nutzungsverzicht hat im Vorfeld einer Gebietsausweisung aufgrund der damit verbundenen ökonomischen Einbußen oftmals Bedenken der lokalen Bevölkerung gegenüber diesem Flächenschutzinstrument zur Folge. Nationalparke können jedoch als Attraktionspunkte im Tourismus durchaus zu einer eigenständigen Entwicklung ländlich-peripherer Regionen beitragen. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht deshalb die Strukturen des Tourismus und dessen ökonomischen Stellenwert in den deutschen Nationalparkregionen. Auf Grundlage einer Typisierung der bestehenden vierzehn Gebiete wurden zunächst fünf Untersuchungsregionen ausgewählt (Bayerischer Wald, Eifel, Hainich, Kellerwald-Edersee sowie Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer), für die mittels des nachfrageseitigen Vorgehens einer Wertschöpfungsanalyse die regionalwirtschaftlichen Effekte des Tourismus bestimmt wurden. Darauf aufbauend ist schließlich eine Hochrechnung für den gesamtdeutschen Nationalparktourismus durchgeführt worden. Insgesamt halten sich jährlich demnach etwas mehr als 50 Mio. Besucher in den deutschen Nationalparken auf, die einen touristischen Bruttoumsatz von 2,1 Mrd. € generieren. Daraus resultieren Einkommen in Höhe von ungefähr 1,1 Mrd. €, woraus sich ein Einkommensäquivalent von etwas mehr als 69.000 Personen ableitet. Für die vor allem aus regionalpolitischer Sicht relevante Besuchergruppe mit hoher Nationalparkaffinität (= National-parktouristen im engeren Sinn) reduzieren sich diese Werte auf rund 11 Mio. Besucher und 431 Mio. € Bruttoumsatz, was ca. 212 Mio. € Einkommen und ein Einkommensäquivalent von rund 14.000 Personen bewirkt. Diese Resultate auf Ebene der einzelnen Untersuchungsgebiete stellen dabei lediglich den gegenwärtigen Status-quo dar, können aber als Grundlage für ein dauerhaftes Monitoring dienen. Dazu ist allerdings von Managementseite der Wille für eine kontinuierliche Bewertung nicht nur der ökologischen, sondern auch der sozioökonomischen Entwicklung erforderlich. Der aktuelle Forschungsstand zeigt in dieser Hinsicht noch ein enormes Potenzial. Um eine möglichst kostengünstige Variante des eingesetzten Verfahrens zur Erfassung der Besucherstrukturen und des Ausgabeverhaltens der Touristen zu konzipieren, werden Vorschläge für eine mögliche Reduzierung des empirischen Aufwands ausgearbeitet. Denn angesichts der bestehenden Budgets deutscher Nationalparkverwaltungen muss es Ziel sein, das bisher wissenschaftlich ausgerichtete Instrumentarium der empirischen Erhebungen zu einem praxisnahen und leicht anwendbaren Vorgehen weiter zu entwickeln und damit für einen Monitoringeinsatz für die Verantwortlichen vor Ort zu optimieren. Nur dadurch könn-ten auf objektiver Basis die Entwicklungen im Nationalparktourismus und folglich der Stellenwert der Schutzgebiete als Stimuli der regionalen Entwicklung mittel- bis langfristig beurteilt werden. ; Currently, there are three different types of large-scale protected areas in Germany: national parks, nature parks and biosphere reserves. National parks certainly stand for the highest standard of environmental protection. Ideally, up to three quarters of the protected areas should be taken out of use completely. This abandonment of usage and the associated eco-nomic losses often lead to retentions of local people towards the designation of this kind of land protection. National parks as tourist attractions, however, could also make a contribution to an independent development of peripheral rural regions. Therefore, the present study analyses the structures of tourism and their economic impacts in German national park re-gions. First of all, five study areas were selected based on a typology of all fourteen existing areas: Bavarian Forest, Eifel, Hainich, Kellerwald Edersee and Lower Saxony Wadden Sea. The regional economic impact of national park tourism for these regions was estimated via the demand-side approach of a value-added analysis. Based on these results, a projection of the whole German national park tourism was conducted. Overall, more than 50 million visitors per year make an excursion to German national parks generating tourism gross turnover of EUR 2.1 billion. This leads to an regional income of approximately EUR 1.1 billion resulting in an income equivalent of more than 69,000 people. Focusing solely on visitors with a high national park affinity which are the relevant group from a regional policy perspective, these figures have to be reduced to 11 million visitors and EUR 431 million gross turnover, resulting in an income of EUR 212 million and an income equivalent of nearly 14,000 people. The results for the chosen study areas represent only the current status quo, but they can also serve as a solid basis for a permanent monitoring. Therefore, the management effort for an on-going assessment not only of ecological but also of socio-economic development is required. In this regard the current state of the art provides a great potential. Thus, another aim of this study is to design a cost-effective alternative to the method used to determine the tourism structures and the visitors' spending behaviour. For this reason some proposals for a possible reduction of the necessary empirical field work are presented. Given the existing budgets of German national park authorities it must be an objective to develop the hitherto scientifically oriented research design to an easily applicable approach and therefore to optimise it for management use as a standardised monitoring-tool. It is only on the basis of comparable objective results that it would be possible to evaluate the national park tourism development and hence the mid- and long-term importance of the protected areas as stimuli for regional development.

