Climate and weather extremes generally lead to crop yield, income and consumption losses. Despite their occurrence at the farm level, very little has so far been done to empirically assess weather risks and their effects on welfare at the farm household level, especially, in the West African Sudan Savanna. This thesis analyzes intra-seasonal risk of weather extremes, farmers' adaptation, and impacts of climate shocks on farm households' welfare in the Sudan Savanna of West Africa. The study is based on data from primary and secondary sources and is organized into three main chapters. Using descriptive techniques, Markov chain model and climatic indices for monitoring weather extremes, it is found that the major climatic threats to crop and livestock production in the regions are rainfall and temperature related. In responding to intra-seasonal climatic threats, some of the farmers practice early planting to take advantage of the first rains, while majority of the farmers either plant late to avoid early-season dry spells or spread their planting to minimize production losses. It is found that for the early planters, the chances for seedlings to be exposed to dry spells of 10 days is estimated at 26.9% to 34.6% in the next 30 days from April 1, while for late planters there is a 36.5% to 48.0% probability for crops to be exposed to dry spells of 21days in the next 30 days from October 28. For the spreaders, there is a high probability for seedlings to be exposed to dry and hot spells and intense precipitation between May and October. Employing descriptive techniques, Poisson regression and multivariate probit model for analyzing farmers' perception of and adaptation to weather extremes, it is found that farmers' perception of changes in the local climate are in conformity with climatic trends. In adapting to recent changes in the local climate, farmers in the regions implemented a total of 12 adaptation strategies. Although farmers are found to be more likely to adopt a mix of adaptive strategies, they are 7 times more likely to resort to the joint adoption of 6 low-cost measures than adopting 5 capital-intensive measures. This suggests that financial capabilities play major role in farmers adaptation decisions. Institutional and infrastructural measures like distance to markets, access to extension services and credit are found to be the most important determinants of farmers adaptation choices. Econometric and mathematical programming models are used in the final chapter to simulate the impact of climate shocks on farmers' welfare in the Northern Savanna of Ghana. Farmers were grouped into homogenous units. Three groups of farmers were identified. These are, two poor farmers groups who operate under low input conditions on medium-scale farms (Clusters 1 and 2), and less poor farmers who operate under high input conditions on small-scale farms. It is found that, compared to the current rainfall distribution, a drier future could result in total income loss of about 3.70% (in Cluster 3) to 23.75% (Cluster 1). Under this scenario, the quantity of food available for consumption is predicted to decrease across all the three clusters, although a greater decrease is expected in Cluster 1. Besides the predicted changes in income and consumption, a drier future could result in 13.6%, 5.69% and 3.33% decreases in the shadow price of rainfed lands in Clusters 1, 2 and 3 respectively. It is found that irrigation expansion in the study area could lead to income gains of about 3.98% to 35.32% under the current rainfall distribution, while investment in research and development efforts could lead to income gains of about 10.31% to 33.48%. The poor farmers of Clusters 1 and 2 are expected to benefit the most from these two interventions. In conclusion, the study shows that policy efforts made to improve farmers access to markets, credit, extension services, and timely and accurate weather forecasts could enhance farmers' adaptation to climate shocks, while the implementation of appropriate adaptation strategies could help to curb the adverse impacts of climate and weather shocks. ; Klima- und Wetterextreme rufen generell Verluste in Ernte, Einkommen und Nachfrage hervor. Obwohl sie bereits auf lokaler Ebene sichtbar sind, wurde bisher wenig unternommen, um Wetterrisiken und ihre Auswirkungen auf Lebensbedingungen auf Haushaltlevel empirisch zu erfassen, vor allem in der Westafrikanischen Sudan-Savanne. Diese Arbeit analysiert intrasaisonale Risiken von Wetterrisiken, Anpassung von Bauern und Auswirkungen von Klimaschocks auf Lebensbedingungen von Kleinbauern in der Sudan-Savanne von Westafrika. Die Studie basiert auf primären und sekundären Datenquellen und lässt sich in drei Kapitel gliedern. Deskriptive Methoden (Markov-Modell sowie klimatische Indizes für das Monitoring von Wetterextremen) ergaben, dass die bedeutsamsten klimatischen Bedrohungen für Land- und Viehwirtschaft in der Region niederschlags- und temperaturbedingt sind. Um intrasaisonale Klimabedrohungen entgegenzuwirken, säen einige Bauern früh aus, um frühe Regenfälle zu nutzen, während die Mehrzahl entweder spät aussät, um den Feldfrüchten frühe Trockenperioden zu ersparen, oder die Aussaat zeitlich verteilen, um das Risiko für Ernteausfälle zu verkleinern. Die Ergebnisse der Gruppe der früh aussäenden Bauern zeigen, dass die Jungpflanzen mit einer Wahrscheinlichkeit von 26,9% und 34,6% in den Tagen ab dem 1. April einer Trockenperiode von 10 Tagen ausgesetzt sind. Für die Gruppe der spät aussäenden Bauern beträgt die Wahrscheinlichkeit 36,5% bis 40,0%, dass die Feldfrüchte Trockenperioden von 21 Tagen in den 30 Tagen ab dem 1. Oktober ausgesetzt sind. In der Gruppe der Bauern, die die Aussaat verteilen, ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit hoch, dass die Jungpflanzen Heiß- und Trockenperioden und intensivem Regen zwischen Mai und Oktober ausgesetzt sind. Weitere deskriptive Methoden (Poisson-Verteilung und multivariable Probit-Modell für die Analyse der Anpassung an und Wahrnehmung von Wetterextremen der Kleinbauern) zeigten, dass die Wahrnehmung von Veränderungen im Lokalklima mit klimatischen Trends übereinstimmt. Um sich an diese Veränderungen anzupassen, nutzen Bauern insgesamt zwölf Anpassungsstrategien. Obwohl sie tendenziell einen Mix aus verschiedenen Anpassungsstrategien anwenden, ist es siebenmal wahrscheinlicher, dass sie auf eine Kombination aus sechs kostengünstigen Methoden zurückgreifen als auf eine Kombination von fünf kostenintensiven Methoden. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass finanzielle Ressourcen eine wichtige Rolle in der Entscheidungsfindung für Anpassungsmaßnahmen spielen. Institutionelle und infrastrukturelle Maßnahmen wie die Entfernung zu Märkten, Zugang zu staatlichen Leistungen und Krediten sind laut den Ergebnissen die wichtigsten Faktoren im Entscheidungsprozess. Ökonometrische und mathematische Programmierungsmodelle werden im letzten Teil angewandt, um die Auswirkung von Klimaschocks auf die Lebensbedingungen von Bauern in der nördlichen Savanne in Ghana zu simulieren. Bauern wurden in homogene Einheiten eingeteilt. Drei Gruppen von Bauern wurden identifiziert: zwei Gruppen in hoher Armut, die unter Bedingungen mit geringem Input in Farmen auf mittlerer Skala (Cluster 1 und 2) operieren und eine Gruppe mit geringerer Armut, die unter Bedingungen mit hohem Input in Farmen auf kleiner Skala operiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass, im Vergleich zu der aktuellen Niederschlagsverteilung, eine trockene Zukunft einen Einkommensausfall von 3,70% (in Cluster 1) bis 23,75% (Cluster 3) hätte. In diesem Szenario kann vorhergesagt werden, dass die Quantität der Nahrung, die für Konsum zur Verfügung steht, in allen drei Clustern sinkt, wobei die größte Abnahme in Cluster 1 erwartet werden kann. Neben den vorausgesagten Veränderungen in Einkommen und Konsum kann eine trockene Zukunft zu einer Abnahme von 13,6%, 5,69% und 3,33% der Schattenpreise von Regenfeldbau in Cluster 1, 2 und 3 führen. Verstärkte Bewässerung in der Studienregion kann bei aktuellen Niederschlagsbedingungen zu Einkommenssteigerungen von 3,98% bis 35,32% führen, während Investitionen in Forschung und Entwicklungsmaßnahmen das Einkommen von 10,31% bis 33,48% steigern könnte. Die Bauern aus armen Verhältnissen in Cluster 1 und 2 könnten von dieses zwei Eingriffen am meisten profitieren. Zusammenfassend zeigt diese Studie, dass politische Bemühungen für einen verbesserten Zugang von Bauern zu Märkten, Krediten, staatlichen Leistungen und rechtzeitigen und akkuraten Wettervorhersagen die Anpassung an Klimaschocks verbessern könnte. Die Implementierung von geeigneten Anpassungsstrategien könnte dann dazu beitragen, die nachteiligen Auswirkungen von Klima- und Wetterschocks zu dämpfen.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sambar-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 663 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 640 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 23 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 95 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 36 per cent clayey soils and 31 per cent are sandy soils at the surface. About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area are nearly level (0-1%). An area of about 94 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded, 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 24 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorous. About 3 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 95 per cent. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 36 per cent clayey soils and 31 per cent are sandy soils at the surface. About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area are nearly level (0-1%). An area of about 94 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded, 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 24 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorous. About 3 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 95 per cent. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 36 per cent clayey soils and 31 per cent are sandy soils at the surface. About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area are nearly level (0-1%). An area of about 94 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded, 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 24 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorous. About 3 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 95 per cent. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0 and <2. The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers in watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthening agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (19 to 66.3 %), maize (62 %), paddy (54.2 to 56 %), and red gram (27.3 to 47.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hosahalli-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 636 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 100 per cent is covered by soils and 150 cm) soils. An area of about 2 per cent has sandy soils, 17 per cent has loamy soils and 78 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 49 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 8 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) and 89 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands in the microwatershed. An area of about 27 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 18 per cent are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 21 per cent are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 11 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 21 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 25 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 7 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 3 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 10 (2) 360 (57) Sapota 10 (2) 113 (18) Maize - 369 (58) Pomegranate 10 (2) 314 (49) Bajra 70 (11) 340 (54) Musambi 10 (2) 314 (49) Groundnut 70 (11) 193 (30) Lime 10 (2) 314 (49) Sunflower 10 (2) 273 (43) Amla 70 (11) 500 (79) Red gram 10 (2) 264 (41) Cashew 10 (2) 124 (20) Bengalgram - 370 (58) Jackfruit 10 (2) 113 (18) Cotton 10 (2) 360 (57) Jamun 10 (2) 304 (48) Chilli 10 (2) 77 (12) Custard apple 70 (11) 500 (79) Tomato 10 (2) 77 (12) Tamarind 10 (2) 224 (35) Brinjal 71 (11) 453 (71) Mulberry 11 (2) 472 (74) Onion 71(11) 170 (27) Marigold 10 (2) 360 (57) Bhendi 71 (11) 453 (71) Chrysanthemum 10 (2) 360 (57) Drumstick 10 (2) 420 (66) Jasmine 10 (2) 159 (25) Mango 10 (2) 204 (32) Crossandra 10 (2) 87 (14) Guava 10 (2) 113 (18) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The results indicated that 51 farmers were sampled in Hosahalli-1micro watershed among them 20(39.22%) were marginal farmers, 9 (17.65 %) were small farmers, 14(27.45 %) were semi medium farmers, 3 (5.88 %) were medium farmers and 5 (9.80 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that, there were 150(56.18%) men and 117 (43.82 %) were women. The average family size of landless and marginal farmer was 5, small and medium farmer was 4 and semi medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 5. The data indicated that 61 (22.85%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 116 (43.45 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 67 (25.09 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 23(8.61%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Hosahalli-1had 26.22 per cent illiterates, 25.09 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.99 per cent of them had both middle school, 18.73 per cent them had high school education, 7.12 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.75 per cent them had Diploma education, 2.62 per cent of them had degree education, 0.37 per cent of them had masters education and 8.61 per cent them had others. The results indicated that, 50.98 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 37.25 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour, 9.80 per cent of the household heads were general labour and 1.96 per cent of the household heads were in private service. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 32.58 per cent of the household members, 28.84 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.62 per cent were general labours, 0.37 percent were in government service, 1.87 per cent of them were in private sector, 20.60 per cent of them were students, 5.24 per cent of them were children and 4.12 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 4 per cent were general labourers, 60 per cent of the household were general labour and 16 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 36.17 per cent were agriculturist, 27.66 percent was in agricultural labour, 2.86 per cent of them were in government service and 25.53 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 48.57 per cent of them were agriculturist, 14.29 percent was in agricultural labour and students. In case of semi medium farmers 32 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 41 per cent of them were general labour and 17 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 30.77 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and agriculture labour respectively and 38.46 per cent of them were students. The results showed that 100 per cent of the farmers have not participated in any local institutions. 2 The results indicated that 35.29 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 19.61 per cent of the households possess Pacca house and 1.96 per cent of them possess Semi Pucca house. The results showed that, 94.12 per cent of the households TV, 78.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 9.80 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 41.18 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 96.08 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 8062, mixer grinder was Rs.1700, bicycle was Rs.2200, motor cycle was Rs.32454 and mobile phone was Rs.2014. The data showed that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 21.57 per cent of them possess plough, 1.96 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, power tiller, tractor and harvester respectively. 17.65 per cent of the households possess sprayer and 88.24 per cent of the households possess weeder. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.17500; the average value of plough was Rs. 1545, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 2000, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4888, the average value of weeder was Rs. 107 and the average value of harvester was Rs. 100. The results indicated that, 13.73 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 21.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 17.65 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 1.96 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow, sheep and cow respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 5 per cent of the households possess bullock, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow, 15 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5 per cent of the households possess goat. In small farmers 11.11 per cent of the households possess bullock and buffalo respectively. In semi medium farmers, 21.43 per cent of the households possess bullock, 50 per cent of the households possess local cow and 35.71 per cent of the households possess buffalo. In case of medium farmers 66.67 per cent of the households possess bullock and 33.33 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow and sheep respectively. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.98, average own labour (women) available was 1.48, average hired labour (men) available was 8.33 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.07. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.65, average own labour (women) was also 1.30, average hired labour (men) was 7.05 3 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.15. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.44, average own labour (women) was 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 10.56 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.56. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.86, average own labour (women) was 2.07, average hired labour (men) was 9.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.43. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 5.67 and average hired labour (women) available was 6. The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 1.96 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, households of the Hosahalli-1micro watershed possess 29.69 ha (54.32 %) of dry land and 24.97 ha (45.68 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 12.20 ha (93.14 %) of dry land and 0.90ha (6.86%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 6.90 ha (73 %) of dry land and 2.55 ha (27%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 10.59 ha (45.55 %) of dry land and 12.66 ha (54.45 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 8.86 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 520,124.03 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 576,373.36. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 717,070.33 for dry land and Rs. 1,780,180.25 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 376,436.11 for dry land Rs. 959,033.27 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 386,969.81 for dry land and Rs. 627,765.34 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 270,684.94 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 8 functioning and 11 defunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 52.94 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 39.82 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.90 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.46 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 12.59 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 4.86 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 20.81 ha of irrigated land. The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (7.73 ha), banana (2.55 ha), Bengal gram (3.20 ha), cotton (2.13 ha), drumstick (0.49 ha), groundnut (4.69 4 ha), maize (25.48 ha), red gram (4.33 ha), sorghum (2.47 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, red gram and sunflower. Small farmers have grown bajra, banana, cotton, groundnut, maize and sorghum. Semi medium farmers had grown bajra, banana, Bengal gram, cotton, drumstick, groundnut, maize, red gram and sorghum. Medium farmers have grown bengal gram, groundnut and maize. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Hosahalli-1micro watershed was found to be 76.18 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 90.63 per cent, in small farmers it was 100, in semi medium farmers it was 78.02 and in medium farmers it was 41.30 per cent. The results indicated that, 49.02 per cent of the households have bank account and 19.61 per cent of the household possess savings. Among marginal farmers 55 percent of them possess bank account and 25 percent of the households possess savings. 55.56 per cent of small farmers possess bank account and 33.33 per cent of the households possess savings. In semi medium farmers, 57.14 per cent of them possess bank account and 7.14 savings per cent of them possess and in medium category of farmers possess 33.33 per cent of bank account and also savings correspondingly. The results indicated that, 25 per cent of marginal, 44.44 per cent of small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 50 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank and 7.14 per cent have availed loan from money lender. The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs.36600, Rs. 102500 and Rs. 56250 and Rs.50000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed was Rs. 62000. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, 100 percent of loan was taken for health care. Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have unpaid their institutional credit. Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially. The results indicated that 30.77 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 69.23 per cent of them opined that higher rate of interest. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement. 5 The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 32799.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 129330.43. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 96530.89, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.94. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 36239.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44053.21. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 7813.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.22. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 56153.85. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 113354.28. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 57200.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.02. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 42168.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30875.00. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs-11293.76. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.73. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 37564.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 56195.79. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 18630.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 26051.