In contrast to many of his contemporaries, A. J. Ayer was an analytic philosopher who had sustained throughout his career some interest in developments in the work of his 'continental' peers. Ayer, who spoke French, held friendships with some important Parisian intellectuals, such as Camus, Bataille, Wahl and Merleau-Ponty. This paper examines the circumstances of a meeting between Ayer, Merleau-Ponty, Wahl, Ambrosino and Bataille, which took place in 1951 at some Parisian bar. The question under discussion during this meeting was whether the sun existed before humans did, over which the various philosophers disagreed. This disagreement is tangled with a variety of issues, such as Ayer's critique of Heidegger and Sartre (inherited from Carnap), Ayer's response to Merleau-Ponty's critique of empiricism, and Bataille's response to Sartre's critique of his notion of 'unknowing', which uncannily resembles Ayer's critique of Sartre. Amidst this tangle one finds Bataille's statement that an 'abyss' separates English from French and German philosophy, the first recorded announcement of the analytic-continental divide in the twentieth century.ReferencesH. B. Acton. Philosophy in France. Philosophy, 22(82):161-166, 1947.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031819100025365A. J. Ayer & T. Honderich. An Interview with A. J. Ayer. In A. P. Griffiths, editor, A.J. Ayer Memorial Essays, pages 209-226. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991.A. J. Ayer. Language, Truth and Logic. London, Gollancz, 1936.A. J. Ayer. Novelist-Philosopher, Jean-Paul Sartre. Horizon, 12(67):12–26, & 12(68):101-110, 1945.A. J. Ayer. Novelist-Philosopher, Albert Camus. Horizon, 13(75):155-168, 1946a.A. J. Ayer. Secret Session. Polemic, 2:60-63, 1946b.A. J. Ayer. Some Aspects of Existentialism. In F. Watts, editor, H. B. Acton. Philosophy in France. Philosophy, 22(82):161-166, 1947.http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031819100025365A. J. Ayer & T. Honderich. 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L'oggetto della nostra ricerca riguarda le dinamiche sociologiche in materia di gestione del discredito a seguito dello scandalo degli abusi sessuali nella Chiesa Cattolica dal 2002 al 2010, prendendo in considerazione alcuni degli eventi mediaticamente più significativi che hanno caratterizzato l'intera vicenda. Il punto di partenza della ricerca è il 9 gennaio 2002, quando il quotidiano americano The Boston Globe ha pubblicato un'inchiesta relativa a un caso di abuso nell'arcidiocesi di Boston. In seguito abbiamo assistito a una propagazione del fenomeno non solo in altre diocesi del territorio, ma anche in alcuni Paesi europei; tra questi abbiamo incentrato la nostra analisi sulla situazione in Irlanda. Le ragioni di questa scelta sono state dettate dal fatto che dagli Stati Uniti è esploso mediaticamente il caso e per tutto il decorso della vicenda essi si sono posti nello scenario internazionale come opinion leaders, non solo a livello di politiche adottate per contrastare il fenomeno (tra tutte, la zero tolerance), ma anche per quanto riguarda l'adozione di prime specifiche norme in materia di tutela dei diritti dei minori. Il focus sull'Irlanda è invece dettato dalla forte tradizione cattolica presente nel Paese . La scelta degli Stati Uniti e dell'Irlanda, poi, è motivata da alcune ragioni di fondo che sembrano accumunare entrambi i Paesi; innanzitutto, la dimensione del fenomeno (ovvero, negli Stati Uniti dal 1950 al 2002 sono stati segnalati circa 4392 preti accusati di abuso sessuale sui minori ; in Irlanda, invece, tra il 1965 e il 2005 sono state registrate più di 100 denunce di abusi su ventuno preti che operavano nella sola diocesi di Ferns ). Un successivo aspetto fa riferimento, invece, all'interesse dei mass media americani (e irlandesi) circa le modalità di rappresentazione della vicenda, spesso presentata in "termini scandalistici", i cui fatti accaduti circa trent'anni fa sono riproposti all'opinione pubblica come se fossero fatti attuali. Infine, dall'America sono partiti anche i primi processi, che hanno portato in molti casi a gravi crisi finanziarie delle diocesi locali che hanno dovuto risarcire le vittime; inoltre, da qui sono scattate le denuncie contro il Vaticano e il Papa (nel settembre del 2011, infatti, lo SNAP , una delle maggiori associazioni delle vittime, ha presentato un'istanza al tribunale dell'Aja conto Benedetto XVI il cardinale Tarcisio Bertone, il cardinale Angelo Sodano e l'ex Prefetto della Congregazione, William Levada). In Irlanda si presenta uno scenario più o meno simile; i dati del Rapporto Ferns, infatti, hanno evidenziato lo stesso modus operandi delle diocesi locali che, in molti casi, hanno offerto alle vittime grossi risarcimenti monetari per evitare che i casi diventassero uno scandalo per la diocesi stessa o per la Chiesa in generale. Il lavoro è stato diviso in tre sezioni: una prima parte, di taglio sociologico, espone le matrici alla base del concetto di credibilità, prestando particolare attenzione alla credibilità delle istituzioni (con la Chiesa Cattolica) e dell'individuo (nello specifico, abbiamo parlato della relazione tra il sacerdote e il minore-vittima dell'abuso). Successivamente abbiamo analizzato le modalità di costruzione della notizia tenendo presenti gli aspetti caratterizzanti il processo del newsmaking e i valori notizia impiegati per la rappresentazione dei fatti da parte dei quotidiani stranieri ed italiani. Infine, abbiamo affrontato il problema del panico morale, sulla scorta dello studio di Griswold sulla costruzione di un problema sociale in relazione al ruolo e all'influenza mediatica in questo processo (Griswold 1997). Nella seconda parte del lavoro, abbiamo applicato le categorie dei valori notizia, delle strategie di tematizzazione dei quotidiani e del panico morale nella ricostruzione dei casi di abuso in America e in Irlanda. Al fine di offrire un quadro quanto più ampio dei singoli fatti, abbiamo elaborato una breve ricostruzione storica sulla base della documentazione prodotta da alcune fonti ufficiali, quali: il sito ufficiale della Santa Sede, referti medici, indagini governative e inchieste condotte dalle diocesi locali o da autorità giudiziarie. Nell'impossibilità di esaminare tutta l'enorme mole di materiale prodotto dagli organi di stampa durante questi anni, abbiamo selezionato due tipologie di articoli giornalistici: - Per i quotidiani stranieri abbiamo scelto l'editoriale, quale forma giornalistica capace di esprimere il punto di vista della direzione del giornale. Le testate impiegate come fonti sono così suddivise: a. Per gli Stati Uniti, ricordiamo: The Boston Globe e The New York Times; b. Per l'Irlanda, invece, abbiamo: The Irish Times; Per quanto riguarda l'analisi degli articoli italiani, invece, abbiamo selezionato i tre quotidiani più letti in Italia: Il Corriere della Sera, La Repubblica e La Stampa. In questa circostanza abbiamo optato per l'articolo di cronaca, come forma di esposizione di una notizia per eccellenza. Alla ricostruzione storica e mediatica dei principali casi di abusi sessuali abbiamo esaminato la risposta proveniente dalla Chiesa Cattolica nei suoi vari livelli, considerando gli interventi pubblici, le decisioni e i gesti significativi valutando le eventuali analogie e differenze di azione compiute nel corso degli anni da Papa Giovanni Paolo II e da Papa Benedetto XVI. In tal senso, abbiamo fatto riferimento a una fitta documentazione disponibile sul sito ufficiale del Vaticano. I risultati dell'analisi fanno riferimento a due precisi ambiti. In primo luogo, abbiamo preso in esame gli effetti prodotti dai media analizzandoli su due fronti: innanzitutto secondo un'ottica autoreferenziale, ovvero valutando eventuali cambiamenti di posizione rispetto all'avvicendarsi dei fatti e, infine, in relazione alla risposta dell'opinione pubblica prendendo come parametri di riferimento i sondaggi di popolarità e gli indici di fiducia e consenso rivolte alla Chiesa Cattolica. In secondo luogo, poi, abbiamo considerato sulla base delle statistiche e dei sondaggi elaborati, qual è stato il feedback dell'opinione pubblica estera in relazione alla risposta della Chiesa (locale e del Vaticano) e a quel preciso periodo temporale in cui la vicenda si stava evolvendo. Questa modalità riflette una questione fondamentale dell'intera vicenda, ovvero, non essendo ancora conclusa la questione degli abusi (sia da parte della Chiesa Cattolica sia in termini di risoluzione dei casi) al momento non si dispongono di cifre esatte per poter fare una stima circa l'efficacia (o meno) delle strategie di gestione del discredito applicate dalla Chiesa Cattolica. La metodologia impiegata per lo studio sugli articoli è di tipo qualitativo, ovvero, ricorrendo a un'analisi semantica e lessicale con cui abbiamo individuato le parole-chiave, le espressioni maggiormente ricorrenti e i temi (come il dibattito sull'istruzione della Crimen Sollicitationis) collegati alla vicenda; in tal senso, abbiamo applicato lo studio condotto da Dardano (1973) per l'analisi del linguaggio dei giornali. Tra le fonti impiegate per la nostra ricerca abbiamo tenuto conto, come già detto, della documentazione pubblicata on line (dai singoli quotidiani come approfondimenti agli articoli), di quella consultabile negli archivi digitali delle diocesi straniere e di quella reperibile nel sito del Vaticano. Inoltre per quanto concerne il materiale estrapolato dalla "rete" disponiamo: 1. Delle perizie psichiatriche, dei referti medici e delle lettere di corrispondenza tra i vari livelli delle gerarchie ecclesiastiche americane. 2. Dei rapporti delle varie commissioni di inchiesta, come ad esempio: il Rapporto Ryan (maggio 2009), il Rapporto Murphy (novembre 2009) e il Cloyne Report (luglio 2011) diffusi in Irlanda a seguito delle indagini condotte negli istituti religiosi, nelle diocesi del territorio sui casi di abusi sessuali contro i minori e impiegati come strumenti di repressione e prevenzione del fenomeno. Altro esempio è il John Jay Report, uno studio condotto dal John Jay College of Criminal Justice dell'Università di New York, commissionato dalla Conferenza Episcopale dei Vescovi d'America Abbiamo estrapolato i regolamenti, le normative promulgate dalle diocesi locali in materia di gestione dei casi di abuso e nell'ambito della tutela dei diritti dei minori. Alcuni esempi sono: il Framework Document del 1996 (dall'Irlanda), oppure, le Essential Norms promulgate nel 2002 dalla Conferenza Episcopale Americana. 3. Dei discorsi ufficiali, dei comunicati stampa e degli interventi pubblici di Papa Giovanni Paolo II, di Papa Benedetto XVI e di alcuni esponenti del Vaticano. Abbiamo, inoltre, le trascrizioni degli interventi del Papa durante gli incontri con le vittime e durante i viaggi compiuti nei Paesi in cui si sono verificati gli episodi di abusi. 4. Delle normative e dei regolamenti canonici in materia di tutela dei minori dal 1962 ad oggi. Come approfondimento per valutare gli effetti che i casi hanno prodotto in Italia abbiamo raccolto anche una prima serie di interviste, realizzate in Italia e a New York e in Irlanda a giornalisti e vaticanisti che si sono interessati alla vicenda. Ricordiamo qualche nome dall'Italia: Marco Tosatti (La Stampa), Marco Politi (Il Fatto Quotidiano), Stefano Maria Paci (Skytg24) e Andrea Tornielli (La Stampa). Dagli Stati Uniti abbiamo invece: Luciano Clerico, Emanuele Riccardi e Alessandra Baldini (inviati dell'agenzia di stampa Ansa) e Monsignor Lorenzo Albacete (Teologo e giornalista del New Yorker ed editorialista del New York Times). Come testimonianza della situazione irlandese, abbiamo invece un'intervista a Gerard O'Connell (giornalista e collaboratore dell'Irish Times). ; The main theme of our project research is about the sociological dynamics of the discredit as a result of the sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic Church; in particular we consider the mass media coverage on the topic from January 2002 to March 2010. Our start point is January 9th, 2002 when the american newspaper, The Boston Globe published an investigation about a sexual abuse case in the Boston Archdiocese. Then, we considered the development of the issue in the american dioceses and in the other European countries too; from all the cases that happened, we decided to consider the Irish situation. The reasons that moved our decision depends on whether the case began in the United States by the newspaper and throughout the development of all the case, the american mass media played the part as opinion leader within international scenario, not only not only for the politics which have been adopted to contrast the phenomenon (among the many, the "zero tolerance" one), either for the adoption of first specific rules concerning the defense of child's rights. The focus in Ireland has been, whereas, set out by the strong Catholic tradition across the nation . The choice of both the USA and Ireland, is motivated by some major reasons seeming to pool the two countries together: first of all, the phenomenon size (namely in the USA from 1950 to 2002, 4392 cases of sexual abuse onto minors have been reported ; while in Ireland between 1965 and 1005, more than 100 sexual abuses complaints have been registered on 21 priests operating in the Ferns diocese itself ). Another following aspect, whereas, refers to the US mass media interest (and the Irish ones as well) about the representation of the occurrence, often presented in "tabloid terms" whose facts occurred over thirty years ago, are now presented as still topical Eventually, the first lawsuits started out in the US, which in several cases have brought the local dioceses to serious financial problems, as these were supposed to refund the victims; in addition there are allegations to the Vatican and the Pope (in fact, in September 2011 the "SNAP" one of the major victims' association submitted a petition to the Aia court against Benedict XVI, cardinals Tarcisio Bertone and Angelo Sodano and the former congregation chief officer, William Levada ). In Ireland the scenario is quite similar to the above mentioned one, the data from the Ferns Report highlighted the same modus operandi in the local dioceses, which, in most cases offered the victims generous monetary refunds to keep the cases from becoming a scandal for the diocese's sake or the entire Catholic church. The work is divided into three sections: in the first one we treated the theory of the credibility, in particular focusing the Catholic Church credibility and the relationship between the priest and the abused minors. Afterwards we analyzed the news' construction modes, considering the news making process and the news values either, employed for the representation of facts on the Italian and also foreign newspapers' behalf. At last, we talked about the construction of the moral panics and the relationship with the Griswold theory on the construction of the social problems by the mass media influence. Finally, we confronted the "moral panic" issue being spotted from Griswold's study about the construction of a social issue in relation to the media role and influence within this process (Griswold 1997). In the second part of this work we have applied the news values categories, newspapers thematization strategies and the moral panic in the reconstruction of the abuses in Ireland and in the USA. In order to offer a wider pattern of the single facts, we have elaborated a short historical reconstruction based on the documents produced and issued by some official sources such as: the Holy See official website, medical reports, governmental investigations and enquiries carried out by local dioceses and judiciary authorities. Due to the enormous amount of material produced by the press organs during all of these years, we have picked out two typologies of journalism articles: - For the foreign newspapers we have chosen the editorial, as the journalistic form able to express the newspaper's editorial management. The newspapers employed as sources are under this division: a. For the United States, we recall: The Boston Globe and The New York Times; b. For Ireland, we have : The Irish Times; As far as the analysis of the Italian articles, we have, whereas, selected the three Italian most read newspapers: Il Corriere della Sera, La Repubblica and La Stampa. Besides the historical and media reconstruction of the major abuse cases, we examined the response moving from the Roman Catholic church within its various levels, considering the public interventions, the decisions and the significant gestures by evaluating any analogy and difference in the action brought on over the years by the Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI. In this acceptation we have referred to a voluminous documentation available on the Vatican official website. The outcomes of this analysis refer to two sharp fields. Firstly, we have examined the effects produced by the media, analyzing them onto two different hands: first of all through a self-referring perspective, either evaluating any change of position with respect to the occurrences following one another, and at the end, with respect to the public opinion, taking as standards the popularity surveys and the ratings of trust and consensus towards the Catholic church. Second to this, based on the statistics and the elaborated surveys we considered what was the feedback from the foreign public opinion related to the church's response (locally and from the Vatican either) and to that precise time lap where the deeds were taking turns. This modality reflects one fundamental question of the whole matter, that is, since the question of the abuses has not been resolved yet (both from the church behalf and in terms of resolution of the facts) at the moment there is no reliable numbers to estimate the efficiency or not of the discredit management strategies applied by the Catholic church. The methodology employed in this study is qualitative, namely a semantic and lexical analysis through we have found out the key words, the most redundant expressions and the themes (like the debate about the constitution of the "Crimen Sollicitationis") related to the occurrence; in this acceptation we have applied the study carried out by Dardano for the analysis of newspapers' language. Among the sources employed for our research we held in consideration, as previously said, the online edited documentation (by single newspapers as deeper examination on the articles) those available in the digital archives of the foreign dioceses as well the one at disposal on the Vatican website. In addition, as far as the material excerpted from the "web" we have: 1. psychiatric examinations, medical reports and mail letters exchanged among the various levels of the American clergy hierarchy. 2. Several reports from the enquiry boards, for instance: Ryan Report (May 2009), Murphy Report (November 2009), Cloyne Report (July 2011) released in Ireland after the investigations carried out in religious institutes and facilities, in the local diocese on sexual abuses cases onto minors and employed as repression and prevention means of the phenomenon. Another example is the John Jay Report, a study performed by the John Jay College of Criminal Justice, within the New York University, commissioned by the American Episcopal Conference. We have excepted regulations, rules enacted by local dioceses concerning the management of abuse cases and the safeguard of minors' rights. Some of the examples are the Framework Document, 1996, (from Ireland) and the Essential Norms promulgated in 2002 by the American Episcopal Conference. 3. Public speeches, press communications and public appearances by the Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI, as well as by other Vatican exponents. Also we have the transcriptions from the Pope's statements during the meetings with the victims and the journeys in the countries where the abuses had occurred. 4. Canonical regulations and norms regarding the minors' rights safeguard from to 1962 up to our days. As a deeper examinations in order to evaluate the effects that these cases produced in Italy, we collected a series of interviews too, carried out in Italy, in New York and in Ireland to journalists and vaticanists getting interested in this occurrence. We recall some name from Italy: Marco Tosatti (La Stampa), Marco Politi (Il Fatto Quotidiano), Stefano Maria Paci (Skytg24) and Andrea Tornielli (La Stampa). From the United States we have: Luciano Clerico, Emanuele Riccardi and Alessandra Baldini (reporters from the press agency Ansa) and Monsignor Lorenzo Albacete (Teologist and journalist for New Yorker and editorialist for New York Times). As a testimony for the Irish situation we have an interview to Gerard O'Connell (journalist and collaborator for the Irish Times). ; Dottorato di ricerca in Sociologia e Ricerca Sociale (XXIV ciclo)
1. L'enjeu de la recherche Le but principal de la thèse est l'analyse de l'apport du De regno de Synésios de Cyrène à la transmission de l'idéologie politique antique aux Ve et VIe siècles de l'époque byzantine. Il s'agit, avant tout, de définir l'idéologie politique de Synésios, dans le cadre de sa paideia alexandrine néoplatonicienne et chrétienne ; puis, de déterminer l'apport de son ouvrage à la formation de l'idéologie impériale et de la rhétorique politique du Ve siècle et de l'âge de Justinien. Afin de déterminer le rôle du De regno de Synésios dans la transmission de ces topoi, on veut analyser les rapports entre cet ouvrage et les œuvres les plus représentatives de la littérature politique des Ve-VIe siècles : le Panégyrique pour l'empereur Anastase de Procope de Gaza , la Scheda Regia d'Agapetus le Diacre , l'anonyme dialogue philosophique Sur la Science politique dédié à Justinien et le traité Des magistratures de l'Etat romain de Jean le Lydien . 2. L'état de la recherche 2.1. Le débat sur la valeur historique et la chronologie de l'œuvre Les premières notes chronologiques au De regno, dans le cadre d'une reconstruction générale de la chronologie des opuscula de Synésios, sont dues à Otto Seeck (op. cit.), qui datait le De regno des années 399-402. L'intérêt pour les aspects historiques et politiques de l'œuvre est dominant dans la critique italienne des années 1920-1940, à cause de l'utilisation idéologique de la figure de Synésios pendant la colonisation italienne de la Libye. La première monographie sur l'activité politique de Synésios remonte à 1938, de claire inspiration fasciste, rédigée par Giulio Bettini ; en 1944 est publiée l' édition critique du De regno, par Nicola Terzaghi . Cette édition constitue la base pour les études suivantes. Pendant la deuxième partie du XXe siècle, l'approche historique est encore prévalente, comme on peut le voir dans les pages consacrées au De regno dans la monographie de 1951 de Christian Lacombrade et dans son introduction à l'édition du De regno datant de la même année. On doit attendre les années 1970 pour relever un renouvellement de l'intérêt pour l'œuvre. En 1973, Antonio Garzya publie une traduction italienne du De regno, intégrée dans son édition des opera omnia de Synésios de 1989, avec quelques notes de commentaire. Dans les années 1980 la critique recommence à interroger spécifiquement cet ouvrage du Cyrénéen, encore selon une perspective chronologique. On débat de la question de la datation du De regno. La querelle oppose ceux qui le datent des années 399-402 (Denis Roques , suivi par Antonio Garzya ) et ceux qui proposent une datation plus haute, dans les années 397-400 . Le débat se développe sur la base d'une différente interprétation des témoignages autobiographiques sur l'ambassade à Constantinople que l'on trouve dans le corpus même de Synésios : (Syn., De regn. 3 Terzaghi) l'occasion du don de l'aurum coronarium ; (Syn., Ep. 61 Garzya-Roques) un tremblement de terre cause la fin du séjour constantinopolitain de Synésios ; (Syn., Hymn. I 428 – 433 Terzaghi ; De insomn. 14 Terzaghi) : le séjour de Synésios à Constantinople dure trois années. En plus de l'intérêt purement chronologique, pendant les mêmes années, se développe la recherche sur la valeur plus généralement historique et idéologique du De regno dans ses rapports avec le contexte de la semi-barbare cour constantinopolitaine et de la Cyrénaïque tardive . Dans ces contributions ne manquent pas quelques sporadiques références aux aspects littéraires du De regno. Beaucoup d'importance est, par contre, donnée à la forme rhétorique du discours dans l'introduction à la dernière édition critique du De regno (pp. 26-35), publiée par Jacques Lamoureux et Noël Aujoulat en 2008 . 3. L'idéologie impériale de Synésios de Cyrène dans le Discours sur la Royauté Le De regno s'inscrit dans la tradition de la littérature antique sur la royauté, qui a fleuri dans les milieux académiques et stoïciens, que nous connaissons par des auteurs comme Plutarque, Dion Chrysostome, Thémistios, mais qu'illustraient aussi des auteurs perdus comme Ecphante, Diotogène et Sthenidas. Son auteur avait également une connaissance approfondie des théories monarchiques judaïques, transmises en particulier par Philon. Le Cyrénaïque ne semble pas non plus étranger aux polémiques théologiques dont il a sans doute été le contemporain : la connaissance directe de Jean Chrysostome et le voisinage des patriarches d'Alexandrie ont dû contribuer à la formation d'un néoplatonisme chrétien singulier, qui s'épanouira dans les années de la maturité et de l'épiscopat. Synésios dérive de la philosophie politique d'Eusèbe, nourrie de topoi issus de Dion Chrysostome et Thémistios, une conception de l'Empire comme don de la divinité au βασιλεύς. Celui-ci est tenu de préserver ce don à travers l'ἄσκησις continue de sa propre vertu. Une autre pierre angulaire de l'idéologie impériale sinésienne est la supériorité du νόμος sur la manière dont le βασιλεύς conduit sa propre vie. La vie de l'Empereur, qui a valeur exemplaire pour ses sujets, est elle-même le reflet de l'Idée d'une loi transcendante, respectueuse de l'ordre cosmique et providentiel. L'idée de l'Empereur comme νόμος ἔμψυχος n'est formulée qu'implicitement par Synésios, alors que l'idée du souverain μιμητὴς τοῦ θεοῦ, sur laquelle la première se fonde, est tout à fait explicite. Imitateur de Dieu, le souverain est son homonyme. Il partage ses attributs, mais pas sa nature. Les vertus que le souverain doit démontrer, φρόνησις e ῥώμη, sont tout à fait classiques, de même que les attributs de la royauté, à savoir bonté, piété et autarcie, dont la possession est garantie au souverain par la relation d'homonymie qui le relie à la divinité. Ces vertus ont une valeur universelle mais pas absolue, dans la mesure où elles existent seulement selon une relation de cause à effet entre la divinité et l'objet qui en expérimente les qualités. Sur cette justification du principe de l'ὁμοίωσις τοῦ θεοῦ, l'influence de la métaphysique aristotélicienne est évidente avec l'ontologie du premier principe, auquel Synésios fait une allusion efficace et directe, tout en la conjuguant avec l'idée néoplatonicienne de la divinité surabondante et dispensatrice de bienfaits. Dans le De regno, le thème de l'autarcie du souverain est investi d'une force particulière grâce à la théorie platonicienne de l'âme complexe. L'autarcie constitue le fondement du bon gouvernement, dans la mesure où le roi est celui qui parvient à réunir sous l'égide de la raison le peuple agité, esclave de ses propres passions (De regn. 10). L'esthétique de la royauté joue un rôle paradigmatique et fonctionnel dans la transmission de l'eusychia divine au monde. L'exemplarité de la vie du souverain exige qu'il communie avec l'ensemble de la vie sociale, que ce soit avec les fonctionnaires qu'il a choisis, à travers la φιλία comme vertu, ou avec l'armée, par le biais de l'ἔρος que fait naître au sein des troupes la vision du souverain comme membre d'une seule et même famille. Un autre aspect important de la théorie politique sinésienne est la conception unitaire de l'Empire, dont témoigne le recours fréquent à l'adresse conjointe à Arcadius et à son frère Honorius, expression unique d'une institution universelle dont la division entre la partie orientale et la partie occidentale est seulement administrative. Chargé de faire la paix comme la guerre, conformément aux topoi du genre du logos basilikòs, le souverain aura pour tâche primordiale de maintenir sa vertu philanthropique, l'amour du genre humain. La valeur de psychagogie que revêt la philanthropie impériale, et dont dépend le salut de l'État, est elle-même un dérivé de la philosophie comme vertu suprême, et traditionnellement attachée à la royautén (Syn., De regn. 29). La définition de l'Empereur comme philosophe drapé dans la pourpre, formulée par Thémistios, n'est pas reprise dans la royauté sinésienne en raison d'une opposition vigoureuse au luxe d'inspiration cynique que l'on trouve chez Synésios. En revanche, l'amour de la philosophie et du cursus de la paideia classique devient chez lui la cause et la fin de la royauté. 4. L'influence du De regno de Synésios sur l'idéologie impériale byzantine des Ve et VIe siècles L'analyse des rapports entre le De regno de Synésios et le Panégyrique pour l'Empereur Anastase de Procope de Gaza, la Scheda Regia d'Agapet le Diacre, l'anonyme dialogue Sur la Science politique et le traité Sur les magistratures de l'état romain de Jean le Lydien nous a permis de tracer des pistes de l'influence de la théorie politique de Synésios sur le developpement de l'idéologie politique suivante, sourtout pour ce qui concerne les topoi du roi loi vivante et imitateur de Dieu. L'examen approfondi que nous avons réalisé au sujet du De regno de Synésios nous permet de considérer que cette œuvre occupe une place centrale dans l'histoire des idées politiques byzantines, et qu'elle marque le passage d'une idéologie de la royauté comprise et représentée selon les topoi de facture classique et hellénistique à une théorie politique qui enrichit ces topoi d'arguments métaphysiques et ontologiques néo-platoniciens d'un côté, de l'autre d'éléments moraux, universalistes et eschatologiques de plus en plus chrétiens. Sur le genre de discours auquel il appartient, le De regno de Synésios semble avoir exercé une influence importante, y compris sur la définition de la finalité de la littérature Περὶ βασιλείας : la pluralité des formes rhétoriques analysées (le panégyrique, le speculum principis en forme d'acrostiche, le dialogue philosophique, le traité) traduit la recherche d'une forme d'expression qui puisse véhiculer un contenu philosophique et instituer un rapport de type pédagogique entre l'auteur et son destinataire. Il est difficile de dire avec certitude dans quels milieux culturels et géographiques le De regno a circulé entre le Ve et VIe siècles. Il est toutefois certain que les auteurs qui se réfèreront au De regno ont tous été en lien avec le courant du néo-platonisme chrétien. Alexandrie, Gaza, Constantinople, Antioche ou Beyrouth deviennent à cette époque des centres de propagation d'une nouvelle culture réunissant dans de nombreuses créations les apports de l'hellénisme, de la tradition politique romaine et de la morale chrétienne. Le De regno de Synésios constitue un apport remarquable à cette nouvelle culture et constitue l'une des œuvres les plus représentatives de la Spätantike.