Since the arrival of Spaniards, Chile has had great changes in its forestry landscape, mainly during the 19th century. Land clearance for cattle and agriculture was originally the main cause of forest losses. The period of indiscriminate destruction of forests corresponds to the first stage of "Exploitation" of the forest resources according to the classification by Kimmins to describe the degree of forest development. In Chile this stage ended with the last great destruction of forests in Aysén, during the middle part of the 20th century. According to Kimmins the first stage is followed by one of "Regulation", which is characterized by the creation of political and legal mechanisms to control forest harvest. Chile enters this stage, through state initiatives, with the creation of the institutional and industrial bases, by the creating the Corporación Nacional Forestal (Chilean Forest Service), the INFOR (Forest Research Institute), and the pulp mills Arauco and Constitución. The third stage corresponds to that of "Sustainable Forest Management", in which there is a sustained provision of goods and services from the forest. In this article our objective is to conduct a critical analysis to determine whether Chile has reached this stage of development, and for that purpose we established three requisites that Chile should fulfill to consider itself a developed nation from a forestry perspective: a) a great proportion of the population must improve their quality of life through the goods and services provided by the forests; b) strong public and private institutions should safeguard the good management of plantations and native forests, and; c) plantations and native forests are carefully managed so as to conserve or improve their biodiversity, productivity and the ecosystem services that they can provide. Through our analysis we conclude that these conditions are not met in Chile, and the pending challenge is to move the Chilean forest model towards greater levels of sustainability, particularly in social and environmental matters, in order become a nation with a truly developed forest sector. ; Desde la llegada de los españoles Chile ha sufrido grandes cambios en el paisaje forestal, particularmente a partir del siglo XIX. Las grandes pérdidas de bosques fueron causadas originalmente por la apertura de tierras para la agricultura y la ganadería. El período de destrucción indiscriminada de los bosques corresponde a la primera Etapa de "Explotación" de los recursos de acuerdo a la clasificación establecida por Kimmins, para describir el nivel de desarrollo forestal de los países. Se puede considerar que en Chile esta fase terminó luego de la última gran destrucción de bosques en Aysén, a mediados del siglo XX. Según Kimmins a la primera Etapa le sigue una de "Regulación", caracterizada por la creación de mecanismos políticos y legales para controlar la cosecha de bosques. Chile entra a esta Etapa con la creación por parte del Estado de las bases de la institucionalidad y la industria forestal chilena, en donde son ejemplos emblemáticos la creación de la Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF), el Instituto Forestal (INFOR), y las empresas de pulpa Arauco y Constitución. La tercera Etapa corresponde a la de "Desarrollo Forestal Sustentable", aquella en que existe una oferta sostenible de bienes yservicios de los bosques. En este artículo nuestro objetivo es hacer un análisis crítico para determinar si Chile ha alcanzado esta Etapa, para lo cual establecimos tres requisitos que deberían cumplirse para que Chile pueda considerarse un "País Forestal": a) una gran parte de la población debe ver mejorada su calidad de vida a través de los bienes y servicios provenientes de los bosques; b) existe una institucionalidad fuerte, tanto pública como privada, que resguarda el cumplimiento de normas modernas que regulan el buen manejo de plantaciones y bosques nativos, y c) las plantaciones y los bosques nativos son cuidadosamente manejados, de modo de conservar o mejorar la biodiversidad, la productividad y los servicios ecosistémicos que éstos proveen. A través de nuestro análisis concluimos que en su conjunto estas condiciones no se cumplen en Chile, y que el desafío pendiente es conducir el modelo forestal chileno hacia mayores niveles de sustentabilidad, particularmente en lo ambiental y social, para poder decir que Chile es realmente un "País Forestal".