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41911.68. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 15859.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 38511.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75028.14. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 46253.24. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.61. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 143187.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 491750.31. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 348562.38. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.43. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 42028.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23304.69. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -18723.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.55. The results indicated that, 37.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were adequate. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 29000. In marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was 6 Rs.12500, wage was Rs. 19350, agriculture was Rs. 51301 and dairy farm was Rs. 1708. In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs. 28444.44, wage was Rs. 6666.67, agriculture was Rs. 83044.44 and dairy farm was Rs. 2777.78. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 15714.29, agriculture was Rs. 68200 and dairy farm was Rs.6434.29. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 11666.67 and agriculture was Rs. 75333.33. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 15000. In marginal farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 63333.33, wage was Rs. 14,205.88, agriculture was Rs. 19,636.36 and dairy farm was Rs. 6,250. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 92,500, wage was Rs. 13,000, agriculture was Rs. 53,888.89 and dairy farm was Rs. 12,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 8,785.71, dairy farm was Rs. 9,600 and agriculture was Rs. 47,142.86. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.4000 and agriculture was Rs. 56,666.67. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 9 coconut trees in their field and also planted 1 coconut tree in their back yard. The results indicated that, households have planted 55 neem trees, 8tamarind tress, 3 silver oak trees and 1 banyan trees in their field and also grown 1 Neem tree in the backyard. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3725.49 for land development, Rs. 980.39 in irrigation facility, Rs.2372.55 for improved crop production and Rs.607.84 for improved livestock management. Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3800 for land development, Rs. 450 for irrigation facility, Rs.2350 for improved crop production and Rs.350 for improved livestock management. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development, Rs.1666.67 for improved crop production and Rs.555.56 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6,142.86 for land development, Rs. 2,500 for irrigation facility, Rs. 3,785.71 for improved crop production and Rs. 1,142.86 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,333.33 for land development, Rs. 2,000 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,000 for improved crop production and Rs. 1,000 for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, loan from the bank was the source of funds to, 39.22 per cent of the households for land development, 17.65 per cent of the households for irrigation facility, 41.18 per cent of the households for improved crop production and 19.61 per cent of the households for improved livestock management. 7 The results indicated that, Bajra, banana, bengal gram, cotton, drumstick, groundnut, red gram, sorghum and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Only maize was sold to the extent 97.75 per cent respectively. Results also obtained that, the average price of bajra was Rs.1457.14/q, Banana was Rs.657.50/q, Bengal gram was Rs.3750/q, cotton was Rs.4250/q, drumstick was Rs.3500/q, groundnut was Rs.3700/q, maize was Rs.1132.80/q, red gram was Rs.4542.86/q, Sorghum was Rs.3225/q and Sunflower was Rs.2500/q. The results indicated that, 13.73 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 25.49 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 23.53 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 47.06 percent of the households sold their produce to cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 13.73 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 56.86 per cent of them have used tractor and 39.22 per cent have used truck. The results indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 45 percent of marginal farmers, 11.11 per cent of small farmers, 50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 33.33 percent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 92.16 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 7.84 percent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 68.63 per cent and 31.37 per cent of them were using bore well for drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 98.04per cent of the households and 1.96 per cent of the households were using kerosene lamp. The results indicated that, 33.33 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of landless, 35 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 35.71 per cent of semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 98.04 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 1.96 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 27.45 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless, 30 percent of the marginal, 33.33 per cent of the small, 14.29 per cent of the semi medium and 66.67 percent of the medium farmers. 8 The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 84.31 per cent, 23.53 per cent, 35.29 per cent, 1.96 per cent, 96.08 per cent, 84.31 per cent and 45.10 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk and meat were inadequate for 15.69 per cent, 78.43 per cent, 68.63 per cent, 66.67 per cent, 3.92 per cent and 39.22 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 60.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (33.33%), inadequacy of irrigation water (21.57%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (37.25%), high rate of interest on credit (35.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.39%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.39%), inadequate extension services (56.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.78%), less rainfall (31.37%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (13.73 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nirligi-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 684 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 85 per cent is covered by soils and 15 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. An area of about 12 per cent has loamy soils and 73 per cent has clayey soils at the surface. About 50 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in soils. Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 26 per cent are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 59 per cent soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1.0 ppm) in soils. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 32 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 36 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 193 (28) 78 (11) Sapota 54 (8) 41 (6) Maize 54 (8) 217 (32) Pomegranate 54 (8) 216 (32) Bajra 89 (13) 206 (30) Musambi 168 (25) 102 (15) Groundnut 68 (10) 248 (36) Lime 168 (25) 102 (15) Sunflower 168 (25) 101 (15) Amla 95 (14) 465 (68) Red gram 54 (8) 217 (32) Cashew - 27 (4) Bengalgram 139 (20) 200 (29) Jackfruit 54 (8) 41 (6) Cotton 160 (23) 111 (16) Jamun 21 (3) 226 (33) Chilli 54 (8) 41 (6) Custard apple 233 (34) 326 (48) Tomato 54 (8) 41 (6) Tamarind 21 (3) 263 (38) Brinjal 6 (1) 487 (71) Mulberry 89 (13) 327 (48) Onion - 317 (46) Marigold 54 (8) 216 (32) Bhendi - 492 (72) Chrysanthemum 54 (8) 216 (32) Drumstick 54 (8) 439 (64) Jasmine 54 (8) 41 (6) Mango 21 (3) 92 (13) Crossandra 54 (8) 156 (23) Guava 33 (5) 62 (9) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Nirligi-1 micro watershed among them 4 (11.43 %) were marginal farmers, 10 (28.57 %) were small farmers, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium farmers, 12 (34.29%) were medium farmers, 1(2.86%) was large farmer and 5 (14.29 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 170 population households in the studied micro watershed. Among them 85 (50%) men and 85(50 %) were women. The average family size of landless, marginal, small and large farmers was 5, semi medium and medium farmer was 6. The data indicated that 39 (22.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 73 (42.94 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (30 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 7 (4.12%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Nirligi-1 had 23.53 per cent illiterates, 32.35 per cent of them had primary school education, 11.18 per cent of them had middle school, 11.76 per cent of them had high school education, 12.94 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.18 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 4.12 per cent of them had degree education and 0.59 per cent them had masters. The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 2.86 per cent of them were general labour, in government service and housewives respectively. The results indicated that agriculture was the occupation for 51.18 per cent of the household members, 10.59 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.59 per cent of them were general labour, in government service, housewives and children's respectively. 4.71 per cent were in private service and 30 per cent were students. In case of landless farmers, 45.45 per cent were agricultural labour and students respectively. In case of marginal farmers 55 per cent were agriculturist, 10 percent was in private service and 25 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 65.79 per cent of them were agriculturist, 2.63 per cent of them were private service and 31.58 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 64.71 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 11.76 per cent were in private service and 23.53 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 56.52 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, 10.14 per cent of them were general labours, 1.14 per cent were in government service, 4.35 per cent were in private service and 26.09 per cent were students. In case of large farmers 25 per cent of the family members were agriculturist, agriculture labour and 50 per cent of them were students. 2 The results showed that 1.76 per cent of the household participated in self help group, 0.59 per cent of the households participated in user group and 97.65 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicated that 34.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 42.86 per cent of the household possess thatched house and 22.86 per cent of the households possess Pucca house. The results showed that, 94.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 34.29 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 42.86 per cent of the household possess motor cycle and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs.4757; the average value of television was mixer grinder was Rs.1312, the average value of television was bicycle was Rs. 1333, the average value of television was motor cycle was Rs.34333 and the average value of television was mobile phone was Rs.1569. Data showed that 25.71 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess power tiller and tractor, 17.14 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 100 per cent of the households possess weeder, 2.86 per cent of them possess thresher and 11.43 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18222; the average value of plough was Rs. 970, the average value of power tiller was Rs. 25000, the average value of tractor was Rs. 600000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4666, the average value of weeder was Rs.30, the average value of thresher was Rs.15000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000. The results indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.86 per cent of the household possess cross bread cow and buffalo respectively. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.67, average own labour (women) available was 1.47, average hired labour (men) available was 10.87 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.77. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.75, average own labour (women) was also 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 9.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.20, average own labour (women) was 1.40, average hired labour (men) was 15.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 14.40. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.67, average own labour (women) was 1.33, average hired labour (men) was 14 and average hired labour (women) available was also 14. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.08, average own labour 3 (women) was 1.67, average hired labour (men) was 7.08 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.92. In large farmers average own labour men available was 1, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 7 and average hired labour (women) available was 8. The data showed that, in case of landless farmers 20 per cent of the household possess bullock and local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock. In case of semi medium farmers, 33.33 per cent of the households possess cross bread cow. In medium farmers, 41.67 per cent of the households possess bullock, 50 per cent of the household possess local cow and 8.33 per cent of the household possess buffalo. The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. The results indicated that, households of the Nirligi-1 micro watershed possess 29.29 ha (43.12%) of dry land and 38.64 ha (56.88%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.65 ha (84.52 %) of dry land and 0.49ha (15.48%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 12.90 ha (94.10 %) of dry land and 0.81 ha (5.90%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.41 ha (11.31%) of dry land and 3.24 ha (88.69%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.48 ha (12.55%) of dry land and 31.21 ha (87.45%) of irrigated land and large farmers possess 8.85 ha (75.33%) of dry land and 2.90 ha (24.67 %) of irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 225,259.29 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 408,356.92. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 527,938.93 for dry land and Rs. 1,029,166.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 186,005.65 for dry land and Rs. 741,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,937,254.94 for dry land and was Rs. 586,625 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 178,501.79 for dry land and was Rs. 371,573.08 for irrigated land. In large farmers the average land value was Rs. 135,590.12 for dry land and Rs. 172,486.04 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 10 functioning and 3 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 28.57 per cent of the farmers, 5.71 per cent of households were using canal as a source of irrigation and 2.86 per cent of the farmers were using tank for irrigation. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.49 ha of irrigated land and semi medium farmers were having 1.21 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers having 28.57 ha irrigated land. On an average there were 30.57 ha of irrigated land. 4 The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (4.20 ha), cotton (6.88 ha), groundnut (5.75 ha), maize (30.73 ha), navane (2.43 ha), onion (3.32 ha), red gram (1.34 ha) and sunflower (0.81 ha) in kharif season. Marginal and small farmers have grown groundnut, maize, onion and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton and onion. Medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize and onion. Large farmers have grown bajra and navane. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Nirligi-1 micro watershed was found to be 72.63 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers cropping intensity was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 99.56 per cent, in medium farmers it was 61.06 per cent and in case of large farmers it was 74.53 per cent. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.86 per cent of having savings. Among land less farmers 100 per cent of the household possess bank account; marginal farmers 100 percent of them possess both bank account and 75 per cent of the household possess savings. 100 per cent of small, farmers possess per cent of bank account and 90 per cent possess savings, in semi medium farmers 100 per cent of the farmers possess bank account and 66.67 per cent savings, in case of medium farmers 100 per cent of the farmers possess bank account and 8.33 per cent of them possess savings and large category of farmers possess 100 per cent of bank account. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium and large farmers and 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 23.08 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 3.85 per cent have availed loan from Cooperative Bank, money lender and SHGs/CBOs respectively. 38.46 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank and 15.38 per cent of the household's availed loan from friends/relatives. The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers have availed Rs. 130000, Rs. 79000, Rs. 178333.33, Rs. 66,250 and Rs.50000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 94807.69. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, 85.71per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production and 14.29 per cent of the household barrowed money for household consumption. . Results indicated that 82.35 percent of the households have unpaid their institutional loan and 17.65 per cent of them fully paid their institutional loan. 5 Results indicated that 14.29 percent of the households have partially paid their private credit and 85.71 per cent of the households have unpaid their private credit. The results indicated that 23.53 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 11.76 per cent opined that higher rate of interest. The results indicated that 14.29 per cent of the households were opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement and 28.57 per cent opined that higher rate of interest. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 34996.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26639.98. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -8356.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.76. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 27652.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94691.73. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 67039.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.42. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 30764.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50101.70. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 19337.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.63. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 161340.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 30924.25. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -130415.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.19. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 11505.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22230. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 10724.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.93. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 19733.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38835.54. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 19101.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.97. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 37429.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 104434.69. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 67005. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.79. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 26987.81. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50388. The net 6 income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23400.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.87. The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The table indicated that the in case of landless farmers the average annual income from wage was Rs.28000 and dairy farm was Rs.600, in marginal farmers, average income from service/salary was Rs.3750, business was Rs.60000, wage was Rs.27500 and agriculture Rs. 46950. In case of small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 81700 and agriculture was Rs.47610. In semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.33333.33, wage was Rs.6000 and agriculture was Rs.97666.67. Medium farmer's average income from service/salary was Rs.5000, business was Rs.1666.67, wage was Rs.15666.67, agriculture was Rs.99166.67 and dairy farm was Rs.4416.67. Similarly in large farmers the average income from wage was Rs.20000 and agriculture was Rs.110000. The results indicated that, in case of marginal, the average annual expenditure from business was Rs. 170000 and agriculture was Rs.26750. In case of small farmers the average annual expenditure from agriculture was Rs. 25300. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs.55666.67 and dairy farm was Rs. 17000. In medium farmers the average annual expenditure from business was Rs.12000 and agriculture was Rs.45818.18.In large farmers the average expenditure from agriculture was Rs. 50000. The results indicate that, households have an average additional investment capacity of Rs. 3285.71 for land development and Rs. 1600 in irrigation facility, Rs.1742.86 for improved crop production and Rs.142.86 for improved livestock management. Marginal farmers have an average additional investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development and Rs. 2000 in improved crop production. Medium farmers have an average additional investment capacity of Rs.7500 for land development, Rs.4000 for irrigation facility, Rs. 4416.67 for improved crop production and Rs. 416.67 for improved livestock management. Large farmers have an average additional investment of Rs.15000 for land development and have an investment capacity of Rs. 8000 for irrigation facility. The results indicated that for 5.71 per cent and 20 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank and soft loan for land development respectively. For irrigation facility 14.29 per cent of household were dependent on loan from the bank and 5.71 per cent of the household were dependent on soft loan. 11.43 per cent of the household were depending on loan from bank and soft loan for 7 improved crop production respectively. 2.86 per cent of the household were dependent on loan from bank for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, groundnut, navane, onion, red gram and sunflower crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Only maize was sold to the extent of 93.79 per cent. The results indicated that, 88.57 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 22.86 percent of the households have sold their produce to regulated market. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of households used tractor as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 25 percent of marginal farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 100 percent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers. The results indicated that, 91.43 percent of the household used fire wood as a source of fuel, 2.86 per cent of the household used kerosene and 25.71 per cent of the household used LPG as source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households and 40 per cent of the household were using bore well as a source of drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 40 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 50 per cent of small, 66.67 per cent of semi medium, 8.33 per cent of medium and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 91.43 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 20 per cent of the landless and 100 percent of the marginal, small, semi medium, medium farmers and large farmers. The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the household respectively. Oilseed were adequate for 2.86 per cent of the households, vegetables were adequate for 77.14 per cent of the households, milk were adequate for 88.57 per cent of the households, egg were adequate for 57.14 per cent of the households and meat were adequate for 25.71 per cent of the household. 8 The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the household. Oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 57.14 per cent, 22.86 per cent, 74.29 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 42.86 per cent and 71.43 per cent of the household respectively. . The results indicated that, oilseed and fruits were inadequate for 40 per cent and 25.71 per cent of the household respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (57.14%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (48.57%), high rate of interest on credit (48.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequate extension services (57.14 %), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (48.57%) and less rain fall (11.43%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Timmapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 84 per cent is covered by soils, 14 per cent by rock outcrops and 2 per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 43 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface and 41 per cent loamy soils at the surface. About 13 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 71 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in about 13 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 65 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in 11 per cent soils. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 83 per cent area and 4.5 ppm) in the entire area. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 42 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 160 (32) Sapota - 19 (4) Maize - 159 (32) Pomegranate - 78 (15) Bajra - 200 (40) Musambi - 78 (15) Groundnut - 107 (21) Lime - 78 (15) Sunflower - 75 (15) Amla - 237 (47) Red gram - 66 (13) Cashew - 36 (7) Bengalgram - 176 (35) Jackfruit - 19 (4) Cotton - 160 (32) Jamun - 69 (14) Chilli - 101 (20) Custard apple - 237 (47) Tomato - 101 (20) Tamarind - 66 (13) Brinjal 16 (3) 135 (27) Mulberry - 113 (23) Onion 16 (3) 62 (12) Marigold - 159 (32) Bhendi 16 (3) 120 (24) Chrysanthemum - 159 (32) Drumstick - 93 (18) Jasmine - 101 (20) Mango - 16 (3) Crossandra - 110 (22) Guava - 19 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The results indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Timmapur-2 microwatershed among them 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 14 (40%) were small farmers, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium farmers, 4 (11.43%) were medium farmers and 5 (14.29%) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 191 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 106 (55.50%) men and 85 (44.50 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 6, marginal farmer was 4, small and semi medium farmers were 5 and medium farmers were 7. On an average the family size was 5. The data indicated that 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 91 (47.64 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 47 (24.61 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (6.81%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Timmapur-2 had 37.17 per cent illiterates, 35.08 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.38 per cent of them had middle school, 11.52 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 had diploma education and 1.05 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicated that, 80 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 17.14 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were general labour. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 45.55 per cent of the household members, 24.61 per cent were agricultural labourers, 4.71 per cent were general labours and 23.56 per cent of them were students. In case of landless farmers 54.84 per cent of them were agriculture labours, 29.03 per cent of them were general labour and 12.90 per cent of them were students. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers 58.82 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 17.65 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 23.53 per cent of them were students. In small farmers 51.35 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 20.27 per cent of them were agriculture labour and 28.38 per cent of them were student. In case of semi medium farmers, 76. 92 per cent of them were agriculturist, 10.26 per cent of them were agriculture labour and students. In medium farmers 30 per cent of them were agriculturist, 26.67 per cent of them were agricultural labour and 40 per cent of them were students. The results showed that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicated that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 42.86 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 11.43 per cent of the households possess Pucca house. 2 The results showed that, 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 42.86 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 37.14 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 97.14 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results showed that the average value of television was Rs. 6800, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1656, bicycle was Rs.1750, motor cycle was Rs.29230 and mobile phone was Rs.1544. The data showed that about 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 45.71 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of the households possess tractor, 25.71 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of the households possess weeder and 11.43 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.16800; the average value of plough was Rs. 910, the average value of tractor was Rs. 500000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 59 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 2325. The results indicated that, 45.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow. In case of marginal farmers, 25 per cent of the households possess bullock. In case of small farmers, 50 per cent of households possess bullock and 28.57 per cent possess local cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 62.50 per cent of the households possess bullock and 50 per cent of the households possess local cow. 75 medium farmers possess bullock and 50 farmers possess local. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.13, average own labour (women) available was 1.65, average hired labour (men) available was 8.35 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.16. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was also 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 6.50 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.71, average hired labour (men) was 9.71 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.21. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2.38, average own labour (women) was 1.50, average hired labour (men) was 9.13 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.50. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2.25, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.50. The results indicated that, 88.57 per cent of the household opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicated that, households of the Timmapur-2 microwatershed possess 20.72 ha (45.57%) of dry land and 24.75 ha (54.43%) of irrigated land. Marginal 3 farmers possess 2.51 ha (86.11%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (13.89%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 16.19 ha (86.21 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (13.79 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 0.81 ha (6.97 %) of dry land and 10.81 ha (93.03%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 1.21 ha (9.98%) of dry land and 10.95 ha (90.02%) irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 390,761.72 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 501,592.55. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 597,580.64 for dry land and Rs. 1,976,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 333,450 for dry land Rs. 810,468.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 741,000 for dry land and Rs. 573,558.06 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 494,000 for dry land and Rs. 303,045.09 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 19 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 54.29 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 45.37 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0.40 per cent of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 2.59 ha of irrigated land, in case of semi medium farmers there was 12.02 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 6.11 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 21.13 ha of irrigated land. The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (4.45 ha), chilly (1.21 ha), cotton (2.91 ha), groundnut (8.22 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), maize (14.40 ha), paddy (4.57 ha), sesamum (0.81 ha), sorghum (1.21 ha), sunflower (0.81 ha) and tomato (1.21 ha) in kharif season. Marginal farmers have grown groundnut, maize and sesamum. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, horsegram, maize and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown chilly, cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and tomato. Medium farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Timmapur-2 microwatershed was found to be 98.07 per cent. In case of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers it was 100 per cent and in semi medium farmers it was 93.03 per cent. The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and 48.57 per cent of the households have savings. 60per cent of the landless farmers have bank account. In marginal farmers 100 per cent of them have bank account and 50 per cent of them had savings. In case of small farmers 100 per cent of them had bank account and 71.43 per cent possess savings. In case of semi medium farmers, 4 100 per cent of possess bank account and 62.50 per cent farmer's savings. In Medium farmers, 100 per cent of farmers possess bank account. The results indicated that 54.29 per cent of the farmers have borrowed credit from different sources which includes 75 per cent of marginal, 57.14 per cent of small, 75 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 31.58 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank, 15.79 per cent have availed loan in cooperative Bank, 5.26 per cent have availed loan from friends/relatives, 89.47 per cent have availed loan in Grameena bank, 42.11per cent have availed loan from money lender and 10.53 per cent have availed loan in SHGs/CBOs. The results indicated that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium have availed Rs. 55,000, Rs. 110,062.50, Rs. 74,166.67 and Rs, 195,000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed was Rs. 108,447.37. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, 27.27 per cent of the household's barrowed private credit for agriculture production which includes 40 per cent of the small and 50 per cent of the semi medium farmers. Results indicated that 19.23 per cent of households were partially paid their loan, 61.54 per cent of households were unpaid their loan and 19.23 per cent of households were fully paid their loan. Results indicated that 63.64 per cent of the households have partially paid their loan, 27.27 per cent have unpaid their private credit and 9.09 per cent of the households have fully paid their loan. The results indicated that 30.77 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 46.15 per cent of the households were opined that higher rate of interest, 7.69 per cent of the households were opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time . The results indicated that, 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that helped to perform timely agricultural operations and higher rate of interest and 36.36 per cent of the households were not given any opinion. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27597.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29830.49. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 2232.71. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.08. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 61186.58. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75699.47. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 14512.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. 5 The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 62877.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 73035.07. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 10157.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 17933.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25454.72. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 7521.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.42. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 28537.03. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 103740. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75202.97. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.64. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 11451.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26840.67. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 15389.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.34. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 28542.16. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71784.37. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 43242.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.52. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 34933.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63232. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 28298.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.81. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 23059.20. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 181133.33. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 158074.14. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.86. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 13146.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34382.40. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 21235.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.62. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for sesamum was Rs. 15380.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21612.50. The net income from sesamum cultivation was Rs. 6231.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.41. The results indicated that, 62.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34.29 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The table indicated that, in landless farmers, the average income from wage was Rs. 26000. In marginal farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 26071.43 and agriculture was Rs. 37600. In small farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 6 26071.43, agriculture was Rs. 49050 and dairy farm was Rs. 2112.14. In semi medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 14,375, agriculture was Rs. 117,562.50 and dairy farm was Rs.625. In medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs. 15000, agriculture was Rs. 71500 and dairy farm was Rs. 750. The results indicated that, in landless farmers, the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 13000, in marginal farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs.5666.67 and agriculture was Rs.14750. In case of small farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 11111.11, agriculture was Rs. 23285.71 and dairy farm was Rs. 10,000. In case of semi medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 5750, agriculture was Rs. 47875 and dairy farm was Rs.1000. In case of medium farmers the average expenditure from wage was Rs. 3,000 and agriculture was Rs. 35,000. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 20 coconut and 49 mango trees in their field. The results indicated that, households have planted 50 neem, 6 tarmind, 1 banyan and 1 peeple trees in their field. The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs.2257.14 for land development, Rs. 1171.43 in irrigation facility, Rs.1314.29 for improved crop production, Rs.600 for improved livestock management and Rs.142.86 for subsidiary enterprises. The data showed that Marginal households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2500 for land development, Rs. 1500 for irrigation facility and Rs.1250 for improved crop production. Small farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2357.14 for land development, Rs. 785.71 in irrigation facility, Rs.1642.86 for improved crop production and Rs.357.14 for improved livestock management. Semi medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2000 for land development, Rs. 1750 in irrigation facility, Rs.1250 for improved crop production and Rs.750 for improved livestock management. Medium farmers have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5000 for land development, Rs. 2500 for irrigation facility, Rs.2000 for improved crop production, Rs.2500 for improved livestock management and Rs.1250 for subsidiary enterprises. The results indicated that, for land development, 20 per cent were depending on loan from the bank and 2.86 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For irrigation facility 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from bank and 11.43 per cent were depending on soft loan. Similarly for improved crop production, 5.71 per cent of the households were dependent on loan from the bank, 2.86 per cent were dependent on their own funds and 14.29 per cent of the households were depending on soft loan. For improved livestock management 2.86 per cent were dependent on own funds and 11.43 per cent were dependent on soft loan. For subsidiary enterprises 2.86 per cent of the households were dependent on soft loan. 7 The results indicated that, chilli, cotton, horsegram, sesamum, sorghum, sunflower and tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize and paddy were sold to the extent of 85.71 per cent, 96.27 per cent, 97.23 per cent and 94.33 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 62.86 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant, 31.43 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets and 14.29 percent of the households sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 11.43 per cent of the households have used cart as a mode of transport, 57.14 per cent of them have used tractor and 40 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 50 percent of marginal farmers, 42.86 per cent of small farmers, 37.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 100 percent of medium farmers. The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing including 100 per cent of marginal farmers, small farmers and medium farmers and 87.50 per cent of the semi medium farmers respectively. The results indicated that, 100 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel and 2.86 per cent of the households used LPG. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cents of the households were using bore well for drinking water. The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 100 per cent of marginal, 21.43 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium and 25 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 42.86 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 100 percent of the marginal, 21.43 per cent of the small, 12.50 per cent of the semi medium and 100 percent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 94.29 per cent, 60 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 85.71 per cent, 80 per cent, and 65.71 per cent respectively. Vegetables and fruits were adequate for 48.57 per cent of the households. 8 The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk, egg and meat were inadequate for 5.71 per cent, 40 per cent, 80 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 40 per cent, 5.71 per cent, 17.14 per cent and 31.43 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the farmers, inadequacy of irrigation water was experienced by 42.86 per cent of the households, high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, high rate of interest on credit was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, low price for the agricultural commodities was experienced by 60 per cent of the farmers, lack of marketing facilities in the area was experienced 65.71 per cent of the households, inadequate of extension services experienced by 65.71 per cent of the households, lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market was experienced by 74.29 per cent of the households and less rainfall was experienced by 25.71 per cent of the farmers. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalakeri microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 497 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm). About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 65 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 31 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 80 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 95 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 53 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 46 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 10 per cent soils are moderately acid to slightly acid (pH 5.5-6.5), 12 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 68 per cent soil are slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) and 8 per cent soils are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in 59 per cent area. An area of about 52 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 47 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 34 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 24 per cent area of the microwatershed. An area of 66 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 58 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content. Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content. An area of about 24 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content. The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 58(12) 81(16) Sapota 56(11) 112(23) Maize 56(11) 99(20) Pomegranate 56(11) 170(34) Bajra 56(11) 186(37) Guava - 168(34) Groundnut - 380(77) Jackfruit 56(11) 112(23) Sunflower 58(12) 81(16) Jamun 56(11) 154(31) Cotton 58(12) 82(16) Musambi 58(12) 168(34) Red gram 56(11) 77(16) Lime 58(12) 168(34) Bengalgram 2(<1) 137(38) Cashew - 195(39) Chilli 56(11) 25(5) Custard apple 58(12) 417(84) Tomato 56(11) 25(5) Amla 56(11) 419(84) Brinjal 15(3) 389(78) Tamarind 56(11) 76(15) Onion 15(3) 330(66) Marigold 56(11) 84(17) Bhendi 15(3) 389(78) Chrysanthemum 56(11) 84(17) Drumstick 56(11) 294(59) Jasmine 56(11) 25(5) Mulberry 56(11) 419(84) Crossandra 56(11) 56(6) Mango 56(11) 75(13) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY Results indicated that, 49 farmers were sampled in Kalakeri micro watershed among them 17 (34.69%) were marginal farmers, 19 (38.78 %) were small farmers, 6(12.24 %) were semi medium farmers, 2 (4.08 %) were medium farmers and 5 (10.20 %) landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The data indicated that there were 228 population households were there in the studied micro watershed. Among them 135 (59.21%) men and 93 (40.79 %) were women. The average family size of landless was 3, marginal farmers and medium farmers were 4, small farmer was 5 and semi medium farmer was 7. On an average the family size was 5. The data indicated that 35 (15.35%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 110 (48.25 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (25.44 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 25 (10.96 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that the Kalakeri had 35.53 per cent illiterates, 27.19 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.63 per cent of them had both middle school, 14.91 per cent them had high school education, 8.77 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.44 per cent them had Diploma education, 2.63 per cent of them had degree education, 1.75 per cent of them had masters education and 6.14 per cent them had others. The results indicated that, 89.79 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 2.04 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour and 8.16 per cent of the household heads were general labour. The results indicated that agriculture was the major occupation for 52.63 per cent of the household members, 12.72 per cent were agricultural labourers, 5.70 per cent were general labours, 0.44 percent were in government service, 4.39 per cent of them were in private sector, 1.32 per cent of them were trade and business, 17.54 per cent of them were students, 4.82 per cent of them were children and 0.44 per cent were housewives. In case of landless households 76.47 per cent were general labourers and 11.76 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 59.70 per cent were agriculturist, 8.96 percent was in agricultural labour, 2.99 per cent of both were in private and trade and business and 20.90 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 58.06 per cent of them were agriculturist and 15.05 per cent of them were students. In case of semi medium farmers 48.84 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 23.26 per cent of them were students. In case of medium farmers 62.50 per cent of the family members were agriculturist and 25 per cent of them were in private service. The results showed that 0.88 per cent of them participated in self help groups and 99.12 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. Small, semi medium and medium farmers were found to have no participation in any local 2 institutions. Land less and marginal farmers were found to participate in one or the other local institutions. The results indicated that 65.31 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 2.04 per cent of the households possess Pucca house, 30.61 per cent of the households possess Semi Pacca house and 2.04 per cent of them possess Thatched house. 100 percent of the landless and medium farmers possess Katcha house. The results showed that, 2.04 per cent of the households possess radio, 83.67 per cent of the households possess TV, 53.06 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.04 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 32.65 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 30.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.04 per cent of the households possess Auto, 89.80 per cent of the households possess mobile phones and 4.08 per cent of the households possess computer/laptop. The results showed that the average value of radio was Rs.800, television was Rs. 5024, mixer grinder was Rs.1892, refrigerator was Rs.15000, bicycle was Rs.7437, motor cycle was Rs.42866, Auto was Rs. 100000, mobile phone was Rs.1723 and computer/laptop was Rs. 2000. Results showed that 12.24 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 20.41 per cent of them possess plough, 6.12 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, 10.20 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, 4.08 per cent of the households possess tractor, 16.33 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 2.04 per cent of the households possess sprinkler, 67.35 per cent of the households possess weeder, 12.24 per cent of the households possess harvester, 4.08 per cent of the households possess chaff cutter and 2.04 per cent of the households possess JCB/Hitachi. The results showed that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20833; the average value of plough was Rs. 1040, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 1925, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs. 20750, the average value of tractor was Rs. 301500, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 4825, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 500, the average value of weeder was Rs. 73, the average value of harvester was Rs. 80, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3000 and the average value of JCB/Hitachi was Rs. 300000. The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 20.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6.12 per cent of the households possess buffalo, 2.04 per cent of the households possess sheep and 4.08 per cent of the households possess poultry birds respectively. In case of marginal farmers, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bullock and local cow respectively and 5.88 per cent of the households possess poultry birds. In case of small farmers, 42.11 per cent of households possess bullock, 21.05 per cent possess local cow, 10.53 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 5.26 per cent possess sheep and poultry birds respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 50 per 3 cent of the households possess both bullock and local cow correspondingly, 16.67 per cent of the households possess buffalo. The results indicated that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.56, average own labour (women) available was 1.33, average hired labour (men) available was 22.16 and average hired labour (women) available was 21.63. In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.18, average own labour (women) was also 1.18, average hired labour (men) was 11.65 and average hired labour (women) available was 11.18. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.72, average own labour (women) was 1.28, average hired labour (men) was 30.28 and average hired labour (women) available was 30.28. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 2, average hired labour (men) was 25 and average hired labour (women) available was 21.67. In medium farmers average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1, average hired labour (men) was 30 and average hired labour (women) available was 32.50. The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate which includes 94.12 per cent of the marginal farmers, 94.74 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and medium farmers and 2.04 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate. The results indicated that, households of the Kalakeri micro watershed possess 28.05 ha (62.87 %) of dry land and 16.57 ha (37.13 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 10.26 ha (98.07 %) of dry land and 0.20 ha (1.93%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 15.25 ha (70.99 %) of dry land and 6.23 ha (29.01 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.54 ha (29.46 %) of dry land and 6.09 ha (70.54 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicated that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 495354.20 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 633488.03. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 682051.27 for dry land and Rs. 1482000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 419532.91 for dry land Rs. 737792.21 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 196656.04 for dry land and Rs. 706183.51 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 321100 for irrigated land. The results indicated that, there were 7 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicated that, bore well was the major irrigation source for 39.13 per cent of the farmers. The results indicated that on an average the depth of the bore well was 39.76 meters. The results indicated that, in case of marginal farmers there was 0. 20 ha of irrigated land, in case of small farmers there was 9.06 ha of irrigated land, semi medium farmers were having 8.05 ha of irrigated land and medium farmers were having 8.10 ha of irrigated land. On an average there were 25.41 ha of irrigated land. 4 The results indicated that, farmers have grown bajra (12.09 ha), maize (83.02 ha), paddy (1.82 ha) and sesamum (0.81ha) in kharif season. Also grown chilly (1.21 ha), cow pea (2.24 ha), groundnut (3.63 ha), paddy (0.40 ha), sunflower (3.04ha) and tomato (0.08 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown Maize, Bajra, sesamum, cowpea and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, maize, paddy, cowpea, groundnut and tomato. Semi medium farmers have grown Maize, bajra, chilly, cowpea, groundnut and sunflower. Medium farmers have grown bajra, maize and sunflower. The results indicated that, the cropping intensity in Kalakeri micro watershed was found to be 177.17 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 527.38 per cent, in small farmers it was 92.17, in semi medium farmers it was 79.59 and in medium farmers it was 100 per cent. The results indicated that, 41.30 per cent of the households have bank account and savings respectively. Among marginal farmers 58.82 percent of them possess both bank account and savings. 36.84 per cent of small farmers possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. Semi medium farmers possess 16.67 per cent of both bank account and savings respectively and medium category of farmers possess 50 per cent of bank account and also savings correspondingly. The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of marginal, 31.58 per cent of small and 50 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 11.76 per cent have availed loan in commercial bank and friends/ relatives correspondingly, 52.94 per cent have availed loan from Grameena bank, 23.52 per cent have availed loan from money lender and 29.41 per cent have availed loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicated that, marginal, small and medium have availed Rs.37500, Rs. 90166.67 and Rs. 200000 respectively. Overall average credit amount availed by households in the micro watershed is 62000. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture production. The results indicated that, agriculture production, purchase–agricultural implements/ farm machinery, purchase-vehicle, household consumption and social functions like marriage reasons were the purpose for which marginal and small farmers borrowed loan from private credit. About 54.55 percent of loan was taken for agriculture production, 9.09 per cent of the loan was taken for purchase–agricultural implements/ farm machinery, purchase-vehicle, household consumption respectively and 18.18 per cent of the farmers taken loan for social functions like marriage. Results indicated that 9.09 per cent of the households have repaid their institutional credit partially and 90.91 percent of the households have unpaid their loan. 5 Results indicated that 27.27 per cent of the households have repaid their private credit partially, 54.55 percent of the households have unpaid their loan and 18.18 per cent of them fully paid their loan. The results indicated that 9.09 per cent of the households were opined that they were helped to perform timely agricultural operations, higher rate of interest and forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time respectively. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 32955.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29877.63. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -3078.33, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 48488.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 94802.50. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 46314.17. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.96. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 42321.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60771.15. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 18449.91. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.44. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sesamum was Rs. 11003.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20748.00. The net income from Sesamum cultivation was Rs. 9744.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.89. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 18128.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75746.67. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 57618.64. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.18. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Cowpea was Rs. 32618.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 16444.98. The net income from Cowpea cultivation was Rs. -16173.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.5. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 75670.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 82435.19. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 6764.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 21608.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19142.50. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. -2465.93. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. The results indicated that, the total cost of cultivation for Tomato was Rs. 148312.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 493999.99. The net income from Tomato cultivation was Rs. 345687.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.33. The results indicated that, 32.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.04 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. 6 Similarly 28.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 2.04 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was inadequate. The results indicated that the average income from service/salary was Rs. 3,918.37, business Rs. 1,530.61, wage Rs. 38,653.06, agriculture Rs. 61,736.73, dairy farm Rs. 612.24 and goat framing Rs. 1,020.41. The results indicated that the average expenditure from service/salary was Rs. 816.33, business Rs. 979.59, wage Rs. 8,326.53, agriculture Rs. 33,040.82, dairy farm Rs. 204.08 and goat farming Rs. 510.20. The results indicated that, sampled households have grown 105 coconut trees and 21 mango tree in their field. The results indicated that, households have planted 1 Eucalyptus tree, 4 teak trees, 97 neem trees, 16 tamarind tress and 4 banyan trees in their field and also grown 2 Neem tree in the backyard. The results indicated that for 2.04 per cent of the households were dependent on government subsidy for land development, irrigation facility and improved crop production respectively. The results indicated that, Bajra, Chilly, Cowpea, Paddy, Sesamum and Tomato crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut, maize and sunflower were sold to the extent of 56.32 per cent, 75.89 per cent and 75 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, 75.51 percent of the households have sold their produce to agent/traders, 18.37 percent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchant and 26.53 percent of the households sold their produce in regulated markets. The results indicated that 24.49 per cent of the households have used head load as a mode of transport, 32.65 per cent of them have used cart and 63.27 per cent have used tractor. The results indicated that, 36.73 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing. The results indicated that, 14.29 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding which includes 23.53 per cent of marginal, 10.53 per cent of small farmers and 16.67 per cent of semi medium farmers. The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding opined that full replacement is required for the bunds. The results indicated that 10.20 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by the government and 4.08 per cent is constructed by others. The results indicated that, 71.43 percent used fire wood as a source of fuel, 24.49 percent of the households used LPG and 4.08 per cent of the households used dung cake as a source of fuel. The results indicated that, piped supply was the source of drinking water for 51.02 per cent, 36.73 per cent of them were using bore well and 10.20 per cents of the households were using lake/tank for drinking water. 7 The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 48.98 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of landless, 47.06 per cent of marginal, 42.11 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium and 50 per cent of medium had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 95.92 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 4.08 per cent of the sampled households have not possessed BPL card. The results indicated that, 32.65 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 60 per cent of the landless, 17.65 percent of the marginal, 15.79 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 50 percent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits , milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent, 83.67 per cent, 57.14 per cent, 69.39 per cent, 20.41 per cent, 91.84 per cent, 81.63 per cent and 63.27 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, vegetables, fruits and meat were inadequate for 26.53 per cent of the households. Pulses, oilseed, milk and egg were inadequate for 16.33 per cent, 42.86 per cent, 6.12 per cent and 10.20 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 38.78 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (67.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (30.61%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (44.90%), high rate of interest on credit (53.06%), low price for the agricultural commodities (34.69%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (46.94%), inadequate extension services (26.53%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (38.78%), less rain fall (48.98%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (18.37 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kamanuru-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 274 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soils, 4 per cent water bodies, settlements and others and 7 per cent by rock lands. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. About 26 per cent area has clayey soils, 37 per cent loamy soils and 26 per cent sandy soils at the surface. About 67 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 66 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 23 per cent area has gently sloping (3-5%) lands. An area of about 26 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 63 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 21 per cent has soils that are slightly to moderately acid (pH 5.5- 6.5), 32 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 36 per cent are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3 to 8.4) and 1 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 70 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 19 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 69 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 20 per cent of the soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in about 4 per cent. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 21 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 82 (30) 58 (21) Pomegranate 82 (30) 96 (35) Maize 38 (14) 72 (26) Guava 80 (29) 72 (27) Bajra 84 (31) 69 (25) Jackfruit 82 (30) 71 (26) Red gram 82 (30) 53 (19) Jamun 42 (15) 135 (49) Bengalgram 25 (9) 115 (42) Musambi 82 (30) 96 (35) Groundnut 80 (29) 91 (33) Lime 82 (30) 96 (35) Sunflower 82 (30) 53 (19) Cashew 80 (29) 88 (32) Cotton 44 (16) 95 (35) Custard apple 84 (31) 158 (58) Chilli 84 (31) 26 (9) Amla 84 (31) 158 (58) Tomato 84 (31) 26 (9) Tamarind 42 (15) 91 (33) Drumstick 82 (30) 96 (35) Marigold 80 (29) 59 (22) Mulberry 82 (30) 155 (56) Chrysanthemum 80 (29) 59 (22) Mango 42 (15) 66 (24) Jasmine 80 (29) 34 (13) Sapota 82 (30) 71 (26) Crossandra 80 (29) 29 (11) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 73 (53.68%) men and 63 (46.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.6, marginal farmers' was 4.33, small farmers' was 4.25, semi medium farmers' was 5.13 and medium farmers' was 4. The data indicated that, 23 (16.91%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 57 (41.91%) were in 16-35 years of age, 44 (32.35%) were in 36-60 years of age and 12 (8.82 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Kamanuru-2 had 31.62 per cent illiterates, 25.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.09 per cent of them had middle school education, 22.06 per cent of them had high school education, 7.35 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.74 per cent of them did ITI, and 1.47 per cent of them had degree education. The results indicate that, 60 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 26.67 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers and 13.33 per cent were general labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 38.97 per cent of the household members, 21.32 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.56 per cent were general labour, 2.21 per cent had household industry, 5.15 per cent were in private, 16.91 per cent were students, 3.68 per cent were housewives and 2.21 per cent were children. The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 10 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 63.33 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 26.67 per cent of them possess pucca house. The results show that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 40 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 43.33 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 100 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.6333, mixer grinder was Rs.1666, bicycle was Rs. 1916, motor cycle was Rs.34384, auto was Rs.100000 and mobile phone was Rs.1435. About 3.33 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 13.33 per cent of them possess plough, 36.67 per cent of them posses sprayer, 93.33 per cent of them possess weeder, and 13.33 per cent of them possess chaff cutter. The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20000, plough was Rs.416, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2579, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.63. 