Issue 48.2 of the Review for Religious, March/April 1989. ; Ministry and Ministries On Becoming An Apostolic °Hermit Mid-Life Divorce And Alienation The Readmission of Former Members Volume 48 Number 2 March/April 1989 Revn~w t:or Rt~LIGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at St. Louis University by the Mis-souri Province Educational Institute of the Soi:icty of Jesus; Editorial Office; 3601 Lindcll Blvd. Rm. 428: St. Louis. MO 63108-3393. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis MO. Single copies $3.00. Subscriptions: $12.00 per year: $22.00 for two years. Other countries: for surface mail. add U,S. $5.00 per year: for airmail, add U.S. $20.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address, write: R~v~w t:oR Rt~t.~GOUS; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth. MN 55806. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to R~:v~:w ~'o~ R~:t.t~no~s; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. David L. Fleming, S.J. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor "~"~ Contributing Editor ~% ~,~,¢~ Assistant Editors °"'~ March/April 1989 Volume 48 Number 2 Manuscripts, books for review and correspundence with the editor should be sent to R~:\'~:w ~'o~ R~:~.t~aot~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; SI. [a~uis, MO 63108-3393. Cnrrespondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Rich-ard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 LeRoy Ave.; Berkeley, CA 94709-1193. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from R~:v~:w ~'on R~:t.~aot~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. la~uis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major portion of each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write Io the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. PRISMS . Computers easily make available various readouts of statistical in-formation. While I was perusing the printout listings of our January- February 1989 issue, 1 began, to realize how much I take for granted the exchange of information in our contemporary world. This international exchange of information through a journal like REVIEW FOR REL~C~OtJS pro-vides one of the most valuable prisms which exist for expanding our worldview and our unders.tanding of religious life. I want to share with you a few of the statistics about the interriational readership. First, I should call attention to the fact that REVIEW has sub-scribers in all fifty states, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territo-ries, such as Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the North Mariana Islands, and the Canal Zone. Roughly this grouping takes in about sixty per cent of our subscription list. Our readers are also from all ten provinces of Canada, including the Yukon and the North-west Territories. Subscribers are also present throughout Mexico, six countries of Central America, ten countries of South America, and throughout the West Indies. REWEff FOR REt.~C~OUS has large numbers of subscribers in the English-speaking countries of Europe, such as England, Ireland, Northern Ire-. land, Scotland, and Wales. But its readership is spread throughout Aus-tria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Po-land, Portugal, Switzerland, Spain, Sweden, and West Germany. The subscription lists are large for India, the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand, with a widespread distribution throughout the coun-tries. Africa, too, is well-represented, with subscribers from some twenty-two countries, such as Republic of Ivory Coast, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, South Africa, Liberia~ Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia, Sudan, Tanzania, Swaziland, Sierra Leone, Malawi, Cameroun, and Mauritania. REVIEW also serves readers in Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Ma-laysia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Israel, Jordan, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Sin-gapore, and Hong Kong. As editor, I think that I may want to take a win-ter trip to visit our subscribers from Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Gilbert Is-lands, Solomon Islands, and Western Samoa. These listings do not exhaust all the places R~:w~:w FOR reaches, but perhaps this kind of enumeration can give all of us a greater 161 Review for Religious, March-April 1989 appreciation of the catholicity of the articles we read and the religious life we try better to understand and live. Of course, this international dimension is reflected in the authors who submit manuscripts and in the content matter of the articles submit-ted. For example, in this issue, Father Donald Macdonald, writing from England, reflects upon the situation of Church members in some com-munist- dominated countries of Eastern Europe. Brother Martin O'Reilly shares with us his vocation director's experience, working in Liberia and Sierra Leone in Africa. Father Robert Maloney calls our attention to an impressive lay-movement of young people who serve the poor in Italy. Reverend Paul Casper, who first went to Burma as missionary in 1952 and later served as the first American Dean of St. John's Cathedral in Hong Kong from 1982-1986, reflects on the influence of his fellow An-glican, C.S. Lewis, upon his experience of spiritual direction. As editor, I want to continue to welcome readers and writers from all over the world. REVIEW FOR RELigiOUS will continue to be enriched by the .reflections of people who come from different community, mission, and cultural life-experiences. Through this journal, we are being given a new window--varied prisms--upon our world and upon our religious iives.~ David L. Fleming, S.J. Ministry and Ministries John R. Sheets, S.J. Father John Sheets, S.J. is well known to our readers. His last article, "Spiritual Direction in the Church," appeared in the issue of July/August, 1987. Father Sheets may be addressed at Creighton University; California at 24th Street; Omaha, Ne-braska 68178. In the remarks which follow, I try to distinguish two related but radically different forms of ministry: that which is primordial, the ministry of pres-ence, and that which is functional, activities, some of which are institu-tionalized, others not, which serve to constitute and build up the Church. The ministry of presence is overlooked today. When people speak of ministry they tend to speak only of functional ministry, various ac-tivities which in one way or another build up the Church. However, they forget that the functional ministry is always built on and presupposes a primordial, or deeper form of ministry, the ministry of presence. Though it is risky to use masculine-feminine analogies today, I think that those who can bypass the loaded nature of such language, and re-gain a certain direct vision of those realities, without the prejudices of our times, can spontaneously recognize in the ministry of presence quali-ties which are feminine, and in the mini~stry of function, masculine char-acteristics. I do not mean, of course, that functional ministries belong only to men, and not to women, or that men cannot exercise qualities of presence. The distinction is aimed at calling attention to two related but different modalities of ministry: a mode of being in and with, which is presence; and a mode of being for, which is function. We live in an age which is centrifugal. The self is caught in a kind of cyclotron that empties the inner self as it pours itself into more and more things to do. For this reason in the remarks which follow there is an attempt to recapture the primordial ministry of presence, which alone 163 164 / Review for Religious,. March-April 1989 can vitalize, energize, the ministries of function. In a sense it is an at-tempt to see how the feminine principle of presence lies beneath all other activ.ities within the Church, providing the presence of the Spirit, who alone breathes life into those activities which are ordinarily called min-istry. Without the presence of the breath of the Spirit, ministry in the sense of activity is like those dry bones Ezekiel describes (Ezk 37), strewn about in a valley, lifeless skeletons that have a faint resemblance to a living person. Hans Urs von Balthasar in Elucidations (London: S.P.C.K., 1975, p. 70) describes what I have just spoken of as a kind of "masculiniza-tion" of the Church. "The Church since the Council has to a large ex-tent put off its mystical characteristics. It has become a Church of per-manent conversations, organizations, advisory commissions, congresses, synods, commissions, academies, parties, pressure groups, functions, structures and restructurings, sociological experiments, statistics; that is to say, more than ever a male Church . " General Reflections on the Meaning of Ministry Before going into some specifics in regard to ministry, I would like to give a working description of ministry that will include everything pre-sented in this article about various ways of speaking of ministry. Most of the time discussions on ministry begin with a description of various activities in the Church that are exercised for the good of others, either as individuals or as :a community. This approach is a valid one. But it also tends to play into models which belong to other forms of hu-man activity for the good of any society, not specifically the society we call the Church. Hence, it is possible that, without realizing it, what is secretly at work in discussion of ministry are models coming from hu-man social structures, such as civil society, instead of those that respect the uniqueness of the ministries that belong to the Church. One has to see Christian. ministry in terms of the complete newness of the forms of activity that the Christian calls ministry. The Church, on the other hand, does not exist only as a heavenly city coming downfrom above. It exists in the world in interaction with other societies. It also has similarities with other societies, especially the state, But the danger is to lose sight of the uniqueness of Christian ministry, and to reduce it to secular models. I want to speak of Christian ministry, then, by beginning from a slightly different perspective than is customary. Ordinarily discussion of ministry begins by talking about different activities in the Church as they are exercised by different members. But it might be more helpful to ap- Ministry and Ministries / 165 proach ministry in a reverse direction. Ministries come from awareness of needs that have to be taken care of within the Church. Ministries are always a response to specific kinds of needs. Ministries in the Church then are those activities which are generated within the Church in re-sponse to the needs of the community. In somewhat the same way, all "secular ministries," such as schools, hospitals, civil authority have to be understood primarily as response to needs within the community. There are no ministries that are simply there, self-evident, self-explanatory. Ministries.exist only because they are called forth as a re-sponse to certain needs. They are essentially relative then to the need that calls them forth. They come, go, remain as the needs either remain or come and go. Their importance ranges from fulfilling needs which are essential to the existence of the Church (for example, the ministry of holy ordi~rs), to those which are i, mportant for'its well-being, but not essen-tial tbqts very existence. This,is true both forthe secular notion of ministry, as well as the ec-clesial. But the needs in each case are radically different. Hence, the re-sponse, or the ministry will be radically different. To understand minis-try, then, one has, so to speak, to work backwards, from need to re-sponse. The respbnse in turn depends upon the particular gift, whether of grace or nature, to respond to the need. St. Paul always sees the gifts of ministry in this sense, as Spirit-evoked responses to community needs. Ministry t.hen is called forth by the particular needs of the organiza-tion as social whether the social body is sec.ular or religious. Some of these needs are practically identified.with the continued existence and Well-functioning of the.body; for example, in the state, different levels of auihority are 'called forth from the need to preserve the society so that it keeps its identity and reaches its goals. The importance of the minis-try varies. Its importance is relative to the nature of the need that has to be taken care of. But our question is concernedowith the society called the Church, not secular societies. Ministry in the Church is the Spirit-created response to the unique needs of the new kind of society' that came into the world-through the institutiofi' of Christ and the outpouring of the Spirit at Pen-tecost. The basic needs.to be responded to are those to which Jesus him-self responded. The Church exists only to carry out what Jesus intended in his life and redemptive death. The deepest need of humankind, then, is the.need for redemption. This is the need that Jesus came to fulfill. He had no other purpose. All ministries in the Church are relative to the one basic need, the need for redemption. "166 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 The primary ministry in the Church, then, is that which he commu-nicated to his,,apostles. He breathed into them his own mission or his own ministry. " 'As the Father sent me, so I send you.' He then breathed on them saying, 'Receive the.Holy Spirit. If you forgive anyone's sins, they stand forgiven; if you pronounce them unforgiven, unforgiven th.ey remain' " (Jn 20:21-23). He creates a correlation between his ministry which comes from the Father, and the mission of the apostles, which comes from Jesus. They are to minister to the fundamental need of hu-mankind, reconciliation with God and with one. another. Thus th+ fundamental ministry of the Church which is poured into the Church is to respond to a need at the heart of the whole of humanity and even of the universe itself. If this ministry fails, then the mission of Ctiiist is aborted. The raw fundamental need of humankind remains un-touched. "We are still in our.sins" (see 1 Co 15:17). Within that fun-damental ministry, which makes die mission of Christ present, ,there are other subordinate ministries, each of them in one way or another a par-ticipation in the fundamental response to the need for redemption. All forms of ministry in the Church, therefore, are responses to the radical need of humankind, the need f+r redemption. They are not self-actuated responses like those belonging to other socie.ties. They are di-rectly evoked and sustained by the Spirit ~vhose intention is to carry out in the Church what he initiated in the life and death of Christ. St. Paul uses a striking metaphor to bring out ministry as response to need. He calls himself a debtor to everyone. What he owes them is the Gospel. This is the Spirit-evoked gift to answer the radical need in the human heart. M6re than health, money, food, or anything else, the radical need is for Christ. "I am in debt to Greek and to non-Greek, to learned and Simple" (Rm i : 14). The Need for the Presence of Christ: Ministry as a Mode of Being Present As I mentioned in the beginning, it i~ important at the outset to dis-tinguish, ministry according to two different modalities: (a) ministry as presence,, which is a mode of being-with, what I called above, the pri-mordial form of ministry, and (b) ministry as partiizular activities which are ways of doing that flow from being-for others. The latter has to do with activities which flow from and presuppose ministry in the first sense. Most often when people talk about ministry they refer only to doing something. They forget that ministry as we find it in the Church is situ-ated within what is deeper, the mystery of an existence that has been trans- Ministry and Ministries / 167 formed through grace. This transformed existence brings a new mode of presence into the world. I spoke above of ministry as the Spirit-created response to need. The great absence, and therefore, the deepest need, is that of the absence of God in the hearts of individuals and society. The first mode of "minis-try" then is not some particular kind of activity. Rather it is a mode of presence that penetrates a person's whole being. It is a kind of "glory," or radiance that end/elopes a person's whole life. It cannot be located within any one particular kind of activity. "We all reflect as in a mirror the glory of the Lord" (1 Co 3:18). Like a mirror, Christian existence reflects tothe world the presence of Christ. This is the primary mode of ministry. This "presence" or glory comes from the fact that, as Paul says, we are a "new creation." "When anyone is united to Christ, there is a new creation; the old order has gone, and a new order has already be-gun" (2 Co 5:17). He tells the Christians that in the midst of an evil world they are to "shine like stars in a dark world, and proffer the word of life" (Ph 2:13). All of Paul's exhortations about what to do as Chris-tians flow as corollaries from the mystery of their transformed existence as a new creation. The images that Jesus uses to describe the primary ministry of the Christian do not concern specific activities. He calls the Christian salt, light, leaven for the world. The Christian's pri(nary ministry to the world, then, is not some particular activity, but a kind of epiphany of the presence of the New Creation. The most fundamental ministry then is to live the Christian life in its fullness. It is a doing that is identified with their very being. How they live flows from who they are. Very sim-ply it is the call to be holy. It helps us understand this primary form of ministry if we reflect on the fact that all Christian ministry receives its meaning insofar as it takes on the.pattern of Christ's ministry. In Christ, we see the perfect expres-sion of "ministry." All that he does flows from who he is. The myste-rious interaction of Jesus with everyone came.from an awareness of a pres-ence in him Which eluded all categories and particular activities. Similarly his primary activity in the Church is not through specific ministries, for example, orders,.charisms, and so forth. It is the fullness of his presence filling the whole Church. "He put everything in subjec-tion beneath his feet, and appointed him as supreme head to the Church, which is his body and as such holds within it the fullness of him who himself receives the entire fullness of God" (Ep 1:22-23). "Be assured. Review for Religious, March-April 1989 I amowith you always, to the end of time" (Mt 28:20). At center of all particular ministries in the Church, then, is the mystery ~f presence. Christ's own ministry is the Si~irit-evoked response to the most radi-cal needs of humankind redemption, salvation, atonement. "I have a ba, ptism wherewith I am to be baptized, and how I am straitened until it be accomplished" (Lk, 12:50). His fundamental ministry then is to re-veal the Father's love. This love is not only an affective, but also an ef-fective love. The Father shows his love through the redemptive gift of his Son. Hence, the mode of being of Christ is a redemptive mode of being. He is from the beginning the? ',Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world." His ministry then is identified with his whole being. No matter what he says or does, it is always the expression of his gift of himself: "This is my body given for you. This is my blood poured out for you." Christ's presence then is a special mode of presence: a re-demptive presence. All particular activities flow from his pervasive pres-ence as the Suffering Servant. The Church itself has only one primary ministry. It is the sacrament of the presence of Christ. It exists only to bring to the world what Christ accomplished through his ministry, to bring.~the world in touch with the mystery of Christ. All of the various particular ministries in the Church, ways of doing, flow from the primary ministry which is a mode of being present. Similarly, the primary mimstry of the Christian is that of pres-ence where God is absent, to be light in the darkness, leaven in a dead world, salt in a world which has lost its savor. The failure to recognize the primary ministry as that of presence has led to many ambiguities, in discussion of ministry today. One gets the im-pression that greater participation in ministry is only (or mainly) being able to participate in many activities which were closed to a person up to the present. But in reality the primary ministry is to respond by pres-ence to what is absence, or anti-presence. This has always been the pri-mary ministry of the saints, canonized and uncanonized. The m.inistry of presence creates an atmosphere that is broader, deeper, more pene-trating, both stronger and more delicate, and more effective while it is more self-effacing than what is brought about by particular ministries. Yet it has to be admitted that this primary notion of ministry is often neglected~ The activistic mentality that pervades our society sees minis-try mainly as involvement in more activities, o~ in activities associated with one form of ministry, that of Orders. But the ministry of presence is not a matter of this ministry or that. It takes in a whole constellation of activities that identify the New Creation. Th.ey are not so much spe- Ministry and Ministries cific activities as Christian modes of being. St. Paul describes this min-istry Of presence as the harvest of the Spirit: "lbve, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, trustfulness, gentleness and self-control" (Ga 5:22). The ministry of presence, then, takes in all of those activities which are gr0upe~d under the names of the spiritual and corporal works of mercyL''When I was hungry., thirsty., a stranger., naked. ill . in prison" (Mt 25:31f). In particular, it takes on Christ's minis-try as the Suffering Servant. "I have set you an example: you are to do as I have done for you. In truth I tell you, a servant is not greater than his master, nor a messenger than the one who sent him" (Jn 13:!5-16). As Paul says, "Let your bearing toward one another arise out of your life in Christ" (Ph 2:5). All of these activities belong to the Christian qua Christian, not to the Christian as having a particular form of ministry. They are insepara-ble from the Christian identity itself. These activities form the primary ministry of,the Christian. I have spoken, then, of ministry as the Spirit-evoked response to needs. The primary ministry is the response to the need for the presence of Christ through the Christian in the world which still needs to be touched by the redemption. This is the ministry that flows from the pres-ence of the New Creation. Presence in torn is not one or other specific activity. It is a kind of epiphany that shows itself in the constellation of activities that irradiates from the New Creation. Ministry on this foundational level is related to specific forms of min-istry as the atmosphere is to thir~gs that breathe. The specific forms of ministry are lifeless unless they live out of this atmosphere that identi-fies the Neff Creation. Yet it has to be. admitted that popular ways of speal(ing of particular ministries in the Church isolate them from their roots in the primary form of ministry, which is a mode of being present as the New Creature to the Church and to the world. It is on the level of the ministry of presence that really important but unheralded ministry takes place in the Church. It is that which belongs to states of life, such as, for example, marriage. The "ministry" of ¯ mother or father is not this or that particular activity. It is a mode of lov-ing presence that creates a kind of a cosmos of relationships which we call the family. Others, for example, a baby sitter, can carry out particu-lar activities that a mother or father also do. But it is only when such particular activities are rfianifestation of the mystery of presence, the mys-tery of motherhood and fatherhood, that such activities create the mys-tery that we call the family. 