Successful implementation of MHP projects in Ethiopia and subsequently a broader dissemination of the technology require an interdisciplinary approach. Based on the analyses of present hindrances in Ethiopia, crucial aspects are identified. Even though an adequate hydrological potential and electricity requirements are provided for at numerous sites, special attention must be directed to competing technologies, such as a diesel generator system or the connection to an existing grid, to investment and operating costs, profitability, financing instruments, financing partners, organisation forms, legal and political boundary conditions, tariff systems and paying modalities. All these relevant aspects are analysed individually and with regard to their causal interrelationships. The whole study provides the basis for the development of a decision support system. By means of a regionalisation method, regression equations are developed which facilitate the estimation of the hydrological potential at a site with lacking runoff measurements. The evaluation of existing methods to forecast electricity consumption showed that usual specific consumption figures cannot be applied without taking into account the number of households per official connection and the effect of measures which stimulate market penetration and specific consumption. For example, incentives to purchase electrical appliances are one measure to promote the consumption. Simultaneously, an appropriate tariff system must optimise temporal balancing of loads by truncating peaks and filling of load gaps. Additionally it should help to adopt the continuously growing demand function to the stepwise increase of supply capacity. Selling of capacities in kilowatt instead of energy in kilowatt hours aligns with these objectives. Since profitability of MHP systems in Ethiopia revealed to be marginal and access to loans is limited due to the required collateral, mixed financing with different project partners is recommended. Firstly, some non- or less-profit oriented equity capital donors such as customers, development banks and NGO's and secondly, venture capitalists with significant equity capital for the provision of collateral and enforcing successful management should be involved. Thirdly, banks with loan capital are required to increase the ROE for the highly profit oriented investors due to a positive leverage effect. Some of the problems incurred can be solved by the issuance of juissance rights. They facilitate the participation of customers as co-financiers and allow dividend payment in kW's or kWh's. They reduce the risk of electricity sales, and delayed payments. They accommodate access to "cheap" quasi-equity capital from customers and thus ease the access to loans. In return, they offer the advantage of reduced monthly electricity expenses to the customer who, in case of a fixed rate of dividend, receives energy units unaffected by inflation. Juissance rights do not require a stock market and are permitted within the framework of several organisational forms. Since they do not confer any ownership rights, the management control remains with the (more) liable project partners. The participating partners, their number and liability, control aspects, the type of financing and finally the total investment volume decide on the favoured organisational form. A limited partnership is useful in case of investors with different liabilities, supplemented by consumers with juissance rights. A modern co-operative requires a well funded community, independent from big investors and banks. With regard to legal requirements, the investment licence turned out to be of primary importance, but can only be acquired for projects of a fixed minimum volume. The licence facilitates access to the one-stop-shop and thus to other requirements like operating licence, working permits, registration of the business organisation and the allocation of land and water rights. In order to perspicuously illustrate the theoretical results all mentioned aspects together with the investigations on technical design, investment and operating costs are applied to two fictitious case studies of capacities of 50 and 150 kW. The analysis of prospects for international financing support with regard to the Flexible Mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, the Global Environmental Fund and others proved that these instruments can contribute to implement either barrier removal projects or concrete MHP pilot projects. In view of the collected information, the potential and the limits of a DSS tool are reviewed. Finally conclusions and recommendations on concrete measures, such as investment incentives, redemption from customs duties and improvement of loan conditions are given.

