Suchergebnisse

The First Solvay Conference on Physics took place in Brussels in October 1911 under the impulse of Walther Nernst and at the invitation of the Belgian industrialist Ernest Solvay. The prestigious event was soon formalized into a regular scientific meeting organized by the Solvay International Institute for Physics created in 1912. Its president was the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz. A similar movement occurred in the field of chemistry. Solvay first decided to fund the third congress of the International Association of Chemical Societies held in Brussels in September 1913, which was to form the core project of the Solvay International Institute for Chemistry. On the other hand, no official Solvay Conference on Chemistry took place before April 1922, shortly before Solvay's death. Disagreements concerning the scientific orientation of the Institute for Chemistry have long prevailed over other causes. Yet, political motives have also their share of explanation.The paper intends to test the impact of the First World War and its legacy on the organization of both the Physics and Chemistry Conferences. Drawing upon first-hand material from public and private collections (including Ernest Solvay's private papers), I will argue that Solvay's personal wartime experience was determinant in reaching out to scientists that were convinced by the need to reframe the International Institutes along the patterns of the political climate in post-war Europe. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This essay considers the politics and patronage of geography in early-modern France. It examines how the Paris Academy of Sciences, widely acknowledged as the 18th century's pre-eminent scientific society, came to recognise geography as an independent science in 1730, a century before the establishment of the first geographical societies. Although the Academy was centrally concerned with cartography from its inception in 1666, it initially afforded no official status to geography, which was viewed either as a specialised form of historical inquiry or as a minor component within the hegemonic science of astronomy. The rise of Newtonian mathematics and the associated controversy about the shape of the earth challenged the Academy's epistemological foundations and prompted a debate about the educational and political significance of geography as a scientific practice. The death in 1726 of Guillaume Delisle, a prominent Academy astronomer-cartographer and a popular geography tutor to the young Louis XV, led to a spirited campaign to elect Philippe Buache, Delisle's protégé, to a new Academy position as a geographer rather than an astronomer. The campaign emphasised the social and political utility of geography, though the Academy's decision to recognise this new and distinctively modern science was ultimately facilitated by traditional networks of patronage within the French Royal Court. © 2013 The Author. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers © 2013 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers).

This essay examines the economics of patronage in the production of knowledge and its influence upon the historical formation of key elements in the ethos and organizational structure of publicly funded `open science.' The emergence during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries of the idea and practice of `open science' was a distinctive and vital organizational aspect of the Scientific Revolution. It represented a break from the previously dominant ethos of secrecy in the pursuit of Nature's Secrets, to a new set of norms, incentives, and organizational structures that reinforced scientific researchers' commitments to rapid disclosure of new knowledge. The rise of `cooperative rivalries' in the revelation of new knowledge, is seen as a functional response to heightened asymmetric information problems posed for the Renaissance system of court-patronage of the arts and sciences; pre-existing informational asymmetries had been exacerbated by the claims of mathematicians and the increasing practical reliance upon new mathematical techniques in a variety of `contexts of application.' Reputational competition among Europe's noble patrons motivated much of their efforts to attract to their courts the most prestigious natural philosophers, was no less crucial in the workings of that system than was the concern among their would-be clients to raise their peer-based reputational status. In late Renaissance Europe, the feudal legacy of fragmented political authority had resulted in relations between noble patrons and their savant-clients that resembled the situation modern economists describe as `common agency contracting in substitutes' -- competition among incompletely informed principals for the dedicated services of multiple agents. These conditions tended to result in contract terms (especially with regard to autonomy and financial support) that left agent client members of the nascent scientific communities better positioned to retain larger information rents on their specialized knowledge. This encouraged entry into their emerging disciplines, and enabled them collectively to develop a stronger degree of professional autonomy for their programs of inquiry within the increasingly specialized and formal scientific academies (such the Académie royale des Sciences and the Royal Society) that had attracted the patronage of rival absolutist States of Western Europe during the latter part of the seventeenth century. The institutionalization of `open science' that took place within those settings is shown to have continuities with the use by scientists of the earlier humanist academies, and with the logic of regal patronage, rather than being driven by the material requirements of new observational and experimental techniques.