170 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 The Catholic lay person, like every other Christian, exercises the min-istry of presence. This presence obviously comes to the fore in ways of acting that are spe~:ifically Christian. But those particular activities have their power because they are witness to a presence that makes Christ pre-sent in the whole of one"s life. The p~resence is that of the New Crea-tion, in a quiet hut powerful way emitting signals that show the 'presence of Christ in the secular world. They are like beacohs of light sending rays out into the night, both illumining the darkness an~! attracting people to the light of Christ. Particular Ministries in the Church Finally, after this long buildup, we come to the place where most people usually begin discussions about ministry. They mean particular activities in the Church directed to building up the Church that have ec-clesial recognition. "Above we spoke mainly of ministry as the manifold group of activi-ties that flow from the new mod~ of being which St. Paul calls the New Creation. They are not activities in the same sense as the particularized m~nistries. In the particularized ministries one does something to accom-plish something else. But in the foundational ministry one is not "'do-ing" one thing to accomplish something else. Rather it is a ministry of transforming presence. "To crown all, there must be love to bind all to-gether and complete the whole" (Col 3: 14). "'I may dole out all I pos-sess, or even give my body to be burnt, but if I have no love, I am none the better" (1 Co 13:3). Ministry as a particular activity ~n the.Church presupposes and lives off the foundational ministry which is presence, the presence of the Holy Spirit in individuals making them the New Creation: The Holy Spirit, then, draws individuals into the love of Christ by givingthem gifts to respond to particular needs in the Church. St. Paul's description of.min-istry always presupposes the presence of the Holy Spirit in the individ-ual not simply as an individual but as a member of the Church. Gifts are given to individuals to enable them to fulfill a need within the Church. Presupposing, then, the fundamental ministry of presence, St. Paul speaks of various ministries which the Holy Spirit calls forth to respond to various needs. While each is izalled to the primary ministry of radiat-ing the presence of Christ to the whole (the fundamenthl ministry), there are particular functional-roles within the community called forth to re-spond to a whole range of different needs, some more essential than oth-ers. Paul describes some of these. "And these were his gif!s: some to be apostles, some prophets, some evangelists, some pastors and teach- Ministry and Ministries / .17"1 ers, to the building up of the Body of Christ" (Ep 4:1 !-13). "Now you are Christ's body; but each of you is a different part of it. In the Church, God has given the first place to apostles, the second to prophets, the third to teachers. " (1 Co 12:18f). However, the primary ministry, the ministry of presence, with love as its animating principle, should animate all the particular ministries. "Be ambitious for the higher gifts. And I am going to show you a way that is better than any of them" (1 Co 12:31-13:1). Then he goes on to describe the ministry of all ministries, the mystery of love as the primary "ministry" to which we should aim. Ministries on this level have to do with the whole social unit, the whole Church. They reorientate a person's whole existence to take on a specific kind of relativity,from Chr.ist,for the Church. This reorienta-tion is such that it modifies in a new way the person's Christian iden-tity. There are three modes in which the presence of the New Creation is radicalized in an individual: the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and holy orders. Theologically the term "character" describes what St. Paul calls the metamorphosis, the change in the inner structure of a per-son's life (2 Co 3:18). This is the radical reorientation of a person's whole being, first of all, through baptism to become the New Creation, to respond to one's own radical need--the need-for redemption; then, through confirmation which takes presence to a new dimension, orien-tating the baptized person to the needs of the whole Church; then, through holy orders which radicalizes in a person Christ's own gift-presence, making a person "steward of the mysteries of God" (I Co 4:1), a person whose presence is to draw forth the New Creation. The traditional theological term, "character," then, describes three modes of the presence of Christ in the New Creation. Flowing from these modes of presence are different kinds of activity. I have commented briefly above on the mode of presence that comes through baptism and confirmation. These are modes of presence and ac-tivity which belong to all Christians by virtue of their baptism and con-firmation. It is what is specifically called the mini~stry of the laity. Within that mode of presence there are many kinds of activities, as, for exam-ple, that which belongs to those who are married, or to those engaged in secular occupations in the world. I shall comment briefly on the kind of presen.ce that belongs to the priest. It has two sides. The priest mediates to the Church and the world the presence of Christ. On the other side, the priest draws the whole of Review for Religious, March-April 1989 the Church into the presence of Christ. Like John the Baptist the priest is to introduce the Bride to the Bridegroom, and the Bridegroom to the Bride. Priestly ministry has a.single purpose: to bring about the New Crea-tion- to nourish, sustain, and guide the New Creation by word and sac-rament. All of priestly activity then is some form of transubstantiation, that is, to change the old reality into the new. The priest's whole being is to transform the world by touching it with the redemptive event of Christ. The priest lives from Christ, for the Churchl' But at the heart of all ministries in the Church is the radicalization that takes place through baptism which brings into being the New Crea-tion. Confirmation and orders have their roots in the new mode of pres-ence of Christ in the individual and the Church through baptism. Con-firmation draws out another aspect of the giftedness of the New Crea-tion, that is, the apostolic dimension to "let your light shine before oth-ers . " Orders is a gift of the Spirit presupposing baptism which em-powers individuals to draw forth from the "old creation" the New Crea-tion, through word and sacrament, and to direct the community in the ways to live out the implications of the New Creation. Problems Associated With Ministry St. Paul describes ministries as the work of the Holy Spirit in call-ing responses from within the New Creation to particular needs within the Church. The images he uses always suggest harmonics or coordina-tion. In a sense, the Holy Spirit is like a conductor calling .forth from each individual player in the symphony that which leads to the harmon-ics of the whole piece of music. One of St. Paul's favorite images to bring out the .sense of harmonics of ministries is that of the body, where the whole exists for each part, and each part exists for every other part, as well as for the whole. "There is a variety of gifts but always the same Spirit; there are all sorts of service to be done, but always to the same Lord, working in all sorts of different people; it is the same God who is working in all of them" (1 Co 12:if). The words "same Spirit," or the "one Spirit" oc-cur about ten times in the passage to show that ministry is a Spirit-evoked response to different needs. The same emphasis is found in Ephe-sians 4: If. "Do all you can to preserve the unity of the Spirit. , there is one Body, one Spirit . . . one Lord, one faith~ one baptism, one God." It is interesting that Paul's extensive description of the interplay of the gifts of the Holy Spirit for the good of the whole Church is found mainly in a community where there was the greatest.disharmony, the Ministry and Ministries / "17'3 Church at Corinth. He is therefore calling attention to a special kind of sin, the obstruction of the power of the Holy Spirit in the very persons who are called to build up the body of Christ. But the situation at Corinth does point to what have always been three problems with ministry in the Church: (1) the failure to see minis-try as the Spirit-evoked response to different needs within the Church; (2) the failure to see that each ministry has its meaning not in itself, but only insofar as the foundational ministry of presence animates it; (3) the adaptation of the uniqueness of Christian ministry to secular models. I shall comment on these briefly. (1) The problems in the Corinthian community that turned the sym-phonic movements of the Holy Spirit into groups of warring factions have always been part of the sinfulness of the Church. Basically it is the problem of what in Jungian psychology is called the "persona," the pub-lic image a person seeks before the eyes of others. The symphonic na-ture of ministry becomes discordant when one's attention turns from the ministry in itself to an awareness of the public image associated with dif-ferent ministries. The attention then is not on what the Holy Spirit is do-ing through one's ministry, but on the way ttiat one's own glory appears before others. Some even felt they got a better public image by the fact that they were baptized by a person associated with such an image-creating personality, for example, the eloquent and gifted evangelist, Apollos, in contrast to someone like Paul who apparently did not pro-ject such an image. (2) The second problem which has plagued the Church in her past history, as well as at the present, is tile dissociation of the ministry of doing from the primary ministry of being or of presence. For this reason Paul insists that though the Corinthian Community exercise all of the other ministries, even to the point of giving all they have to the poor, or giving their bodies to be. burnt, yet if they are isolated from th~ min-istry of presence, of being, that is love, (hen all activities are like activi-ties of a corpse. There might be much activity, very busy people, but it does not carry the life-giving power of the Spirit. It is dead. The lack of holiness in those who are supposedly the New Creation has been the biggest obstacle to the work of the Spi.rit during the whole of the history of the Church. (3) The third problem, related to the first two, comes from a failure to recognize the uniqueness of ministry in the Church. Ministry in the Church is a reversal of all notions of service that we find in societies that owe their existence to some natural cause, for example, the state or the 174 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 family. In these societies, a person enters at a certain level, then makes every effort to move to the top, with increase of salary, prestige, power, and the expansion of the "public image" as one works to the top. In the process, whoever is above is a threat because the one above stands in the way. Those who are below are looked on as inferior. Judgments about the importance of different "ministries" are always made accord-ing to the ladder\of the upward-bound movement and then more specifi-cally to what rung of the ladder one is on. This problem has always been with the Church. It was practically im-possible for the apostles to put this new wine into old wineskins. They argued who was the most important. Then Jesus taught them, "If any-one wants to be first, he must make himself last of all and the servant of all" (Mk 9:35). The sons of Zebedee asked Jesus, " 'Grant us the right to sit in state with you, one at your right and the other at your left.' Jesus said to them, 'You do not understand what you are ask!ng. Can you drink the cup that I drink, or be baptized with the baptism I am to be baptized with?' " Jesus tells them that if he as master and Lord has washed their feet, then they should wash one another's feet. This is a symbolic way of describing Christian ministry. Paul says, "Rivalry and personal vanity should have no place among you, but you should hum-bly reckon others better than yourselves" (Ph 2:3). I am sure there are many other problems that have to do with minis-try today. Some are organizational problems, others from many of the feminist questions. The ones I mentioned above are attitudinal. They have always been with us, and are with us today. They can be at work also in other problems such as organizational or the feminist issues. I can-not imagine people agitating for a job which, for example, would mean that they would take a salary cut, pay more taxes, have longer hou.rs, and work anonymously. The Christian notion of ministry~ is even more out-landish than that. Ministry and Religious Life In his Apostolic Exhortation on the religious life, The Gift of Redemp-tion (March 25, 1984), Pope John Paul II presents what is probably the most profound theology of religious life that has ever been thought out. He roots religious consecration in the New Creation that comes into be-ing through baptism. Religio6s life then has its primary ministry in what we spoke of above as the ministry of presence. It is foundational to all other particular forms of ministry. But the presence that forms the fundamental ministry of religious life takes on a particular paschal duality. It is to image forth the life of Jesus Ministry and Ministries as the Suffering Servant. It exists to show forth the duality that belongs to Christ's own paschal mystery. The paschal duality means that one and the same reality has two related aspects: the cross (sacrifice) and the res-urrection (the New Creation). The vowed life of the religious, then, is to bring into the world a particular modality of paschal presence. That is the fundamental ministry: the ministry of the paschal presence. But there are particular ministries which religious congregations ex-ercise for the good of the Church and society. When we look at the his-tory of the Church in our own country, these ministries are numerous. Some of the majors ones are education, hospitals, orphanages, care for the elderly, but there are many others, including the contemplative life of intercession for the Church. Other forms of particular ministries have emerged over the last twenty-five years. But it is the foundational ministry above all which must activate all particular ministries. To quote Pope John Paul: "It is precisely this wit-ness of love that the world today and all humanity need. They need this witness to the Redemption as this is imprinted upon the profession of the evangelical counsels" (no. 14). "From this witness of spousal love for Christ, through which the entire salvific truth of the Gospel becomes par-ticularly visible, there comes., as something proper to your vocation, a sharing in the Church's apostolate, in her universal mission . . ." (no. 15). He goes on to speak of the particular apostolates. Then, "And thus, even though the many different apostolic works that you perform are ex-tremely important, nevertheless the truly fundamental work of the apos-tolate remains always what (and at the same time who) you are in the Church. Of each one of you can be repeated, with special appropriate-ness, these words of Saint Paul: 'For you have died and your life is hid with Christ in God' " (no. 15). Conclusion Questions about ministry are very much with us today. Many of these questions were brought up in the recent synod on the laity. But the end results did not bring much clarification. Perhaps the most positive result was to bring an awareness of the need for a theology of ministry that relates ecclesiology, pneumatology, grace, sacraments, and voca-tion. I am sure that the synod wa~ an important step along the way to clarification. As the history of the theology and development of doctrine show, clarification of issues that touch the life of the Church very pro-foundly is a long process. .What I have tried to do above could be summed up as follows: (I) since ministry belongs to a unique reality, namely, the Church, which "176 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 is, so to speak, held together 'from above,' through the Holy Spirit, min-istry in the Church is unique, and cannot be reduced to service as~we find it in any human society; (2) ministry is not self-initiated but originated by the Holy Spirit in order to respond to needs, some of which are con-stitutive of the Church, for example, sacrament of orders, and others which depend on historical, sociological factors; (3) the primordial min-istry is that of presence, which cannot be limited to presence of the Spirit "because God's love has flooded our inmost heart through the Holy Spirit he has given us" (Rm 5:5); (4) particular ministries address par-ticul~ ir needs within the Church or the w.ay the Church interfaces with the world; (5) three main problems were singled out: (a) the use of min-istry to glorify oneself; (b) the shift from primacy of presence ("the more excellent way" which Paul describes as love) to a primacy of par-ticular ministries; (c) the subtle adaptation of the gospel paradoxes about ministry ("Then if I, your Lord and Master, have washed your feet, you ought also to wash one another's feet" (Jn 13:14) to promotional mod-els taken from secular societies; (6) finally, I spoke of the particular min-istry of religious, whether active or contemplative: it is the ministry of a special mode of presence, a kenotic presence, which translates the words of Jesus, "this is my body given up for you . . . blood poured out for you" into the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty, obe-dience, creating a paschal presence which animates all particular minis-tries. Come and See: An Experiment in Vocation Discernment in Africa Martin O'Reilly, C.F.C. Brother Martin O'Reilly, C.F.C., does vocation counseling work in Liberia and Si-erra Leone. His address is Christian Brothers; P.O. Box,297; Monrovia, Liberia. ~lln unkind joke, certainly thought up with post-Vatican II religious life in mind, asks: how do you join a small religious congregation? Answer: join a big one and wait. It is, however, a joke that would not be under-stood in many parts of the Church, particularly in Africa. Let me explain. Between 1975 and 1985 the number of local priests rose in West Africa by a staggering 630%; local sisters increased by 280% and'brothers by 340% (Statistics compiled from L'Englise Catholique en Afrique, edited by Pere Perraud, Pontifical Missionary Union, France, 1987). T.he prob-lem for many seminaries and religious communities in the younger. churches is not so much trying to attract candidates, but to find ways in which to sort out the wheat from the chaff. This article will focus on the ways in which vocation counselors can effectively carry out their ministry in situations where the large numbers applying for entrance to religious communities, the newness of the ,~o-cation to many people, and the particular backgrounds of the applicants make it difficult to accurately assess the. seriousness of an application. If the postulancy is to really be a preparatory period for entry into the. novitiate, and not simply a sorting out of suitable candidates from the unsuitable, then there is need for some kind of system of deselection prior to that. A method for doing so is what is proposed here. It is the result of my own involvement over these past five years in vocation coun-seling in Liberia and Sierra Leone. 177 "17~1 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 The Game Plan ~ Perhaps the best way to begin is by saying how I don't carry out my ministry: I don't advertise; I don't give talks in schools or churches; I don't have a telephone; I don't have my own means of transport; and I am not fulltime on the job. I prefer, rather, to spend a couple of weeks, five or six times a year on the road, covering some 3,000 miles or so, visiting those who have contacted me. I stay with them in their town or village, and meet their family and friends. Just as an ordinary friendship grows, so does mine with .those who have expressed interest in the life of a Brother. Through the people who have invited me to visit their homes, I have met others who want to know more about the religious vocation. Many people have joined our community through a friend or relative introducing them to me. Since b~ginning in my ministry in 1982 I have developed a network of contacts that r.uns into the hundreds. When my relationship with an applicant has developed past a cer-tain point, I then invite him to "come and see" where 1 live. I invite him to spend ten weeks with myself and the community. Apart from help-ing with his transport costs, he has to arrange his own travel documents and come under his own steam--just as any person would have to do, were he or she to travel and visit a friend in a far-off place. The idea behind the ten-week vocation discernment program is for candidates and the community to experience each other for a sufficient length of time, allowing both parties to get to know each other, and to see if they are compatible and willing to grow together in community, prayer, and service. :Who Is Invited? ~ There are fivemarkers I would look foi in a person suitable for ac-ceptance into the pre-postula.ncy program (I am presuming that an appli-cant is baptized and confirmed as a Catholic, has reasonable references and is in good health): (I) An applicant must have shown evidence of being able to commit him-self to a group within the Church (for example, The Legion of Mary, St. Vincent de Paul, Y.C.S., or a prayer group) for a substantial period of time. Simply "attending Mass'? regularly is not enough evidence of a commitment to the Church within the African context. (2) An applicant must have "nets to leave behind." The economic con-dition of many of the countries in West Africa is such that the vocation . of a priest or a religious can be a very attractive proposition. It offers a person security and status, to say nothing of sanctity! Those straight Come and See / "179 from school are not usually in a position to have ~proved their compe-tence in the art of living and providing for themselves. With few excep-tions school-leavers have the added problem of not seeing entrance to a religious community as anything more than pursuing "further stud-ies." Those who apply, and have no job, I advise to look elsewhere. (3) The family of an applicant must be able to understand what decision a young person is making in asking to join a religious community. There has to be some significant member of the family, not necessarily a par-ent, who supports his intention. The applicant, for his part, must explain to the family that all he is trying to do is to "find God's will." If he finds out that it is not God's intention forhim to be a religious, then he should tell them that he will return home a wiser person; but if it is, then he must explain thathe will be returning to join the community as a pos-tulant with, hopefully, the understanding and support of his family. (4) An applicant has to be able to see that there are difficulties for him in asking to join a religious community. His ability to talk of his'fears about the demands of a celibate life are as good an indicator as any of the degree of his seriousness. If he cannot see this as a tremendous chal-lenge, then I tell him that he probably has not thought enough about the vocation. (5) With regard to the intellectual ability of an applicant, it is essential that he be capable of tertiary education. A person's particular paper quali-fications do not always reflect his academic ability, so it is not appro-priate to apply the same rules for entry to everyone. A candidate should certainly have finished his secondary school education and not beqook-ing to resit exams at a later date. If I am unsure as to the suitability of a person applying for the pro-gram, I will give him the benefit of the doubt; but when it comes to en-try into the° six months postulancy, and I am s.t!ll unsure of his suitabil-ity, I give the benefit of the doubt to the community and ask him to look elsewhere for his vocation. The Rationale Behind The Program The pre-postulancy program, as outlined here, is conceived of as an extension of the vocation counselor work, .rather than the beginning of religious formation. Those selected for the prograrfi--never more than twelve--are fully aware of the temporary nature of the experience, and understand that at the end of the program they may, or may not, be in-vited to apply for admission to the postulancy program. For most of those entering the program, this will be their first expe-rience of living in a multi-cultural environment. Great care, therefore, 180 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 is taken to make our candidates feel at home--if not, then they will prob-ably wish they were at home.! We have found that candidates, at this stage of the life in a religious community, prefer to share rooms and need ample opportunity for settling in ,and' being themselves. It goes without saying that the personnel involved in directing the program are comfort-able living with young people and are prepared to trust them. I have found that for a pre-postulancy program to work well, there must be a group of candidates with a specified program to follow. Sim-ply inviting young Africans to come and live with a religious commu-nity and to occupy themselves with some form of pastoral work is not a sufficient basis for helping them understand the meaning of religious life. Candidates need clear guidelines so as to help them negotiate the difficulties in living in a structured environment with others from differ-ent backgrounds and cultures. Growth in appreciation of the meaning of religious life will take place when candidates begin to experience the com-munity as sufficiently safe and supportive so that they can be themselves. However a person presents himself prior to joining the community, he cannot maintain a pretense for long when invited to participate in a strong community experience. Candidates, also, can be so concerned with try-ing to match our real or imagined expectations of them that they find it difficult not to think of themselves as playing the lead part in a drama scripted by others. As far as is possible I make the agenda of our daily living together the responsibility of all and try to foster a sense of ac-countability among them, a sense that "we are in this together." For people to encounter themselves, others, and God in a real way there has to be a ring of authenticity about the experience. I am espe-cially interested in exploring with those invited to join the program their notions about themselves, talents as well as weaknesses; the ways in which they handle questions relating to anger and misunderstanding~ sexu-ality and intimacy, and obligations towards family members--as well as the ways in which they enjoy praying. Matters spe(ifically related to the meaning of the vocation to the religious life, I leave for later on in the p6stulancy. Hopefully, as a result of this approach candidates come to build up their identity as members of the community and as people of prayer on more than the superficial foundations of rules and ritual. Sometimes formators can be afraid to get close to c.andidates, pre-ferring to treat them in h remote fashion. This is, 1 feel, wholly unac-ceptable within a cultural climate where tactile contact and verbal com-munication are so important.