2 The results indicate that, 13.33 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 16.67 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.33 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess buffalo and 3.33 per cent of them possess sheep. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.84, average own labour (women) available was 1.36, average hired labour (men) available was 7.28 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.60. The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. 16. The results indicate that, households of the Kamanuru-2 micro watershed possess 16.54 ha (46.93%) of dry land and 18.70 ha (53.07%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.63 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 10.88 ha (92.76%) of dry land and 0.85 ha (7.24%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.02 ha (15.91%) of dry land and 10.70 ha (84.09%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.15 ha (100%) of irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 356656 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 459783. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 633333 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275567 for dry land and Rs. 940952 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 296400 for dry land and Rs. 504653 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 335483 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 6 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 defunctioning open well in the school. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 20 per cent of the farmers, open well and tank each formed the source of irrigation for 3.33 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.36 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.56 meters. The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.85 ha, 8.86 ha and 5.80 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (1 ha), bengalgram (1.62 ha), cotton (0.85 ha), groundnut (7.12 ha), maize (11.21 ha), mango (6.11 ha), navane (2.11 ha), paddy (1.82 ha), redgram (1.73 ha) and sugarcane (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy. Small farmers have grown Bengalgram, cotton, maize, groundnut, navane and redgram. 3 Semi medium farmers have grown groundnut, maize, mango and paddy. Medium farmers have grown maize, mango and sugarcane. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Kamanuru-2 micro watershed was found to be 85.27 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 99.36 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 53.73 per cent. The results indicate that, 86.67 per cent of the households have bank account and 53.33 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 46.67 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 31.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 12.50 per cent availed loan from friends/relatives, 87.50 per cent availed loan from money lender and 6.25 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicate that, landless, marginal, small, and semi medium farmers have availed Rs.60000, Rs.87000, Rs.155714, and Rs.243333 respectively. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 57.14 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 28.57 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions and 14.29 per cent of the households borrowed for the purpose of construction of house or cattle shed. The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. Results indicated that 75 per cent of the households partially paid their loan and 25 per cent of the households did not repay their loan. The results indicate that, around 31.58 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 52.63 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 15.79 per cent of the households said that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay the loan in time. The results indicate that, around 12.50 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 25 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirements, 37.50 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 12.50 per cent opined that they were forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 22649.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26066.86. The net income from 4 Maize cultivation was Rs. 3417.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.15. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 28310.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28904.72. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 594.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02. The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 36079.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35197.50. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. -882.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.98. The total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 44731.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61379.50. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 16648.33. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.37. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 41425.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45304.12. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8671.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.24. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 32163.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 68571.91. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 36408.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.13. The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 36338.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111921.87. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 75583.53. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.08. The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 17541.23. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29078.64. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 11537.41. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.66. The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50986.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 110091.43. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 59104.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.16. The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 35639.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 177840. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 142200.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.99. The results indicate that, 23.33 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 6.67 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. Around 6.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs.123600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs.69908, for small farmers it was Rs.120494, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.101725, and for medium farmers it was Rs.68833. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14,600. For landless households it was Rs. 4,566.67, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 7,427.08, 5 for small farmers it was Rs. 9,156.25, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 12,111.11, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,980. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 48 coconut, 80 custard apple, 1748 mango, 2 lemon and 1 sapota tree in their fields. The results indicate that, households have planted 1 teak trees, 45 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs.1733, for irrigation facility Rs.966, for improved crop production Rs.1000 and for improved livestock management Rs.700. The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 10 per cent of the households for land development, 3.33 per cent for irrigation facility and 3.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Own funds was the source of investment for 10 per cent for irrigation facility, 6.67 per cent for improved crop production and 3.33 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loans was the source of funds for 6.67 per cent for land development, 3.33 per cent for irrigation facility, 10 per cent for improved crop production and 6.67 per cent for improved livestock management. The results indicated that, Bengalgram, cotton, maize, mango, navane and paddy were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra was sold to the extent of 94.44 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 83.33 per cent and sugarcane to the extent of 44.44 per cent. The results indicated that, about 50 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets and 40 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants. The results indicated that, 70 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 13.33 per cent have used truck and 6.67 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 30 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 16.67 per cent of marginal farmers, 12.50 per cent of small farmers, 62.50 per cent of semi medium farmers and 66.67 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 96.67 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent used fire wood and 12.90 per cent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6 The results indicated that, 70 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 16.67 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 100 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, 93.33 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, and 6.67 per cent did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 43.33 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 53.33 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 13.33 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 56.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 56.67 per cent, milk was adequate for 86.67 per cent, eggs were adequate for 83.33 per cent and meat was adequate for 56.67 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 46.67per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 86.67 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 46.67 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 40 per cent, milk was inadequate for 13.33 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 16.67 per cent and meat was inadequate for 43.33 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 83.33 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (83.33%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (70%), inadequacy of irrigation water (70%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80%), high rate of interest on credit (86.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (86.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (86.67%), less rainfall (13.33%) and inadequate extension services (63.33%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hasgal-1microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 508 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 71 per cent is covered by soil, 24 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below The soils belong to 14 soil series and 34 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. About 17 per cent sandy (loamy sand), 44 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 10 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface. About 29 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 2 per cent is nearly level (0-1%), 68 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) and 0.75%) in 53 per cent area of the soils. Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 6 per cent area of the soils. Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 5 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper is sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 34(7) 101(20) Sapota 34(7) 77(15) Maize 34(7) 101(20) Pomegranate 34(7) 130(25) Bajra 54(11) 145(28) Musambi 34(7) 130(25) Groundnut 54(11) 155(31) Lime 34(7) 130(25) Sunflower 34(7) 73(14) Amla 54(11) 246(48) Redgram 34(7) 73(14) Cashew - 112(22) Bengal gram 54(11) 87(17) Jackfruit 34(7) 77(15) Cotton - 135(27) Jamun - 164(32) Chilli 34(7) 48(10) Custard apple 54(11) 246(48) Tomato 34(7) 48(10) Tamarind - 87(17) Brinjal 20(4) 215(42) Mulberry 34(7) 232(45) Onion 20(4) 215(42) Marigold 34(7) 101(20) Bhendi 20(4) 215(42) Chrysanthemum 34(7) 101(20) Drumstick 34(7) 140(27) Jasmine 34(7) 48(9) Mango - 34(7) Crossandra 34(7) 48(9) Guava 34(7) 77(15) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY The data indicated that there were 125 (53.42%) men and 109 (46.58%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.1, marginal farmers' was 4, small farmers' was 5.06, semi medium farmers' was 4.4 and medium farmers' was 6.4. The data indicated that, 52 (22.22%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 96 (41.03%) were in 16-35 years of age, 67 (28.63%) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (8.12 %) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Hasgal-2 had 26.92 per cent illiterates, 0.85 per cent functional literates, 34.62 per cent of them had primary school education, 10.68 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.53 per cent of them had high school education, 6.41 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.85 per cent did diploma, 0.43 per cent of them did ITI, 2.14 per cent of them had degree education and 0.43 per cent were in masters. The results indicate that, 76 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 4 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 20 per cent were general labourers, 2 per cent of them were housewives and 2 per cent of them were children. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.72 per cent of the household members, 8.12 per cent were agricultural laborers, 12.39 per cent were general labour, 2.56 per cent were in private, 23.50 per cent were students, 1.71 per cent were housewives and 2.14 per cent were children. The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 14 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 74 per cent of the households possess Katcha house 4 per cent of them possess pucca house and 8 per cent of them possess semi pucca house. The results show that 84 per cent of the households possess TV, 56 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 46 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 4 per cent of them possess landline and 88 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7571, mixer grinder was Rs.1846, bicycle was Rs. 3347, motor cycle was Rs.37315, landline phone was Rs.3333 and mobile phone was Rs.1653. About 20 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 34 per cent of them possess plough, 2 per cent of them possess tractor, 22 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 80 per cent of them possess weeder, 4 per cent of them possess harvester, 2 per cent of them possess thresher, 10 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 2 per cent of them possess JCB/Hitachi. 2 The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.21200, plough was Rs.1016, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2844, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3300, the average value of harvester was Rs.6942, the average value of thresher was Rs.50000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.2800, and the average value of weeder was Rs.77. The results indicate that, 36 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 16 per cent of the households possess local cow, 6 per cent of the households possess buffalo, 4 per cent of them possess sheep, 2 per cent of the households possess goat and 2 per cent of them possess poultry birds. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 8.85, average own labour (women) available was 5.55, average hired labour (men) available was 11.40 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.79. The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate. The results indicate that, households of the Hasgal-2 micro watershed possess 42.85 ha (64.97%) of dry land and 23.11 ha (35.03%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 4.80 ha (84.35%) of dry land and 0.89 ha (15.65%). Small farmers possess 18.34 ha (91.39%) of dry land and 1.73 ha (8.61%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.38 ha (37.95%) of dry land and 13.70 ha (62.05%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 11.33 ha (62.53%) of dry land and 6.79 ha (37.47%) of the farmers possess irrigated land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 293003 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 514763. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 470674 for dry land and Rs.1347272 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 414210 for dry land and Rs. 925526 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 155120 for dry land and Rs. 474298 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123500 for dry land and Rs.382717 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning and 2 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 28 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 24.14 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 1.83 meters. 3 The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.81 ha, 3.72 ha, 13.91 ha and 5.51 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), cotton (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), horsegram (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), redgram (1.62 ha), sorghum (2.18 ha), tomato (0.89 ha), and watermelon (2.91 ha). Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hasgal-2 micro watershed was found to be 98.20 per cent. In case of marginal and semi medium farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of small farmers it was 101.67 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 87.23 per cent. The results indicate that, 62 per cent of the households have bank account and 40 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 44 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. The results indicate that, 31.82 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 13.64 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 22.73 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, 13.64 per cent availed loan from money lenders and 36.36 per cent of the households obtained loan from SHGs/CBOs. The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs.19285, Rs.90714, Rs.104285, and Rs.50000 respectively. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production. The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 63.64 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 18.18 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 9.09 per cent of the households borrowed for the purpose of construction of house or cattle shed and 9.09 per cent borrowed for household consumption. The results indicated that 80 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources, 13.33 per cent of the households partially paid and 6.67 per cent of the households fully repaid their loan. Results indicated that 81.82 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from private sources, 9.09 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 9.09 per cent of the households fully paid their loans. 4 The results indicate that, around 46.67 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 40 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 37771.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70523.07. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 32751.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.87. The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 46621.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67059.85. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 20438.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.44. The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 16260.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23523.81. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 7263.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45. The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 32823.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38634.10. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 5810.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18. The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 22880. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20415.02. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 2464.98. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.89. The total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 18070.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 46930. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 28859.22. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.6. The total cost of cultivation for horsegram was Rs. 19107.60. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from horsegram cultivation was Rs. 10532.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.55. The total cost of cultivation for watermelon was Rs. 53952.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 1264061.94. The net income from watermelon cultivation was Rs. 1210109.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:23.43. The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 29826.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 84288.75. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 54461.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.83. the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 41184.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 71007.93. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 29823.79. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.72. 5 the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 24868.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 158304.54. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 133435.75. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:6.37. The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 88,100 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 113,218.75, for small farmers it was Rs. 107,086.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 167,966.67, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 134,600. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,539.89. For landless households it was Rs. 7,100, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 7,000, for small farmers it was Rs. 4,611.85, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,368.06, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 16,080. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 19 coconuts and 27 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 5 coconut and 1 mango tree in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 23 teak trees, 79 neem trees, 4 tamarind trees, 2 acacia trees and 1 peepul tree in their field. The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 1,280, for irrigation facility Rs. 260, for improved crop production Rs. 720 and for improved livestock management Rs. 420. The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 16 per cent of the households for land development, 4 per cent for irrigation facility, 12 per cent for improved crop production and 14 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of funds for 2 per cent of the households for improved crop production. The results indicated that, bajra, cotton, horsegram, maize, navane, paddy, redgram, tomato and watermelon were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Groundnut was sold to the extent of 77.37 per cent. The results indicated that, about 30 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 38 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 24 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 8 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that, 84 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 2 per cent have used truck and 12 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation. The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 12.50 per cent of marginal farmers, 33.33 6 per cent of small farmers, 8.33 per cent of semi medium farmers and 60 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 58 per cent have shown interest in soil test. The results indicated that, 96 per cent used fire wood and 8 per cent of the households used LPG. Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 86 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 12 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. The results indicated that, 42 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 50 per cent of the landless, 50 per cent of the marginal, 26.67 per cent of the small, 25 per cent of the semi medium and 100 per cent of the medium farmers. The results indicated that, 96 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 2 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 2 per cent did not possess PDS card. The results indicated that, 54 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 96 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 56 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 16 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 56 per cent, fruits were adequate for 52 per cent, milk was adequate for 90 per cent, eggs were adequate for 84 per cent and meat was adequate for 66 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 4 per cent, pulses were inadequate for 46 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 80 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 40 per cent, milk was inadequate for 6 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 6 per cent and meat was inadequate for 24 per cent of the households. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 58 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (48%), inadequacy of irrigation water (42%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (50%), high rate of interest on credit (54%), low price for the agricultural commodities (52%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (56%), less rainfall (20%), inadequate extension services (44%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (12%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Handrahalu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 442 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 10 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils. Entire area of about 99 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface at the surface. About 78 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 18 per cent has nearly level sloping (0-1%) and 81 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 68 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 31 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands. An area of about 3 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4), 63 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 33 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 14 per cent and 85 per cent are high (>20 ppm) in the microwatershed. Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 96 per cent area, 3 per cent area is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in soils. Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in entire area of about 99 per cent. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 2 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 174 (39) 229 (52) Sapota - - Maize - 392 (89) Pomegranate - 305(69) Bajra - 392 (89) Musambi 122 (27) 183 (42) Groundnut - - Lime 122 (27) 183 (42) Sunflower 122 (27) 177 (40) Amla - 408 (93) Red gram - 251 (57) Cashew - - Bengalgram 174 (39) 229 (52) Jackfruit - - Cotton 174 (39) 12 (3) Jamun - 199 (45) Chilli - - Custard apple 174 (39) 235 (53) Tomato - - Tamarind - 205 (46) Brinjal - 409 (93) Mulberry - 162 (37) Onion - - Marigold - 403 (91) Bhendi - 409 (93) Chrysanthemum - 290 (66) Drumstick - 305 (69) Jasmine - 104 (24) Mango - - Crossandra - 177 (40) Guava - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF STUDY Results indicated that 32 farmers were sampled in Handrahalu-3 micro watershed among them 2 (6.25%) were landless, 8 (25%) were marginal farmers, 9 (28.13%) were small farmers, 10 (31.25%) were semi medium farmers and 3(9.38%) were medium farmers. The data indicated that there were 74 (54.81%) men and 61 (45.19%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers was 4, marginal farmers were 4, small farmers were 3.33, semi medium farmers were 4.80 and medium farmers were 5.67. The data indicated that, 28 (20.74%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 59 (43.70%) were in 16-35 years of age, 34 (25.19%) were in 36-60 years of age and 14 (10.37%) were above 61 years of age. The results indicated that Handrahalu-3 had 25.93 per cent illiterates, 1.48 per cent functional literates, 32.59 per cent of them had primary school education, 17.78 per cent of them had middle school education, 10.37 per cent of them had high school education, 3.70 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.22 per cent of them did ITI, 1.48 per cent of them had degree education and 0.74 persons were doing masters. The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 6.25 per cent of the households were agricultural laborers and 3.13 per cent of the households were students. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 22.22 per cent of the household members, 14.63 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.96 per cent were general laborers, 20 per cent of them were student and 2.96 per cent of them were children's. In case of landless farmers, 25 per cent were agricultural labour, 50 per cent of them were general laborers and 12.50 per cent were in private service and were housewives respectively. In case of marginal farmers 25 per cent were agriculturists, 50 agricultural labours and 12.50 per cent were students. In case of small farmers 30 per cent were agriculturists, 43.33 agricultural labours and 26.67 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 58.33 per cent were agriculturists, 20.83 per cent of them were doing agriculture, 54.17 per cent were agriculture labours and 25 per cent were students. In case of medium farmers 17.65 per cent were agriculturists, 58.52 per cent were agricultural labours and 17.65 per cent were students. The results show that 100 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions. The results indicate that 3.13 per cent of the households possess thatched house and Pucca house respectively and 93.75 per cent of the households possess Katcha house. The results shows that 87.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 9.38 per cent of them possess DVD/VCD player, 71.88 per cent of the households possess Mixer 2 grinder, 6.25 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 68.75 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 28.13 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.25 per cent of the households possess auto and 87.50 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. The results shows that the average value of television was Rs.2533, that the average value of DVD/VCD Player was Rs.933, the average value of mixer grinder was Rs.473, the average value of refrigerator 9000, the average value of bicycle was Rs. 669, the average value of motor cycle was Rs.24755, the average value of Auto was Rs.58500 and the average value of mobile phone was Rs.1354. About 46.88 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 46.88 per cent of them possess plough, 3.13 per cent of them possess tractor, 43.75 per cent of them posses sprayer, 56.25 per cent of them possess weeder, 37.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter and 3.13 per cent of them possess earth remover/duster. The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.2046, bullock cart was Rs.12400, tractor was Rs.250000, sprayer was Rs.2342, weeder was Rs.19, chaff cutter was Rs.1441 and earth remover/duster was Rs.8000. The results indicate that, 43.75 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 15.63 per cent of the households possess local cow, 12.50 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow and 9.38 per cent of the households possess buffalo. Results showed that in case of landless 50 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, in marginal households, 50 per cent possess bullocks, 12.50 per cent possess local cow and 25 per cent possess buffalo. In case of small farmers, 22 per cent of the households possess bullock and 11.11 per cent possess local cow, cross bread cow and buffalo respectively. In case of semi medium farmers, 60 per cent of households possess bullock, 30 per cent of households possess local cow, 20 per cent possess cross bread cow. In case of medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the households possess bullocks. The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 6.74, average own labour (women) available was 6.52, average hired labour (men) available was 24.85 and average hired labour (women) available was 27.57. The data indicated that in case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.38, average hired labour (men) was 3.25 and average hired labour (women) available was 3.25. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.44, average own labour (women) was 1.11, average hired labour (men) was 6 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.22. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 1.80, average own labour (women) was 1.70, average hired labour (men) was 6.60 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.10. In case of medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour 3 (women) was 2.33, average hired labour (men) was 9 and average hired labour (women) available was 11. The results indicate that, 93.75 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate which includes 100 per cent of the marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers respectively. The results indicate that, households of the Handrahalu-3 micro watershed possess 51.68 ha (88.08%) of dry land and 7 ha (11.92%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.01 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.17 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium possess 19.28 ha (81.54%) of dry land and 4.37 ha (18.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 13.21 ha (83.40 %) of irrigated land, 2.63 ha (16.60%) of dry land. The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 183,750.98 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 357,142.86. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 458,514.94 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 190,488.43 for dry land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 186,610.70 for dry land and Rs. 457,831.33 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 68,085.76 for dry land and Rs. 190,000 for irrigated land. The results indicate that, there were 4 functioning and 4 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 12.50 per cent of the farmers. The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 54.36 meters. The results indicate that, small farmers had irrigated area of 4.37 hectares and medium farmers had 2.63 hectares. On an average there were 7 ha of irrigated land. The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (26.19 ha), greengram (11.42 ha), sunflower (9.31ha), sorghum (6.01ha), wheat (2.63 ha), Bengal gram (1.78 ha) and bajra (1.37 ha) in kharif season. Farmers also grown onion (2.51 ha), sunflower (2.14 ha), sorghum (8.42 ha), maize (5.64 ha), Bengal gram (5.56 ha) and cotton (2.93 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, sunflower, Bengal gram, sorghum and bajra. Small farmers have grown maize, green gram, sunflower, Bengal gram, sorghum and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, green gram, sunflower, sunflower and bajra. Medium farmers have grown maize, green gram, wheat, Bengal gram and cotton. The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Handrahalu-3 micro watershed was found to be 87.64 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 106.14 per cent, for small farmers it was 91.03 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 90.89 per cent and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 72.10 per cent. The results indicate that, 43.75 per cent of the households possess both bank account and savings correspondingly. 4 The results indicate that, 50 per cent of landless, 25 per cent of marginal, 33.33 per cent of small, 70 per cent of semi medium and 33.33 per cent of medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources. The results indicated that, 7.14 per cent have availed loan from friends/ relatives. The results indicated that, land less farmers have availed Rs. 10000. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 30366.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31685.56. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 1319.14, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.04. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 40775.34. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27194.66. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -13580.68. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 13154.87. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18405.48. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 5250.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.4. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 35865.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63438.51. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 27573.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.77. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 27463.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31779.38. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 4315.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 20733.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 60315.65. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 39581.90. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.91. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 30122.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 53332.44. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23209.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.77. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 16713.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50605.60. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 33892.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.03. The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for wheat was Rs. 18954.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 42560.00. The net income from wheat cultivation was Rs. 23605.09. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.25. The results indicate that, 15.63 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 34.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. 5 The data regarding the average annual gross income in Handrahalu-3 micro watershed is indicated that in case of landless the average income from wage was Rs.37500 and from dairy farm was Rs.17500. In case of marginal farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.24000, business was Rs.15375, wage was Rs.4000, agriculture was Rs.44325, non farm income was Rs.1500 and dairy farm was Rs.8640.In small farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.23866.67, business was Rs.17222.22, wage was Rs.2666.67, agriculture was Rs.114900 and non farm income was Rs.6777.78. In case of semi medium farmers the average income from service/salary was Rs.22200, business was Rs.14500, wage was Rs.11340, agriculture was Rs.114900, non farm income was Rs.600 and dairy farm was Rs.3276. in medium farmers the average income from wage was Rs.2000, agriculture was Rs.177566.67 and non farm income was Rs.5333.33. The results indicate that in case of landless, the average annual expenditure from wage and dairy farm was Rs.25000 respectively. In case of marginal farmers the average annual expenditure from business was Rs.26500, agriculture was Rs.16664.29 and dairy farm was Rs.7500. In case of small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.22500; business was Rs.18000 and agriculture was Rs.46750. In semi medium farmers the average annual expenditure from business was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.2500, agriculture was Rs.58800 and dairy farm was Rs.8000. In case of medium farmers the average annual expenditure from agriculture was Rs.100000. The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 14 coconut and 1 mango trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 7 coconut trees in their backyard. The results indicate that, households have planted 29 neem trees, 4 tamarind trees and 8 banyan trees. The results indicated that, bajra, Bengal gram, cotton, green gram, onion, sunflower and wheat were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Sorghum and Maize was sold to the extent of 60.98 per cent and 98.15 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, about 65.62 per cent of the households sold their produce to regulated market and another 28.13 per cent have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society. The results indicated that 28.57 per cent have used cart, 71.43 per cent have used tractor and 22.86 per cent of the farmers have used truck as a mode of transport. The results indicated that, 40.63 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems. The results indicated that, 40.63 per cent of the households are interested in soil testing. The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 93.75 per cent of the households and 3.13 per cent of the households were dependent on open well and canal/nala for drinking water. 6 The results indicated that, 90.63 percent used fire wood, and another 9.38 percent of the households used LPG. The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 96.88 per cent of the households in micro watershed and 3.13 per cent of the households were using kerosene lamp as a source of light. The results indicated that, 53.13 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 62.50 per cent of marginal, 33.33 per cent of small, 40 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility. The results indicated that, 84.38 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 9.38 per cent did not possess BPL card and 3.13 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card. The results indicated that, 40.63 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs and meat was adequate for 90.63 per cent, 15.63 per cent, 6.25 per cent, 12.50 per cent, 3.13 per cent, 12.50 per cent, 9.38 per cent and 3.13 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, cereals, pulses, oilseed, vegetables and fruits were inadequate for 6.25 per cent, 84.38 per cent, 68.75 per cent, 50 per cent and 90.63 per cent of the households. Milk and egg were inadequate for 68.75 per cent of the households respectively. The results indicated that, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, milk and egg were market surplus for 25 per cent, 34.38 per cent, 9.38 per cent, 3.13 per cent and 6.25 per cent respectively. The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 31 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (69%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (31%), high rate of interest on credit (13%), low price for the agricultural commodities (19%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9%), Inadequate extension services (9%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88%), less rainfall (94%) and inadequate extension services (91%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