This article examines the crucial role of scientific expertise and authority, in evaluation as well as in research decision-making. The case of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is used to demonstrate how the bureaucratic imperatives in a public research system can thwart the cause of scientific authority and accountability. Research decision-making is a function delegated to different points, or 'nodes', vested with scientific expertise and the power to make decisions. Scientific expertise is the basic asset used by the nodes, which may be individual scientists and/or groups, boards or organizations. Patronage or decision-making in the ICAR is, for the most part, vested in bureaucratic nodes, marking the dichotomy in the organization between scientific and administrative or financial decision-making. The concluding section of this article highlights the social reproduction of bureaucratic nodes, which perpetuates the marginalization of evaluation. The nodes in the ICAR rely on bureaucratic decision-making not validated by evaluations or assessments using scientific expertise. It is argued that stringent evaluation can replace bureaucratic authority with scientific expertise and authority, thereby bringing more accountability to the system of patronage of science.

Medical knowledge in eighteenth century England was characterized by the growth of numerous often contradictory theoretical systems, founded upon a common underlying analogy of bodily processes. This foundation of metaphor was derived from the ancient humoural model of classical medicine, attenuated by the introduction of concepts imported from contemporary mechanical philosophy. Medical theory may be viewed as a form of social interaction between physicians—the elite of the eighteenth century profession—and their aristocratic patients. The phenomenological conceptualization of disease, the speculative and systematic character of pathology, the psychosomatic interpretation of illness and the swingeing use of heroic therapies may be ascribed to the pre-dominance of the upper class patient in the consultative relationship. Furthermore the contemporary career system constrained physicians both to establish their credentials as members of the upper class and to advertise their services by individual display. Fashion provided a form of social behaviour which reconciled these demands, but also generated a profusion of medical theories. In addition the structure of relationships between patients and practitioners, and among medical men themselves, prohibited the emergence of a scientific community dedicated to the analysis of medical problems.

This book provides a novel approach to the history of medieval Anatolia by analysing political, religious and cultural developments in the region of Kastamonu during the reign of the Chobanid dynasty (c. 1211–1309). During the 13th century, the Chobanids consolidated a local dynasty in western Anatolia – a borderland between Islam and Christianity – becoming cultural actors patronising the production of religious, scientific and administrative works in the Persian language. These works, though surviving today in manuscript form, have received little attention in modern historiography. The book therefore attends to this gap in the research, incorporating a detailed study of texts by little-known authors from the time. The book explores the relationship between Islam and the Chobanid dynasty in the context of the wider process of Islamisation in medieval Anatolia, hypothesising that Turkmen dynasties played a fundamental role in this process of Islamisation and acculturation. The Chobanids of Kastamonu, then, offers an in-depth study of a Turkmen local dynasty that achieved political autonomy, financial independence and cultural patronage in medieval Anatolia vis-à-vis the main political powers of the time. Attentive to religious diversity, state formation and processes of transculturation in medieval Anatolia, the book is key reading for scholars of Middle Eastern history and Islamic studies.

"Solovey's social scientists are neither naïve researchers exploited by the military-industrial complex nor greedy masterminds eagerly anticipating their patrons' needs. Instead, he presents us with a series of encounters between program managers, disciplinary spokesmen, and political partisans, each of which demonstrates its participants' unexpectedly complex positions. In what feels like a prelude to contemporary partisan investigations of the social sciences, Shaky Foundations recounts numerous instances of McCarthy-era attacks on social scientists as leftist agitators." -Science "Shaky Foundations offers an important new argument about how the American social sciences interacted with wider social and political forces during the Cold War era. Solovey has done very important work in establishing the bitterly contested character of postwar epistemological and institutional shifts." -Isis "This is an important book. The brilliance of this book lies in pinpointing the origins of the terms that are still used in contemporary debates on the role of social science in the United States. This book is a critical tool in approaching the most essential question -what's next for American social science?" -LSE Review of Books "Solovey leaves readers with a sharpened understanding of the travails of social science research during the first two decades of the Cold War." -Journal of American History "Solovey makes a valuable contribution to the growing literature on the development of social sciences in the U.S. during the 20th century. A major achievement is the author's presentation of this often complicated and complex story in a clearly written and well-documented manner. Highly recommended." -Choice "Shaky Foundations impressively pulls back the curtain on American social scientists and their complex relationships with funding agencies, offering crucial insights into the past-and the future-of social science." -David C. Engerman, author of Know Your Enemy: The Rise and Fall of America's Soviet Experts "In this clearly written and thoroughly researched book, Mark Solovey takes a new approach to writing the history of the social sciences in America by 'following the money' and examining how patrons and their agendas shaped the development of the field." -Nadine Weidman, author of Constructing Scientific Psychology: Karl Lashley's Mind-Brain Debates