~Shaking hands, giving hugs and passing the time of day together are as natural to Africa as the sunshine. Most of Come and See 181 those applying to join us have encountered a good deal of opposition from their friends and family. They need to know from the outset that they are really welcome into the community, not simply for who they might become, (that is religious brothers), but for who.they actually are. That is not to say that there is no room for tough love, but simply that the most effective direction will be given by the formator who is capa-ble of sharing his or her affection for the candidates in concrete ways. A crucial element in thesuccess of the "Come and See" program has been the close presence of professed religious, actively involved in the mission of the congregation, and a novitiate community prepared to welcome candidates, albeit for only ten weeks, into the religious fam-ily. Both professed members and novices have provided a tangible ex-pression of the ideal and the possibility of becoming a religious candi-date. The director of the program is also supported by this in the com-plex business of evaluating applicants to the postulancy. Counseling and helping people discern their vocation is very much, at this stage, a group experience. The value of regular or weekly com-munity meetings, with the opportunity of bringing into the open any is-sue of concern to individuals or the group, cannot be overestimated. If something important to one or more of the candidates is being intention-ally avoided by the community, then nothing of importance will be ta~ked about either. Our weekly sessions start with a review of the pre-vious week and points arising from the reading of the community jour-nal take up the first part of the meeting. I have known that part of the meeting to go on for two hours. The principle of dialogue in Africa seems to be "to talk until you agree"! The length of the program--ten weeks--is long enough for both the candidates and the community to come to have a fair idea of one another, and yet short enough for a person to feel as though he has not burnt his boats by leaving home to enter into a religious community. Having a ter-mination point after ten weeks, instead of say six months, lessens the .chances of early drop-outs and an accompanying lowering of morale 'within the group. It also makes candidates feel free to reevaluate their own decision in the light of their experience of religious life and leave without recriminations, should they feel that such a life is not for them. Conclusion In the five years that the Brothers' Formation Center has been in op-eration in Gbarnga, Liberia, forty-two candidates have completed the "Come and See" program. To date, we have eight postulants, four nov-ices and ten junior professed. Most of those who have left us did so at 1~19 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 the end of the pre-postulancy program, and left in good spirits. Those who entered the postulancy, and have stayed with the community, say thai the important thing about the pre-postulancy program was that it was religious life "small, small" and hence made them able to realize the importance of being themselves within a culture (religious life) vastly dif-ferent from the 6he they were used to. They were more able to relax and relate to the idea of becoming religious once they knew that they were accepted for who they were; and not who they might become. If those who enter the postulancy do so with some semblance of realism in terms of themselves, and the firm knowledge that "it. is indeed good when brothers dwell as one," then there is a reasonable chance that they can give themselves fully to the significant step of embarking upon the path of becoming members of the Congregation, and I as vocation counselor will have don~ my job. Assessing The "Moral Integrity" Of Candidates For Religious Life Charles Shelton, S.J. Father Charles Shelton, S.J., has a doctorate in clinica! psychology and is currently an Assistant Professor of psychology at Regis College in Denver, Colorado. A more detailed understanding of this theory of conscience is presented in his most recent book, Morality and the Adolescent: A Pastoral Psychology Approach. New York: Crossroad, 1989. His address is Regis College; 3539 West 50th Avenue; Denver, Colorado 8022 I. Over the past twenty years, it is safe to state that the application process for entering reli~ious life has radically changed. Gone are the days when a simple behavioral observation of the candidate's religious practice or the encouraging word of a religious who knows the candidate suffices for entrance. Instead, the application process for most orders and insti-tutes focuses on a thor~ough social history, detailed interviews, psycho-logical evaluations, and an overview of the candidate's sp!ritual life. Sur-prisingly, little has been written regarding one crucial aspect of the ap-plication process--that of the candidate's moral integrity. This article ad-dresses this issue by offering a theoretical yet practical view of the can-didate's capacity for moral growth. The linchpin which holds together the candidate's vocational aspirations with his or her moral integrity is "conscience." Accordingly, we will provide a model of conscience and suggest a practic,al approach which will be of use to vocation directors and interviewers of candidates. The thesis of this article is that the "moral integrity" of a candidate is a crucial area of assessment and that a perspective which utilizes an integrative understanding of conscience offers the best way for providing a thorough examination of the candi-date's capacity for living the moral life. 183 11~4 / Review for Religious,~ March-~April 1989 ,The Moral Life of the Candidate Perhaps one reason that little has been written about the candidate's moral life is that one simply "assumes" that anyone wishing to enter priestly ministry or a religious congregation possesses an upright moral character. Although understandable, such a position remains question-able. Any vocation director can readily provide stories about candidates who express interest .in religious life, many of whom are ill-suited for psychological reasons, as well as at times "moral" reasons, for proceed-ing with the application process. The question of the candidate's moral integrity, however, has taken on new significance over the past two decades. Several reasons can be offered why serious examination needs to be given in this area. First, many candidates seeking to enter religious life today are ~lder. This be-ing the case, the backgrounds and experience of the candidates provide an often admirable, yet at times puzzling, array of experiences. Many involved in the candidate selection process at times wonder what has re-ally gone on in the life history of the candidate. Secondly~ the psycho-logical nature of candidates often admits to a complex personality struc-ture which is threaded with a variety of motives and psychological ex-periences, not all of which are compatible with the demands of the re-ligious community.For example, I was once presented with a situation about a candidat~ to a diocesan seminary. The candid.at~e had. admitted to several questionable behaviors but now contended that a conversion experienc6 had resolved these issues. Since I did not know the candidate, I refused to offer an opinion regarding his suitability. I did suggest, though, that given the behaviors in question careful scrutiny must be given this person's motives. The capacity for rationalization is virtually limitless. Thirdly, the complexity of today's ministerial roles and struc-tures necessitates a well-developed and well-defined moral conscience Which allows flexibility, sustains insight, and fosters behaviOr~ which are~ healthy and which nurture moral integrity. The recent scandals surround~ ing sexual acting out among priests and religious necessitate a.well-integrated conscience which assists a person in reflecting 6n his or her own vocational commitment. All in all, conscience remains the single most vital human mechanism for assisting an individual's living of dis-cipleship. As a consequence, it becomes important to offer a view'of con- ~Cience that is'integrative and best captures the human desire to live the life of Christian discipleship. As a clinical psyChologiSt my own view is that for conscience to make sense it must be intimately rooted within the very human experience of life; indeed, conscience must arise from The "Moral Integrity" of Candidates / 185. the very depths of human experience as it responds to the self-commu-nicating presence of God's offer of grace. This perspective allows the very moral integrity of the person to be encapsulate~l within the reality of h.~uman life and surface in the very depths of human personhood. Ac-cordingly, I think that conscience is best explained as the decision for other-centered value in the concrete decision of everyday life. That is, conscience serves as the capacity to appropriate more and more the Chris-tian dynamic of love in the existential reality ot~ one's life. It is the one force .within life that serves to break through deceit and self-deception and challenges one to strive for a more authentic living of discipleship. In order to see this clearly, I would like to offer a model of con-science that incorporates seven dimensions. My thesis is that only an ex-amination of these seven features will allow a more complete and thor-ough understanding of a'person's capacity for moral int'egrity. As a way to assist the application process of candidates, I will offer specific com-ments and questions that are applicable for a candidate seeking to enter religious life. Through an eva, luation of these seven dimensions, a more adequate sense of the candidate's moral integrity can be ascertained.~ Evaluating for Moral Integrity Within a model of conscience, the following seven dimensions should be considered. Adaptive Psychic Energy. We are what we focus on and experience. Stated another way, what we give attention to offers insight into the type of person that we are. Psychic energy is required for all human endeav-ors. Indeed, perceptions, thoughts, emotions, attachments, and behav-iors ~all rely upon an adequate investment of psychic energy. At the same time, psychic energy is itself limited. One has only so much energy to invest. Thus, to tend to certain tasks and goals precludes, by necessity, investment in other ventures. Developmentally, psychic energy is best utilized in the successful resolution of developmental tasks. Applicants seeking to enter religious life require careful scrutiny of both their level of identity formation as well as their capacity for intimacy. Most likely, individuals who are without a sense of healthy identity or a balanced and mature sense of the demands, ambiguities, and feelings associated with intimacy are susceptible to the pull of a pervasive dependency or the un-due influence of others (or environmental situations) which deflect needed psychic energy for spiritual growth. Moral growth is most apt to take place when one can bring to one's evolving and (increasingly. con-solidated) ethical self the accumulated wisdom derived from a felt (yet evolving) sense of "who I am" and the felt attachment (yet continual 186 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 self-discovery) that "I am loved and I do love." Some needed questions to consider in this regard include: To what extent does this ~:andidate know who he or sh~ is? How influenced is this candidate by his or her own needs or by the influence of others? With what degi'ee of self-awareness can the candidate speak of a sense of self-definitioh? Does there exist appropriate intimacy experiences in this per-son's life (or for yoUn(er candidates, the maturing capacity for inti-macy)? Has this candidate's sense of identity and intimacy allowed for greater self-awareness that is capable of dealing with increasing ambi-guity and the com, pl~xities of adult (and religious) life? Defensive Psychic Functioning. Healthy growth is dependent upon adap-tive psychic functioning which incorporates mature defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are psychic operations whose function is to allay anxiety and.p~rovide a more flexible and adal~table resPonse to reality. Healthy defenses include sublimation, a flexible and resourceful sense of humor, role flexibility, s~ppression's"(the conscious contro~l of im-pulses), and altruism. Needless to say, the living in community and the demands of the chaste life require wide use of these defenses in order that the religious might integrate and deal with sexual and aggressive urges. Community life, the constant demands of the apostolic life, and the need to continually appropriate the ideals of the vowed life require an adaptable and flexible approach to others. On the other hand, there exist a' wide variety of defense mechanisms which are apt to prove un-healthy for living and which in turn stunt moral growth. These include: projection (the attributing of unacceptable feelings to others); externali-zation (the blaming of one's difficulties on others); acting out (the ac-ceding to impulses); rationalization (the making of excuses); stereotyp-ing (theorefusal to allow and accept differences); and compartmentaliza-tion (the excluding of one area of life from self-examination). A classic example of this last defense is the person who lives a credible life as a religiousin most areas of life, yet refuses to look at one area such as sex-ual acting out. As the candidate becomes less able to marshal mature defenses, the inevitable result is a limit of self-knowledge and of reflective self-awareness needed for interior examination. Naturally, this form of lim-ited psychological functioning is bound to impact on the discerning of choices or a balanced and realistic reflection on personal life issues. Some pertinent questions are: Does the candidate rationalize'? exter-nalize? project? and so forth. What does personal responsibility mean for this candidate? How comfortable is the candidate with his or. her ira- The "Moral Integrity" of Candidates pulses? How does the candidate sublimate? How does the candidate deal with ambiguity? To what extent is creativity possible for this candidate? Empathy. Conscience is not only rational reflection; it includes emotional investment and attachment. Empathy best exemplifies this emotional ex-pression since it points to the capacity to bond and show sensitivity to others. Normally, empathic expression is not an issue for religious. How-ever, there exist several areas for scrutiny. Does the candidate overem-pathize? The person who cannot maintain healthy identity boundaries is apt to lose objectivity. Further, when empathizing how does the candi-date deal and integrate his or her empathic stirrings? How self-aware is he or she of emotional distress which arises from pastoral situations which often elicit intense internal feelings? This issue is critically im-portant because burnout (an ever present problem for members of caring professions such as those in religiousolife tend to be) often results from continual exposure of the self to empathic distress (experiencing the pain and hurt of others in pastoral situations) which, over time, wears down the religious both physically and emotionally. This burnout in turn less-ens the capacity for reflection, healthy objectivity, and discerning choice. Self~esteem. Adequate self-esteem is indispensable for maturation. S;~lf-esteem refers to a felt sense of inner goodness and a sense of self-competence. There are several ways self-esteem relates to the candidate's level of moral integrity. First, without a healthy sense Of Self-esteem, a person is psychologically limited in the capacity to admit personal fault and the seeking of forgiveness. Lack of self-esteem leads invariably to over-compensating behavior and desires for control; or, conversely, there exists denial~ of responsibility or rationalizations. Without self-esteem the religious who hurts a fellow community member is disinclined to view himself or herself as bearing responsibility for the hurtful action. An equally problematic behavior that is likely to surface from lack of self-esteem is over-dependency on the behaviors and thoughts of others. In other words, the religious who lacks a felt sense of "inner goodness" is vulnerable to being overly influenced by another. Consequently, such "neediness" is likely to evoke blindness regarding personal action and the rationalization of specific behaviors. Several questions come to mind that could be integrated into an as-sessment of the candidate. First, does the candidate genuinely "like" himself or herself? Is the candidate capable of independent and mature judgment which is open to input and guidance from others? At the same time, are there indications that this candidate is overly dependent on ob- Review for Religious, March-April 1989 taining a good impression from or the approval of others? Guilt. Feelfngs of guilt exact a tremendous toll on the psyche. They can be'the source of debilitation leading to weakened self-esteem, depres-sion, a sense of personal devaluation, and compensating behaviors which often take on a compulsive quality. Still, there is a vital, indeed neces-sary role for guilt in moral development. Healthy guilt serves as a vital linchpin'in orienting one to awareness of personal transgressions and the need for forgiveness. Furthermore, such guilt' experiences induce a re-sponse that is caring and sensitive to the concerns of others. Admittedly, the experience of guilt is one of the most difficult psychological tight-ropes to walk. If experienced too intensely, its effects can be crippling. On the other hand, to deny the experience of guilt deprives the self of' a naturally occurring psychic experience whose function nourishes increas-ing sensitivity and altruistic responding. My own impression is that many religious downplay the vital role that guilt exercisesin the experience of forgiveness, I suspect this is most likely due to many religious' own back-ground and difficult time with guilt feelings. Several questions are pertinent. How. has the candidate dealt with moral transgressions in his or her own life? Can he or she discuss them? Is there a sense of openness and also a healthy distance from these past experiences? What has the candidate learned from these experiences? Is the candidate still reacting to them? How does,the candidate speak of his. current limitatiohs? How does the ~candidate believe that he or she needs further growth? Note here the view of growth from a sense of positive integration as opposed to a compulsive sense of goals to be accom-plished. Idealization. The role of idealization is vital for the development of a healthy moral sell It is within our capacity for 'idealization that the can-didate 'is able to construct a view of the order or congregation and the personal desire"to enter religious life. Idealization speaks of dreams, hopes, desires and what the ca.ndidate wishes to become. It implies a mold~ ing process of gradual evolvement which is shaped from images and hopes yet to be realized. Idealizations indicate the quality of one's emo-tional investment and the underlying values to which the moral self is committed. Several questions are pertinent.~,How realistic is the candidate's view of self? religious life? It is to be expected th~at the view of both self and the order/congregation might be somewhat distorted; and the issue b'(- comes how open 'is the candidate to having his or her idealizations rfiodi-fled? A further question refers to the capacity of the candidate to deal The "Moral Integrity" of Candidates with disillusionment. Since idealizations are so valued, the failure of them to occur or be implemented can lead to tremendous hurt and an-ger. Behaviors emanating from such perceived slights and disappoint-ments include acting out, cynicism, passive-aggressive behavior, ration-alizations. In other words, the negative affect resulting from disil-lusionment can cloud healthy moral reflection and an authentic living of the vows. Teleology. A final dimension of the well-integrated conscience is a re-flective sense of purposive meaning. A teleological perspective is sim-ply one's capacity for rational reflection which provides reasons ("that for the sake of which") why one's behavior is carried out. Candidates to religious orders and congregations, of course, are capable of reasoned and reflective behaviors. The issue here is more the "style" of one's telic inclinations rather than the content of the reasoning. In other words, most people could give reasoned responses for their behaviors. The key for mature functioning, and most certainly for moral functioning, is the motivation behind such reflection. Tendencies to be observed include the following: Does the reasoning of this candidate contain a healthy per-sonal investment? Is there an emotional investment in his reasons? Con-victions are most apt to be lived out when they contain a mature blend-ing of reasoned reflection and emotional commitment. On the other hand, does the candidate isolate affect? Does he or she appear to sepa-rate reasons from the emotions which such content would naturally elicit? For example, a candidate who would,speak of a particularly disturbing experience in a cold and very intellectualized way might well not be aware of underlying emotional dynamics. On the other hand, the candi-date whose rationales are continually interspersed with an impulsive qual-ity or tinged with emotionally laden content might be too absorbed in de-veiopm+ ntal issues or underlying dynamic processes to offer healthy dis-tance and the requisite discerning that is needed for moral decision mak-ing. Conclusion This article has underscored the significance of exploring the moral integrity of applicants in any overall assessment of candidates. It is ar-gued that moral development is not simply a process of doing right or wrong. Rather, growth in the moral life is a complex event best exem-plified as an integrative process emanating within the rooted experiences of human living. In the assessment process itself, an exploration of the candidate's past life history is imperative. Equally important, though, is assessing some quality of the candidate's capacity for moral growth. This 190 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 article argues that optimum moral growth for the candidate is most apt to take place when the following qualities are present: appropriate work-ing through of developmental issues, a realistic and adaptive view of self and others, a caring sensitivity, the capacity for admitting wrong, a healthy sense.of self-esteem, aspiring ideals that are realistic, and reflec-tive reasoning. Though no assessment procedure can accurately predict a candidate's ability to live consistently the moral life, it is well worth the efforts of those involved in the formation process to address every candidate's capacity for moral integrity. An Easter Prayer Love's force is stron.ger than the pull of dark: It can level mountains, raise the dead To a new life, and strengthen weary feet To walk on waters, piled rough waves of night. Its breath can blow the dying coals to light A tunnel black as pitch and radiate The way round pitfalls and sucking s~nds Even to the long, long corridor's end: Chain love's force in tomb with rock-seal tight, Beat it level on Friday's cross and still After three-days He rises above The morning sun in Tabor splendor. See how He moves unhindered through barred doors, All His glory sta.mped on hand and foot and side: Balm to festered sores of Calvary, Now free from binding shroud and fastening nails. Oh, Beacon Light at the end of the sea's corridor, Ointment spice for hurt eyes and wounded hands, Oh, Summoning Bell, buoyant to all our stumbling feet, Help us, Risen Christ, to walk life's dark waters! Marcella M. Holloway, C.S.J. 6400 Minnesota Avenue St. Louis, Mo. 63111 Comprehensive Counseling David Altman, O.C.S.O. Father David is a monk of Holy Trinity Abbey; Huntsville, Utah 84317. At one time or another during our lives, individuals will come to usfor the help they think we can give. Whether or not we find ourselves ex-pert in various kinds of problem-solving, we ought to be able to help them identify problems and be able to present recommendations. Perhaps the key to success in relating to and helping others is to see personal relationships as Christian ministry. The people we meet are, of course, Christ himself, in one of his many disguises. They are also our current pastoral assignments, to be met with faith and self-sacrifical love. Upwards of 85% of helping others consists.in listening: listening at-tentively with compassion and understanding. At times we will be called upon to respond, and this must not be done tritely, but intelligently and constructively. The Approach The secret, if there is one, of a good approach to solving personal problems is to meet each person-situation comprehensively, which is to say, completely. This simply means that we have to use a method which will ensure that problems are not permitted to get by undetected. We want to throw out a net, so to say, which will catch and identify all the difficulties from which a person is suffering. A way to do this is to realize that we human beings are basically three-fold in our makeup: we are physical beings, mental-psychologi~:al be-ings, and moral-spiritual beings, Obviously, then, we can have three gen-eral kinds of problems: physical, mental-psychological, and moral-spiritual. 