В статье проанализировано комплексную природу отношений хозяйственного права, складывающиеся по поводу предмета в контексте развития самой сферы хозяйственных отношений, а, следовательно, и в контексте законодательства как такового. Обоснованно идею о необходимости дальнейшего развития комплексных отраслей права путем моделирования новых отраслей, подотраслей и институтов в сфере хозяйствования как отдельных мультикомплексних образований. Приведены примеры в подтверждение мысли, что именно на основе мультикомплексних образований возникают функциональные комплексы в контексте мультиобразований в пределах экономических отношений между отраслевыми комплексами, а также между хозяйственными и экономическим правом ; The article analyzes the complex nature of the relationship of economic law, consisting of the subject, namely in the context of the development of the sphere of economic relations, therefore, in the context of law as such. Justify the idea of further development of the complex areas of law by modeling of new branches, sub-branches and institutes in the field of management of individual multi complexes formations. The examples and proved the idea that education is multi complexes create both functional complexes in the context of multi organization within the economic relations between industry complexes, as well as between economic rights and that economic rights. Analysis of the subject of Economic Law in Ukraine engaged representatives of the German school of law, namely V. K. Mamutov, G. L. Znamenskiib, P. G. Skripnik, V. A. Volodya. Also partial analysis of science engaged A. M. Vinnyk, D. V. Zadyhaylo and others. An important achievement on the analysis of the subject of commercial law made it such foreign scientists as V. V. Bezbakh, M. N. Kuznetsov, M. G. Masevich and so on. But these scientists have not paid sufficient attention to whether their views do not correspond to the realities of modern relationships in economic activity and, therefore, the issue of the subject of economic legislation, the impact of the latter on processes of systematization of economic legislation, as such, and adjustment and modernization processes of economic legislation in general ostayutsya is not defined. The article is an analysis of content of commercial law in the context of economic relations and, therefore, the scope of economic legislation and the establishment of common principles and individual features on complex multi segments that form the basis of economic relations and, therefore, economic legislation. In the scientific literature there are a number of legal issues that for a long time are topical and controversial: it is traditionally affected the subject of economic legislation, which traditionally determined objectively and every branch of law that limits regulation last set of social relations, which are the it is based and objectively determine the necessity of its existence. However, the objective problem of complexity in areas where the development of social relations leads to public demand for the complex nature of social regulation and, therefore, the latter is regulated around subjectively objective criteria. For example: This thesis concerns the protection of the environment or sphere of information relations or agricultural production, as well as the system of economic relations as such. Of course, the regulation of economic relations as an integrated system is a complex task, because it should be based on the latest conceptual scheme objectively existing system of social relations that reflect the real facts, the real value rules that govern them and respond, in turn, real differentiation of social relations to the relevant institutions. Similar nature of legal relations on economic regulation, such as the inherent economic laws, because the latter contains location-regulatory mechanism of economic and industrial, organizational and economic relations in Ukraine. Today it is evident that the current economic system requires the legal regulation in the economic sphere, firstly, the whole mechanism and legal nature delineating the impact of public for private regulation of economic activities within the principle of self-regulation of the economic system. Secondly, there is a need to establish a clear legal nature of the subject of economic legislation, the limits of its competence and identity is the internal substantive characteristic features and components in the relevant institutes of economic legislation, investment, financial, entrepreneurial, innovative, banking and others. 1. Properties of economic relations is the optimal combination and interaction together in a single legal mechanism extremely complex set itself as private or public interests to be aimed at «healthy» development of economic relations. That is necessary to outline a clear legal limits on the optimal combination of market self-regulation of economic relations entities and state regulation of economic processes, especially macro of level that it will be based on constitutional requirements responsibility of the government. And, therefore, must be objectively justified provide a comprehensive view of the legal regulation of the economic system in a single legal mechanism within the paradigm of economic relations of market type, that is not an isolated legal construction, and the globalization legal system that provides economic relations, both at the micro level and at the macro level. In this context we go wake of the global public request for the establishment of basic economic legislation. But of course, that the emergence of this process is impossible without the formation of complex global legislative regulation. 2. Commercial Law as a complex industry that was created under the influence of economic factors initially as a branch of law that was subsequently limited in the degree of complexity of the object of regulation and availability of the systems related legal relations on different-normative material. In the interest is the criterion of «systematic legislative capacity on economic relations» should achieve legislative support for targeted harmonization of regulation of complex heterogeneous in its nature and at the same time integrated and automated facilities of this complex area of law, and therefore, the formation of an independent and distinct managerial influence State on certain socially important objects of economic management. 3. Commercial law and, of course, and offers a wide range of legislation to create differentiation on the newly created economic systems and at the same time, the integration process depending on the complex relations and which counts effect on legislators, as well as direct participants of legal relations. Of course, if put in the center of the economic system entity and make a picture of all kinds of economic relations between it and other of the parties, it is clear that regulate all relations, including those «arising in the organization and implementation of economic activity between subjects 'the objects of economic and other participants of economic relations «in accordance with Art. 1 Commercial Code of Ukraine with just economic law is impossible. Therefore, the formal separation of economic sphere of relations between the economic and other fields of law set forth in Art. 4 Commercial Code of Ukraine, is not only logical, but also points directly to a list of related areas of law, together with the economic law of interacting provide comprehensive legal regime of the economic system as such. Of course, the election process or use the last set of in this case they put them on the severity degree of political influence, is a striking example of information and telecommunications industry. 4. Modernity opens a wide range of opportunities for the newly created economic systems, because it is complicated by the complex economic and legal associations. For example, on environmental law, in the form of environmental undertaking or sports clubs as facilities management (business). Hence, open and integrated multi economic legislation.