Der Autor knüpft mit seiner Darstellung explizit an einen früher erschienenen Artikel in der gleichen Zeitschrift an (ZA-Information Nr. 23 vom Ende 1988), um hier die neueren Entwicklungen in der sowjetischen Soziologie aufzuzeigen. Er entwickelt drei Thesen über offensichtliche Stagnationstendenzen, die sich vor allem auf die Strukturen des Wissenschaftsbetriebes beziehen. Die Veränderungen in den Inhalten der sowjetischen Soziologie werden insgesamt positiver bewertet, da in jüngster Zeit auch Themen angesprochen werden können, die vor Jahren noch im Bereich der Tabuzone lagen. Die 'neuere' Entwicklung, also die Situation ab 1985 und ihre Veränderungen werden durch folgende Thesen skizziert: 1. Immer noch gibt es keine autonome scientific community. 2. Es fehlt eine Ausdifferenzierung der Soziologie, die wissenschaftliche Konkurrenz beleben könnte. Dies geht einher mit Problemen bei der Nachwuchsrekrutierung. 3. Statt Marktkonkurrenz 'Standespolitik' und politische Patronage. Insgesamt wird für die sowjetische Soziologie eine vorherrschende Binnenorientierung festgestellt. (ICF)

Ramsay Wright was appointed in 1874 to the University of Toronto's Chair in Natural History through an advertised competition designed to replace patronage with adjudicating candidates on merit. An absence of transparency and inconsistencies in the outcome, however, provoke doubts that the process was pursued fairly to acquire the most qualified candidate. Premier Mowat passed over eminently-qualified Canadians for this inexperienced Edinburgh lab tutor. The Darwinian orientation of his education together with training in the German scientific research methods, although sub rosa criteria because of their political contentiousness, appear to have been decisive for Wright's selection. From archival evidence this study contrasts the recently-enacted protocol for fair, objective faculty recruitment with the shadowy process through which Wright was chosen. Once installed, with sparkling lecturing skills and the benefit of mentoring, Wright sidestepped his modest research output to progress in administration. Passed over for Toronto's presidency, he diverged to embrace a later-discredited aspect of evolution, advocating publicly for human eugenics. Wright retired to Oxford in 1912, after which the more engaging aspects of his persona were periodically burnished for the university's commemorative contexts. -- Ramsay Wright fut nommé titulaire de la chaire d'histoire naturelle de l'Université de Toronto en 1874, lors d'un concours public conçu pour remplacer le favoritisme par un processus de sélection basé sur les mérites des candidats. Cependant l'absence de transparence et des incohérences dans le résultat mirent en doute l'impartialité du processus de sélection. Le premier ministre Mowat préféra ce chargé de travaux pratiques inexpérimenté d'Édimbourg à des Canadiens éminemment qualifiés. L'orientation darwinienne de l'éducation de Wright et sa formation dans les méthodes de recherches scientifiques allemandes, bien qu'il s'agisse de critères confidentiels en raison de leurs caractères controversés, semblent avoir joué un rôle décisif dans le choix de Mowat. À partir de documents d'archives, cette étude oppose le nouveau protocole mis en place pour assurer un recrutement juste et objectif à l'obscur processus par lequel Wright fut sélectionné. Une fois installé, celui-ci se révéla un conférencier brillant et il compensa son modeste rendement de chercheur en progressant dans l'administration.