191 Review for Religious, March-April 1989 These categories are not mutually exclusive since they all pertain to one human person in each case. I have found them useful in my own coun-seling experience because they are complete: they are the net from which no problem need escape, provided that each category is kept in mind dur-ing communication with the person who is seeking help. Competency Few of us are competent to handle difficult cases of pathological na-ture. Of course, those with severe illnesses are to be directed to pro-fessionals with the appropriate expertise. Psychotics need psychiatrists or psychologists; seriously sick bodies require medical attention; and mor-ally ill people need men and women who can show them God's healing ways. Because we presumably are these men and women of God, we ought also to have a certain competency in identifying problems in the other two areas of each person: the physical and the psychological. The body-soul unity is the temple of God's Spirit, sharing intimately in the spiri-tual life of each of us. Therefore our desire to, help the suffering Christ in others ought to carry us beyond spiritual and moral interests alone. Though we may not have the professional training by which we can solve a probiem fully, our working knowledge of various problems en-ables us to provide reasons to a person of his (or her) need for another with more expertise. Simply remarking, "You need a doctor" can be a slap in the face for one who is in pain. We should be able to convince another of his need for help, and perhaps even supply a good name for reference. Difficulties One of the greatest difficulties in attempting to solve individual prob-lems in any of the three areas is to give a suffering person What we want instead of what he needs. When a medical doctor sees a patient, the as-sumption is that the patient has a medical problem. Tunnel vision can take over, and physical medicine is all the doctor can see, whereas the patient's main difficulty may be in a quite different area. It is not un-usual for doctors to listen to remarks such as "I'm not feeling well" and respond with great pastoral concern: "Here, let me give you something for your nerves." This is treating the, sympto.m rather than attempting to identify the underlying cause, the root problem. When a person sees a psychologist with a problem, the psychologist will usually presume that the problem lies within the bounds of psycho-logical expertise. This too may not be the case at all. Remember the story Comprehensive Counseling / 193 of the man who went to a psychologist with a physical ailment that was impinging on his nervous system. "I feel terrible," was the complaint. The doctor responded unwaveringly with talk therapy and persevered in missing the mark. There is little sense and even less success realized in forcing one kind of solution on an entirely different kind of problem. Equally futile and costly is the failure to address real problems in favor of their symptoms. Worse still is the failure of the health-care specialist torecognize a ~prob-lem, then write off the patient as a hypochondriac. This is no solution, only an excuse. When religious or priests are approached for counseling, we nor-mally presume, in our turn, that the person is simply looking for a closer relationship with God, and we proceed accordingly and unfortunately. I remember a person coming to see a religious for years, feeling terrible for a great deal of her time. The counselor came across very generously with saccharine exhortations to a deeper relationship with the Lord. The individual responded with nodding smiles as tears of pain continued to roll down her cheeks. The religious was giving what he wanted, not what the person needed. As it was, the individual had developed a severe case of hypogly-cemia, diagnosed laterby a physician. And, as counselors should know, fluctuating blood-sugar levels have very much to do with a person's emo-tional dispositions. As soon as the suffering person said, "I feel terrible," that was the tip-off for aphysicai condition. After all, we can only feel, bodily, through our nervous-system cells. When they are offended, they are go-ing to let us know about it, one way or another, In addition to hypoglycemia and diabetes, people today are subject to stress situations--and with widely varying nutritional needs. Medical science today knows that under these stress conditions the body gobbles up vitamins and minerals to an enormous degree. Since the B vitamins, vitamin C, and calcium predominantly nourish the human nervous sys-tem, a deficiency is going to show up with contributions toward various kinds of problems: mood swings, nervousness, anxiety, anger, irritabil-ity, depression, compulsive sexual problems, insomnia. Any nervous-system- related problem can be caused or made more burdensome by the severely deficient diets that are practiced today throughout our junk-food land. One person complained of not feeling quite herself: irritable, even biting toward others. I learned that she had just recovered from the flu, Review for Religious, March-April 1989 which is just one of the stress factors we experience. I suggested a vita-min- mineral supplement on an as-needed basis, and the problem was cleared up. A third physical difficulty, also masked as spiritual or psychologi-cal, is the problem of intolerances. Pioneer medical research has shown that all kinds of personal difficulties are really the human body's reac-tion to ~,arious environmental factors: food intolerances certainly, but also paints, finishing substances, and other chemicals, even artificial light-ing. PhysiCal problems are the first options to explore in c~unseling. They are the most quantifiable, and perhaps the easiest to identify, if not to solve. Relationships People have trouble with relationships, and each of us has three re-lationships in life: a relationship with God, with others, and with one-self. Problem areas are identified by determining the quality of these three relationships, and there are many tip-off statements that come your way as a~counselor. They come voluntarily to the listening ear, and they can be elicited .by asking the right questions. For example, a counselor can determine the quality of someone's re-lationship with God by asking for details about private and communal prayer-lives and: about fidelity to known moral obligations :in 'marriage and work-commitments. Listening to descriptions of interpersonal rela-tionships can reveal much. On one occasion I heard, "They're pickin' on me." This could be true, or it could be a defense. In this particular case, "they" were not the problem. I was talking to the problem. We all enjoy the forbidden luxury of finger-pointing, but we should be mos'e aware that whatever we do, whatever~we say, whatever we wil.l-fully think, we are always saying something about ourselves. We behave out of what we are. Often individuals will present their relational difficulties in terms of an impossible situation with absolutely no way out. The answer is the awareness of the great difference between a real relational situation, and the particular way it is described. Simply reframe the problematic situ- ¯ ation. Discard the impossible description, redescribing the circumstances yourself, so as to provide as many solutions as you can. This takes imagi-nation, and first attempts will result in grasping at straws. But hold on to the straws, as they lead to stronger, more promising answers. It should also be clear that principles of good counseling are appli-cable not only to others,,but also to ourselves. In this connection there Comprehensive Counseling / 195 is a check on the judgments we must make in order to help others: the golden rule, the virtue of empathy, placing oneself in the other's shoes. These principles demand questions such as: Would I follow this advice myself? How would I feel were this advice given to me? Would I bene-fit from the behavior I am planning to recommend? The measure of the quality of any relationship--with God, others, or oneself--is the answer to this question: How does the individual han-dle conflict? We are all fair-weather friends of God, of others, especially of ourselves. But the true measure of a person's strength of character and personal integration is how one stands up in adversity. Do we respond to challenges with virtue and resultant, growth, or with vice and rebel-lion in its many forms? : We cannot give what we do not have; we can only give what we have, so the personal problems we carry around are going to show up in relationships with others. Do they handle re!ational conflicts with at-tempts at reconciliation and peace, or are they inclined to antagonism, revenge, and consequent alienation? Vices In the course of counseling experience, we come across the problem of evil: evil circumstances, evil behavior. We are all sinners before God, and before each other, a fact which ought never to be discounted in problematic relationships. We meet people who sin against God, against others, against them-selves. One of the best favors we can do for them is to help them admit and own their own evil. It is a mistake to try to identify every problem medically or psychologically. Wrongdoing must be identified, owned, and corrected. We are admittedly honest and generous in assigning praise for vir-tue and for any good act; we must be just as honest in recognizing and assigning vice (evil habits)and sinful acts. How we speak about this to others is important, but the honesty must be there, because the only way to solve a problem is to' face it. The love of Christ is a challenging love, because it is only through challenges that people grow. We must often challenge others' behavior, challenge their sin, challenge our own sin. It is these challenges which are the cross-experiences of our lives and the meaning of suffering. We grow through challenges into the strength of character that we need, to live life well, and to die well. These challenges or crosses hurt, because growing pains always do hurt. But the rewards are well worth the perse-vering effort. Review for Religious, March-April 1989 After the apparently innocuous complaint "My life seems to have no direction or purpose," aofew questions were able to uncover a some-what profligate sex life, little or no prayer, and a difficult family back~ ground. Well, we are all products of our background, but we never need be slaves of our backgrounds: Psychotherapy can be of great healing bene-fit; so can a humble confession of guilt with attendant petitions for for-giveness and :mercy; so can the healing power of prayer: holding up bad memories in prayer, exposing them to divine remedies. Whatever difficulties we:have had to endure, they tend to force upon us burdens and pressures which are often channeled compulsively as they please. Kn~owing that our two main emotion-vices are anger and lust, we see that compulsions can spell big trouble. As a result~ people gravitate toward giving up dominion over their own beings:~They become slaves of various emotions and habits. Indi-viduals abdicate the kingship or queenship of their beings in favor of an-ger, lust, drive for power, vain ambitiow, money, prestige, or another person. Taking steps to become one's own man, one's own woman, elimi-nates this slavery, and the first and most important step is fidelity to God ~nd his laws governing human living. This is i'eal love, which will in-variably be returned in greater measure, because w'e love a God who will not be outdone in generosity. Conclusion This contribution has also been called comprehensive because it is only an overview. There is no substitutefor common sense in counsel: ing, and no substitute for prayer. The Jesus Prayer o~: another prayer,of aspiration before, during, .and after the counseling session deepens the session in God, exposing both parties to divine healing power and spe-cial graces. We are ourselves healed as we heal others, because with our love, our desire to give.God to others,' we find that the same generous God gives to us in response to our needs. We offer the gift of our lives to the suffering Jesus in others,', and he returns this gift with his own life and gifts: the graces we need to accomplish our healing task well, and the grace to grow through our own physical, psychological, and moral prob-lems into the personal sanctity ordained for us. The Power of Romantic Love William F. Kraft, Ph.D. William Kraft, Ph.D., is well known to our readers. Dr. Kraft is on the faculty of th~ Psychology Department of Carlow College where he may be addressed: 3333 Fifth Avenue; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213. ~1 don't know what's gotten into me, but I do know that I'vemever felt like this. I never thought I could feel so alive, so open, so good. Since becoming friends with Sarah, I feel more confident; it's as though prob-lems don't bother me like they used to. I function better, I'm more open, and life just seems to finally make more sense. Especially when I'm with Sarah, I feel light, energetic,optimistic. It's as if almost anything is pos-sible. "Some sisters label our relationship as exclusive, or God forbid: par-ticular. In some ways, I guess it is. I know I can hardly wait to see her, to spend the weekend with her, to go on vacation with her. And some-times, I think I yearn too much to be with her. And yet, how could some-thing as wonderful and good be bad? True: sometimes we get a bit too physical, but never genital. We really strive to be chaste, but it's diffi-cult at times. I would like to be more physical, to give all, but I know that would be going out of bounds. "Before my friendship with Sarah, I was sort of happy. I was a good teacher and got along okay in the community. But ! always had the feel-ing that I was missing something important, that life should be more than getting by or maintaining the status quo. And I was always kind of shy or constricted. It was as if I had all these flashing red and yellow lights in my mind, and now there are more green lights." This sister has fallen romantically in love--one of our most invigo-rating and seductive modes of love. She has been lured into and is en- 197 Review for Religious, March-April 1989 joying the experience where almost anything seems possible and almost nothing seems impossible. Feeling more courage and confidence, old problems seemed to have changed and new possibilities have emerged. And her friend seems to be the center of her life, the source of her new vision and strength. Her life is so much more alive than her relatively constricted past. Understandably, she wants more of this new life. Such is romantic love. Listen to this male religious. "Something incredible happened to me this summer. While finishing my master's degree, I fell in love. I met. Carol, and my life changed. It wasn't as if I had a game plan; it wasn't even on my mind. It just happened. "It's great. I've never been so open in my life, especially with a woman. I share everything, and it feels so good. We hold nothing back, and we seem to know what each other is thinking and feeling without even saying anything. It's magic. She's on my mind and in my heart all the time, and I can't wait to see her or at least call her. Thank God she lives in the same city. When we are together, time goes so quickly. A few hours seem like a few minutes. "I think others would say that I've been a good religious. I've done well in my ministry and have gotten along in my community. I am grate-ful to my fellow brothers and priests. So it is difficult to think about leav-ing the religious life, and neither is it an easy question for Carol. We love each other very much, but we also love the religious life. And it has been good to us. "When you asked me what is wrong with Carol, I was stumped. I know she is not perfect, but I don't see or feel anything wrong with her. And I feel so much better myself. I'll take your advice to wait until life settles, and not make a hasty decision that would change my entire life. True, I have known Carol for only four months, but it seems like I have known her all my life. "Why shouldn't I leave. True, it would be difficult to find a good job, and family life would certainly be different. But I could still do much of what I do now, and I feel that being married to Carol, I could even be closer to God. I will, with the help of you, my friends, and God discern my experience. But why would God give me such a beautiful gift and then expect me to reject it?" Indeed, romantic love is wonderful. Although this man has been a very rational, successful, and good community religious, he finds him-self in a serious dilemma: to leave or stay in religious life. His past has been good to him, and he to it, but his future seems to offer an even bet- The Power of Romantic Love / 199 ter life. Being immersed in the magic of love, he feels strongly drawn to this land of apparently unlimited possibilities. Both of these religious are enjoying and being inspired and chal-lenged by romantic love. Their love consumes them, embracing all their senses, mind, and spirit. Radically new horizons of meaning have opened up, pressuring them to restructure their lives. What should they do? In this article I will discuss the nature and dynamics of romantic love, its positive and negative possibilities and consequences in religious life, and ways to cope with oneself and others in service of healthy and holy growth. The Nature and Dynamics of Romantic Love Romantic love lures us into a world where there is nothing dull and mundane, a world that promises a new and better life. It offers us an ex-hilarating and inspiring unity of feeling intensely and of being strongly involved with the ideal. To experience transcendence passionately can be awe-fully seductive. Romantic love offers us an exhilarating and inspiring unity of feel-ing intensely and of being strongly involved with the ideal. As romantic lovers we yearn to be with each other, constantly think about and feel for each other, and so it seems touch each other even when we are physi, cally absent. Being without each other, we feel an intense void as well as presence in absence, and being with each other brings warmth, secu-rity, and fulfillment along with this sensuous enrapture. We initially ide-alize each other, feeling that we can do and share anything, and be our most perfect selves. We feel what love can be without its limits, and we want to give, to be,and to receive all that is possible. There is a special magic--a passionate affair with the ideal, an experience of heaven. What happens when we fall romantically in love? Initially we prob-ably feel as though we are walking on clouds, and that everything is pos-sible. We experience each other in terms of perfection, while our imper-fections are denied, minimized or rationalized. We may feel thatwe want to live together, to capture this love forever. This romantic time is one of the most exciting, pleasurable, and satisfying experiences. In the in-itial stages of friendship we may experience new possibilities in testing our limits, risking our vulnerability, feeling more alive than ever before, and willing to do almost anything. We may feel that everything is possi-ble and all right, and that life is radiantly alive. Our romantic friendship usually inspires us to become our best selves, and often new energy and courage provide the way. We can have romantic experiences in solitude. For instance, we may 200 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 intensely feel the spiritual possibilities of contemplation. We may expe-rience a world of meaning that is transcendent and permanent. To ask ultimate questions and to be confronted with mysterious issues can be a peak experience. T° hear silent music can include the romantic. Romantic lovers--religious, single, or married--initially experience the unlimited potential of each other and concretely celebrate each other's perfection. However, paradise does not last; our romantic time is usually followed by one of imperfection. Sometimes suddenly, instead of experiencing each other as unlimited, we intensely experience our limi-tations. We find ourselves criticizing, obsessed with the other's imper-fections, or perhaps withdrawing from each other. Think of a sister and priest (or lay couple) who fall in love and get married. At first, they radiate with love and cannot stand to be without each other. But sooner than later they begin to test and question their love, and at times cannot stand to be with each other. Instead of diviniz-ing each other, they now demonize each other. For instance, minor hab-its may become irritating. One squeezes the tooth paste from the middle and the other from the ind. His snoring upsets her, while her hair curl-ers upset him. More seriously, she becomes frustrated and angry because he no longer shows his feelings as he apparently once did. He becomes confused and angry with constant complaining about his overworking and in general his unavailability. Whatever the focus of criticism, they focus on eacffother's limits, as contrasted with their past when they en-joyed their unlimitedness. Instead of heavenly, being with each other feels more hellish. Their magic has disappeared. Consider a novice who experiences religious life as a perfect way of living. Particularly in early formation when there is considerable personal affirmation, exploration, and direction, religious life offers extraordinary opportunities for individual and communal growth. However, "reentry problems" may be experienced when a new religious moves from the no-vitiate to living in an ordinary community. Community living seems rnuch~different than it was in the novitiate, or how it was ideally de-scribed. The inevitable imperfection of living with others may feel more like a burden than a joy. A danger is to identify religious life (or any life form or person) with its perfections and possibilities, or with its limits and obstacles to growth. Like any personal (and professional) life, there are more or less problems and opportunities. Positive and Negative Seduction As its etymology indicates, seduction conveys a negative meaning, namely, some thing, activity, or person that leads us astray or into The Power of Romantic Love / 201 trouble. And indeed, this can be the case. However, seduction can also have positive meaning in luring us to a better life. One reason romantic love is important is that it can be a prelude and invitation to a more committed love. Its strong attraction, gentle excite-ment, and erotic idealism make it easier, more enjoyable, and exciting for us to enter love. Since love, especially intimate love, is a risky ven-ture, romantic love makes the entry into love relatively easier, safer, and moi'e fun. It is a delicious taste of heaven. But like food, its satisfaction is temporary, and if we eat too much of that elixir, we can get sick. Ro-mantic love is an intense promise of a more permanent love that is both ideal and limited, erotic and transcendent, for the moment and forever, pleasurable and painful, divine and demonic--a love that embraces and dignifies all of us. If some of us knew the total picture of religious life, especially its hard times, before entering religious life, we may have had second or third thoughts about making a life commitment. Strictly from a rational-istic view, religious life may not have been as appealing. Fortunately our Holy Spirit called us with an alluring voice. Likewise, some of our friend-ships may never have occurred without romantic love's promise of an even .more balanced, wholly, and permanent love. To be sure, not all men and women entered religious life or friendship in a romantic aura. But many did, and few people live without any romanticism. Our spiritual journey with and toward God can also include romantic times. It is not unusual to go through a time--or times--of being roman-tically in love with God. We may suddenly feel that anything is possi-ble, that everything will turn out all right, that everything makes sense. We may bask in a divine light while minimizing, forgetting, or even re-pressing darkness. Although there is much truth in the vision, dark nights will come in service of a deeper and more realistic presence to God. Romantic love is not only a means toward an end. When immersed in romantic love, it is good to celebrate and proclaim our romantic stand in the world. Our experience is a witness to love and often promotes hap-piness for others. We can also build a precious source of memories that can help us gain perspective when going through difficult times. And in-deed as authentic lovers we can, though not constantly, congistently cele-brate times of romantic love. Helping Oneself and Others Think of two religious who care for each other and become close friends. Initially, they may idealize their relationship so that it is basi-cally exclusive. At first, they may wonder how they ever li.ved without 202 /Review for Religious, March-April 1989 each other. Especially if one or both persons have had restricted feelings of affection, now they can feel free to express themselves without re-straint. They feel liberated and more wholly alive. Their "particular" friendship, however, soon incorporates limits and obstacles. For in-stance, they discover that they can irritate and confuse each other, and :they can become hurt, angry, jealous, and perhaps guilty and ashamed. Instead of harboring resentment, or ending the friendship, both persons can step back--physically, psychosocially, and spiritually--and listen to themselves and each other, and hopefully return to renew and deepen their friendship so that it includes both their positive and negative dimen-sions. The challenging ideal is that both the light and dark sides of life be integrated, rather than absolutizing one of them. In fact, these experi-ences point to and affirm what life is--both divine and demonic, light and dark, life and death. When we experience a person as perfect, it is helpful to keep in mind that every person is imperfect. When there are disagreements, past agreements can be remembered as well as agreeing. to disagree. Our challenge is to see potential virtue where there is vice, strength where there is weakness, joy where there is sadness, love where there is hate, life where there is death. Courage and commitment are needed to move with and grow from life's paradoxical rhythm. Although romantic love is particularly enjoyable, the genuine desire to give one's self totally to another p~'esents challenging difficulties. Be-cause of the affective and ideal qualities of romantic love, we may nei-ther want nor perhaps experience any limits, and consequently may yearn to give unconditionally in every way pogsible. As religious we may yearn to celebrate our love in genital experiences, but we can say "no" in serv-ice of a "yes" to our love. What can superiors, friends, or other community members do when they observe religious in romantic love. Particularly when the exclusivity is causing little community I~arm, the wisest approach may be to do noth-ing, that is, to let romantic love run its course from the divine to the de-monic. However, when infatuation occurs or the dark, limited phase ap-pears, interveution may be called for. What you d6 depends on the kind and amount of power and responsibility your superior and others in re-sponsible roles have, as well as what you are willing and able to do, par-ticularly in being willing and able to invest the time and energy on con-fronting, processing, and following through with consequences. A superior may choose to confront a priest with his infatuous friend-ship. Confrontation means to state assertively and with concern what you The Power of Romantic Love / 203. observe in the other's behavior. It does not mean to interpret or analyze a person's behavior, nor does it include verbal oppression or emotional rape. We give feedback, and depending on our authority, we state natu-ral and logical consequences of one's behavior. For instance, if you con-tinue to date this woman as well as isolate yourself from the community, then counseling must be pursued or you will be transferred to another city, or you will be asked/told to leave. It is important to remember that although we impact on one another more or less positively and negatively, we cannot change anyone. We can give others opportunities, feedback, advice, consequences, and so forth, but only they can change themselves. We can only change and con-trol ourselves, and this is accomplished within varying degrees of lim-its. Authoritarian, codependent, and other well-intentioned and overly responsible people may find this fact difficult to accept. Ideally, a radical decision (for example, leaving religious life) or a life commitment (for example, vowed religious life) should not be made in either the so-called divine or demonic phases of love. When we are madly in love and experience no imperfections whatsoever, a life com-mitment is precarious. And we should be equally as prudent about mak-ing radical decisions, those that significantly irnpact on our lives, while in a demonic phase. When life is overwhelmingly dark, any light or re-lief can be tempting. It is better to wait until light emerges in our pre-sent situation--to wait until we