Water, as a resource, is integral to human activities of all kinds. The water sector, as a society's means of ensuring individuals have sufficient water is fundamental to recovery and development. While designing and implementing water supply operations in any societal context is a complicated endeavor, doing so in contexts affected by conflict, fragility and violence is inherently associated with compounded challenges. The objective of this study is to summarize operational lessons from task teams to inform effective water supply and access operations in conflict-affected and fragile situations. This paper defines common operational challenges and describes actions that task teams have taken in Bank projects in order to address those challenges. Further, the paper explores ways to ensure that water supply projects in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCS) contexts, in addition to achieving technical objectives, can also address perpetual causes of conflict and fragility. The risks of escalating violence and decreasing stability are exacerbated in situations where access to water resources and services is poor, constrained, inequitable, and unsustainable. This knowledge product summarizes lessons from World Bank task teams that have prepared and implemented water supply projects in locations affected by conflict, fragility and violence. The findings intend to support operational problem-solving during water operations that are conducted in these situations. The study engaged task team members and surveyed project documentation, consolidating data on contextual and operational challenges and responsive methods that staff recommend. The findings of this study show that clear priorities in process and organizational capacity, with a focus on access, are needed to ensure that water supply operations in FCS contexts are conflict-sensitive.

In this thesis I explore the links and co-production between science and politics in Namaqualand through answering three research questions: 1. To what extent have landscapes in Namaqualand changed during the last 66 years (1939-2005), and how have different land uses contributed to the state of present landscapes? 2. How have science and policy influenced each other in the formation of local planning initiatives during the land reform process in Namaqualand? 3. In what ways do politics and land tenure models influence ecological science concerning communal land management in southern African dryland areas? Land degradation has been a recurrent theme in environmental research. Widespread erosion, overgrazing and desertification presumably caused by African smallholders have been a key concern by policymakers and development agencies for more than a century. This degradation orthodoxy is partly based on equilibrium models in ecological science and partly on modernization theories of land tenure and commercialization of agriculture. Both the equilibrium model and the focus on private land tenure have met considerable critique in Southern Africa and in Africa in general. Critics argue that dryland areas are ecologically unstable and unpredictable and therefore do not fit the equilibrium model. Further, they argue that privatization of land and limitations of grazing animals will marginalize the poorer farmers and lead to more poverty in rural areas, without contributing to more sustainable grazing areas. Still however, equilibriumbased thinking continues to influence African land and environmental policies. This project was carried out in Namaqualand, South Africa where, like in the rest of South Africa, apartheid policy brought about segregation between colored and white farmers, creating a dual agricultural system. The colored population was enclosed in small reserves, while white farmers gradually formed large farms that were later fenced. This unequal distribution of land and resources has continued until today and forms the background for the land reform process that started in 1994. The thesis is a case study of the development of knowledge about environmental change in Namaqualand. It discusses the politicized production and application of science and in doing so the thesis combines the approaches of Political Ecology and Science and Technology Studies. This thesis contributes to the existing body of literature in the following ways: The first paper combines data on land cover changes in Concordia (a communal area in Namaqualand), in a neighboring private farm and in a neighboring nature reserve, with data on the history of land use in the area. The article combines repeat photography covering a period of 66 years with interviews with local farmers on land use history and the authors find that vegetation has changed negligibly in