Memorial from the trustees of the American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy asking Congress for aid and describing the removal of the Academy from Norwich, Vermont, to Middletown, Connecticut in 1825. ; To the Senate and House of Representatives of the UNITED STATES in Congress assembled. THE TRUSTEES OF THE AMERICAN LITERARY, SCIENTIFIC, AND MILITARY ACADEMY, ESTABLISHED AT MIDDLETOWN, IN CONNECTICUT, RESPECTFULLY REPRESENT:— THAT this Institution which was established at Norwich, in Vermont, about five years since, under the su- perintendance of Capt. ALDEN PARTRIDGE, was removed to this City during the last year ; that sin eligible situa¬tion has been purchased, and buildings sufficient for the accommodation of about two hundred and fifty Cadets have been erected at an expense of about thirty thousand dollars ; that this sum has been raised by the voluntary con¬tributions of individuals in this and other towns in the vicinity, and by a grant from the town of Middletown, and that a Charter of Incorporation has been granted to the Institution. The distinguished reputation of the Superin- tendant, and the high approbation which his system of education and discipline have received ■ have placed under his care a much larger number of youths than the buildings are sufficient to accommodate. Applications for ad¬mission are frequent; and an increased number in the approaching spring are expected. These are from all parts of the United States. This fact induces the Memorialists to apply with confidence to the General Govern¬ment for aid to support and extend the usefulness of an Institution, and a system of instruction and discipline, which are justly considered national in their principles and objects ; not less than in the patronage they have re¬ceived. To the attainment of these objects, additional Buildings ; a Library; Apparatus for Chemical, Philoso¬phical and Astronomical observations and experiments ; and a competent fund, are indispensable. To supply these deficiencies, the Institution is destitute of resources* In addition to the direct and immediate benefits which the Institution, and those connected with it, would de¬rive from the supply of these wants, the Memorialists respectfully suggest the following considerations* The system of instruction and discipline, on which this Institution is founded, combines with mental cultivation, the full developement of the physical powers* While a knowledge of military science is acquired ; soundness of health and constitution is promoted and confirmed by frequent, regular and athletic exercise. The Cadet is ha¬bituated to an accurate knowledge, and strict performance of the rights and duties incident to his situation* These acquisitions, scarcely less important to the man of business, than to the soldier, must be considered peculiarly congenial to our republican government; founded on the intelligence and virtue, and sustained by the energy of character of the citizens ; and to be defended by their skill and bravery* The general diffusion of Military Science upon the principles adopted in this Institution would afford to the militia and their officers an opportunity to acquire with little expense of time or money a competent knowledge of their duty ; for which the greatest personal bravery is an inadequate substitute. A knowledge of Civil Engineering, a branch of science which is indispensable to the success of the great cause of Internal Improvements ; the importance of which is every day rising in public estimation ; constitutes a leading object of instruction in this Institution* With the aid which the Memorialists solicit, a considerable proportion of those who may be desirous to engage in the Military or Naval service of the United States, may receive at this Institution, a thorough Scientific, Mili* tary and Naval education. From this source an immense advantage, at a comparatively small expense, would re suit to the government, and the country ; to afford which, the military and naval Academies which are or maybe established and supported by the government, are and probably will continue to be inadequate* Impressed with the importance of extending to every part of the Republic, the benefits of this system of educa¬tion ; and fully sensible of the advantage which it cannot fail to derive from the patronage of Government; the Memorialists in making this application for aid to maintain and extend the usefulness of this first Institution of the kind established in the United States 5 anticipate with great satisfaction, the beneficial effects which will result from its success and prosperity to our common country. They therefore pray that the principles of this Institution, and the probable effects of this system of education upon the public welfare, may be investigated 5 and if found deserving of the patronage of the government of a free people ; that such aid may be afforded to the Institution as shall accomplish the objects proposed ; and in such manner as the wisdom of Congress may deem expedient. Dated at Middletown, January 9th, A. D. 1826 Signed by order and in behalf of the Trustees, GEORGE W. STANLEY, Secretary. STARR & NLLESR….PRINT.

Abstract
This is the first of a two-part article that aims at discussing the creation of medical madrasas for Muslims in 7th/13th-century Damascus. This part briefly examines the relationship between medical practitioners and rulers, especially in the Ayyubid period, and studies a number of works written by religious scholars and physicians —often addressed to their patrons—, in which they tackled problems affecting the practice of medicine and its scientific status. I particularly focus on the polemics against pietistic groups who adhered to the doctrine of tawakkul (reliance on God), the emergence of the genre of "prophetic medicine", and the denunciation of those physicians who impugned the universality of medical principles. This article will provide a wide contextualisation for the discussion of the phenomena that lead to the creation of medical madrasas, which will be analysed in detail in the second part.