make more sense of our struggle and be freer to choose. To paraphrase an old saying: the darkest and coldest time is right before dawn. Ideally, we should also not make a decision for life only out of ro-manticism or infatuation--when there are no limits or imperfections, but rather when we can be open to both the positive and negative factors of our past, present, and future situations. For instance, a brother who falls in love with a sister may be in the divinizing stage of romantic love. When asked what is wrong with his beloved, he may say nothing con-crete. Until he can point out experientially what is positive and negative about her and himself, it is probably better for him to wait before mak-ing such a radical decision such as leaving religious life to get married. A decision to leave, not because of romantic involvement, but be-cause nothing seems right and satisfying is quite tempting. When under enormous stress, we can be duped into feeling that a change in lifestyle will solve personal and interpersonal problems. It is more likely that we will take our problems with us and unconsciously seek a similar situ-ation. It is wiser to look at and deal with the dark side in ourselves and 204 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 then make decisions. In short, authentic committed love is never perfect or divine, and nei-ther is it always imperfect or demonic. It is a combination of both. When on earth, life and love are matters of heaven and hell. If authentic love were perfect, commitment would not be necessary, there would be heaven, not earth. Because we are a unity of perfection and imperfec-tion, commitment is called for. Seed I .know interpretation has rules, But they should not freeze mystery. Why can't metaphors step between parables, And people and plots mingle? The sower, for instance, and the birds on the wayside who fed, the birds Who never fall unknown any more Than the bum thrown out of the bar And the starving, potbellied African baby. How wide is the wayside'? Past oceans And deserts and ranges and space to Ultimate doing of truth in love? And the rocks (poor Peter), are they always shallow? Have you seen those rock walls on roads Where, in spite of technology, a stubborn Wild shoot adorns the crazy face of An impossible height? or the sturdy Root that splits concrete apart and Frees the seed of a water main (prodigal spill)? Then There's the child who patiently pulls the Tufts from the cracks between bricks And scatters the clumps for the wind To sow next season's crop and chore. But the thistles--I don't know about them. I cringe at the vision of crowns And wonder if scarlet hands too Can drip the seeds of the realm That the sower went out to sow. Clarita Felhoelter, O.S.U. 3105 Lexington Road Louisville, Kentucky 4020'6 The Experience of Mid-Life Divorce and AlienationI David J. Hassel, S.J. Father David Hassel, S.J., is currently Research Professor of Philosophy at Loyola University of Chicago. The contents of this article will be part of his forthcoming book called The Ache of Alienation. His address is Loyola University; 6525 N. Sheridan Road; Chicago, Illinois 60626, Helen,s husband had confronted her a year ago after a very quiet dinner. "Helen," he had said, "there is something we have to talk about in the living room while the kids are out." They had sat there through a long silence before he said in a rush of words: "I want a divorce; I cannot go on living as we have been--distant, on parallel courses, never really meeting. The kids already suspect something and are old enough to han-dle this now. I've made a decision and no talking will change it. I don't want to hurt you anymore than I've already done. My lawyer has drawn up the legal papers; you'll be taken care of financially." Helen, her voice sounding like cracking ice, had said to him: "Joe, it's Anita, isn't it. That day down at the office I saw the glance you gave her--like the one you had once given me." "Yes," he said, "but we are not going into that." Helen could recall herself slowly getting up, slowly going up the stairs to her room, throwing herself on the bed and beginning to shudder with great dry heaves. No tears, only a terrible emp-tiness. When during the course of the following weeks, she had been alone with each of the children, she had received some additional shocks. Jim, the twenty-two year old just finishing college, put it simply: "Look, Mom, where have you been the past two years? Dad has been home less and less, and telling less and less what he has been doing. What have 205 206 / Review for Religious, March-April 1989 you been thinking?" The twins, Edith and Carol, high school seniors, were rather casual: "Morn, this is the way things go these days; you have to be ready for the worst and this is the worst, no doubt about it." Timothy, the twelve-year old, was inconsolable: "Dad's leaving us be-hind and it's unfair; I hate him now. But what can we do? I guess we just get used to it the way Jerry Kanz did when his Dad moved out." Helen, like many another to-be-divorced woman, had looked back over her life and wondered bitterly: Where did it start to go wrong? Where did I fail? Except for Timmy, the children seemed so casual about it all. Were they simply ungrateful, without any affection for her and Joe or were they covering up their anger and disappointment? Her telephone call to her mother had caused a flood of tears and a scalding anger-- more at Helen's stupidity than at Joe's two-timing. Her favorite brother had only said, "Well, the bastard finally owned upto it, did he?" Women friends had been properly shocked and consoling for some weeks; then the telephone calls became less frequent and one friend fi-nally said to her: "Honey, you have to stop lamenting and get your life together--without Joe; the sooner the better." All her doings had be-come meaningless: cooking meals, house-cleaning, shopping, bridge-clubbing, fulfilling the immediate needs of her children, attending Mass, telephoning friends, volunteering at the hospital, watching TV late into the night. Then the depressing guilt-fits began. Why were her children so un-feeling unless she had failed badly in their upbringing? Why had she not noticed sooner her husband's wandering and done something to woo him back? Had she become an insensitive creature herself? Were all her friend-ships superficial, revealing her own lack of depth? Was all her busyness merely a way to hide from herself who she really was: an empty shell of a woman? How could even God find time for her anymore? Actually her past seemed gutted, her present confused and her future dark with anxiety. The Woman Religious' Parallel Experience of "Divorce" Helen's experience, in one form or another, is that of thousands of wives and mothers as divorces continue to multiply across America. But is it so very different from the experience of not a few women religious who at mid-life review the past ten or twenty years of their own lives and wonder where their prayer-union with Christ has gone? The woman religious has been living the regular routines of a life consecrated to Christ: spending some time with him before breakfast and before heading to bed; taking care of his people in hospital, school, day- Mid-Life Divorce and Alienation care center, parish, and social work office; making some friends along the, way; watching TV and going for occasional walks; attending family gatherings, and centering her life in daily Eucharists. But in everything she feels hardly any feedback of gratitude or joy. If she is a social worker, she may have been called a meddler by the fam-ily whose children she has seen through hospitals, remedial reading courses, and angry bouts with their parents. The high school teacher of twenty-five years' experience may have been told by a lay colleague that she is twenty years behind the times in her teaching techniques and thirty years behind in her understanding of today's high schoolers. The sister-nurse may be overwhelmed with the ugly fact that her order's hospitals are now big business and that she had better play it safe with charity cases lest the hospital's budget-report show red ink. An almost exhausted sister may be informed by her superior that if she cannot take this job of religious coordinator at the disorganized St. Dismas parish, she had better find another job.to earn her way. Meaning seems to have drained out of her work. The once beautiful routines connected with teaching, nursing, administrating, catechizing, parish organizing, and social work-ing feel drab, spiritless, and unending. Meanwhile, because of her busy dedication to her order and its works, she has allowed her own brothers and sisters to fade out of her life as they moved to the distant coasts and as she wrote less and less ¯ often. Her parents have become elder.ly, somewhat absent-minded, eager for her presence but hardly able to carry on a relaxing conversation, and evoking melancholy in her at their decline and helplessness. Her sister-friends are as busy as she; glad to see her and to chat for a time, but al-ways on the move to another appointment: little time for long leisurely conversations, not many fun times." Because she is one of the few younger sisters in tier older community, she may have to assume greater responsibilities without any contemporary nearby in whom to confide and with whom to laugh at life's crazy antics. This is a new aloneness never felt in her initial formation. The simple joys of life seem few and far between during these periods of intensely felt alienation. She wonders: is all my past life for nothing? Have I lost the respect of my own family; those who first gave me life and hope? Have I missed out on community life? Or did it never exist and I pretended, that it did? Why has my ministry lost its zest? Have I begun to give up on it and, if so, will I ever find a second ministry and trust myself to its demands for a disciplined life of sacrifice? Do my superiors and fellow religious value me for myself or only for what I can do? Are we all just worker- Review for Religious, March-April 1989 bees in the religious hive? Where is the reality of my prayer life? God seems so distant, so uninterested in me, so unlike the intimate friend of my early religious life. Around me I seem to find so many happy fami-lies and fulfilled career women. Or am I just romanticizing their lives out of my own drabness? Then begin the guilt-fits. Mow did my life dissipate into merely con-stant duties, deadlines, hurried moments of leisure with friends, commu-nity tensions, and superficial moments with Christ? How could I have ¯ let it happen? Does all this mean that I never had a vocation to religious life or that religious life in my particular group is now ,antiquated and no longer viable in ou~ present culture? What is my future--if anything? Who but a recently divorced iaywoman could Fully appreciate these questions and feelings 0f the woman religious. The divorced man, hear-ing a man,religious venice similar questions and feelings, would surely resonate to these pains of the heart and mind. The Feel of Alienation from the Church Among the Divorced and the Alienated The suffering asked of divorced men and women and of alienated re-ligious is scandalous not only to them but to the people who love them dearly. The shock felt by the "divorced" is such that at times they do feel isolated from their family (blood or religious) and perhaps even from Christ's Church. Their great temptation is to cut loose from past ties; to be free from all the b~aggage of the past~ They ask themselves: "Why not just leave the family or the religious order and forget any service of the Church?" It seems so much easier simply to concentrate on a career and, if the occasion offers, to form a small manageable group of new friends. Later some of these "divorced" will leave the Church deliber-ately and others will slowly drift away complaining: "'I'm tiredof fight-ing Church bureaucracy and small-mindedness." There is no denying that, in the twentieth-century Church, the petty pride of place, the drift towards disorder, the trickery practiced in the name of the kingdom, the mechanical use of the sacraments, the eloquent extolling of poverty by comfortable clerics, andthe depreciation of women's ministry are all very much alive. In fact, Christ found them quite active in his first century Church: the women's announcement that they had met the risen Christ was called "women's gossip"; John and James used their mother to agitate for their occupying the seats of power next to Christ; Paul had to confront Peter about using different standards for Jewish and gentile converts; Jerusalem converts tried to saddle all gen-tile converts with the hea~y apparatus of Judaic Law; Ananias and Sa- Mid-Life Divorce and Alienation / 209 phira embezzled the common holdings of the Christian community; some of the apostles, notably Judas, deplored Mary Magdalen's ministry to Christ as frivolous. This is the kingdom, God's people, as Christ de-scribed them in the parables where the net is thrown into the sea to haul in both good and bad fish or where the wheat field is sown with weeds by the enemy. The problem is not that scandal is always in the Church but that faith-fulness is needed to live through the scandalous events amid feelings of alienation. Men and women religious suffering alienation from their com-munities need to share their lives with divorced laymen and laywomen if they are all to remain faithful to the Church and to their families, lay and religious. The pooling of experience, the companioning in common sorrows, the cooperative attempt to let the Church know their agony, the working together to build better futures for each other and for the Church, enable the divorced lay people to take heart and the alienated religious to remain loyal. One woman religious who has been offering a program for divorced women in her motherhouse found that the prayers of the retired sisters gave solace to the divorced women, while the faith of the divorced women amid severe mental suffering proved encouraging to elderly sis-ters, some of whoin felt~ intensely their seeming uselessness to the world and to their Church. One of the divorced women approached this woman religious directing the program and said to her: "Were you divorced be-fore you entered religious life? You seem to read us so well." Aloud the sister said: "No, I've never b~een married," but whispered inside her-self "But I have experienced divorce--from my congregation." Recently women and men religious groups have been welcoming some divorced into their communities and finding that these women and men bring in a dimension of life much needed by the religious order. The divorced woman or man has gone through devastating bereavement from all that once gave meaning t,o her or his life. Through this stripping, they have rediscovered their own personal worth, having learned how to dis-tinguish life-roles (mother or father, wife or husband, secretary or car-penter, daughter or son, sister or brother) from their own selves which play out these roles. The divorced woman, for example, no longer de-fines herself merely by what she can do, but by what she can be--first in herself and then for others. This, of course, affects her relationship with Christ. She is devoted to him, first of all, for his own sake; and she expects his affection to be directed towards her for herself and not sim-ply for her accomplishments. Neither God nor herself is made out to be 210 / Review for Religious~ March-April 1989 an heroic workaholic. Such a mature attitude can be benevolently conta-gious. On the other hand, women and men religious have something to of-fer divorced laywomen and laymen. After all many religious have had to deal with the mid-life transition.2 They have come to see that the "yes-terdays outnumber the tomorrows" and that they have to trim their ap-ostolic sails accordingly. Their eqergy is less, their talents are not quite as rich as they first thought, they must drop some projects totally, oth-ers partially, in order to do the central works. At this point envy of the younger, the more energetic, and the more talented can creep in. Amid these tensions, one becomes more aware of personal shortcomings, pre-tenses, sins of revenge .and cattiness, and suddenly vehement sex-drives. This discouraging aspect of life is often allied with a sense of being enmeshed in a great bureaucratic machine (at the job or in the congrega-tion o~in work with the local government) with which one must battle for personal values without destroying oneself or the organization. At this same t~me friendships take on greater importance and one must re-order one's commitments to people, work, and God. Here the man and woman religious~face bereavement from parents and older friends who die. They have moved away from pet projects, from. former work that gave much satisfaction, and from favorite attitudes or ideas that no longer fit the times.' Death, including their own,.seems at times to totally sur-round them. But at the same time, if the man and woman religious can ride all these waves with some gratitude and graciousness, the slower pace al-lows them to have time for more care of others. A warm Wisdom, the fruit of keeping a sense of humor amid much suffering, can pervade their every day. A new stability may take shape at the center of their being. In their lasting friendships, they may rediscover their faithful God. And all this they can offer to divorced laymen and laywomen out of the very alienations which they had felt towards their own congregations. How bountiful the divorced lay people and alienated religious can be towards each other and thus towards the people of God--even though at times they feel so utterly empty and find themselves walking laboriously as though in desert sands. This desert experience has been chronicled and deserves our attention since out of it can come a conversion which will reveal a new self, a new God, and a new world. The Desert Experience of Transition Before Conversion Two women have given us brutally honest yet sensitive accounts of Mid-Life Divorce and Alienation their transitions from one congregation to another. The great change seemed to them like a lay person's divorce and remarriage with its awk-wardness, periods of loneliness, and rediscovery of self and life.3 Sr. Marie Conn found the loneliness of transfer to a new religious commu-nityunique in its roots and in its intensity. For she left behind a vibrantly rich past with only a vague future in mind. Besides, those with whom she would live her present and future had little idea of her past and she, of their past. When one starts all over with new and slowly developing friendships, with fresh routines, and with no one able to enter into one's more precious memories, one is thrust into a new relati
"How do armies fight and what makes them victorious on the modern battlefield? In Divided Armies, Jason Lyall challenges long-standing answers to this classic question by linking the fate of armies to their levels of inequality. Introducing the concept of military inequality, Lyall demonstrates how a state's prewar choices about the citizenship status of ethnic groups within its population determine subsequent battlefield performance. Treating certain ethnic groups as second-class citizens, either by subjecting them to state-sanctioned discrimination or, worse, violence, undermines interethnic trust, fuels grievances, and leads victimized soldiers to subvert military authorities once war begins. The higher an army's inequality, Lyall finds, the greater its rates of desertion, side-switching, casualties, and use of coercion to force these soldiers to fight. In a sweeping historical investigation, Lyall draws on Project Mars, a new dataset of 250 conventional wars fought since 1800, to test this argument. Project Mars breaks with prior efforts by including overlooked non-Western wars while cataloguing new patterns of inequality and wartime conduct across hundreds of belligerents. Combining historical comparisons and statistical analysis, Lyall also marshals evidence from nine wars, ranging from the Eastern Fronts of World War I and II to less familiar wars in Africa and Central Asia, to illustrate inequality's effects. Sounding the alarm on the dangers of inequality, Divided Armies offers important lessons about battlefield performance over two centuries--and for wars still to come"--
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Section A The Mediterranean diet: Concepts and overviews -- The Mediterranean diet: History, concepts and elements / Jordi Salas-Salvadó, Christopher Papandreou -- Mediterranean diet: A long journey toward intangible cultural heritage and sustainability / Lluís Serra-Majem, F. Xavier Medina -- Mediterranean diet in children and adolescents / Emmanuella Magriplis, Antonis Zampelas -- The Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular disease: An overview / Emmanuella Magriplis, Antonis Zampelas -- Socioeconomic factors for the adherence to the Mediterranean diet in North Africa: The shift from 1990 to 2019 / Karima El Rhazi, Khaoula El Kinany, Vanessa Garcia-Larsen -- Mediterranean lifestyle: Linking social life and behaviors, residential environment, and cardiovascular disease prevention / Ekavi N. Georgousopoulou, Elena S. George, Duane D. Mellor, Demosthenes B. Panagiotakos -- Orthodox religious fasting: A vital subset of the Mediterranean diet / Theocharis Koufakis, Spyridon N. Karras, Pantelis Zebekakis, Kalliopi Kotsa -- Food security and adherence to the Mediterranean diet: An interplay of socio-demographic characteristics / Maria G. Grammatikopoulou, Konstantinos Gkiouras, Antigoni Tranidou, Dimitrios G. Goulis -- Mediterranean diet, nutrition transition, and cardiovascular risk factor in children and adolescents / Roberta Ricotti, Marina Caputo, Flavia Prodam -- Precision nutrition: Mediterranean diet and genetic susceptibility / Mahmut Cerkez Ergoren, Gulten Tuncel -- Mediterranean food and environmental impacts / Youssef Aboussaleh, Hamid El Bilali, Francesco Bottalico, Gianluigi Cardone, Giovanni Ottomano Palmisano, Roberto Capone - -Mediterranean adequacy index: Features and applications / Alessandro Menotti, Paolo Emilio Puddu -- Nutritional adequacy of the Mediterranean diet / Itandehui Castro-Quezada, Blanca Román-Viñas, Lluís Serra-Majem -- Toward a Mediterranean-style diet beyond the Mediterranean countries: Evidence of implementation and adherence / Fotini Tsofliou, Xenophon Theodoridis, Eirini-Iro Arvanitidou -- Section B Components of the Mediterranean diet -- Contribution of nuts to the Medierranean diet / Emilio Ros -- The Mediterranean diet and mineral composition / Marta Mesías, Isabel Seiquer, Cristina Delgado-Andrade -- Hydroxytyrosol as a component in the Mediterranean diet and its role in disease prevention / MCarmen Ramírez-Tottosa, Cristina Ramirez-Perez, José J. Gaforio, José L. Quiles, Juan A. Moreno, Cesar L. Ramirez-Tortosa -- Light, regular red wine consumption at main meals: A key cardioprotective element of traditional Mediterranean diet / Marcello Iriti, Elena Maria Varoni, Sara Vitalini -- Frying a cultural way of cooking in the Mediterranean diet and how to obtain improved fried foods / Alba Garcimartin, Adrián Macho-González, Giulia Caso, Juana Benedi, Sara Bastida, Francisco J. Sánchez-Muniz -- Wild greens used in the Mediterranean diet / Rúbia C.G. Corrêa, Francesco Di Gioia, Isabel C.F.R. Ferreira, Spyridon A. Petropoulos -- Raisins and the other dried fruits: Chemical profile and health benefits / Magdalena Jeszka-Skowron, Beata Czarczyńska-Goślińska -- Date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera): Nutritional values and potential benefits on health / Najla Bentrad, Asma Hamida-Ferhat -- Dietary fiber intake and the Mediterranean population / Ligia J. Dominguez, Mario Barbagallo -- Oleic acid and implications for the Mediterranean diet / Aleksandra Arsic -- Fish in the Mediterranean diet / María Molina-Vega, Ana María Gómez-Pérez, Francisco J. Tinahones -- The Mediterranean diet and its individual components: Linking with obesity in Italy / Silvio Buscemi, Davide Corleo, Fabio Galvano, Antonino De Lorenzo -- Bioactive compounds in oranges from the Mediterranean climate area / Laura Cebadera-Miranda, Patricia Morales, Montaña Cámara -- Section C Medical, health, and nutritional aspects of the Mediterranean diet -- Gestational diabetes mellitus and Mediterranean diet principles / Carla Assaf-Balut, Nuria Garcia de la Torre, Laura del Valle, Johanna Valerio, Alejandra Durán, Elena Bordiú, Ana Barabash, Miguel Angel Rubio, Alfonso Luis Calle-Pascual -- The Mediterranean diet and asthma / Despina Koumpagioti, Barbara Boutopoulou, Konstantinos Douros -- The Mediterranean diet, dietary inflammatory index, and adiposity / Cristina Galarregui, M. Angeles Zulet, J. Alfredo Martínez, Itziar Abete -- Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and Mediterranean diet / Ruth Hornedo-Ortega, Rocío M. de Pablos, Ana B. Cerezo, Tristan Richard, M. Carmen Garcia-Parrilla, Ana M. Troncoso -- Mediterranean diet, inflammation, and telomere length maintenance / Sergio Davinelli, Giovanni Scapagnini -- Olive oil nutraceuticals and chronic disease prevention: More than an offshoot of the Mediterranean diet / Ahmad Alkhatib -- The Mediterranean diet and metabolic syndrome / E. Gouveri, G. Marakomichelakis, E.J. Diamantopoulos -- The Mediterranean diet and breast cancer risk / Christiana A. Demetriou, Maria G. Kakkoura, Andreas Hadjisavvas, Maria A. Loizidou, Carlotta Sacerdote, Paolo Vineis, Kyriacos Kyriacou -- The Mediterranean diet and arthritis / Francesca Oliviero, Paolo Sfriso, Paola Galozzi, Leonardo Punzi, Paolo Spinella -- Mediterranean diet and pregnancy / E. Gesteiro, Francisco J. Sánchez-Muniz, Sara Bastida -- Laryngopharyngeal reflux and the Mediterranean diet / Craig H. Zalvan, Jan Geliebter, Raj Tiwari -- The Mediterrarean style diet and cognition / Roy J. Hardman, Melissa Formica -- Mediterranean diet and mental well-being in the young / J.J. Muros, E. Knox -- Mediterranean diet and female fertility: Cross-talk of an evidence-based approach / Maria G. Grammatikopoulou, Maria Lampropoulou, Dimitrios G. Goulis -- Mediterranean diet and the postprandial state: A focus on inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and hemostatis / Prarskevi Detopoulou, Elizabeth Fragopoulou, Tzortzis Nomikos, Smaragdi Antonopoulou -- Socioeconomic determinants of the adherence to the Mediterranean diet / Marialaura Bonaccio, Americo Bonanni, Maria Benedetta Donati, Giovanni de Gaetano, Licia Iacoviello -- Fungal species and toxins in wines and grapes in the Mediterranean area / Francesco Tini, Giovanni Beccari, Lorenzo Covarelli -- Metabolomics and the Mediterranean diet / M. Isabel Ruiz-Moreno, Alberto Vilches-Perez, Cristina Gallardo-Escribano, Maria Garces-Martin, M. Rosa Bernal-Lopez -- Antiinflammatory activity exerted by minor compounds found in virgin olive oils / Cristina Sánchez-Quesada, Carmen Rodríguez-García, José J. Gaforio -- Red wine and atherosclerosis: Implications for the Mediterranean diet / Bianca Scolaro, Inar Alves Castro -- Section D Novel nutraceuticals and edible plants used in the Mediterranean region -- Effects of nutraceuticals of Mediterranean diet on aging and longevity / Anna Aiello, Giulia Accardi, Calogero Caruso, Giuseppina Candore -- Essential oils from Mediterranean aromatic plants / Filomena Nazzaro, Laura De Martino, Florinda Fratianni, Vincenzo De Feo -- Apoptotic activities of Mediterranean plants / José-Luis Rios, Isabel Andújar.