With global emissions estimated at 7.1 Gt CO2 eq per annum, livestock represents 14.5% of all human-induced emissions and it is considered to be the largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the agricultural sector. However, livestock can contribute to convert nutrients from plant biomass into animal-sourced foods, which are rich in essential macro and micronutrients in the form of milk and meat, thereby utilizing resources that cannot otherwise be consumed by humans. Livestock also contributes to global food security and poverty reduction, providing regular income to producers. To achieve a sustainable supply of animal origin food, farmers need, therefore, to identify strategies, in terms of livestock management and feeding, forage systems and feed growing practices, that make the best use of available resources and minimize the potential environmental impact. The studies of the PhD thesis were mainly developed inside the Life project "Forage4Climate", a four years project, aimed at demonstrating that forage systems connected to milk production can promote climate change mitigation. The aim of the PhD thesis was the evaluation of GHG emission, related to dairy cattle milk production. Specific aims were: • to identify and evaluate the most common forage systems adopted in dairy cow farms in the Po plain, selecting the systems that can improve milk production and soil carbon (C) sequestration reducing emissions per kg of milk; • to evaluate commercial diets related to these different forage systems, in order to directly assess their digestibility, milk and methane (CH4) production; • to identify, through a survey analysis, the main ingredients used in the total mixed ration (TMR) of high producing lactating cows, in order to assess the best diet composition that can lead to high feed efficiency (FE) and low global warming potential (GWP) at commercial farms scale; • in a future perspective of circular economy, to study the exploitation of different inedible human by-products as growing substrates for Hermetia Illucens larvae, in order to substitute soybean meal (SBM) in the livestock diets with insect proteins. A total of 46 dairy cattle farms in Lombardy, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna were visited, in order to map the main forage systems adopted in each area and to characterize them for GHG emission related to milk production (FPCM, fat and protein corrected milk), and soil organic C stock. The evaluation of environmental impact, in terms of GWP, related to the different forage systems was carried out though a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method, using the Software SIMAPRO. Six forage systems based on different forages were identified. The main results in terms of GHG per unit milk were: - CONV - Conventional corn silage system: 1.37 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.26) - HQFS - High quality forage system: 1.18 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.13) - WICE - Winter cereal silage system: 1.44 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.43) - MIXED - Mixed less intensive system: 1.36 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.26) - PR FRESH- Hay and fresh forage system for Parmigiano Reggiano PDO cheese production: 1.51 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.23) - PR DRY- Hay system for Parmigiano Reggiano PDO cheese production: 1.36 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.19). The HQFS system registered the lowest value for GWP, mainly due to the higher milk production per cow (daily FPCM/head). More intensive systems, such as HQFS, confirmed that milk production per cow is negatively related to the impact per kilogram of product, as highlighted also by a PROC GLM analysis. The HQFS system also resulted to be more sustainable, in terms of feed self-sufficiency, as it provided a high amount of dry matter (DM) per hectare, consisting of high digestible forages. Despite the lowest value for GWP, the forage system identified as HQFS showed the lowest organic C soil density: 5.6 kg/m2 (SD 1.1). On the contrary, PR FRESH showed the highest value in terms of organic C density in the soil: 9.7 kg/m2 (SD 2.2), compared with an average of 6.7 kg/m2 (SD 0.88) for the other systems. Further investigations are needed to consider environmental sustainability over a wider spectrum. Enteric CH4 was the main contributor to GWP for all forage systems: on average 45.6% (SD 3.89). For this reason, an in vivo evaluation of CH4 and milk production of lactating dairy cows fed four different diets, obtained from the forage systems identified, was performed. Also digestibility of the diets, energy and nitrogen (N) balance were assessed. Four pairs of Italian Friesian lactating cows were used in a repeated Latin Square design, using individual open circuit respiration chambers to determine dry matter intake (DMI), milk production and CH4 emission and to allow total faeces and urine collection for the determination of N and energy balances. Four diets, based on the following main forages, were tested: corn silage (49.3% DM; CS), alfalfa silage (26.8% DM; AS), wheat silage (20.0% DM; WS), hay-based diet (25.3% DM of both alfalfa and Italian ryegrass hays; PR) typical of the area of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese production. Feeding cows with PR diet significantly increased DMI (23.4 kg/d; P=0.006), compared with the others (on average, 20.7 kg/d), while this diet resulted to be the least digestible (e.g. DM digestibility=64.9 vs 71.7% of the other diets, on average). This is probably the reason why, despite higher DMI of cows fed PR diet, the animals did not show higher production, both in terms of milk (kg/d) and energy corrected milk (ECM; kg/d), compared with the other treatments. The urea N concentration was higher in milk of cows fed WS diet (13.8) and lower for cows fed AS diet (9.24). This was also correlated to the highest urinary N excretion (g/d) for cows fed WS diet (189.5 vs 147.0 on average for the other diets). The protein digestibility was higher for cows fed CS and WS diets (on average 68.5%) than for cows fed AS and PR (on average 57.0%); the dietary soybean inclusion was higher for CS and WS than AS and PR. The higher values for aNDFom digestibility were obtained for CS (50.7%) and AS (47.4%) diets. The rumen fermentation pattern was affected by diet; in particular PR diet, characterized by a lower content of NFC and a higher content of aNDFom as compared to CS diet, determined a higher rumen pH and decreased propionate production as compared to CS. Feeding cows with PR diet increased the acetate:propionate ratio in comparison with CS (3.30 vs 2.44 for PR and CS, respectively). Ruminal environment characteristics (i.e higher pH and higher acetate: propionate ratio), together with increased DMI, led cows fed PR DRY diet to have greater (P=0.046) daily production of CH4 (413.4 g/d), compared to those fed CONV diet (378.2 g/d). However, no differences were observed when CH4 was expressed as g/kg DMI or g/kg milk. Hay based diet (PR) was characterized by the lowest digestible and metabolizable energy contents which overall determined a lower NEL content for PR than CS diet (1.36 vs 1.70 Mcal/kg DM respectively for PR and CS diets). In order to meet the high demand of nutrients needed to assure high milk production, in addition to fodder a lot of concentrates are also used in dairy cows' TMR. A survey analysis conducted in commercial farms was performed to evaluate the GWP of different lactating cow TMR and to identify the best dietary strategies to increase the FE and to reduce the enteric CH4 emission. A total of 171 dairy herds were selected: data about DMI, lactating cows TMR composition, milk production and composition were provided by farmers. Diet GWP (kg CO2 eq) was calculated as sum of GWP of each ingredient considering inputs needed at field level, feed processing and transport. For SBM, land use change was included in the assessment. Enteric CH4 production (g/d) was estimated using the equation of Hristov et al. (2013) in order to calculate CH4 emission for kg of FPCM. The dataset was analysed by GLM and logistic analysis using SAS 9.4. The results of frequency distribution showed that there was a wide variation among farms for the GWP of TMR: approximately 25% of the surveyed farms showed a diet GWP of 15 kg CO2 eq, 20% of 13 kg CO2 eq and 16.7% of 17 kg CO2 eq. The variation among farms is due to the feed used. Among feed, SBM had the highest correlation with the GWP of the TMR with the following equation: TMR GWP (kg CO2 eq) = 2.49*kg SBM + 6.9 (r2=0.547). Moreover, an inclusion of SBM >15% of diet DM did not result in higher milk production with respect to a lower inclusion (≤15%). Average daily milk production of cows was 29.8 (SD 4.83) kg with a fat and protein content (%) of 3.86 (SD 0.22) and 3.40 (SD 0.14), respectively. The average value of DMI (kg/d) of lactating cows was 22.3 (SD 2.23). The logistic analysis demonstrated that a level of corn silage ≤ 30% on diet DM was associated with higher FE. Almost 50% percent of the farms had an average value of 15.0 g CH4/kg FPCM and about 30% a value of 12.5 g CH4/kg FPCM. The results demonstrated that a lower enteric CH4 production was related to inclusion (% on diet DM) of less than 12% of alfalfa hay and more than 30% of corn silage. Diets with more than 34% of NDF determined higher CH4 production (≥14.0 g/kg FPCM) compared with diets with lower NDF content. On the contrary, a lower enteric CH4 production (<14.0 g/kg FPCM) was related to diets characterized by more than 1.61 NEl (Mcal/kg) and more than 4% of ether extract. The variability in the GWP of TMR shows a significant potential to reduce both the GWP of the diet through a correct choice and inclusion level in the ration of the ingredients (mainly SBM) and the possibility to decrease CH4 enteric emission associated to milk production. Looking forward, in order to evaluate the opportunity of alternative protein sources in the cow diet, to reduce SBM, waste production, and competition between animals and human for crops, a study on the effects of different by-products for Hermetia illucens rearing on the chemical composition of larvae and their environmental impact was conducted, even if, according to the European legislation, today the use of insects as feed source is not possible in ruminants. Regarding climate change, okara and brewer's grains were the most promising substrates: 0.197 and 0.228 kg CO2 eq/kg of larvae fresh weight, respectively. Results from these studies show the importance of adopting a holistic approach for the assessment of GHG emission from milk production. Therefore, any strategy aimed at mitigating CH4 emission of dairy cows must also take into account the possible effect on the other GHGs, as well as the effect on C sequestration. Based on the studies, it could also be worth evaluating novel feed as a new and useful solution for mitigation of GHG emission related to milk production. The thesis highlights essential differences among forage systems and among feed ingredients of cow ration, confirming that there is room for improvement in sustainability of milk production. These issues should be taken into consideration by farmers, technicians and policy makers, considering that sustainability of livestock production will be one of the priorities for humankind in next future.
In this article, we present a historical analysis on how Sardinian pastoralism has become an integrated activity in global capitalism, oriented to the production of cheap milk, through the extraction of ecological surplus from the exploitation of nature and labour. Pastoralism has often been looked at as a marginal and traditional activity. On the contrary, our objective is to stress the central role played by pastoralism in the capitalist world-ecology. Since there is currently little work analysing the historical development of pastoralism in a concrete agro-ecological setting from a world-ecology perspective, we want to contribute to the development of the literature by analysing the concrete case of Sardinian pastoralism. To do so, we will use the analytical framework of world-ecology to analyse the historical dialectic of capital accumulation and the production of nature through which pastoralism -understood as a socio-cultural system that organises nature-society relations for the reproduction of local rural societies- became an activity trapped in the production of market commodities and cheap food exploiting human (labour) and extra-human factors (e.g. land, water, environment, animals etc.). Looking at the exploitation of extra-human factors, the concept of ecological surplus allows us to understand how capital accumulation and surplus was possible thanks to the exploitation of nature, or rather the creation of cheap nature and chap inputs for the production of cheap commodities. We analyse historical pastoralism to understand how geopolitical configurations of global capitalism interact with the national and local scales to change pastoral production, nature and labour relations. We will pay particular attention to the role of land and the relationship between pastoralists and animals. The article is based on secondary data, historical material and primary data collected from 2012 to 2020 through qualitative interviews and ethnographic research. We identify four main cycles of agro-ecological transformation to explore the interactions between waves of historical capitalist expansion and changes in the exploitation of agroecological factors. The first two phases will be explored in the first section of the paper: the mercantilist phase during the modern era and the commodification of pastoralist products, which extend from the nineteenth century to the Second World War. In the mercantilist phase, the expansion of pastoralism finds its external limits in the trend of international demand (influenced by international trade policies that may favour or hinder exports) and its internal limits in the competition/complementarity with agriculture for the available land that results in a transhumant model of pastoralism. In this phase, the ecological surplus needed for capitalist accumulation is produced by nature as a gift, or nature for free, which results in the possibility of producing milk at a very low cost by exploiting the natural pasture of the open fields. The second cycle, "the commodification of pastoralist products", started at the end of the nineteenth century, with the introduction on the island of the industrial processing of Pecorino Romano cheese, and which was increasingly in demand in the North American market. This pushed pastoralism towards a strong commodification. Shepherds stopped processing cheese on-farm and became producers of cheap milk for the Pecorino Romano processing industry. Industrialists control the distribution channels and therefore the price of milk. Moreover, following the partial privatisation of land and high rent prices, shepherds progressively lose the ecological surplus that was guaranteed by free land and natural grazing, key to lower production costs and to counterbalance the unequal distribution of wealth within the chain. At the beginning of the twentieth century, although the market for Pecorino Romano was growing, these contradictions emerged and the unfair redistribution of profits within the chain (which benefited industrialists, middlemen and landowners to the detriment of shepherds) led to numerous protests and the birth of shepherds' cooperatives. The second section of the paper will explore the third agro-ecological phase: the rise of the "monoculture of sheep-raising" through the modernisation policies (from the fifties until 1990s). The protests that affected the inland areas of Sardinia, as well as the increase in banditry, signal the impossibility of continuing to guarantee cheap nature and cheap labour, which are at the basis of the mechanism of capitalist accumulation. On the basis of these pressures, the 1970s witnessed a profound transformation that opened a new cycle of accumulation: laws favouring the purchase of land led to the sedenterization of pastoralism, while agricultural modernisation policies pushed towards the rationalisation of the farm. Land improvements and technological innovations (such as the milking machine and the purchase of agricultural machinery) led to the beginning of the "monoculture of sheep raising": a phase of intensification in the exploitation of nature and the extraction of ecological surplus. This includes a great increase of the number of sheep per unit of agricultural area, thanks to the cultivated pasture replacing natural grazing and the production and purchase of stock and feed. Subsidised agricultural modernisation and sedentarisation can once again "sustain" the cost of cheap milk that is the basis of the industrial dairy chain. However, agricultural modernisation results in the further commodification of pastoralism, which becomes increasingly dependent on the upstream and downstream market, making pastoralists less autonomous. Moreover, given the impossibility of further expanding the herd, the productivity need of keeping low milk production costs has to be achieved through an increase in the average production per head. Therefore, there are higher investments in genetic selection to increase breed productivity, higher investments to improve animal feeding and a more intensive animal exploitation to increase productivity. These production strategies imply higher farm costs. In this context, the fourth phase, the neoliberal phase (analysed in the third section of the paper) broke out in Sardinia in the mid-1990s. With the end of export subsidies and the opening of the new large-scale retail channel in which producers are completely subordinate, it starts a period of increased volatility in the price of milk. In order to counter income erosion and achieve the productivity gains needed to continue producing cheap milk, pastoralists have intensified the exploitation of both human (labour) and non-human (nature) factors, with contradictory effects. In the case of nature, the intensive exploitation of land through monocultural crops has reduced biodiversity and impoverished the soil. In the case of labour, pastoralists have intensified the levels of self-exploitation and free family labour to extreme levels and have also resorted to cheaply paid foreign labourers. Throughout the paper, we reconstruct the path towards the production of "cheap milk" in Sardinia, processed mainly into pecorino romano for international export. We argue that the production of ecological surplus through the exploitation of nature and labour has been central to capital accumulation and to the unfolding of the capitalist world ecology. However, we have reached a point of crisis where pastoralists are trapped between rising costs and eroding revenues. Further exploitation of human (cheap labour) and extra-human (nature and animals) factors is becoming unsustainable for the great majority, leading to a polarization between pastoralists who push towards further intensification and mechanisation and pastoralists who increasingly de-commodify to build greater autonomy.
Each country has to take its advantages for economic development and competitiveness on the international scene. For Ukraine, one of them is significant reserves of chernozem, which cover almost half of its territory. Chernozem is the most fertile soil, and therefore the conditions for the development of the agro-sector in our country are quite favorable. Nowadays, the agrarian sector already plays an important role in the domestic economy, but the potential is not fully used. An analysis of export tariff quotas on certain types of products for EU countries has shown insufficient use of them. This indicates the presence of free niches on the market that could be taken by small business representatives. However, given the problems faced by businessmen, there is a need for help from the state to overcome them. The agrarian sector plays an important role in the economy of our country and includes a wide range of products of plant and animal origin. Most of the domestic industry representatives produce grain crops, taking leading positions on an international scene. The domestic consumer market is difficult to name volumetric, however, even it is not completely filled with Ukrainian products. Small businesses could occupy vacant niches and satisfy domestic demand, but in the long term external demand as well as. However, they need help from government bodies or specialized non-profit organizations since there are certain problems with the legal framework, attraction of financing, etc. Analyzing the dynamics of the development of the agricultural sector of our country, it should be noted its comparative stability. Since 2013, due to the crisis, domestic enterprises have been experiencing difficult times, which is reflected in their financial results, output, sales figures, etc. However, in general, the agrarian sector survived and reported on steady growth; only in 2015, there was a slight decrease in the results compared to 2014. It should be noted that the positive trend was due to products of plant origin since livestock breeding reduced. By 2013, the production of meat and eggs was growing, volumes of dairy were fluctuating, and volumes of wool were declining altogether. Since the beginning of the next year, the situation has changed dramatically: producers of eggs and milk have born the biggest losses. The meat industry has lost only 30 thsd. tons, however, its production structure has changed somewhat: inflation had affected the consumer market, and buyers began to prefer poultry meat because it is cheaper. It is the opportunity to refocus on bird breeding has allowed entrepreneurs not only to save themselves from significant losses but also to recover from the crisis earlier than others. The evidence of this is seen by a slight increase in output in 2016, while other industry players continued to report on reducing outputs, in some cases slowed down its pace. In the sphere of crop production situation is somewhat different: almost all subsectors report about growth, and producers of grains and pulses have collected the biggest output since independence and indeed in the history of Ukraine - 66 088 thsd. tons. The entrepreneurs engaged in growing fruits and berries reduced output, although it is difficult to say that this is a consequence of the crisis since earlier their volumes fluctuated each year. Tariff quotas, which Ukraine has got for export of products to the European Union countries, could become a tool to increase livestock profitability. However, for our entrepreneurs, a mandatory licensing has become a barrier, and a significant part of domestic meat does not meet international requirements. According to the Ministry of Agrarian Policy and Food of Ukraine, in 2016, we were given quotas for delivery of 40 thsd. tons of pork, 12 thsd. tons of beef, 1.5 thsd. tons of lamb, but no delivery of products took place. The quota for the supply of chicken was used partly - 24.6 thsd. tons from possible 36 thsd. tons. At the same time, the quota for the supply of wheat (950 thsd. tons), corn (400 thsd. tons), barley (250 thsd. tons). sugar (20 thsd. tons) and some other positions was used completely. Compared to 2015, the situation has almost not changed, only dairy producers have improved their position since in 2016 they already received quality certificates, but still the majority of the quotas they received remained free. The non-use of the quotas is a lost benefit both for entrepreneurs and for Ukraine as a whole. Therefore, state bodies have to help to facilitate activities in these directions. Given that some quotas are small in volume and large companies are not interested in them, it is advisable to involve small businesses in their use. Agrarian support programs exist in every developed country, because they are aware of the importance of industry development. In these programs, special attention is paid to small and medium-sized businesses, because they have certain benefits, such as flexibility, innovation, etc. The budget for 2017 was set at UAH 3.7 bln to support the development of farmers, including 2.2 bln from the general fund and 1.5 bln from the special one. Support is provided in the following areas: - financial incentives for agrarians - UAH 1 473 mln; - reimbursement of interest on loans - UAH 300 mln; - assistance to producers of animal products - UAH 210 mln; - provision of new plantings of grapes, berries and young gardens - UAH 75 mln; - holding of events (fairs, congresses, etc.) in the agrarian sector - UAH 55 mln; - concessional lending of farms - UAH 25 mln. At the same time, EUR 400 mln was given by the European Investment Bank for projects in the agrarian sector. Thus, it is possible to state the presence of certain programs and the interest of state bodies in the development of the agrarian sector. However, the limited financial resources are reflected on the quality of these programs - they are not able to fully meet demand and cover all areas of business. Therefore, it is advisable to analyze the existing measures and those carried out in the developed countries of the world and, based on this, select the most effective instruments of both economic and administrative influence that will accelerate the development of small enterprises and the agrarian sector in general. But the restrictions on measures of the World Trade Organization should be taken into account, which affect the volumes of production or product prices and do not lead to increase in resource efficiency. ; Проанализированы состояние и динамика развития аграрного сектора, оценено его влияние на общее экономическое положение Украины. Определены основные причины диспропорционального развития растениеводства и животноводства и предложены меры по ликвидации дестимулирующих факторов, сдерживающих темп роста сектора. Исследована роль малого бизнеса в количественных и качественных показателях отечественных агропредприятий. Охарактеризована действующая политика поддержки бизнеса и предоставлены предложения по ее совершенствованию ; Проаналізовано стан і динаміку розвитку аграрного сектору, оцінено його вплив на загальне економічне становище України. Визначено основні причини диспропорційного розвитку рослинництва і тваринництва та запропоновано заходи щодо ліквідації дестимулюючих факторів, які стримують темп зростання сектору. Досліджено роль малого бізнесу в кількісних і якісних показниках вітчизняних агропідприємств. Охарактеризовано діючу політику підтримки бізнесу та надані пропозиції щодо її вдосконалення.