the communal area studied over the 66-year period. While cultivation in the communal areas probably changed the landscape considerably, this change happened prior to the time period studied. In the neighboring private farm, as well as in the nature reserve, vegetation cover and species composition have recovered considerably since 1939. Thus rather than a degradation process in the communal area, we uncover a regeneration in the private farm and the nature reserve, following destocking subsidies and subsequent conservation. The second paper documents how the notion of carrying capacity was employed in a management plan developed as part of the land reform policy process in Concordia. Initially, the notion of carrying capacity was used by communal farmers to challenge the current distribution of land and the dominating idea that communal farming inherently led to degradation. Eventually, however, the concept contributed to depoliticize rangeland policy by rendering the relationship between land and livestock a question of numbers and not a question of how much land communal farmers have access to. The third paper discusses the use of photography in fenceline contrast studies within ecological science. Fence-line contrast study is a methodology used in ecology to compare to areas (divided by a fence). This way one may assume that other conditions are equal and that difference in management practice can explain visible differences found. Based on two cases from Namibia and Southern Africa, the article substantiates that fenceline contrast photographs are more than an objective representation of landscape difference. Rather, they function as models that relate ecological dynamics to presumptions of land tenure and management. The message implied in using such photographs is that communal tenure inherently leads to overgrazing and, hence, to the degradation of pastures, while private tenure results in healthy rangelands. This is a message that echoes the degradation orthodoxy, and the fenceline contrast photographs thus contribute to the current pressure on communal land tenure, even thought the data as such do not support such a pessimistic view. The overall argument of this thesis is that science and politics are intrinsically linked and coproduced, both in political processes and in the production of scientific knowledge. While the findings of the first article questions general assumptions of the validity of the degradation orthodoxy in Namaqualand, the second and the third articles show how degradation orthodoxy still influences both policy processes and science production. Thus, in order to open up for other influences and new and more fitting ecological models in policy and science, change must happen at different levels of the process of knowledge production and policy formation. ; I denne avhandlingen undersøker jeg forbindelsen og samproduksjonen mellom politikk og vitenskap i Namaqualand i Sør Afrika. Avhandlingen tar utgangspunkt i tre forskningsspørsmål: 1) I hvilken grad har landskapet i Namaqualand endret seg fra 1939 til 2005, og hvordan har ulik bruk av påvirket landskapet? 2) Hvordan påvirker vitenskap og politikk hverandre når lokale plandokumenter for beiteallmenninger skal utformes i forbindelse med jordreformprosessen i Namaqualand? 3) På hvilke måter påvirker politiske modeller for organisering av eiendom den økologiske forskningen i beiteallmenninger i det sørlige Afrika? Jordforringelse har vært et tilbakevendende tema i miljøforskningen i Afrika. Politikere, byråkrater, forskere og utviklingsorganisasjoner har trukket en sammenheng mellom fattige bønders praksis og det de har tolket som utbredt erosjon, overbeite og forørkning. I Sør-Afrika er denne oppfatningen delvis basert på likevektsmodeller innen økologien og delvis på moderniseringsteorier innen samfunnsvitenskapene. Både likevektsmodellene og fokuset på privat eierskap har møtt betydelig motstand blant forskere de siste tiårene. Kritikerne hevder at tørrlandsområder har en ustabil og uforutsigbar økologisk dynamikk, og at likevektsmodellene ikke gjenspeiler det som skjer på bakken. Følgelig mener forskere at privatisering og begrensninger i dyretall marginaliserer fattige bønder og fører til mer fattigdom på landsbygda, uten at man vet om det vil føre til en mer bærekraftig utnyttelse av beiteområdene. På tross av disse advarslene dominerer likevektstankegangen afrikansk miljø- og landbrukspolitikk. Avhandlingen bygger på et feltarbeid i Namaqualand i Sør Afrika. Dette området er i likhet med resten av Sør-Afrika merket av kolonitiden og senere av apartheidtiden. Skillet mellom fargede og hvite har ført til en todeling i landbruket. Gjennom 1800 og 1900-tallet tok settlerbøndene kontroll over mer og mer av