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Koval I. M. FRANCIS BACON – AN EXCELLENT INNOVATOR AND PROPAGANDER OF SCIENCEThe article attempts to consider the philosophical-theoretical activity of F. Bacon aimed at revealing the roleand place of science and scientific knowledge in mastery of law by human and nature as an important factor of socialprogress.It has been established that F. Bacon was one of the first thinkers to understand the nature of the new era and theimportance of experimental scientific research for the socio-economic, political, legal, moral and cultural developmentof society. He has creatively articulated the idea of science as a force capable of equipping a man with knowledge and asan important factor in his self-improvement.The article focuses on F. Bacon's desire to actively pursue experimental research as a necessary condition forbroadening and deepening knowledge of the environment, Identification of the laws and patterns of development andfunctioning of natural phenomena, without which it is impossible for human to gain power over nature. The thinkerwas convinced that the mastery of nature and the exploitation of human beings could only be achieved through thecreation of new technologies and the constant improvement of scientific and technological inventions. The philosopherpoints out the need for a close creative link between science and technology.The paper argues that F. Bacon considered the development of a new method and methodology to be importantfor new scientific research. The philosopher declares the experimental exploration of nature as the basis for thedevelopment of scientific knowledge, and the logic behind this development should be the inductive generalization ofThe article noted that F. Bacon was an active supporter of British colonialism, and in science he had a special role toplay in his ambitions to make Britain a strong world state.The thinker was convinced that science could ensure not only economic development, but also the defensive capacityof the State, in which military science and the art of war play an important role, the expansion of trade relations withother countries, and the expansion of its territory and territory through the acquisition of new colonies.The article states that F. Bacon emphasized the close dialectic relationship between theory and practice. Anypractice, he said, could be successful if it was based on a scientifically based theory.It was found that the significant role of F. Bacon focused on experience and experimentation, focusing on carefulselection of facts. Thus, F. Bacon saw in science the great strength and social value of progressive development ofsociety.As a result of scientific research, the author of the article considers the analysis of the creativity of F. Bacon inscientific research and its evaluation. The philosophical-theoretical ideas of F. Bacon attracted the weight of WesternEuropean scientists B. Bykhovsky, T. Kotarbinsky, M. Melvil, B. Russell, L. Feyerbach, L. Feikhtanwerg, F. Fischerand others. Some aspects of the creative heritage of the English thinker were analyzed in their works by representativesof Soviet and Russian science G. Alexandrov, V. Asmus, A. Deborin, F. Kogan-Bernstein, O. Litvinova, A. Lunacharsky,Y. Mikhalenko, I. Narsky, V. Sokolov, A. Subbotin and others.Unfortunately, among the domestic researchers of scientific F. Bacon has not yet been given sufficient attention.the results of the study. ; У статті здійснено спробу розглянути філософсько-теоретичну діяльність Ф. Бекона, спрямовану на розкриттяролі і місця науки і наукових знань в опануванні людиною і законом природи як важливого чинника соціальногопрогресу.Установлено, що Ф. Бекон був одним із перших мислителів, хто усвідомив характер нової епохи і значення екс-периментальних наукових досліджень для соціально-економічного, політичного, правового, морально-етичногота культурного розвитку суспільства.Він творчо сформулював ідею щодо науки як сили, яка здатна озброїти людину знаннями, і як важливого чин-ника її самовдосконалення. У статті акцентується увага на прагненні Ф. Бекона до активного проведення експери-ментальних досліджень як необхідної умови розширення і поглиблення знань про навколишній світ, виявленнязаконів і закономірностей розвитку і функціонування природних явищ, без чого не можна заволодіти людиноювладою над природою. Мислитель був упевнений у тому, що опанувати природу і поставити її собі на службу люди-на може тільки за умови створення нової техніки, постійно вдосконалюючи науково-технічні винаходи. Філософнаголошує на необхідності тісного творчого зв'язку науки й техніки.У статті обґрунтовується, що важливим аспектом нових наукових досліджень Ф. Бекон уважав розробленнянового методу і методології дослідження. Основою розвитку наукових знань філософ оголошує експерименталь-не дослідження природи, а логікою, що забезпечує цей розвиток, має бути індуктивне узагальнення результатівдослідження.У статті наголошується, що Ф. Бекон був активним прихильником політики й ідеології британського коло-ніалізму. У науці він відводив особливу роль, мріючи тим самим перетворити Велику Британію в сильну світовудержаву.Мислитель був упевнений у тому, що наука здатна забезпечити не тільки економічний розвиток, а й обороноз-датність держави, в якій важливу роль відіграє військова наука і військове мистецтво, розширення торговельнихзв'язків з іншими країнами, а також розширення своєї території за рахунок придбання нових колоній.У статті вказується, що Ф. Бекон акцентував увагу на тісному діалектичному взаємозв'язку теорії і практики.Будь-яка практика, як заявляв він, може бути успішною, якщо вона спирається на науково обґрунтовану теорію.Установлено, що значну роль Ф. Бекон відводив досвіду й експерименту, зосереджуючи увагу на ґрунтовномувідборі фактів. Таким чином, Ф. Бекон у науці бачив велику силу і соціальну цінність прогресивного розвиткусуспільства.У результаті наукового дослідження автором статті розглядається аналіз творчості Ф. Бекона в науковихрозвідках та його оцінка. Філософські теоретичні ідеї Ф. Бекона привертали увагу західноєвропейських ученихБ. Биховського, Т. Котарбинського, М. Мелвиля, Б. Рассела, Л. Фейєрбаха,, Л. Фейхтанверга, Ф. Фішера та ін.Деякі аспекти творчої спадщини англійського мислителя аналізували у своїх працях представники радянської таросійської науки Г. Александров, В. Асмус, А. Деборин, Ф. Коган-Бернштейн, О. Литвинова, А. Луначарський,Ю. Михаленко, І. Нарський, В. Соколов, А. Субботін та ін.На жаль, серед вітчизняних дослідників Ф. Бекону дотепер не приділено достатньо уваги.
In this publication formation of policy of Bolsheviks of rather housing question is considered. Housing policies of the Soviet power – some kind of unique experiment in the sphere of housing which had no analogs in the world and was conducted at the beginning of the XX century with an exception of a private ownership on the earth and the real estate, with change of a control system of housing and activity of people, formation of labor and household collectives, with development of state and departmental form of ownership on housing. All these processes happened in the uniform ideological field, in uniform political and welfare borders. Article purpose – not only to analyse theories which influenced formation of policy of Bolsheviks in a housing question, but also to track the embodiment them in life of the Soviet society.On the basis of the new approaches caused by the need for more objective estimates of historical heritage under conditions of democratization public lives the population life kommunization problem and also policy of Bolsheviks of rather housing question is investigated and reinterpreted. Process of change of old inhabited economy on anti-market destroyed house owners and apartments owners, liquidated old and created new types of development of living space, resisted to private individual housing. K. Marx, F. Engels and V. Lenin's views of strategy and tactics of new anti-capitalist housing policies are considered. It is proved that housing policies in the 20-th years of the 20th century represented set of discriminatory and protectionist measures which created conditions for formation and existence of household collectives. The beginning of real practical actions for implementation of housing policies of Bolsheviks needs to be counted from the moment of adoption of the first decrees which cardinally changed the nature of a land ownership and the real estate. Housing policies of the Soviet power affected many processes which happened in society: from moral and ethical aspects of life in family before creation of «sotsgorodok» of future society. Thereof the earth and a housing stock, stopping being a purchase sale subject, turned into means of the state distribution, and as a result – into means of administrative and political influence. ; В данной публикации рассмотрено формирование политики большевиков относительно жилищного вопроса. Жилищная политика советской власти – своего рода уникальный эксперимент в сфере жилья, который не имел аналогов в мире и осуществлялся в начале ХХ века с исключением частной собственности на землю и недвижимость, с изменением системы управления жильем и деятельностью людей, формированием трудовых и бытовых коллективов, с развитием государственно-ведомственной формы собственности на жилье. Все эти процессы происходили в едином идеологическом поле, в единых политических и социально-культурных границах. Цель статьи – не только проанализировать теории, которые повлияли на формирование политики большевиков в жилищном вопросе, но и проследить воплощение их в жизнь советского общества.На основе новых подходов, обусловленных потребностью в более объективных оценках исторического наследия при условиях демократизации общественного жизни, исследуется и переосмысливается проблема коммунизации быта населения, а также политика большевиков относительно жилищного вопроса. Процесс изменения старого жилого хозяйства на антирыночный уничтожал домовладельцев и квартирособственников, ликвидировал старые и создавал новые типы освоения жилого пространства, противостоял частному индивидуальному жилью. Рассмотрены взгляды К. Маркса, Ф. Энгельса и В. Ленина на стратегию и тактику новой антикапиталистической жилищной политики. Доказано, что жилищная политика в 20-х годах ХХ в. представляла собой совокупность дискриминационных и протекционистских мер, которые создавали условия для формирования и существования бытовых коллективов. Начало реальных практических действий по осуществлению жилищной политики большевиков нужно отсчитывать с момента принятия первых декретов, которые кардинально изменили характер собственности на землю и недвижимость. Жилищная политика советской власти затронула многие процессы, которые происходили в обществе: от морально-этических аспектов жизни в семье до создания соцгородков будущего общества. Вследствие этого земля и жилищный фонд, переставая быть предметом покупки-продажи, превращались в средство государственного распределения, а в итоге – в средство административно-политического влияния. ; В даній публікації розглянуто формування політики більшовиків щодо житлового питання. Житлова політика радянської влади – свого роду унікальний експеримент у житловій галузі, що не мав аналогів у світі, який здійснювався на початку ХХ століття з виключенням приватної власності на землю та нерухомість, зі зміною системи управління житлом і діяльністю людей, формуванням трудових і побутових колективів, з розбудовою державно-відомчої форми власності на житло. Усі ці процеси відбувались в єдиному ідеологічному полі, в єдиних політичних та соціально-культурних межах. Мета статті – не лише проаналізувати теорії, які вплинули на формування політики більшовиків у житловому питанні, а й простежити втілення їх в життя радянського суспільства.На основі нових підходів, зумовлених потребою у більш об'єктивних оцінках історичної спадщини за умов демократизації громадського життя, досліджується та переосмислюється проблема комунізації побуту населення, а також політика більшовиків щодо житлового питання. Процес зміни старого житлового господарства на антиринковий знищував домовласників і квартировласників, ліквідував старі і створював нові типи освоєння житлового простору, протистояв приватному індивідуальному житлу. Розглянуті погляди К. Маркса, Ф. Енгельса і В. Леніна на стратегію й тактику нової антикапіталістичної житлової політики. Доведено, що житлова політика у 20-х роках ХХ ст. являла собою сукупність дискримінаційних і протекціоністських заходів, які створювали умови для формування та існування побутових колективів. Початок реальних практичних дій зі здійснення житлової політики більшовиків слід відраховувати з моменту прийняття перших декретів, які кардинально змінили характер власності на землю та нерухомість. Житлова політика радянської влади торкнулася багатьох процесів, які відбувалися в суспільстві: від морально-етичних аспектів проживання у родині до створення соцмістечек майбутнього суспільства. Унаслідок цього земля і житловий фонд, перестаючи бути предметом купівлі-продажу, перетворювалися на засіб державного розподілу, а в підсумку – на засіб адміністративно-політичного впливу.
The article deals with the reception of the writings by Herta Müller, a German author of Romanian origin. It focuses on comparative analysis of the perception of her works by different generations in her geographical homeland – Romania, and her historical homeland – Germany, centering on the period of the 1980s. In Romania it was the epoch of Nicolae Ceaușescu's communist dictatorship, whereas in Germany – a full rehabilitation from the consequences of the World War II already set out to take place. The present-day epoch is also taken into account when the danger of returning to the dictatorships and wars again becomes an urgent problem of humanity. What is more, the article shortly casts light on the reception of Herta Müller's works in Ukraine since 2009, i.e. after her winning the Nobel Prize in Literature. Some theoretical aspects of the terms «memory» and «generation» are outlined to reinforce our ideas. Herta Müller's texts, an ethnic German who originated from Romania (1953), are deeply autobiographical. They represent such important stages of her life as traumatic childhood in the native German-speaking community in Romania and parental home (a collection of short stories «Niederungen» («Nadirs») 1982), physical danger and psychological pressure in dictatorial state of Nicolae Ceaușescu (novels «Herztier» («The Land of Green Plums») 1994, «Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jäger («Even Back Then, the Fox Was the Hunter») 1992, «Heute wärе ich mir lieber nicht begegnet» («The Appointment») 1997), emigration to the Western Germany because of danger coming from Romanian Department of State Security – Securitate («Reisende auf einem Bein» («Traveling on One Leg») 1989). Themes and motives in Herta Müller's works refl ect quite important and simultaneously tragic problems of today as dictatorship, emigration, feelings of homelessness, strangeness and fear. For this reason, the reception of her works might be different, because, on the one hand, there are always those who cause these dictatorships, while – on the other hand – those, who suffer from them, particularly victims of political repressions. Herta Müller's native German-speaking community sharply criticized her fi rst work – the collection of short stories «Nadirs», where the main female character (whose prototype is the author herself) describes realia of her terrible life in her native village. The biggest fear of German minority in Romania used to be the loss of one's own identity due to extremely strict living regulations, old medieval traditions, contradictions (which were strongly blamed) between one's own identity and the group one of Romanian community. Anything strange or new was seen as a big danger. Severe criticism of the terrible fascist past of the community under taboo in «Nadirs» (almost all men in the village were during the Second World War soldiers of Nazi special police force – «SS») provoked a very negative reaction towards Herta Müller's personality and her works by German minority. Incapability to self-criticism and reinterpreting their own horrible past led to moral lapse of the German community in Romania. In the 80s, when Herta Müller's writing career just began, her works were forbidden by Romanian communist authority. One of the main themes in her books was the fascist past of the German minority (to note, Romania was also one of Nazis allies during the Second World War), so her close relation to a group of German-speaking dissidents in Romania attracted at once the attention of Securitate. Yet the reaction of Romanian literary critics was in general positive. Nowadays, the reception of Herta Müller's works in Romania – 30 years after the dictatorship – is ambiguous. On the one hand, some Romanian writers mention that Herta Müller and her Nobel Prize have no relation to Romania – the authoress is ethnic German and writes in German. She is also criticized by journalists that she speaks only about dictatorship, and no word is about literature. They are certain that «without» Nicolae Ceausescu she would never write and achieve such a big award as Nobel Prize. On the other hand, a lot of literary critics, writers and public fi gures in Romania mention that her life experience and writings are of utmost importance not just for Romania or Germany, but also for the whole Europe or even world, since both countries were not the only ones that suffered from dictatorships and wars. Germany, which succeeded in recovering from the consequences of the World War II, appreciated Herta Müller's works in the 1980s, and the present-day reception is positive. Yet the tragedy for Herta Müller as a person and writer lies also in the fact that because of her Romanian origin and dialectal German, literary critics do not acknowledge her as «theirs», but as «strange or foreign». As a result, Herta Müller feels nowhere at home, and neither German minority and her geographical homeland – Romania, nor her historical homeland – Germany accept her. Time has the ability «to heal wounds», but also can cause oblivion – the worst «crime» of each nation. Herta Müller is not the only one who wrote and writes about dictatorship. We will need her experience and her works presently as well as in fi ve or ten years, because the process of painful rehabilitation from the infl uence of totalitarian past lasts years and touches upon entire generations. It can be observed on the examples of Romania and also Ukraine. Keywords: Herta Müller, novels, reception, Germany, Romania, dictatorship, homeland, memory, generation. ; Зосереджено увагу на рецепції творчості німецької письменниці румунського походження Герти Мюллер. Проведено порівняльний аналіз сприйняття творчості письменниці різними поколіннями на її географічній батьківщині – Румунії, та історичній батьківщині – Німеччині, у 80-х роках ХХ століття (у Румунії – це час комуністичної диктатури Ніколае Чаушеску, в Німеччині – уже повна реабілітація після наслідків Другої світової війни) та на сучасному етапі, коли загроза повернення диктатур та війн знову стає актуальною проблемою людства. Ключові слова: Герта Мюллер, творчість, рецепція, Німеччина, Румунія, дикта- тура, батьківщина, пам'ять, покоління.
The article presents a systematic and detailed account of scholarly developments on the problem of studying the process of nation-building and the role of history, memory, language and culture in reflecting this process. The research reveals that according to the premordialist approach, nations are not formed instantaneously, by the relevant political will or by coincidence of circumstances; the process of creating and consolidating a nation is a long and meaningful one, full of historical events and national cultural tokens. The primordialist concepts are considered unanimous in their recognition of the exceptional significance of psychological factors in the creation of a nation. The creation of a nation involves a sophisticated set of linguistic, religious, ethnic, territorial and myth-household factors that determine the formation of a corresponding type of sociality. The framework of the analytics of the phenomenon of a nation includes not only psychological, but also social, cultural, political, ethical, moral and axiological aspects. The new system-building concepts such as solidarity, habitus, plebiscite were added to the discussion of nation. In view of that, it is impossible to carry out the reduction of the phenomenon of a nation to a particular problem field and to localize it to invariant indicators. The formation and optimization of the capitalistic type of social system generates new factors in the interpretation and consolidation of a nation. The reasons for a political defeat in the development of a nation can be referedr to either conscious manipulative techniques, or spontaneous miscalculations. Elaborating the alternative versions of history is nothing but unjustified politicization, implementation of imperial and colonial ambitions, overcoming which is a necessary prerequisite for successful nation-building. The establishment and offsetting of such manipulative influence facilitate the stabilization of the social situation and the resolution of conflicts, and, consequently, contribute to national development. The key point is to establish a nation within the framework of the international and state policy, especially by distinguishing the consolidating and disintegrating influences of state and international politicies on nation-building. The policy of uniting the nation can become effective when the important reforms do not deepen the fragmentation of the nation, but rather neutralize it ; У статті подається детальний аналіз наукових розробок з проблем становлення нації, а саме процесу національного будівництва та ролі історії, пам'яті, мови та культури у відображенні цього процесу. Дослідження показує, що згідно з примордіалістським підходом, нації не утворюються миттєво, за відповідною політичною волею чи збігом обставин; процес створення та консолідації нації є довгим і значущим, наповненим історичними подіями та національними культурними знаками. Примордіалістські концепції залишаються одностайними у визнанні виняткової важливості психологічних чинників у творенні нації.Автори досліджують складний комплекс лінгвістичних, релігійних, етнічних, територіальних та міфо-побутових факторів, які визначають формування відповідного типу суспільства. Основою аналітики явища нації є не тільки психологічні, а й соціальні, культурні, політичні, етичні, моральні та аксіологічні аспекти. Нові обговорення концепції системи, такі як солідарність, хабітус, плебісцит, були додані до обговорення нації. З огляду на це, неможливо здійснити звуження явища нації до конкретної проблемної сфери та локалізувати її на інваріантні показники. Формування та оптимізація капіталістичного типу соціальної системи породжує нові чинники в інтерпретації та консолідації нації.У статті також розглядається побудова нації в контексті міжнародної та державної політики як ключове завдання та з'ясовується консолідуючий та дезінтеґруючий впливи державної та міжнародної політики на процес націєтворення. Причини політичної поразки в розвитку нації можна називати або свідомою маніпулятивною технікою, або спонтанним прорахунком. Розробка альтернативних варіантів історії – це не що інше, як невиправдана політизація, реалізація імперських та колоніальних амбіцій, подолання яких є необхідною передумовою успішного державного будівництва. Встановлення та компенсація маніпулятивного впливу сприяють стабілізації соціальної ситуації та врегулюванню конфліктів, а отже, – національному розвитку. Ключовим моментом тут є створення нації в рамках міжнародної та державної політики, особливо шляхом розмежування консолідаційних і дезінтегруючих впливів державної та міжнародної політики на національне будівництво. Політика об'єднання нації може стати ефективною, коли важливі реформи не поглиблюють фрагментацію нації, а лише нейтралізують її ; В статье представлен подробный анализ научных разработок по проблемам становления нации, а именно процесса национального строительства и роли истории, памяти, языка и культуры в отоборажении этого процесса. Исследования свидетельствуют, что согласно примордиалистским подходам, нации не создаются сразу в соответствии с политической волей или совпадением обстоятельств; процесс с оздания и консолидации нации есть длительным и весомым, наполненным историческими событиями и национальными культурными знаками.Примордиалистские концепции остаются единодушными в признании исключительной важности психологических факторов в создании нации. Авторы исследуют сложный комплекс лигвистических, этнических, территориальных и мифо-бытовых факторов, которые определяют формирование соответствующего типа общества. Основой аналитики явления нации есть не только психологические, а и социальные, культурные, политические, этнические, моральные и аксиологические аспекты. Новое обсуждение концепции системы базируется на таких понятих, как солидарность, габитус, плебисцит, которыми было дополнено обсуждение нации. Обзор этих факторов свидетельствует, что невозможно осуществить сужение явдения нации к конкретной проблемной сфере и локализировать ее на инвариантные показатели. Формирование и оптимизация капиталистического типа социальной системы рождает новые факторы в интерпретации и консолидации нации.В статье также рассматривается строительство нации в контексте международной и государственной политики как ключевое задание и определяются консолидирующий и дезинтегрирующий тип влияния государственной и межлддународной политики на процесс нациестроительства.Причины политического поражения в развитии нации следует назвать либо сознательной манипулятивной техникой, или спонтанным просчетом.Разработка альтерантивных вариантов истории - это нечто другое, чем неоправданная политизация, реализация имперских или колониальных амбиций, преодоление которых есть необходимым условием успешного государственного строительства. У ставновление и компенсация манипулятивного влияния содействуют стабилизации соцыиальнйо ситупации и урегулирвоанию конфликтов, и таким образом - национальному развитию.Ключевым моментом здесь есть создание нации в рамках международной и государственной политики, оосбенно путем разграничения консолидирующих и дезинтегрирующих влияний государственной и международной политики на национальное строительство. Политика объединения нации может стать эффективной, когда важные реформы не углубляют фрагментацию нации, а только нейтрализуют ее
Speaking about the ways of the development of the artistic and aesthetic guidelines in the Ukrainian theater means to speak about the role of the administrative building in its development.The theater managers should not only identify, but also form such ways, as satisfaction of aesthetic need of thecreative group, on the one hand, and on the other, provide the need for theater and art performances of the audience, so the average citizen of Ukraine. One can find the resultant in this situation only less than one condition: if the theatrical market in Ukraine is colourful and rich in a variety of artistic and aesthetic concepts and experiments, only it is in this sense, the role and the importance of theater management will be crucial. And not only that managers should ensure the financial health of the troupe, but the manager of the theater has to determine the creative direction of art search of the theater staff, to provide staff, its own niche in the theatrical process of Ukraine. And so the question of repertoire policy is to form the creative, artistic and aesthetic principles of the creative group. It should be the focus of management theatrical business.The theatrical activity is diverse, rich and very responsible. The modern theatrical process and trends are conclusive. Therefore, the question of the theatre and expert aspect of the problem can not be excluded. The manager of the theatre and theatrical practice are a part of a unified phenomenon that can be defined as a modern Ukrainian theater process and they complement each other.The Modern Theatre of Ukraine – multi-vector and in the fullness of repertoire, and in the principles of artistic transformation of life. So such approach in the Ukrainian theatre provokes the search and the emergence of new principles of theatrical activities, the new management theater tasks. It gives its universality and independence from certain aesthetic principles of the particular theater.In spite of the multi-vector of the modern Ukrainian theatre, some managers of the modern theater remain captive to the old ideas in the modern theatre process.The main task of any manager is to build a new theatre, to show the new artistic ways, to give a new breath to that has already happened and what is known.Every of creative personalities according to his strength and capabilities should create a national art space.Such activity is particularly useful to people now, in the time of national revival.The experimental years were not marked with festive splendor; they were concentrated on hard work, intensification of cultural and artistic life in terms of democracy, transparency and moral insight.However, if the theatre is ready today to fulfill its mission responsible? The theatre figures think, argue and they are seriously concerned and worried:• It is clear that the further development of theatrical culture will be determined by social impulses, the activity of social forces;• It is clear that we need fresh, not played repertory and artistic ideas for a modern audience, who compares the content of the work in the perception of real life and the relevance of the day;• There is no doubt that the stage speech of the last years became boring, but we don't have new; so we need transition to a new aesthetic quality;• We agreed that the theater criticism needs to learn performing deeply, consistently, balanced;• We need to improve the methods of theatre management.The management of the theatrical production has its own specific features. However, we can not ignore the irrefutable fact that there are certain laws which determine the features of the sociocultural dimensions of modern theatrical process. But the main factor of successful theatrical activity is the necessity of consideration of the latest features of the modern theatre with its purposefulness and innovations. The neglect of such features threatens the transformation of theatrical process in the ordinary theater production. Then the creative artistic principles retreat for the tenth plan, which inevitably leads to the degradation of the group and slides to the ordinary of working abroad, and loss of audience. The theater manager must act as an art analytics. So the main subject is not to find money, but the analysis of the circumstances such as social, political, economic and art. The organizational outlook can save the theater (if it is correct), but it can disadvantage (if it is incorrect). That's why every theater manager should be a creative person who has not only to know and admit certain artistic theories and positions, but also be able to direct the theatrical group to the advanced principles that will determine the fate of the theater arts in the future. ; В статье рассматриваются вопросы развития театрального искусства, которое требует постоянного совершенствования системы управления театральным делом, повышения художественно-эстетического уровня театральной деятельности театральных коллективов и создания необходимых условий для их дальнейшего художественного развития. Статья содержит сведения об опыте современной организации театрального творчества в Украине, общее представление о структуре театрального управления, раскрывает факторы, которые влияют на развитие и повышение художественно-эстетического и организационного уровней театральной деятельности. ; У статті розглядаються питання розвитку театрального мистецтва, яке вимагає постійного вдосконалення системи управління театральною справою, підвищення художньо-естетичного рівня театральної діяльності театральних колективів та створення необхідних умов для їх подальшого художнього розвитку. Висвітлено роль керівників театру в справі становлення та розвитку сучасної театральної творчості. Стаття містить відомості про досвід сучасної організації театральної творчості в Україні, загальне уявлення щодо структури театрального управління в цілому, розкриває чинники, які впливають на розвиток та підвищення художньо-естетичного та організаційного рівнів театральної діяльності.