Each country has to take its advantages for economic development and competitiveness on the international scene. For Ukraine, one of them is significant reserves of chernozem, which cover almost half of its territory. Chernozem is the most fertile soil, and therefore the conditions for the development of the agro-sector in our country are quite favorable. Nowadays, the agrarian sector already plays an important role in the domestic economy, but the potential is not fully used. An analysis of export tariff quotas on certain types of products for EU countries has shown insufficient use of them. This indicates the presence of free niches on the market that could be taken by small business representatives. However, given the problems faced by businessmen, there is a need for help from the state to overcome them. The agrarian sector plays an important role in the economy of our country and includes a wide range of products of plant and animal origin. Most of the domestic industry representatives produce grain crops, taking leading positions on an international scene. The domestic consumer market is difficult to name volumetric, however, even it is not completely filled with Ukrainian products. Small businesses could occupy vacant niches and satisfy domestic demand, but in the long term external demand as well as. However, they need help from government bodies or specialized non-profit organizations since there are certain problems with the legal framework, attraction of financing, etc. Analyzing the dynamics of the development of the agricultural sector of our country, it should be noted its comparative stability. Since 2013, due to the crisis, domestic enterprises have been experiencing difficult times, which is reflected in their financial results, output, sales figures, etc. However, in general, the agrarian sector survived and reported on steady growth; only in 2015, there was a slight decrease in the results compared to 2014. It should be noted that the positive trend was due to products of plant origin since livestock breeding reduced. By 2013, the production of meat and eggs was growing, volumes of dairy were fluctuating, and volumes of wool were declining altogether. Since the beginning of the next year, the situation has changed dramatically: producers of eggs and milk have born the biggest losses. The meat industry has lost only 30 thsd. tons, however, its production structure has changed somewhat: inflation had affected the consumer market, and buyers began to prefer poultry meat because it is cheaper. It is the opportunity to refocus on bird breeding has allowed entrepreneurs not only to save themselves from significant losses but also to recover from the crisis earlier than others. The evidence of this is seen by a slight increase in output in 2016, while other industry players continued to report on reducing outputs, in some cases slowed down its pace. In the sphere of crop production situation is somewhat different: almost all subsectors report about growth, and producers of grains and pulses have collected the biggest output since independence and indeed in the history of Ukraine - 66 088 thsd. tons. The entrepreneurs engaged in growing fruits and berries reduced output, although it is difficult to say that this is a consequence of the crisis since earlier their volumes fluctuated each year. Tariff quotas, which Ukraine has got for export of products to the European Union countries, could become a tool to increase livestock profitability. However, for our entrepreneurs, a mandatory licensing has become a barrier, and a significant part of domestic meat does not meet international requirements. According to the Ministry of Agrarian Policy and Food of Ukraine, in 2016, we were given quotas for delivery of 40 thsd. tons of pork, 12 thsd. tons of beef, 1.5 thsd. tons of lamb, but no delivery of products took place. The quota for the supply of chicken was used partly - 24.6 thsd. tons from possible 36 thsd. tons. At the same time, the quota for the supply of wheat (950 thsd. tons), corn (400 thsd. tons), barley (250 thsd. tons). sugar (20 thsd. tons) and some other positions was used completely. Compared to 2015, the situation has almost not changed, only dairy producers have improved their position since in 2016 they already received quality certificates, but still the majority of the quotas they received remained free. The non-use of the quotas is a lost benefit both for entrepreneurs and for Ukraine as a whole. Therefore, state bodies have to help to facilitate activities in these directions. Given that some quotas are small in volume and large companies are not interested in them, it is advisable to involve small businesses in their use. Agrarian support programs exist in every developed country, because they are aware of the importance of industry development. In these programs, special attention is paid to small and medium-sized businesses, because they have certain benefits, such as flexibility, innovation, etc. The budget for 2017 was set at UAH 3.7 bln to support the development of farmers, including 2.2 bln from the general fund and 1.5 bln from the special one. Support is provided in the following areas: - financial incentives for agrarians - UAH 1 473 mln; - reimbursement of interest on loans - UAH 300 mln; - assistance to producers of animal products - UAH 210 mln; - provision of new plantings of grapes, berries and young gardens - UAH 75 mln; - holding of events (fairs, congresses, etc.) in the agrarian sector - UAH 55 mln; - concessional lending of farms - UAH 25 mln. At the same time, EUR 400 mln was given by the European Investment Bank for projects in the agrarian sector. Thus, it is possible to state the presence of certain programs and the interest of state bodies in the development of the agrarian sector. However, the limited financial resources are reflected on the quality of these programs - they are not able to fully meet demand and cover all areas of business. Therefore, it is advisable to analyze the existing measures and those carried out in the developed countries of the world and, based on this, select the most effective instruments of both economic and administrative influence that will accelerate the development of small enterprises and the agrarian sector in general. But the restrictions on measures of the World Trade Organization should be taken into account, which affect the volumes of production or product prices and do not lead to increase in resource efficiency. ; Проанализированы состояние и динамика развития аграрного сектора, оценено его влияние на общее экономическое положение Украины. Определены основные причины диспропорционального развития растениеводства и животноводства и предложены меры по ликвидации дестимулирующих факторов, сдерживающих темп роста сектора. Исследована роль малого бизнеса в количественных и качественных показателях отечественных агропредприятий. Охарактеризована действующая политика поддержки бизнеса и предоставлены предложения по ее совершенствованию ; Проаналізовано стан і динаміку розвитку аграрного сектору, оцінено його вплив на загальне економічне становище України. Визначено основні причини диспропорційного розвитку рослинництва і тваринництва та запропоновано заходи щодо ліквідації дестимулюючих факторів, які стримують темп зростання сектору. Досліджено роль малого бізнесу в кількісних і якісних показниках вітчизняних агропідприємств. Охарактеризовано діючу політику підтримки бізнесу та надані пропозиції щодо її вдосконалення.
Human economic and technological development has a negative impact on the environment. The soil is not spared from this growing threat through its role in the environmental interface. Once degraded as a result of contamination, it can no longer fulfill its ecosystem functions such as the protection of ecosystems, food production or preservation of the quality of surface water and groundwater. The studies presented in the thesis are on soil contaminated by atmospheric fallouts enriched by trace elements. This type of contamination increases the natural levels of contaminants in soils and particularly in surface horizons to exceed the maximum levels set by legislation. The first axe of research concerns the assessment of contamination at a landscape scale around a former zinc-lead ore-treatment plant. The spatial distribution of cadmium, lead and zinc in the topsoil (0-20 cm) was characterized using 247 samples taken in crop, grassland and forest on three major types of loam soils representative of the study area Sclaigneaux (Wallonia, Belgium). The distribution of contaminants is explained by the distance to the source of contamination, direction of dominant winds, land use and soil type. Subsequently, 22 soil profiles were sampled within the study area to estimate the vertical transfer of contaminants. Based on various indexes of contamination, no migration along the profiles has been demonstrated. Only some more clay horizons presented contaminant levels that increased relative to their upper horizons. The second approach studied the soil-plant transfer and soil-plant-worm transfer of contaminants. First, a field study of the quality of grains of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) harvested in the study area Sclaigneaux was performed. It appears that the concentration of cadmium in the grain meets quality standards for placing the cereals on the market. However, 78% and 94% of zinc and cadmium, respectively, concentrations measured in grains exceed the expected levels of a non-impacted environment by human activity. Secondly, a study on microcosms was conducted with soils of agricultural parcels around Sclaigneaux on which two crops (faba bean, Vicia faba L. and corn, Zea mays L.) were grown and where earthworms (Eisenia fetida (Savigny)) were introduced. The life traits of E. fetida such as mortality and adult weight were not affected by the levels of contaminants unlike the presence of plants which limit their reproduction (weight and number of cocoons). Moreover, the presence of E. fetida in microcosms influenced the mobility and bioavailability of contaminants. The third approach deals with metal contaminations in vegetable gardens and their management using organic amendments. This method of stabilization aims to decrease the labile fraction of soil contaminants and further reduce their transfer to plants. To do so, two vegetables (spinach, Spinacia oleracea L. and lettuce, Lactuca sativa L.) were grown on contaminated garden soils enriched in various amendments sold in garden centers. The major finding of this study is that management by amendments does not allow a systematic decrease in the soluble fraction contaminants. This is mainly due to the direct intake of rapidly mobilized trace elements produced by the addition of some of the studied amendments. ; L'homme par son développement économique et technologique impacte sur son environnement. Le sol n'est pas épargné par cette menace croissante de par son rôle d'interface environnementale. Une fois dégradé à la suite de contaminations, il ne peut plus remplir ses fonctions écosystémiques telles que la protection des écosystèmes, la production alimentaire ou la préservation de la qualité des eaux de surface et souterraines. Les études présentées dans la thèse sont menées sur des sols contaminés par des retombées atmosphériques chargées en éléments traces. Ce type de contamination augmente les teneurs naturelles en contaminants dans les sols et plus particulièrement dans les horizons de surface jusqu'à dépasser les teneurs maximales définies par la législation. Le premier axe de recherches a pour objet l'évaluation d'une contamination à l'échelle d'un paysage entourant une ancienne usine de traitement de minerai de zinc et plomb. La distribution spatiale des teneurs en cadmium, plomb et zinc dans l'horizon de surface (0-20 cm) a été caractérisée à l'aide de 247 échantillons prélevés en culture, prairie et forêt sur trois grands types de sols limoneux représentatifs de la zone d'étude de Sclaigneaux (Wallonie, Belgique). La répartition des contaminants est expliquée par la distance à la source de contamination, le sens des vents dominants, l'occupation du sol et le type de sol. Par la suite, 22 profils de sols ont été échantillonnés au sein de la zone d'étude afin d'estimer le transfert vertical en contaminants. Sur base de différents indices de contamination, aucune migration le long des profils n'a été mise en évidence. Seuls certains horizons plus argileux ont présenté des teneurs en contaminants qui augmentaient par rapport à leurs horizons supérieurs. La seconde approche a étudié les transferts de contaminants du sol vers les plantes et/ou vers les vers de terre. Tout d'abord, une étude in situ de la qualité de grains d'orges (Hordeum vulgare L.) récoltés sur la zone d'étude de Sclaigneaux a été réalisée. Il ressort que les concentrations en cadmium dans le grain répondent à la qualité de mise sur le marché des céréales. Cependant, 78% et 94% des concentrations en cadmium et zinc mesurées dans les grains dépassent les teneurs attendues en milieu non impacté par des activités anthropiques industrielles. Dans un deuxième temps, une étude en microcosmes a été menée avec des sols de parcelles agricoles de Sclaigneaux sur lesquels deux plantes (la féverole, Vicia faba L. Tet le maïs, Zea mays L.) ont été cultivées et dans lesquels des vers (Eisenia fetida (Savigny)) ont été introduits. Les traits de vie d'E. fetida tels que la mortalité et le poids des adultes n'ont pas été impactés par les teneurs en contaminants ou la présence des plantes contrairement à leur reproduction (poids et nombre des cocons). Par ailleurs, la présence d'E. fetida dans les microcosmes a influencé la mobilité et la biodisponibilité des contaminants. La troisième approche traite de contaminations métalliques en jardins potagers et de leur gestion à l'aide d'amendements organiques. Cette méthode de stabilisation a pour objectif de diminuer la fraction labile en contaminants du sol et par delà diminuer leur transfert vers les plantes. Pour se faire, deux légumes (l'épinard, Spinacia oleracea L. et la laitue, Lactuca sativa L.) ont été cultivés sur des sols de jardins potagers contaminés enrichis en divers amendements vendus en jardinerie. La conclusion majeure de cette étude est que la gestion sur base d'amendements du commerce ne permet pas une diminution systématique de la fraction soluble en contaminants. Ceci est principalement du à l'apport direct en éléments traces rapidement mobilisables réalisé par l'ajout de certains des amendements étudiés.
This thesis demonstrates that, throughout history, before the Spanish conquestuntil the 21st Century, agriculture has been an important activity of the mapuchepeople. Research conducted points out the ability of the mapuche to resist andbattle against powerful and ferocious foes, and in addition, their intelligentadaptation to foreign invasions, including that of the State of Chile. The thesisdemonstrates the changes that took place in agriculture and the ability of themapuche people to innovate, since the Inca invasion in the 15th century, theSpanish conquest through the 16 to 19th centuries, and the Chilean occupationthat extends reaching the 21st century. At the start of the Spanish conquest,mapuches constituted people that autonomously occupied a territory, were fullysedentary, communities populated clearly delimited areas, and conductedagriculture of cultural subsistence, in addition to harvesting native vegetation,fishing and hunting. Society was matricially organized by lineages, by groups,had a cosmic view, culture and social organization. During the Colony, theyadopt and appropriate European technology, develop a powerful animalhusbandry that extends through the Argentinian pampa; this activity generates astrong and diversified commercial exchange between the mapuche territory andthe Kingdom of Chile, of animal products, handicrafts and food products.Exchange was unfavorable for the mapuche and had to be regulated throughparliaments. The Chilean Republic at first recognized the mapuche territories,but later, for reasons of economic expansion, occupies them through war.Mapuches resist and are defeated by the Chilean army that had recently wonthe Pacific Ocean War against Peru and Bolivia. The mapuche enter the 20thcentury deprived of 95% of their territory, almost the total of their powerfulanimal husbandry, their capital goods, machinery, equipment, annual andperennial crops. But above all, they are excluded, segregated, faced withassimilation and extermination strategies, they die from hunger, diseases andpests. The real historical debt of the State of Chile with the mapuche generatesat that point. Agrarian reforms, in particular that of the Popular Unity (1970-73)political government faces the problem of usurped lands and initiates solutions,later reversed by the Military Government (1973-90). Concertation forDemocracy governments (1990-2010), recognizes the specificities of themapuche people and partially solves land conflicts. At present, rural mapucheface powerful strategies of assimilation and cultural extermination; however, atthe rural communities' level, the ability of the mapuche people to adapt tochanges, adequate, resist, and impose the basic terms of the conditionsnecessary to reconstruct themselves as a Chilean original people has becomeclearly evident. ; Esta tesis demuestra la existencia de la agricultura como actividad importantedel pueblo mapuche a través de la historia antes de la conquista hasta el sigloXXI. La investigación demuestra la capacidad de los mapuches para resistir ycombatir a enemigos poderosos y feroces y además la inteligente adaptación atodas las irrupciones extranjeras incluidas las del Estado de Chile. La tesismuestra los cambios en la agricultura y la capacidad del pueblo mapuche parainnovar, desde la invasión de los incas en el siglo XV, la conquista de losespañoles entre los siglos XVI y XIX y la ocupación chilena hasta llegar alsiglo XXI. Los mapuches al momento de la conquista española eran un puebloque ocupaba un territorio en forma autónoma en plena sedentarización, lascomunidades poblaban terrenos delimitados y desarrollaban agricultura desubsistencia cultural, además de la recolección, la pesca y la caza. La sociedadestaba organizada por linajes matricialmente, por grupos, tenían unacosmovisión, una cultura y una organización social. Durante la colonia, adoptany se apropian de tecnologías europeas, desarrollan una poderosa ganaderíaque se extiende por la pampa Argentina; esta actividad genera un fuerte ydiversificado intercambio comercial entre el territorio mapuche y el Reino deChile, de productos animales, artesanado y productos alimentarios. Elintercambio era desfavorable a los mapuches y debió ser regulado medianteparlamentos. La República comienza reconociendo los territorios mapuche,pero luego, por razones de expansión económica los ocupa a sangre y fuego.Los mapuche resisten y son derrotados por el ejército Chileno que ganó laguerra del Pacifico. Los mapuches entran al siglo XX despojados del 95% desus tierras de casi toda su poderosa ganadería, de sus bienes de capital,maquinas, equipos, arreos, siembras y plantaciones. Pero sobre todo sonexcluidos, segregados enfrentados a estrategias de asimilación y exterminio,mueren de inanición, por enfermedades y por la peste. Allí se genera laverdadera deuda histórica del Estado de Chile con los mapuches. LasReformas Agrarias, especialmente la de la Unidad Popular, levantan elproblema de tierras usurpadas y propones y ejecuta soluciones, que ladictadura militar anula. La Concertación por la Democracia reconoce lasespecificidades del pueblo mapuche y soluciona una parte de los conflictos porla tierra. Actualmente los mapuche del campo enfrentan poderosas estrategiasde asimilación y exterminio de su cultura, sin embargo a nivel de lacomunidades rurales se pone de manifiesto la capacidad del pueblo mapuchepara adaptarse a los cambios, adecuarse, resistir e ir imponiendo los términosbásicos de las condiciones necesarias para reconstruirse como pueblooriginario de Chile. ; Cette thèse démontre l'existence de l'agriculture comme une activité importantedu peuple mapuche à travers l'histoire, avant la conquête espagnole jusqu'auXXIème siècle. La recherche démontre la capacité des Mapuche à résister etcombattre des ennemis puissants et féroceset également l'intelligenteadaptation à toutes les invasions étrangères, même celles de l'Etat Chilien. Lathèse montre les changements dans l'agriculture et la capacité du peuplemapuche à innover, depuis l'invasion des incas au XVème siècle, la conquêtedes espagnols du XVIème au XIXème siècle et l'occupation chilienne jusqu'auXXIème siècle. Au moment de la conquête espagnole, les Mapuche étaient unpeuple en pleine sédentarisation qui occupait un territoire de façon autonome.Les communautés peuplaient des terrains délimités et pratiquaient uneagriculture de subsistance culturelle, en plus de la cueillette, de la pêche et dela chasse. Selon les concepts de culture de UNESCO (2003), Taylor (1977) etla civilisation de Braudel (1966,1968,1970)), les Mapuches possédaient uneculture et une civilisation.La société était organisée en groupes de lignéesmatricielles, ils avaient une cosmovision, une culture et une organisationsociale. Pendant la colonie, ils adoptent et s'approprient les technologieseuropéennes, ils développent un élevage puissant qui s'étend à la pampaargentine. Cette activité génère un échange commercial puissant et diversifiéentre le territoire mapuche et le Royaume du Chili, fait de produits animaux,d'objets manufacturés et de produits alimentaires. L'échange était défavorableaux Mapuche et dut être régulé par des traités. La République commence àreconnaitre les territoires mapuche, mais ensuite, pour des raisons d'expansionéconomique, elle les envahit à feu et à sang. Les Mapuche résistent mais sontmis en déroute par l'armée chilienne, qui a gagné la guerre du Pacifique. LesMapuches commencent le XXème siècle spoliés de 95% de leurs terres, depresque tout leur élevage puissant, de leurs biens capitaux, des machines, deséquipements, des charrues, des semences et des plantations. Mais surtout ilssont exclus, mis en ségrégation et confrontés à des stratégies d'assimilation etd'extermination. Ils meurent d'inanition, de maladies et d'épidémies. C'est à cemoment qu'est générée la vraie dette historique de l'Etat du Chili envers lesmapuche. Les Réformes Agraireset particulièrement celles de l'Unité Populaire(1970-1973) soulèvent le problème des terres usurpées, elles proposent etmettent en oeuvre des solutions, que la dictature militaire (1973-1990) annule.La Concertation pour la Démocratie (1990-2010) reconnait les spécificités dupeuple mapuche et résout une partie des conflits pour la terre. Actuellement, lesmapuche de la campagne sont confrontés à de puissantes stratégiesd'assimilation et d'extermination de leur culture, cependant au niveau descommunautés rurales, on observe la capacité manifeste du peuple mapuche às'adapter aux changements, résister et imposer les termes de base desconditions nécessaires pour se reconstruire comme peuple originaire du Chili.