jorda til lokale gjetere og beitefolk. De fargede bøndene ble henvist til små reservater, mens hvite settlerbønder gradvis dannet større farmer som seinere ble gjerdet inn. Denne ujevne fordelingen av jord og ressurser har fortsatt fram til i dag, og er bakgrunnen for jordreformprosessen som startet i 1994. Denne avhandlingen er en case-studie av samproduksjonen mellom politikk og økologisk vitenskap i Namaqualand. Avhandlingen diskuterer den politiserte bruken og produksjonen av vitenskap og kombinerer dermed innsikter fra politisk økologi med vitenskaps- og teknologistudier. Avhandlingen er et bidrag til den eksisterende litteraturen på følgende måter: Den første artikkelen tar utgangspunkt i data om endringer i vegetasjonsdekket i allmenningen Concordia, på en tilgrensende privat farm og på et naturreservat. Disse dataene sammenliknes med data på tidligere bruk av området. I artikkelen bruker vi gamle og nye landskapsfotografier fra en periode på 66 år. De vi finner i fotografiene analyserer vi sammen med intervjuer med lokale allmenningsbønder og farmere om den historiske bruken av området. I studien fant vi en tendens som er helt motsatt av den myndighetene har advart mot. Myndighetene har fryktet at hard bruk av allmenningen vil føre til uopprettelige skader. Men på den tilgrensende farmen og i naturreservatet viser det seg at vegetasjonen er fortettet og at artssammensetningen er gjenvunnet i løpet av disse 66 årene. Dette har skjedd som følge av apartheidstatens subsidier for å kutte dyretall på farmen på 1970-tallet og det påfølgende vernet av naturreservatet. Dermed kan ikke forskjellen i vegetasjonsdekket i beiteallmenningen på den ene siden og den private farmen og naturreservatet på den andre tilskrives forringelse i allmenningen, men en regenerering og fortetting av vegetasjonen på farmen og i naturreservatet. Dette viser for det første at en slik regenerering er mulig, og for det andre at vegetasjonen i allmenningen holder seg stabil. Den andre artikkelen dokumenterer hvordan begrepet 'bæreevne' ble brukt i en planleggingsprosess i Concordia som var en del av jordreformprosessen i Sør-Afrika. Til å begynne med ble begrepet bæreevne brukt av organisasjonen som organiserte jordreformen i Namaqualand (Surplus People Project) til å vise myndighetene at den skeive fordelingen av jord hverken var økologisk eller økonomisk bærekraftig. Begrepet ble innarbeidet i forvaltningsplanene og i beiteforskriftene, og etter at omfordelingen av jorda var avsluttet fikk bæreevnebegrepet en ny funksjon. Nå bidro 'bæreevne'-begrepet til å avpolitisere beitepolitikken ved at god forvaltning ble redusert til et spørsmål om hvor mange dyr man har på beitet og at diskusjonen om hvor mye land de fattige bøndene burde ha tilgang til ble dysset ned. Den tredje artikkelen diskuterer bruken av fotografier i gjerdekontrast-studier i økologiske akademiske tidsskrifter. Gjerdekontrast-studier er en metode brukt i økologi for å sammenlikne to områder (delt med et gjerde). Basert på to caser, en studie fra Namibia og en fra Sør-Afrika, hevder jeg at gjerdekontrast-fotografier er mer enn en objektiv representasjon av forskjeller i landskap. Like viktig er at de fungerer som modeller som relaterer økologisk dynamikk til forestillinger om at privat eierskap er det mest fordelaktige for enkeltbønders økonomi og for miljøet. Disse modellene er ikke uttalt i artiklene som er studert, men budskapet som bildene uttrykker er at felleseie av beiter i seg selv fører til overbeite og dermed til beiteforringelse, mens privat eierskap medfører en mer bærekraftig bruk. Dette er et budskap som har klangbunn i de store fortellingene om degradering og allmenning som myndighetene i Sør-Afrika og Namibia har forfektet i over hundre år. Dermed bidrar bildebruken og fortolkningen av bildene til et politisk press på allmenningen som organisasjonsform, selv om dataene i artiklene ikke tegner et så dystert bilde. Det overordnede argumentet i denne avhandlingen er at vitenskap og politikk er nøye sammenvevd, både i politiske prosesser og i produksjon av vitenskap. Funnene i den første artikkelen stiller spørsmål ved den generelle oppfatningen av forringelse av beitelandet i Namaqualand. Den andre artikkelen viser at den gamle forestillingen om degradering av almenningsområdene fortsatt påvirker politikk og vitenskap. Den tredje artikkelen viser at oppfatningene om at allmenningsbeite er skadelig lever videre gjennom bruk og fortolkning av gjerdekontrastfotografier. For å åpne opp for økologiske ikke-likevektsmodeller i politikk, og for nye tanker om hva som er bærekraftig organisering av eiendom, må dermed forandringer skje på forskjellige nivåer i politikkutforming og vitenskapsproduksjon. ; Nansenfondet : Nordiska Afrikainstitutet