В статье рассмотрены основополагающие принципы развития аудиторской деятельности и ее взаимосвязь с организацией внутреннего контроля, способствующего составлению достоверной, прозрачной и надежной отчетности экономических субъектов. Автор рассматривает независимость аудитора как важнейшую особенность и принцип аудиторской деятельности, определенную нормативными документами (МСА 200). Это полностью соответствует этическим принципам ведения аудиторской деятельности, которые должны соблюдаться в процессе осуществления профессиональной деятельности аудитора. При этом необходимо учитывать потенциальные угрозы независимости аудитора (финансовые, деловые, трудовые и др.) и те обстоятельства, которые приводят к потенциальным рискам независимости. Для того чтобы минимизировать сомнение в беспристрастности и объективности аудитора, автор определяет систему защиты, включая ротацию обязанностей фирмы, ротацию партнеров, перерывы в работе, запрещение совмещения разных услуг. В статье рассматривается ряд европейских и международных правил, позволяющих регулировать требования к независимости аудиторов и этические аспекты их профессиональной деятельности. При этом основное внимание уделяется Кодексу этики профессиональных бухгалтеров, международным стандартам этики для бухгалтеров и аудиторов и Закону Сарбейнса—Оксли (англ. Sarbanes-Oxley Act, SOX). С точки зрения системы аудита компаний этот закон ввел определенные новшества, которые позволяют оценить и улучшить прозрачность внутреннего контроля, что обеспечит снижение информационного риска. В свою очередь информационная асимметрия может вести к двум проблемам — неблагоприятному отбору и моральному риску аудитора. Как отмечается в статье, действие SOX имеет глобальный характер и влияет на всю экономическую систему, поэтому компании необходимо иметь коммуникационную стратегию для устранения противоречий с внешними стейкхолдерами в части конфликта между требованиями раскрытия информации и уровнем ее секретности. Ответственность аудитора, согласно этому закону, определяется Советом по надзору за аудитом и бухгалтерским учетом в публичных компаниях. Самостоятельная часть статьи посвящена вопросам анализа компетенций Комитета спонсорских организаций Комиссии Тредвея (COSO), выпустившего документ «Концептуальные основы внутреннего контроля» — COSO Report. Эта концепция постоянно совершенствуется и формируется как модель управления риск-менеджмента на предприятии. Последние изменения системы внутреннего контроля, введенные в 2013 г., основываются именно на этом подходе. Автор рассматривает Кодекс этики профессиональных бухгалтеров как важную часть регулирования независимости аудиторов. Основная идея Кодекса заключается в том, что аудитор должен действовать в интересах общества, а его поведение должно соответствовать основным этическим принципам, в том числе независимости, чтобы приобрести уверенность и авторитет в глазах общественности. В статье показана возрастающая роль регулирования корпоративного управления ответственности за нарушение этики поведения на финансовых рынках. Распространение закона на вопросы корпоративного управления является существенным ответом на кризис ценностей деловой этики, который привел к многочисленным скандалам в конце XX в. и первом десятилетии XXI в. ; The article considers the basic principles of development of auditing and how it is related to the organization of internal control, which contributes to generating fair, transparent and reliable reports of economic entities. The author regards the auditor's independence as one of the most important peculiarities and principles of auditing defined by international standards on auditing (ISA 200). This is in full accordance with the professional ethics of auditing which is to follow by every representative of the profession. At this point it is necessary to take into account the potential threats to auditor's independence (e. g. financial, business, labour, and so on) and the circumstances, which may result in potential risks to independence. To minimize the doubts in fairness and objectivity of an auditor, the author defines the system of protection, which includes the firm's rotation, partner rotation, cooling-off period, prohibited services. The article reviews European and international legislation regulating professional independence of auditors and ethical aspects of their activity, among these, the most important are the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants issued by IESBA (International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants), the International Standards on Auditing, ISAs, the European Commission Recommendation on May 16, 2002, concerning the independence of the auditor and the last but not least, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX).From the company's audit viewpoint, the SOX aims to evaluate the independence to improve the transparency of the internal control. The major costs due to the SOX control activities are compensated with the benefits through lower information risk.In its turn the information asymmetry, namely the lack of information of one of the parties to a contract, determine the occurrence of two followings well-known problems: adverse selection and moral hazard. The article notes that SOX due to its global nature impacts powerfully other economic systems that's why corporations need a communication strategy for dealing with external stakeholders, which address the conflict between disclosure and secrecy. The responsibilities of the auditors in accordance with the SOX were defined by the PCAOB.A separate part of the article deals with the issues of analyzing competences of COSO (Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission) which issued a COSO Report «Internal Control-Integrated Framework». This concept is constantly being improved as a model of the Enterprise Risk Management. The recent changes of internal control system are based on this particular approach. According to the author an important regulatory reference on the independence of the auditor is the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants. This Code is based on the idea that, during the commitment, the auditor must act in the public interest and his behavior must conformto fundamental ethical principles (including that of independence), to gain confidence and credibility in the public eye.This paper shows the increasing regulation on corporate governance as the answer to the decrease of ethical behaviours in the financial markets. The proliferation of laws in matters of corporate governance was the substantial response to the crisis of the values of business ethics, which has led to numerous financial scandals of recent decades.
After the 1980 presidential election, the New Christian Right (NCR) became a political force that could no longer be ignored. Since the early 1980s the political agenda of the NCR has expanded beyond culture war issues. Currently the NCR addresses several international issues such as, human trafficking, the spread of HIV, and religious persecution. Since the NCR is one of many political forces that presently influences policy makers, it's become crucial for the public to possess a good understanding of what the NCR is, and grasp what lies behind its intersecting religious dynamics. Unfortunately, much of the American public as well as the mainstream media are unaware of, or glaze over the intellectual and religious complexity of the NCR. Most media coverage highlights its evangelical leadership, while it fails to emphasize the role non-evangelical political activists, and intellectuals played in the development of this alliance. This type of media coverage not only mischaracterizes the NCR, but leads the public to believe that all evangelicals are a part of this interfaith alliance. This thesis attempts to expand beyond the evangelical aspect of the NCR. Like evangelical leaders, a group of Catholic conservative elites played a pivotal role in establishing the intellectual as well as political foundation of the NCR. Although evangelical leaders provided the NCR with much of its public leadership, Catholic conservatives such as William F. Buckley, Phyllis Schlafly, Brent Bozell, Paul Weyrich, and Richard Viguerie provided political guidance, and created a religious conservatism which became the intellectual foundation of the NCR. These claims are argued by historically reconstructing the formation of the NCR. This reconstruction illustrates how historical events in conjunction with the actions of few Catholic conservatives, resulted in the formation of religious conservatism, and led to political activism in the defense of traditional family values. Another important reason I choose to reconstruct the formation of the NCR is to dispel common misconceptions regarding this interfaith alliance. One misconception I hope to correct is that evangelical leaders primarily became politically involved to fight a moral quest against abortion. Although abortion became one of the prime culture wars issues, the Roe v. Wade decision was not the event that led to the political unification of these historically hostile faiths. I want the reader to understand that the formation of the NCR was a complex and lengthy process that did not occur overnight, or due to the efforts of leaders from one religious faith. Conclusion: After researching this topic, I concluded that the NCR is a fragile and loosely knit political alliance. Historical inter-faith tension still lingers amongst some leaders of the NCR, which leads me to believe that political pragmatism is the main adhesive keeping this interfaith alliance together. As author Randall Balmer stated, "The New Christian Right is a marriage of political convenience."[1] This coalition is extremely reminiscent of a business relationship, in which all parties gain from associating with one another. Simply put, at the core of the NCR there seems to be nothing more that a strategic coalition developed, and maintained to reach common political objectives. While researching the formation of the NCR I also discovered that the events that took place from 1950 to the 1970s were catalysts that incited the formation of this defensive alliance. These historical events increasingly polarized religious faiths from within, and created common political goals amongst the religiously orthodox.[2] Although these historical events were important factors that contributed to the formation of the NCR, I also found that Catholic conservatives played a critical role in the development of this interfaith alliance. Catholic conservative intellects and political activists filled an intellectual void that existed within the evangelical political movement. Thesis Sources: In researching this topic I used a variety of sources. Throughout my research I attempted to balance my first and secondary sources. My first hand sources consisted of interviews, and several books written by some of the Catholic conservatives I focused on within the thesis. Interviewees Phyllis Schlafly, Randall Balmer, and George Weigel were chosen because I felt that they would provide my work with a variety of opinions and historical information regarding the NCR. Phyllis Schlafly, founder of the Eagle Forum and prominent political activist, provided my work with invaluable insight on the development of the pro-family movement. Author and Columbia University professor, Randall Balmer also provided my thesis with insight on the role evangelical leaders played in the formation of the NCR. Secondary sources varied from books written by historians, to documentaries and internet resources. Although, I tried to minimally incorporate internet resources for this project. In order to write a comprehensive piece on this interfaith alliance, I included a wide variety of sources, and read books that varied within their historical interpretations regarding the formation of the NCR. Several other insightful books exist on the topic, however given the magnitude of this projected I was unable to include them all. [1] Randall Balmer, interview by author, Columbus, GA, April 24, 2007. [2] The word orthodox is not used in the traditional sense that describes specific doctrinal creeds or practices. But is used to describe a group of people whose world view and belief system is committed to an "external definable authority," which defines "at least in abstract, a consistent, unchangeable measure of value, purpose, goodness, bother personal and collective." James Davison Hunter. Culture Wars the Struggle to Define America: Making sense of the battles over the family, art, education, laws, and politics [New York: Basic Books, 1991], 44.
Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; El trabajo de tesis titulado «la transición invisible» tiene por objetivo principal la proposición de un nuevo paradigma de relato transicional, surgido «desde abajo y desde dentro», capaz de dar cuenta de las transformaciones epistémicas que han ido aconteciendo respecto de la subjetividad, la conciencia y la acción política de la ciudadanía contemporánea de Chile. Se trata de un enfoque transicional novedoso que refiere a un proceso que ha tenido un curso de existencia subterráneo y a contracorriente de los grandes procesos transicionales que se han sucedido en el nivel de la superficie, desde la institucionalidad y con una vocación vertical descendente que ha colonizado la narración de la historia chilena contemporánea. Este trabajo de tesis está dividido en 3 partes: en su primer capítulo, se efectúa un repaso por los la historia contemporánea de Chile, vista como una sucesión de narrativas transicionales «oficiales» que han compartido, más allá de sus diferencias ideológicas, una raíz epistémica similar, en cuanto a definirse como imposiciones impuestas por el poder estatal para configurar el orden social y las subjetividades de acuerdo a los hitos y concepciones escogidos por cada relato para marcar el sentido del «nosotros» compartido. El enfoque crítico de la perspectiva de análisis escogida (concatenada como un juego de voces que conjugan la historia social e institucional, la ciencia política y la sociología nacionalmente situada) nos pondrá hacia el final de este primer capítulo frente a la existencia de una serie de acontecimientos observados como aislados que, sin embargo, debidamente articulados, pueden tener la posibilidad de representar un contrapoder al que nada más dejaremos presentado bajo la idea de concebirle como una «transición invisible» de la ciudadanía. En la segunda parte de esta tesis, se propondrá un curso de mayor abstracción y metateorización para construir unos fundamentos teóricos que nos permitan articular el corpus de acontecimientos denunciados hacia el final del primer capítulo como componentes de una transformación epistémica que llamamos «transición invisible». Este camino alternara la teorización respecto del desarrollo de la conciencia moderna; de la subjetividad individual y colectiva; de las posibilidades de articulación de la sociedad en un sentido antiatomista; y de la eventualidad de construir una nueva ciudadanía y a su vez, una nueva política, por medio del principio discursivo y el ejercicio de una política deliberativa. Seguiremos para la teorización de cada uno de estos apartados, el siguiente orden respectivo: la sociología fenomenológica de Peter Berger; la sociología de la acción y del Sujeto de Alain Touraine; la filosofía moral y política de Charles Taylor; y finalmente, la teorización realizada por Jürgen Habermas, acompasada por los aportes atemperados respecto a la democracia deliberativa de Carlos Santiago Nino. En la parte final de esta Tesis, proponemos en sus primeros pasajes un descenso desde la precedente teorización hacia la praxis, por medio del análisis situado en la contingencia chilena del proceso constituyente en ciernes, a modo de poner a prueba el cambio epistemológico de la ciudadanía y la posibilidad más o menos cierta de llevar a cabo un ejercicio poco habitual de política deliberativa entre ciudadanos e institucionalidad. Como resultado de este contraste entre teoría y efectiva praxis, hacia el final de este último capítulo se ofrecerá un balance respecto de los límites y posibilidades para la cristalización de las transformaciones que se van operando con la «transición invisible», centrado, por un lado, en el análisis de los aspectos ajenos al control de la ciudadanía («la enervante levedad de la clase política civil») y, por otro lado, aquellos que dependen de sí, fundamentalmente vinculados al desarrollo de su autoconocimiento respecto del pasado común (reelaboración del pasado reciente común a partir de la «afirmación de la afirmación» que denuncia los silencios, confusiones y deja a la vista algunos puntos ciegos) y a la vez también de la adecuada representación de un futuro común por hacer, por medio del ejercicio de una «política de lo imposible» que de todas maneras se mantiene cauta respecto de las aporías de la imaginación futura. En suma, el enfoque de esta tesis ha estado puesto en el estudio de las transformaciones operadas en el nivel de la ciudadanía (y desde ella misma) en contraste a las narrativas oficiales centradas en la preservación del orden social a través de su control vertical-descendente. He querido ofrecer una teorización conceptual situacional para el caso concreto de la ciudadanía chilena, a partir de sus propias prácticas e historia, auxiliada por la teorización foránea en la medida de que esta, debidamente reinterpretada, ha tenido potencial para aplicarse localizadamente. Finalmente, es una invitación a discutir las posibilidades de construir colectivamente una nueva institucionalidad democrática, más participativa y deliberativa, a partir del progresivo empoderamiento de la capacidad de agencia de la ciudadanía chilena. ; The main aim of this thesis, titled «The Invisible Transition», is to propose a new paradigm to account for a transition «from the bottom and from within», capable of explaining the epistemic transformations that have occurred to the subjectivity, conscience and political action of contemporary Chilean citizens. It deals with a novel transitional focus that refers to a process that has existed underground and which goes against main, visible transitional processes, as a result of institutionalism and with both a vertical and downwards emphasis that has colonised the narration of contemporary Chilean history. This thesis is divided into three parts: in the first chapter, a review of contemporary Chilean history is carried out. This is seen as a succession of «official» transitional narratives that, beyond their ideological differences, share similar epistemic roots, defining themselves as impositions exacted by the State power to configure social order and subjectivities, depending on the events and ideas chosen by each narrative to mark the shared sense of «us». The critical focus of the analytical perspective chosen (linked together as a chain of voices combining social and institutional history, political science and nationally-placed sociology) brings us, towards the end of this chapter, to a series of events that appear isolated but which, when duly articulated, make the representation of a counter-power possible, which we will simply suggest calling the «invisible transition» of citizenship. In the second part of this thesis, a more abstract path is followed and metatheorising made to construct the theoretical fundamentals that articulate the events described towards the end of the first chapter as components of an epistemic transformation that we call the «invisible transition». This path alternates between theorising about the development of modern consciousness, individual and collective subjectivity, the possibilities of society articulating itself anti-atomistically and the eventual construction of a new kind of citizenship and, on the other hand, a new policy with discursive principals and the use of a deliberative policy. This continues with theorising on each section in the following order: Peter Berger's phenomenologist sociology, Alain Touraine's sociology of action and subjects, Charles Taylor's moral and political philosophy and, finally, the theorising of Jürgen Habermas, accompanied by Carlos Santiago Nino's moderate contributions on deliberative democracy. At the beginning of the final part of this thesis, we propose moving from theory to practice, through an analysis situated in the Chilean context of this budding process, in order to put the epistemological change to citizens and the relatively certain possibility of carrying out the unusual exercise of deliberative politics between citizens and institutions to the test. As a result of this contrast between theory and practice, towards the end of this last chapter, an evaluation of the limits and possibilities of the materialisation of the transformations that operate in the «invisible transition» is offered. On one hand, this is based on an analysis of the aspects that are beyond citizens' control («the unbearable lightness of the civil political class») and, on the other, on those that depend on it, fundamentally linked to the development of a selfawareness of the common past (recreating the recent version of this by the use of a new epistemology known as «affirmation of the affirmation», reporting silences and confusion and leaving certain blind spots in plain sight). At the same time, the appropriate representation of a common future is made, through the exercising of a «policy of the impossible» which, in any case, is cautious regarding the paradoxes of the future imagination. In summary, the focus of this thesis is placed on the study of the transformations that operate at (and from) a citizen level, as opposed to the official narratives based on the preservation of a social order through vertical-downward control. Helped by outside theorising, the aim is to offer conceptual situational theorising on the specific case involving Chilean citizens and on their own practices and history, which, duly reinterpreted, has had the potential to be applied locally. Finally, this thesis is an invitation to discuss the opportunity to collectively construct a new, more participative and more deliberative democratic institutionalism from the progressive empowerment of Chileans and their capacity for agency. ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Humanidades ; Presidente: Fernando Broncano Rodríguez.- Secretario: Germán Cano Cuenca.- Vocal: José Maríaa Medina García
